Musicology (from Greek μουσική (mousikē), meaning "music", and -λογία (-logia), meaning "study of-") is the scholarly study of music. A person who studies music is a musicologist. The word is used in narrow, broad and intermediate senses. In the narrow sense, musicology is confined to the music history of Western culture. In the intermediate sense, it includes all relevant cultures and a range of musical forms, styles, genres and traditions, but tends to be confined to the humanities - a combination of historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and the humanities of systematic musicology (philosophy, theoretical sociology, aesthetics). In the broad sense, it includes all musically relevant disciplines (both humanities and sciences) and all manifestations of music in all cultures, so it also includes all of systematic musicology (including psychology, biology, and computing). The broad meaning corresponds most closely to the word's etymology, the entry on "musicology" in Grove's dictionary, the entry on "Musikwissenschaft" in Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, and the classic approach of Adler (1885).

In the broad definition, the parent disciplines of musicology include history; cultural studies and gender studies; philosophy, aesthetics and semiotics; ethnology and cultural anthropology; archeology and prehistory; psychology and sociology; physiology and neuroscience; acoustics and psychoacoustics; and computer/information sciences and mathematics. Musicology also has two central, practically oriented subdisciplines with no parent discipline: performance practice and research, and the theory, analysis and composition of music. The disciplinary neighbors of musicology address other forms of art, performance, ritual and communication, including the history and theory of the visual and plastic arts and of architecture; linguistics, literature and theater; religion and theology; and sport. Musical knowledge and know-how are applied in medicine, education and music therapy, which may be regarded as the parent disciplines of Applied Musicology.

Traditionally, historical musicology has been considered the largest and most important subdiscipline of musicology. Today, historical musicology is one of several large subdisciplines. Historical musicology, ethnomusicology, and systematic musicology are approximately equal in size - if numbers of active participants at international conferences is any guide. Systematic musicology includes music acoustics, the science and technology of acoustical musical instruments, physiology, psychology, sociology, philosophy and computing. Cognitive Musicology is the set of phenomena surrounding the computational modeling of music.

Subdisciplines[link]

Historical musicology[link]

Music history or historical musicology studies the composition, performance, reception, and criticism of music over time. Historical studies of music are for example concerned with a composer's life and works, the developments of styles and genres (e. g. baroque concertos), the social function of music for a particular group of people (e. g. court music), or modes of performance at a particular place and time (e. g. Johann Sebastian Bach's choir in Leipzig). Like the comparable field of art history, different branches and schools of historical musicology emphasize different types of musical works and different approaches to music. There are also national differences in the definition of historical musicology. In theory, "music history" could refer to the study of the history of any type or genre of music (e.g., the history of Indian music or the history of rock). In practice, these research topics are more often considered within ethnomusicology (see below) and "historical musicology" is assumed to imply Western Art music.

The methods of historical musicology include source studies (esp. manuscript studies), paleography, philology (especially textual criticism), style criticism, historiography (the choice of historical method), musical analysis (the analysis of music in order to find "inner coherence"),^[1] and iconography. The application of musical analysis to further these goals is often a part of music history, though pure analysis or the development of new tools of music analysis is more likely to be seen in the field of music theory. Music historians create a number of written products, ranging from journal articles describing their current research, new editions of musical works, biography of composers and other musicians, or book-length studies. Music historians may examine issues in a close focus, as in the case of scholars who examine the relationship between words and music for a given composer. On the other hand, some scholars take a broader view, and assess the place of a given type of music in society using techniques drawn from other fields, such as economics, sociology, or philosophy.

New musicology is a term applied since the late 1980s to a wide body of work emphasizing cultural study, analysis, and criticism of music. Such work may be based on feminist, gender studies, queer theory, or postcolonial theory, or the work of Theodor Adorno. Although New Musicology emerged from within historical musicology, the emphasis on cultural study within the Western art music tradition places New Musicology at the junction between historical, ethnological and sociological research in music.

New musicology was a reaction against traditional historical musicology, which according to Susan McClary, "fastidiously declares issues of musical signification off-limits to those engaged in legitimate scholarship." Charles Rosen, however, retorts that McClary "sets up, like so many of the 'new musicologists', a straw man to knock down, the dogma that music has no meaning, and no political or social significance".^[2] (I doubt that anyone, except perhaps the nineteenth-century critic Hanslick, has ever really believed that, although some musicians have been goaded into proclaiming it by the sillier interpretations of music with which we are often assailed.)' (Rosen 2000).Today, many musicologists no longer distinguish between musicology and New Musicology, since many of the scholarly concerns that used to be associated New Musicology have now become mainstream, and the term "new" clearly no longer applies.

Ethnomusicology[link]

Ethnomusicology, formerly comparative musicology, is the study of music in its cultural context. It is often considered the anthropology or ethnography of music. Jeff Todd Titon has called it the study of "people making music". Although it is most often concerned with the study of non-Western musics, it also includes the study of Western music from an anthropological or sociological perspective, cultural studies and sociology as well as other disciplines in the social sciences and humanities. Though some ethnomusicologists primarily conduct historical studies, the majority are involved in long-term participant observation. Therefore, ethnomusiological work can be characterized as featuring a substantial, intensive ethnographic component. Closely related to ethnomusiology is the emerging branch of sociomusicology.

Popular music studies[link]

Popular music studies, known, "misleadingly," (Moore 2003, p. 2) as popular musicology, emerged in the 1980s as an increasing number of musicologists, ethnomusicologists, and other varieties of historians of American and European culture began to write about popular musics past and present. The first journal focusing on popular music studies was Popular Music, which began publication in 1981. It was not until 1994 that an academic society solely devoted to the topic was formed, the International Association for the Study of Popular Music. The Association's founding was partly motivated by the interdisciplinary agenda of popular musicology though the group has been characterized by a polarized 'musicological' and 'sociological' approach also typical of popular musicology (Moore ibid, p. 4).

Music theory, analysis and composition[link]

Music theory is a field of study that describes the elements of music and includes the development and application of methods for composing and for analyzing music through both notation and, on occasion, musical sound itself. Broadly, theory may include any statement, belief, or conception of or about music (Boretz, 1995). A person who studies or practices music theory is a music theorist.

Some music theorists attempt to explain the techniques composers use by establishing rules and patterns. Others model the experience of listening to or performing music. Though extremely diverse in their interests and commitments, many Western music theorists are united in their belief that the acts of composing, performing, and listening to music may be explicated to a high degree of detail (this, as opposed to a conception of musical expression as fundamentally ineffable except in musical sounds). Generally, works of music theory are both descriptive and prescriptive, attempting both to define practice and to influence later practice. Thus, music theory generally lags behind practice in important ways, but also points towards future exploration, composition, and performance.

Musicians study music theory in order to be able to understand the structural relationships in the (nearly always notated) music, and composers study music theory in order to be able to understand how to produce effects and to structure their own works. Composers may study music theory in order to guide their precompositional and compositional decisions. Broadly speaking, music theory in the Western tradition focuses on harmony and counterpoint, and then uses these to explain large scale structure and the creation of melody.

Music psychology and cognition[link]

There is considerable overlap between the fields of music psychology, music cognition, and the cognitive neuroscience of music. Music psychology applies the content and methods of all subdisciplines of psychology (perception, cognition, motivation, personality and so on) to all aspects of musical behaviour and experience (performance, listening, composition). Music cognition is the study of music as information, from the viewpoint of cognitive science. The discipline shares the interdisciplinary nature of fields such as cognitive linguistics. Cognitive musicology emphasizes the use of computational models for human musical abilities. The cognitive neuroscience of music studies the way that music appreciation and ability is implemented in the brain and uses a methodology similar to cognitive neuroscience.

Performance practice and research[link]

Performance practice draws on many of the tools of historical musicology to answer the specific question of how music was performed in various places at various times in the past. Although previously confined to early music, recent research in performance practice has embraced questions such as how the early history of recording affected the use of vibrato in classical music, or instruments in Klezmer.

Within the rubric of musicology, performance practice tends to emphasize the collection and synthesis of evidence about how music should be performed. The important other side, learning how to sing authentically or perform a historical instrument is usually part of conservatory or other performance training. However, many top researchers in performance practice are also excellent musicians.

Music performance research (or music performance science) is strongly associated with music psychology. It aims to document and explain the psychological, physiological, sociological and cultural details of how music is actually performed (rather than how it should be performed). The approach to research tends to be systematic and empirical, and to involve the collection and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative data. The findings of music performance research can often be applied in music education.

Critiques[link]

Exclusion of disciplines and musics[link]

In its most narrow definition, historical musicology is the music history of Western culture. Such a definition arbitrarily excludes disciplines other than history, cultures other than Western, and forms of music other than "classical" ("art", "serious", "high culture") or notated ("artificial"). A somewhat broader definition incorporating all musical humanities is still problematic, because it arbitrarily excludes the relevant (natural) sciences (acoustics, psychology, physiology, neurosciences, information and computer sciences, empirical sociology and aesthetics) as well as musical practice.

Within historical musicology, scholars have been reluctant to adopt postmodern and critical approaches that are common elsewhere in the humanities. According to Susan McClary (2000, p. 1285) the discipline of "music lags behind the other arts; it picks up ideas from other media just when they have become outmoded." Only in the 1990s did historical musicologists, preceded by feminist musicologists in the late 1980s, begin to address issues such as gender, sexualities, bodies, emotions, and subjectivities which dominated the humanities for twenty years before (ibid, p. 10). In McClary's words (1991, p. 5), "It almost seems that musicology managed miraculously to pass directly from pre- to postfeminism without ever having to change - or even examine - its ways." Furthermore, in their discussion on musicology and rock music, Susan McClary and Robert Walser also address a key struggle within the discipline: how musicology has often "dismisse[d] questions of socio-musical interaction out of hand, that part of classical music's greatness is ascribed to its autonomy from society." (1988, p. 283). Since the 1990s, however, musicology has increasingly turned to socio-cultural methods.

Exclusion of popular music[link]

According to Richard Middleton, the strongest criticism of (historical) musicology has been that it by and large ignores popular music. Though musicological study of popular music has vastly increased in quantity recently, Middleton's assertion in 1990—that most major "works of musicology, theoretical or historical, act as though popular music did not exist" -- holds true. Academic and conservatory training typically only peripherally addresses this broad spectrum of musics, and many (historical) musicologists who are "both contemptuous and condescending are looking for types of production, musical form, and listening which they associate with a different kind of music...'classical music'...and they generally find popular music lacking. He cites three main aspects of this problem (p.104-6). The terminology of historical musicology is "slanted by the needs and history of a particular music ('classical music')." He acknowledges that "there is a rich vocabulary for certain areas [harmony, tonality, certain part-writing and forms], important in musicology's typical corpus"; yet he points out that there is "an impoverished vocabulary for other areas [rhythm, pitch nuance and gradation, and timbre], which are less well developed" in Classical music. Middleton argues that a number of "terms are ideologically loaded" in that "they always involve selective, and often unconsciously formulated, conceptions of what music is."

See also[link]

Music portal

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Adler, Guido (1885). Umfang, Methode und Ziel der Musikwissenschaft. Vierteljahresschrift für Musikwissenschaft, 1, 5-20.
• Babich, Babette (2003) "Postmodern Musicology" in Victor E. Taylor and Charles Winquist, eds., Routledge Encyclopedia of Postmodernism, London: Routledge, 2003. pp. 153–159. ISBN 978-0-415-30886-1.
• Honing, Henkjan (2006). "On the growing role of observation, formalization and experimental method in musicology. " Empirical Musicology Review.
• Kerman, Joseph (1985). Musicology. London: Fontana. ISBN 0-00-197170-0.
• McClary, Susan, and Robert Walser (1988). "Start Making Sense! Musicology Wrestles with Rock" in On Record ed. by Frith and Goodwin (1990), pp. 277–292. ISBN 0-394-56475-8.
• McClary, Susan (1991). Feminine Endings. Music, Gender, and Sexuality. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1899-2 (pbk).
• McClary, Susan (2000). "Women and Music on the Verge of the New Millennium (Special Issue: Feminists at a Millennium)", Signs 25/4 (Summer): 1283-1286.
• Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). Studying Popular Music. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0-335-15275-9.
• Moore, Allan, ed. (2003). Analyzing Popular Music, p. 2. ISBN 978-0-521-77120-7. p. 2n2 reads: "'Popular musicology' should be read as the musicological investigation of popular music, rather than the accessible investigation of music!"
• Parncutt, Richard. (2007). "Systematic musicology and the history and future of Western musical scholarship", Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies, 1, 1-32.
• Pruett, James W., and Thomas P. Slavens (1985). Research guide to musicology. Chicago: American Library Association. ISBN 0-8389-0331-2.
• Randel, Don Michael, ed. (4th ed. 2003). Harvard Dictionary of Music, pp. 452–454. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01163-5.
• Rosen, Charles (2000). "The New Musicology", in Critical Entertainments: Music Old and New, pp. 255–272. Harvard University Press.
• Tagg, Philip (1979, ed. 2000). Kojak - 50 Seconds of Television Music: Toward the Analysis of Affect in Popular Music, pp. 38–45. The Mass Media Music Scholar's Press. ISBN 0-9701684-0-3.

Further reading[link]

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• Winkler, Peter (1978). "Toward a theory of pop harmony", In Theory Only, 4, pp. 3–26., cited in Moore (2003), p. 9.
• Tagg, Philip (1982). "Analysing Popular Music: Theory, Method and Practice", Popular Music, Vol. 2, Theory and Method, pp. 37–67., ibid.
• van der Merwe, Peter (1989). Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth Century Popular Music. ISBN 0-19-816305-3 (1992)., ibid.
• Middleton, Richard (1990) Studying Popular Music. ISBN 0-335-15275-9., ibid. and van der Merwe (2007), p. 515.
• Brackett, David (1995). Interpreting Popular Music. ISBN 0-520-22541-1., ibid.
• Everett, Walter, ed. (2000). Expression in Pop-Rock Music. ISBN 0-8153-3160-6., ibid.
• Moore, A.F. (2001). Rock: The Primary Text, 2nd edn., ISBN 0-7546-0298-2., ibid.

External links[link]

• The American Musicological Society (Wikipedia entry)
• Doctoral Dissertations in Musicology Online
• AMS: Web sites of interest to Musicologists
• The Society for American Music
• Graduate Programs in Musicology
• Conference on Interdisciplinary Musicology
• International Association for the Study of Popular Music
• Society for Ethnomusicology
• Wikiquote - quotes about musicology
• Répertoire International des Sources Musicales (RISM) - database of musical sources from around the world

On-line Journals[link]

Although many musicology journals are not available on-line, or are only available through pay-for-access portals, a sampling of peer reviewed journals in various subfields gives some idea of musicological writings:

• JIMS: Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies
• Echo: a music centered journal
• Empirical Musicology Review
• Ethnomusicology Review
• Journal of Interdisciplinary Music Studies
• JMM: The Journal of Music and Meaning
• Music Theory Online
• Journal of Seventeenth-Century Music^{[dead link]}
• Ethnomusicology OnLine
• Min-Ad: Israel Studies in Musicology Online
• Music and Politics
• Volume ! The French journal of popular music studies all articles available for free download up to n-2.

The following musicology journals can be accessed on-line through JSTOR (requires subscription for full access). Many of them have their latest issues available on-line via publisher portals (usually requiring a fee for access).

• 19th-Century Music (1977–2004)
• Acta Musicologica (1931–2002) (current organ of the International Musicological Society)
• American Music (1983–2005) (Society for American Music)
• Asian Music (1968–2002)
• Black Music Research Journal (1980–2004) (Center for Black Music Research)
• British Journal of Ethnomusicology (1992–2002)
• Early Music History (1981–2002)
• Ethnomusicology (1953–2003) (Society for Ethnomusicology)
• Journal of Music Theory (1957–2002)
• The Journal of Musicology (1982–2004)
• Journal of the American Musicological Society (1948–2004) (American Musicological Society)
• Music Educators Journal (1934–2007)
• Music Theory Spectrum (1979–2003) (Society for Music Theory)
• The Musical Quarterly (1915–1999)
• Perspectives of New Music (1962–2000)
• Popular Music (1981–2003)
• Yearbook for Traditional Music (1981–2003)

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Susan McClary (born 2 October 1946) is a musicologist associated with the "New Musicology". Noted for her work combining musicology and a feminist music criticism, McClary is Professor of Musicology at Case Western Reserve University.

Biography[link]

McClary was born in St Louis, Missouri and received her BA in 1968 from Southern Illinois University. She attended graduate school at Harvard University where she received her MA in 1971 and her PhD in 1976. Her doctoral dissertation was on the transition from modal to tonal organization in Monteverdi's works. The first half of her dissertation was later re-worked and expanded in her 2004 book, Modal Subjectivities: Self-fashioning in the Italian Madrigal. Before becoming Professor of Music at UCLA in 1994, she taught at the University of Minnesota (1977–91) and McGill University (1991–94). She is also a professor at the University of Oslo. McClary is married to the musicologist Robert Walser.

[edit] Feminine Endings

One of her best known works is Feminine Endings (1991; ISBN 0-8166-4189-7). ("Feminine ending" is a musical term once commonly used to denote a weak phrase ending or cadence.) The work covers these topics:

1. Musical constructions of gender and sexuality.
2. Gendered aspects of traditional music theory.
3. Gendered sexuality in musical narrative.
4. Music as a gendered discourse.
5. Discursive strategies of women musicians.

This work combines musicology within feminism. McClary suggests that sonata form may be interpreted as sexist or misogynistic and imperialistic, and that, "tonality itself - with its process of instilling expectations and subsequently withholding promised fulfillment until climax - is the principal musical means during the period from 1600 to 1900 for arousing and channeling desire." She interprets the sonata procedure for its constructions of gender and sexual identity. The primary, "masculine" key (or first subject group) represents the male self, while the allegedly the secondary, "feminine" key (or second subject group), represents the other, a territory to be explored and conquered, assimilated into the self and stated in the tonic home key.

"Constructions of Subjectivity in Franz Schubert's Music"[link]

"Constructions of Subjectivity in Franz Schubert's Music" first appeared as a paper delivered at the American Musicological Society in 1990 and then in a revised version as a symposium presentation during the 1992 Schubertiade Festival in New York City. At the time McClary was influenced by Maynard Solomon's allegations of Schubert's homosexuality in his 1989 paper "Franz Schubert and the Peacocks of Benvenuto Cellini." McClary's paper explored the relevance of Solomon's research to what she termed the uninhibited, "hedonistic" luxuriance of Schubert's "Unfinished" Symphony. The symposium paper elicited in some mild controversy .^[1] Following evidence that Solomon's conclusions may have been flawed^[2] and largely based on his own psychoanalytic reading of a dream narrative Schubert set down in 1822,^[3] McClary revised the paper again. Its definitive version was printed in the 1994 edition of the book Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology edited by Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood, Gary Thomas.

According to McClary, Schubert, in the second movement of his Unfinished Symphony, foregoes the usual narrative of the sonata form by "wandering" from one key area to another in a manner which does not consolidate the tonic, but without causing its violent reaffirmation:

"What is remarkable about this movement is that Schubert conceives of and executes a musical narrative that does not enact the more standard model in which a self strives to define identity through the consolidation of ego boundaries...in a Beethovian world such a passage would sound vulnerable, its tonal identity not safely anchored; and its ambiguity would probably precipitate a crisis, thereby justifying the violence needed to put things right again."^[4]

While maintaining that attempting to read Schubert's sexuality from his music would be essentialism, she proposes that it may be possible to notice intentional ways in which Schubert composed in order to express his "difference" as a part of himself at a time when "the self" was becoming prominent in the arts. Schubert's music and often the man himself and the subjectivity he presented have been criticized as effeminate, especially in comparison to Beethoven, the model and aggressive master of the sonata form (Sir George Grove, after Schumann: "compared with Beethoven, Schubert is as a woman to a man"; Carl Dahlhaus: "weak" and "involuntary").^[5] However, McClary notes:

"what is at issue is not Schubert's deviance from a "straight" norm, but rather his particular constructions of subjectivity, especially as they contrast with many of those posed by his peers."^[6]

Some of the ideas about composition as subjective narrative proposed in "Constructions" were developed by McClary in her 1997 article, "The Impromptu that trod on a loaf", which applies this analysis to Schubert's Impromptu Op. 90, Number 2.^[7] "Constructions of Subjectivity in Franz Schubert's Music" and the ideas in it continue to be discussed, sometimes critically.^[8] However, the article influenced a number of queer theorists,^[9] and in 2003 was described by the musicologist, Lawrence Kramer, as still an important paper in the field.^[10] The paper, and the reactions to it are also discussed in Mark Lindsey Mitchell's Virtuosi: A Defense and a (sometimes Erotic) Celebration of Great Pianists.^[11]

Other work[link]

McClary set the feminist arguments of her early book in a broader sociopolitical context with Conventional Wisdom (2000, ISBN 0-520-23208-9). In it, she argues that the traditional musicological assumption of the existence of "purely musical" elements, divorced from culture and meaning, the social and the body, is a conceit used to veil the social and political imperatives of the worldview that produces the classical canon most prized by supposedly objective musicologists. But McClary does not ignore the "purely musical" in favor of cultural issues, incorporating it into her analysis. She examines the creation of meanings and identities, some oppressive and hegemonic, some affirmative and resistant, in music through the referencing of musical conventions in the blues, Vivaldi, Prince, Philip Glass, and others.

While seen by some as extremely radical, her work is influenced by musicologists such as Edward T. Cone, gender theorists and cultural critics such as Teresa de Lauretis, and others who, like McClary, fall in between, such as Theodor Adorno. McClary herself admits that her analyses, though intended to deconstruct, flirt with essentialism.^{[citation needed]}

The Beethoven and rape controversy[link]

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In the January 1987 issue of Minnesota Composers Forum Newsletter, McClary wrote of Ludwig van Beethoven's Ninth Symphony:

The point of recapitulation in the first movement of the Ninth is one of the most horrifying moments in music, as the carefully prepared cadence is frustrated, damming up energy which finally explodes in the throttling murderous rage of a rapist incapable of attaining release.

This sentence elicited and continues to elicit a great range of responses. McClary subsequently rephrased this passage in Feminine Endings:

The point of recapitulation in the first movement of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony unleashes one of the most horrifyingly violent episodes in the history of music. The problem Beethoven has constructed for this movement is that it seems to begin before the subject of the symphony has managed to achieve its identity. (128)

She goes on to conclude that "The Ninth Symphony is probably our most compelling articulation in music of the contradictory impulses that have organized patriarchal culture since the Enlightenment" (129). The critiques of McClary discussed below refer primarily to the original version of the passage.

Readers sympathetic to the passage may be connecting it to the opinion that Beethoven's music is in some way "phallic" or "hegemonic," terms often used in modern feminist studies scholarship. These readers may feel that to be able to enjoy Beethoven's music one must submit to or agree with the values expressed, or that it requires or forces upon the listener a mode or way of listening that is oppressive, and that these are overtly expressed, as rape, in the Ninth. For related views, see discussion above, as well as the article "Criticism and sonata form".

Several commentators have objected to McClary's characterizations. Four examples are:

• "Painter Jailed for Committing Masterpieces" by Robert Anton Wilson (also Wilson, Robert A. (1998). Everything Is Under Control: Conspiracies, Cults, and Cover-ups, p. 64. ISBN 0-06-273417-2.)
• Historical Review Press: "The Godfather of the Multi-Cult Nightmare" by Robert Stacy McCain
• "The Feminist Interpretations Debate, Concluded" by Glenn Lamont.

Leaving aside readers whose main interest is political, there are other reasons readers might take offense at McClary's sentence. The passage could be construed as unfair to Beethoven if one assumes that the "throttling murderous rapist's rage" putatively expressed in the music is supposed to have come from Beethoven's own habitual thoughts and feelings, which McClary does not suggest. Scholars and historians have found no evidence that Beethoven ever committed a rape or harbored an intense urge to do so.

Numerous musicological academics, however, have raised more serious and substantial objections to McClary’s scholarship, including (but not limited to) her notorious remark about rape. Four examples are:

• Music theorist Pieter van den Toorn has complained that McClary's polemics negate the asocial autonomy of absolute music; he is concerned with Schenker-style formal analysis. Van den Toorn complains, for example, that “Fanned by an aversion for male sexuality, which it depicts as something brutal and contemptible, irrelevancies are being read into the music.”^[12] Van den Toorn's complaint was rebutted by musicologist Ruth Solie,^[13] but van den Toorn responded with a whole book on these issues.^[14]
• Composer Elaine Barkin, in another extended critique, complained that “McClary’s voice tone, language, attitudes all too resoundingly perpetuate and reinstantiate those very ‘patriarchal practices’ she is deploring.”^[15] McClary briefly dismissed Barkin's critique as "a caricature."^[16]
• Musicologist Paula Higgins, in another robust critique of McClary's work, has observed that “one wonders… if [McClary] has not strategically co-opted feminism as an excuse for guerrilla attacks on the field.”^[17] Higgins complains of McClary's “truculent verbal assaults on musicological straw men”,^[18] and observes that “For all the hip culture critique imported from other fields, McClary has left the cobwebs of patriarchal musicological thought largely intact.” ”^[19] Higgins is also critical of McClary's citation practice as it concerns other scholars in the area of feminist musical criticism.
• Ethnomusicologist Henry Kingsbury has criticized McClary’s inattention to the Friedrich Schiller poem set in the fourth movement of the Ninth Symphony; he also lists numerous works by Beethoven and Schubert that he says contradict McClary’s claims regarding violence in Beethoven as well as her argument about the construction of gender in music.^[20]

Another source of controversy is the possibility that McClary's passage trivializes the horrific experience of actual rape victims by reducing it to mere metaphor. Even readers sympathetic to criticism of Beethoven's music may find that pinpointing a vague, unintended colonial program as "rape" is inaccurate.

The pianist and critic Charles Rosen has also commented on the famous passage. He avoids taking offense on any of the grounds mentioned above, and is willing to admit sexual metaphors to musical analysis. Rosen's disagreement is simply with McClary's assessment of the music:

We have first her characterization of the moment of recapitulation in the first movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony:

[passage appears here]

The phrase about the murderous rage of the rapist has since been withdrawn [as noted above], which indicates that McClary realized it posed a problem, but it has the great merit of recognizing that something extraordinary is taking place here, and McClary's metaphor of sexual violence is not a bad way to describe it. The difficulty is that all metaphors oversimplify, like those entertaining little stories that music critics in the nineteenth century used to invent about works of music for an audience whose musical literacy was not too well developed. I do not, myself, find the cadence frustrated or dammed up in any constricting sense, but only given a slightly deviant movement which briefly postpones total fulfillment.

To continue the sexual imagery, I cannot think that the rapist incapable of attaining release is an adequate analogue, but I hear the passage as if Beethoven had found a way of making an orgasm last for sixteen bars. What causes the passage to be so shocking, indeed, is the power of sustaining over such a long phrase what we expect as a brief explosion. To McClary's credit, it should be said that some kind of metaphorical description is called for, and even necessary, but I should like to suggest that none will be satisfactory or definitive.^[21]

McClary also notes that she "can say something nice about Beethoven",^[22] saying of his String Quartet, Op. 132, "Few pieces offer so as vivid an image of shattered subjectivity the opening of Op. 132."^{[citation needed]}

Quotes[link]

• "Most people have music in the center of their lives. I believe my work sheds light on how music affects us and why it is so influential."^[23]

• "Rather than protecting music as a sublimely meaningless activity that has managed to escape social signification, I insist on treating it as a medium that participates in social formation by influencing the ways we perceive our feelings, our bodies, our desires, our very subjectivities - even if it does so surreptitiously, without most of us knowning how. It is too important a cultural force to be shrouded by mystified notions of Romantic transcendence."^[24]

• "My history of Western music contains Bach, Mozart, and Beethoven, but it also includes Stradella and the Swan Silvertones, Bessie Smith and Eric Clapton, k.d. lang, Philip Glass, and Public Enemy. And it treats all of them as artists who have negotiated with available conventions and in particular historical circumstances to produce musical artifacts of exceptional power and cultural resonance. If I can no longer privilege any one tradition, I find myself perpetually in awe of the countless ways societies have devised for articulating their most basic beliefs through the medium of sound."^[25]

Selected bibliography[link]

Works by Susan McClary

• "The Blasphemy of Talking Politics during Bach Year." In Music and Society: The Politics of Composition, Performance and Reception. Ed. Leppert and McClary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. 13-62.
• "Terminal Prestige: The Case of Avant-Garde Music Composition." Cultural Critique 12 (1989): 57-81.
• Georges Bizet: Carmen. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
• "Constructions of Subjectivity in Franz Schubert's music." In Queering the Pitch. Ed. Brett, Wood, and Thomas. New York: Routledge, 1994. 205-33.
• Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, & Sexuality. 2nd. ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002 (1991).
• Conventional Wisdom: The Content of Musical Form. Berkeley: University of California Press,, 2001
• Modal Subjectivities: Self-Fashioning in the Italian Madrigal. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2004.

See also[link]

• Early Music

Notes and references[link]

Sources[link]

• Bal, Mieke (ed) Narrative Theory: Critical Concepts in Literary and Cultural Studies, Taylor & Francis, 2004. ISBN 0-415-31661-8
• Hatten, Robert S. Hatten Interpreting Musical Gestures, Topics, and Tropes: Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Indiana University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-253-34459-X
• Holland, Bernard, "Dr. Freud, Can Tea Really Just Be Tea?", New York Times, February 17, 1992
• Horowitz, Joseph "Schubert: Eternally Feminine?", New York Times, January 19, 1992.
• Kramer, Lawrence, Franz Schubert: Sexuality, Subjectivity, Song, Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-54216-2
• Maynard Solomon, "Franz Schubert and the Peacocks of Benvenuto Cellini" in 19th-Century Music, April 1989, Vol. 12, No. 3, Pages 193–206.
• McClary, Susan, "Constructions of Subjectivity in Franz Schubert's Music" in Queering the Pitch: The New Gay and Lesbian Musicology (Philip Brett, Elizabeth Wood, Gary Thomas (eds.), CRC Press, 2006 ISBN 0-415-97884-X
• McClary, Susan, Feminine Endings: Music, Gender, & Sexuality. 2nd. ed. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2002 (1991).
• Mitchell, Mark Lindsey, Virtuosi: A Defense and a (sometimes Erotic) Celebration of Great Pianists, Indiana University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-253-33757-7
• Miller, Leta E. and Lieberman, Frederic (1998). Lou Harrison: Composing a World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511022-6.
• Peraino, Judith Ann, Listening to the Sirens: Musical Technologies of Queer Identity from Homer to Hedwig, University of California Press, 2006. ISBN 0-520-21587-7
• Rosen Charles, Critical Entertainments, Chapter 15 (2000) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-17730-4.
• Ross, Alex, "The Gay Connection in Music and in a Festival", New York Times, June 27, 1994.
• Rothstein, Edward, "And If You Play 'Bolero' Backward ...", New York Times, February 16, 1992.
• Rothstein, Edward, "Was Schubert Gay? If He Was, So What? Debate Turns Testy", New York Times, August 6, 1995
• Sleeman, Elizabeth (ed.) "McClary, Susan K(aye)", International Who's Who of Authors and Writers, Routledge, 2003, p. 348. ISBN 1-85743-179-0
• Tellenbach, Marie-Elisabeth, "Franz Schubert and Benvenuto Cellini: One Man's Meat" in The Musical Times, Vol. 141, No. 1870, Spring 2000, pp. 50–52
• Tommasini, Anthony, "'Outing' Some 'In' Composers", New York Times, August 6, 1995.
• Tommasini, Anthony, "What's So Gay About American Music?", New York Times, October 24, 2004.

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Susan McClary

• TRANS 15 (2011) Celebrating the 20th anniversary of "Feminine Endings" by Susan McClary: Special issue dedicated to Gender Studies, Feminism, and Music. [1] [NEWS ON: http://www.facebook.com/event.php?eid=133667046665880]
• UCLA Department of Musicology, Biography of Susan McClary
• Susan McClary, "In Praise of Contingency: The Powers and Limits of Theory", Keynote Address, Society for Music Theory 2009 Annual Meeting, Montréal, Canada
• Lawrence Kramer with reply by Charles Rosen, "Music à La Mode", The New York Review of Books, Volume 41, Number 15, September 22, 1994

Paul Wyatt Dick, PC (born October 27, 1940) is a lawyer and former Canadian politician.^[1]

He was born in Kapuskasing, Ontario, the son of Wyatt Dick and Constance Grace Harrison, and educated in Arnprior, Port Hope, at the University of Western Ontario and the University of New Brunswick. Dick was called to the Ontario bar in 1969. He served as assistant crown attorney for Carleton County from 1969 until 1972, when he entered private practice in Ottawa. In 1981, he was named Queen's Counsel.^[2]

Dick was first elected to the Canadian House of Commons in the 1972 general election as the Progressive Conservative Member of Parliament for Lanark—Renfrew—Carleton. In 1983, he became Deputy House Leader of the parliamentary Opposition Tory party.^[1]

He was appointed a parliamentary secretary following the Tory victory in the 1984 general election under Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. In 1986, Dick was promoted to Cabinet as Associate Minister of National Defence.^[1]

He was re-elected as an MP in the 1988 election for the redistributed riding of Lanark—Carleton, and was moved to the position of Minister of Supply and Services in 1989.^[1]

When Kim Campbell succeeded Mulroney as prime minister in June 1993, she retained Dick as Supply and Services minister, while adding an appointment as Minister of Public Works. However, both Dick and the Campbell government were defeated in the subsequent 1993 election, which ended his political career.^[1]

At 53 and with most of his adult life having been consumed by politics, Dick found himself out of work and with his political experience counting for little in job interviews. After being turned down for executive or management level positions, Dick found entry-level work at a stock brokerage firm. Dick was successful and now earns a six-figure salary. The story of Dick's life after politics is one of those profiled in the 2003 book The Dark Side: The Personal Price of a Political Life by Steve Paikin ISBN 0-670-04328-1.

References[link]

v t e Cabinet of Prime Minister Kim Campbell (1993) Perrin Beatty • Pierre Blais • Pauline Browes • Kim Campbell • Jean Charest • Mary Collins • Jean Corbeil • Paul Dick • Jim Edwards • Tom Hockin • Monique Landry • Doug Lewis • Gilles Loiselle • Peter McCreath • Charles Mayer • Lowell Murray • Rob Nicholson • Ross Reid • Larry Schneider • Tom Siddon • Bobbie Sparrow • Garth Turner • Bernard Valcourt • Pierre H. Vincent • Gerry Weiner

v t e   Ministers of Defence Ministers of Militia and Defence (1867–1923) Cartier · Langevin (acting) · McDonald  · Ross · Vail · Jones · Masson · Campbell · Caron · Bowell · Patterson · Dickey · Bowell · Desjardins · Tisdale · Borden · Hughes · Kemp · Mewburn · Calder (acting) · Guthrie · G. Graham Ministers of National Defence (1923–) G. Graham · E. Macdonald · Guthrie · Robb (acting) · Ralston · Sutherland · Stirling · Mackenzie · Rogers · Power (acting) · Ralston · McNaughton · Abbott · Claxton · Campney · Pearkes · Harkness · Churchill · Hellyer · Cadieux · Drury (acting) · D. Macdonald · Benson · Dubé (acting) · Drury (acting) · Richardson · Danson · McKinnon · Lamontagne · Blais · Coates · Clark (acting) · Nielsen · Beatty · McKnight · Masse · Campbell · Siddon · Collenette · Young · Eggleton · McCallum · Pratt · B. Graham · O'Connor · MacKay Associate Ministers of National Defence (1953–2006) Power · Campney · Hellyer · Sévigny · Cardin · Cadieux · Andre · Dick · Collins · Guarnieri · Bélanger Ministers of the Naval Service (1910–1922) Brodeur · Lemieux · Hazen · Ballantyne · G. Graham World War I Ministers of the Overseas Military Forces (1916–1920): Perley · Kemp World War II Ministers of National Defence for Air (1940–1946): Power · Macdonald (acting) · Gibson Ministers of National Defence for Naval Services (1940–1946): Macdonald · Abbott Ministers of National War Services (1940–1948): Gardiner · Thorson · Laflèche · McCann

Lewis & Clark College is a private college located in Portland, Oregon, U.S. It has an undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences, a School of Law, and a Graduate School of Education and Counseling. Lewis & Clark is a member of the Annapolis Group of colleges with athletic programs competing in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III Northwest Conference. Just under 2,000 students attend the undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences,^[3] which is regarded as "more selective,"^[4] with a student body from more than 50 countries across six continents as well as most U.S. states.^[5] The School of Law is best known for its environmental law program,^[6] while the Graduate School of Education & Counseling is active in community engagement and social justice.

Originally chartered as the Albany Collegiate Institute in 1867 in the town of Albany, the school moved to the Portland campus in 1938 and in 1942 adopted the name Lewis & Clark College after the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Today, the three schools and their supporting offices occupy a campus of 137 acres (554,000 m²), centered on the M. Lloyd Frank Estate on Palatine Hill in the Collins View neighborhood of Southwest Portland.

History[link]

Like many modern universities, the institution that would eventually become Lewis & Clark was initially intended to provide secondary as well as higher education for a specific religious community, in this case Presbyterian pioneers in Oregon's Willamette Valley. To this end the Presbyterian church incorporated Albany Academy in 1858,^[7] making Lewis & Clark one of four Oregon colleges with foundations predating Oregon's statehood (along with Willamette University, Pacific University, and Linfield College). Within a decade of its founding, Albany Academy began to focus more exclusively on higher education, changing its official name to the Albany Collegiate Institution in 1866. Lewis & Clark's official founding date comes from the current charter, which has been legally valid since the Presbyterian church reincorporated the Albany Collegiate Institution as Albany College in 1867.^[7] Unlike most Oregon colleges of the pioneer-era, the college has been coeducational since the first class, which graduated in 1873. The early campus of 7 acres (28,000 m²) in Albany was situated on land donated by the Monteith family. In 1892, the original school building was enlarged, and in 1925 the school relocated south of Albany where it remained until 1937.^[7]

Albany College established a junior college to the north in Portland in 1934, with the entire school moving to Portland in 1939.^[7] The campus grounds later became home to the federal government's Albany Research Center.^[8] In 1942 the college trustees acquired the Lloyd Frank (of the historic Portland department store Meier & Frank) “Fir Acres” estate in southwest Portland, and the school name was changed to Lewis & Clark College.^[7] The original school mascot, the Pirates, was changed to the Pioneers in 1946.

Academics[link]

The three schools of the college include the College of Arts and Sciences (CAS), the Law School, and the Graduate School of Education and Counseling.

CAS departments include Art, East Asian Studies, English, Foreign Languages and Literatures (French, Chinese, German, Greek, Spanish, Latin, Russian, and Japanese), History, Music, Philosophy, Religious Studies, Theatre, Biology, Chemistry, Computer Science, Mathematics, Environmental Studies, Physics, Communication, Economics, Classical Studies, Gender Studies, International Affairs, Latin American Studies, Political Science, Psychology, Sociology and Anthropology, and Academic English Studies.

Lewis & Clark has nationally-regarded programs in Biology, International Affairs, Psychology, Foreign Languages and Environmental Studies. The college has held two worldwide symphonic festivals in the past five years with professional-level performances in Dublin and the Greek islands. Lewis & Clark is ranked 71st in the list of best liberal arts colleges in U.S. News & World Report's 2009 rankings.^[10] Currently Lewis & Clark holds not only the top best Liberal Colleges ranking but also by Princeton Reviews is ranked as the second most beautiful campus ranking in the country.

Lewis & Clark is also known for its active and diverse overseas study program. The college offers approximately 36 programs in various countries, and since the 1960s, more than 60% of all Lewis & Clark undergraduates have studied abroad.^[11] For a small liberal arts college, Lewis & Clark's overseas offerings are impressive in both breadth and scope; there are, for example seven discrete programs in Spanish-speaking countries. Lewis & Clark is also one of the few U.S. institutions with an overseas program in Cuba. This international component is integrated into the college's academics, especially in departments such as International Affairs and Foreign Languages, and is also part of Lewis & Clark College's identity and reputation as an international institution.

Campus[link]

Campus overview[link]

Frank Manor House

Lewis & Clark's 137-acre (0.55 km²) forested campus sits atop Palatine Hill in the Collins View neighborhood of Portland, Oregon, and is contiguous with the 645 acre (2.61 km2) Tryon Creek State Natural Area. Campus buildings include an award-winning environmentally sustainable academic building,^[12] as well as notable historic architecture such as the Frank Manor House and Rogers Hall (formerly Our Lady of Angels convent of The Sisters of St. Francis).^[13]

Due in large part to the college's natural environment, Lewis & Clark was recently named one of America's top ten "Most Beautiful Campuses" by the Princeton Review,^[14] as well as an independent architecture blog.^[15]

Residence halls[link]

Stewart Residence Hall

All students are required to live on campus for the first two years, unless already a Portland resident.^[16] Residence halls include SOA (Stewart-Odell-Akin), Forest, Hartzfeld, Platt-Howard, Copeland and also include East, Roberts, and West, the on-campus apartments.

Several of the student residence halls have themes. Stewart is "Substance Free/Wellness", providing a home for those who wish to live in a drug and alcohol-free environment. Akin is known as the "Multicultural Dorm", hosting a majority of students from outside of the United States as well as some U.S. students with international experience. Platt-Howard: Platt West houses the Platteau student-run arts center, and the "Visual and Performing Arts" (or VAPA) and Howard has an "Outdoor Floor". Spruce, in the Forest complex, offers all-female housing. Juniper, also in Forest, is the "Pioneers in Environmental Action and Service" (PEAS) Floor, more generally known as the "green" floor. Hartzfeld requires sophomore standing or higher to live in. East Hall, Roberts Hall and West Hall are a series of on-campus apartments completed in 2003 and require junior class standing or higher to live in. Many of the apartments have language themes, with residents grouped into a single apartment based on language. Languages include French, Spanish, German, Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and more.

Student life[link]

Sustainability[link]

Roses are abundant at Lewis & Clark College

Sustainability is an important issue for many students, faculty, and college administrators. Currently, wind power provides 100% of the college's total electricity,^[17] and LEED 'Certified' level must be met for all of the college's projects.^[18] Reuters recently listed Lewis & Clark as one of the ten best universities in the United States for studying Cleantech.^[19]

Athletics[link]

Lewis & Clark maintains 9 male and 10 female varsity sports teams, and athletic facilities including Pamplin Sports Center and Griswold Stadium.^[20] Lewis & Clark athletic teams are called the Pioneers, and team colors are orange and black. The Pioneers compete mainly in the Northwest Conference against eight other NCAA Division III institutions in the Pacific Northwest. One in five undergraduates are officially designated student athletes.^[21] Recent accomplishments in varsity athletics include the men's rowing team winning its conference, women's swim team winning third in conference, and men's and women's basketball both earning third in conference.^[22] In the 2011 season, the women's cross-country team placed seventh at West regionals, with the men's team placing 13th.^[23] The 2011-2012 men's basketball team lost in the NWC semifinals putting them in 4th place in the conference.^[24] Additionally, the women's team of that same year placed second in the NWC^[25] and made an appearance in the NCAA DIII National tournament.^[26]

A large number of smaller club and intramural sports such as Ultimate Frisbee,^[27] and Boffing^[28] enjoy broad participation. Lewis & Clark students have invented several intramural competitive sports, including Ninja^[29] and Wolvetch,^[30] which are popular at Lewis & Clark but seldom played elsewhere. While some varsity athletic events are well attended, there has long been tension between varsity athletes and non-athletes regarding perceived social and cultural differences, as well as the substantial financial support varsity sports teams enjoy.^[31][32]

Transportation[link]

Throughout the year the college operates a shuttle bus between campus and Pioneer Square in downtown Portland (called the Pio Express, or colloquially The Raz, due to its operation by Raz Transportation). During winter months there is also a daily shuttle to Mount Hood Meadows Ski Resort. TriMet line 39 operates between the college and the Hillsdale neighborhood where students can transfer to buses to downtown Portland. First year students are not permitted to have cars on campus.

Notable faculty, staff, and trustees[link]

Miller Center for the Humanities

• Stephen Dow Beckham, historian^[33]
• Greta Binford, biologist^[34]
• John F. Callahan, Morgan S. Odell Professor of Humanities and literary executor of Ralph Ellison's estate
• Jerusha B. Detweller-Bedell, Associate professor of psychology and recipient of 2008 U.S. Professor of the Year award from CASE^[35]
• Bob Gaillard - basketball coach
• Michael Mooney - President of the College for 14 years until his resignation in 2003 after reports surfaced in the media of a $10.5 million loss from an investment made outside full knowledge of the board of trustees.^[36]
• Robert B. Pamplin, Jr., entrepreneur, philanthropist, trustee^[37]
• Vern Rutsala, poet^[38]
• Kim Stafford, writer^[39]
• William Stafford, poet^[40]
• Anthony Swofford, former adjunct professor of humanities, author of Jarhead^[41]
• Mary Szybist, poet^[42]

Notable alumni[link]

Flanagan Chapel, site of various on-campus religious services and weddings.

• Becca Bernstein (2000), artist
• Earl Blumenauer (1970, JD 1976), US Representative^[43]
• Don Bonker (1964), former US Representative^[44]
• Larry Campbell (1953), former Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives^[45]
• Donald Eric Capps (1960), scholar of Pastoral Theology
• Ever Carradine (1996), actress^[46]
• Genevieve Gorder (1996), television personality^[47]
• Jeanne Holm (1956), first female Brigadier General in the United States Air Force and first female Major General in the United States armed forces^[48]
• Percy R. Kelly (1887 from Albany College), Chief Justice of the Oregon Supreme Court
• Marcia S. Krieger (1975), Judge on the United States District Court for the District of Colorado^[49]
• Monica Lewinsky (1995), White House intern and party to the Lewinsky scandal^[50]
• Ronald A. Marks (1978), former CIA official^[51]
• Myah Moore (2003), Miss Oregon USA 2003^[52]
• Markie Post (1975), actress
• Sagala Ratnayaka (1993), Sri Lankan politician and agriculturalist
• Mark V. Olsen, (1977), co-creator of HBO series Big Love^[53]
• Pete Ward (1962), Major League Baseball player^[54]

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Lewis & Clark College (2005). "Academics". Retrieved July 26, 2005.
• Princeton Review (2006). [5]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lewis & Clark College