This article concerns the concept of fetishism in anthropology. For sexual fetishes, see Sexual fetishism. For other uses, see Fetish (disambiguation).

Depiction of a fetish in South Africa by the London Missionary Society, circa 1900.

A fetish (derived from the French fétiche; which comes from the Portuguese feitiço; and this in turn from Latin facticius, "artificial" and facere, "to make") is an object believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular, a man-made object that has power over others. Essentially, fetishism is the etic attribution of inherent value or powers to an object.

History[link]

Initially, the Portuguese developed the concept of fetishism to refer to the objects used in religious cults by West African natives.^{[citation needed]}

The concept was popularized in Europe circa 1757, when Charles de Brosses used it in comparing West African religion to the magical aspects of Ancient Egyptian religion. Later, Auguste Comte employed the concept in his theory of the evolution of religion, wherein he posited fetishism as the earliest (most primitive) stage, followed by polytheism and monotheism.

That said, ethnography and anthropology would nonetheless classify some artifacts of monotheistic religions as fetishes. For example, the Holy Cross and the consecrated host or tokens of communion found in some forms of Christianity (a monotheistic religion), are here regarded as examples of fetishism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Tylor and McLennan, historians of religion, held that the concept of fetishism fostered a shift of attention away from the relationship between people and God, to focus instead on a relationship between people and material objects, and that this, in turn, allowed for the establishment of false models of causality for natural events. This they saw as a central problem historically and sociologically.

Practice[link]

A voodoo fetish market in Lomé, Togo, 2008.

Theoretically, fetishism is present in all religions, but the use of the concept in the study of religion derives from studies of traditional West African religious beliefs, as well as from Voodoo, which in turn derives from those beliefs.

Blood is often included as a particularly powerful fetish or ingredient in fetishes. In addition to blood, other objects and substances, such as bones, fur, claws, feathers, gemstones and crystals, water from certain places, certain types of plants and wood are common fetishes in the traditions of cultures worldwide.

Fetishes were commonly used in Native American religion and practices.^[1] The bear represented the shaman, the buffalo was the provider, the mountain lion was the warrior, and the wolf was the pathfinder.^[1]

Secular fetishism[link]

The 19th century saw the introduction of two theories of fetishism outside what was typically considered religion. The first was Karl Marx's idea of commodity fetishism, in which objects are imagined to dictate the social activities that produce them. The second was Alfred Binet's term sexual fetishism, the sexual attachment to an object in place of a person. Scholars have continued to develop these theories ever since, and they have influenced anthropologists' understanding of fetishism in general.

See also[link]

• Idolatry
• Animism
• Totemism
• Taboo
• The Power of Myth

References[link]

External links[link]

• The Catholic Encyclopaedia: fetishism - The Catholic View.
• Andrew Lang, Fetishism and Spiritualism, The Making of Religion, (Chapter VIII), Longmans, Green, and C°, London, New York and Bombay, 1900, pp. 147–159.

Jacque Fresco
Jacque Fresco
Born	(1916-03-13) March 13, 1916 (age 96) Brooklyn, New York
Residence	Florida
Nationality	American
Occupation	Futurist, Social Engineer, Structural Engineer, Architectural Designer, Industrial Designer, Author, Lecturer
Known for	The Venus Project, Resource-based economy, Sociocyberneering
Notable work(s)	Looking Forward (1969), The Best That Money Can't Buy (2002)
Influenced by	B. F. Skinner,[citation needed] Jacques Loeb,[1] Alfred Korzybski,[1] Buckminster Fuller,[citation needed] Thorstein Veblen,[1] Stuart Chase,[1] Edward Bellamy,[1] H. G. Welles,[1] Howard Scott,[1] Norbert Wiener,[2] Arthur Radebaugh[3]

Jacque Fresco (born March 13, 1916), is a self-educated structural designer, architectural designer, philosopher of science, concept artist, educator, and futurist. His interests span a wide range of disciplines including several in philosophy, science, architecture and engineering.^[4] Fresco writes and lectures extensively on his view of subjects ranging from the holistic design of sustainable cities, energy efficiency, natural resource management, cybernated technology, advanced automation, and the role of science in society, focusing on the benefits he thinks they may bring. With his colleague, Roxanne Meadows, he is the founder and director of an organization known as The Venus Project, located in Venus, Florida.^[5] He currently promotes a fundamental change in anthropic organization through the global implementation of a novel socio-economic system predicated on social cooperation, technological automation, and scientific methodology, called a Resource-based economy.

In contemporary culture he has been popularized by three documentaries, Future By Design,^[6] Zeitgeist Addendum,^[7] and Zeitgeist: Moving Forward,^[8] His Venus Project has been inspirational worldwide, especially to activists.^[9]

Early life[link]

Youth[link]

Born on March 13, 1916,^[10] Jacque Fresco grew up in a minority neighborhood of Bensonhurst in the Brooklyn borough of New York City.^[11][12] Precocious as a child, Fresco's interests did not pertain to the topics presented to him at school.^[13][14] Unwilling, or unable, to conform with a setting of formal education, he sought a self-directed education throughout his later teen years.^[15] Fresco spent many days of his youth at the local library where he investigated subjects of his own interest.^[12] At this early time, Fresco had a talent for acting and this won him the first prize at a prominent drama competition in New York.^[14] Fresco also exercised artistic abilities in painting and sketching.^[14] Atop the roof of his home at 67th and 20th Ave., Fresco spent time with his fellow comrades discussing Darwin, Einstein, science, and the future.^[13][14]

While mostly impoverished during the Great Depression, Fresco claims that it was during this time of hardship he developed the sensitivity and ambition to concern himself with the function of society and the future of humanity.^[16][17]

Flying Saucer

For a short time, Fresco took an interest in attending the Young Communist League wherein he caused commotion. After brief discussion and disagreements with the League president, Fresco was physically removed.^[11][18] Thereafter, Fresco turned his attention to Technocracy.^[12][13] In the travels of his youth, one destination was Florida where he developed an affinity for the tropics, a place to which he would return later in life.^[13] In the mid-1930s, Fresco traveled west to Los Angeles where he began his career as a structural designer in many fields.

Career[link]

In the Army

Aircraft Industry, South Seas Hiatus[link]

In California, Fresco found employment at the Douglas Aircraft Company^[11] after presenting many of his early alternative aircraft designs.^[19] Fresco had long taken an interest in designing flying wings as well as flying saucers. He attempted to interest the aircraft industry at a time when experimental construction was underway.^[20][21] Eventually, Fresco demonstrated such designs in 1938.^[22] After departing from Douglas due to safety design disagreements,^[11][23] he traveled to Hawaii in late 1939^[24] where he then traveled to the South Sea Islands where he interacted with native islanders.^[23] Fresco claims that his visit to these islands effectively helped shape his understanding of cultural relativism and the flexibility of human values in alternate environments.^[25][26] After returning to California, Fresco took residence at various locations in Hermosa Beach and throughout Los Angeles,^[13] meanwhile continuing industrial design projects for various companies.

Trend Home

Army Airforce, Wright Field[link]

In 1942, Fresco was drafted into the Army.^[13][27] He was soon given technical design duties for the Army Air Force at Wright Field design laboratories in Dayton, Ohio.^{[13][20][23][28]} There he would produce up to forty designs a day.^[23] Among Fresco's many designs, a design of a radical variable camber wing attempted to optimize flight control by allowing the pilot to adjust the thickness of the wings during lift and flight.^[29] It received a patent^[30][31] and was thereafter given to the Army Air Force.^[23][31] After difficulties with Army life, he was discharged.^[13] Fresco had many advanced ideas for airplane aviation and this gained him a reputation in the aircraft industry for being "a man twenty years ahead of his time"^[20][32]

Trend Home[link]

Model of the Trend Home

In the mid-1940s, Fresco was commissioned by Earl Muntz and Michael Shore to design a new low cost form of modernistic housing.^[13] The result was one of the first all glass-aluminum structures, known as the Trend Home. At 930 square feet, there were twelve variations. ^[33] The structure could be erected by ten men in eight hours.^[34] Its design of light weight, high strength, and long lasting materials allowed for reduced production costs and streamlined production which increased its economic viability.^[35] The resulting cost was approximately $5,200.^[34] The design was first introduced at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles in 1947.^[36] The structure was first exhibited in the summer of 1948 at Stage 8 of the Warner Brothers Studio on Sunset boulevard.^[37] It would go on to attract over 20,000 visitors.^[19] The proceeds were donated to The Cancer Prevention Society to build part of a new hospital.^[38] For the next few years the Trend Home was to undergo mass production^[39] and was considered by the U.S. government as a possible solution for soldiers returning from World War II.^[13] For over a decade variations of the design were prototyped, sold, and occupied, until 1962 when a major housing project named Alumanor was built on Mt. Washington in Highland Park, Los Angeles.^[40]

3D Technology[link]

In 1949, Fresco was commissioned by Hollywood producers Jack Moss and Irving Yergin to develop technology for viewing three-dimensional images without the use of eye glasses. ^[41] The technology developed was for both theater audiences and home television. ^[41] Novel in its simplicity, it was relatively cheap and required little modification of the projection systems used at the time. The technology also had prospects for being used in medical x-ray units and surgery. ^[41] It was demonstrated in the summer of 1949 in California.^[42]

Scientific Research Laboratories[link]

Through the late 1940s and early 1950s, Fresco was director of Scientific Research Laboratories^[28] at two locations. First located near Elysian Park in Los Angeles, it was operated with associates Eli Catran and Henry Giaretto. It later moved to a location in Los Feliz, near Hollywood,^[43] where Fresco lived, lectured, and taught technical design,^[11] meanwhile researching^[44] and working on inventions as a freelance inventor and scientific consultant.^[23] As a freelance operation, Fresco asserts that many of his inventions were unconditionally sold to his clients, thereby excluding his name from many of the patents.^[45] Fresco also claims that many of his inventions were usurped by other associates. During these years, Fresco encountered setbacks due to financial difficulties, in at least one case, resulting in the repossession of his lab equipment.^[46][47]

Science Fiction, Film Industry[link]

During Fresco's later years in Los Angeles, he also worked as model designer for science-fiction movies^[13][28] such as the television show Ring Around the Moon which became the film Project Moonbase based on a story by Robert A. Heinlein.^[48] Fresco was noted for his high quality models and special effects despite the low budgets of the B-movie productions.^[49][50] His talents were recommended to Roger Corman for the film The Beast with a Million Eyes, (the movie for which Paul Blaisdell became famous for special effects) but Corman could not accommodate Fresco into the budget (of $23,000).^[51][52] Fresco also worked as technical adviser in the film industry, most notably for Lou Stoumen's 1956 Oscar nominated documentary The Naked Eye.^[53] Fresco's reputation in Los Angeles eventually earned him a guest appearance on Art Baker's nationwide television show, You Asked For It as the "man of tomorrow" in the early 1950s.

Eventually, in 1955, Fresco left California after his lab was commandeered to build the Golden State Freeway.^[11][19]

Midlife[link]

Therapy Service, Industrial Design[link]

Pursuing his affinity for the tropics, in 1955 Fresco moved to Miami, Florida, where he lived on a boat for a short time.^[19] He began practicing private therapy sessions,^[19] and at a time when the American Psychological Association was strictly pressuring therapists lacking approved credentials to relinquish their practice, Fresco clashed with the APA and received criticism for his therapy service.^[19][54] Fresco would later acknowledge that the absence of a formal academic orientation was often a detriment in academic contexts^[19] and often made it difficult to gain influence.^[55] In Miami, Fresco held public lectures throughout the late 1950s and 1960s, beginning his popular treatment of a rapidly changing future and his critique of cultural and political practices of the era.^[19][56]

Fresco spent much of his time in Miami trying to showcase his designs of a circular city and raise funds to get it built.^[55] He also designed a three-wheeled car that was to have only 32 moving parts, which he strove to fund as well.^{[26][55][57][58]} Fresco made much of his living working as an industrial designer for various companies such as Alcoa and the Major Realty Corporation.^[19] In 1961, with Pietro Belluschi and C. Frederick Wise,^[59] Fresco designed a more sophisticated sequel to his earlier Trend Home, known as the Sandwich House.^[19] Consisting of mostly prefabricated components, partitions, and aluminum, it sold for $2,950, or $7,500 with foundation and all internal installations.^[59] During theses years, Fresco also supported his projects by designing, non-competitive, prefabricated aluminum devices through Jacque Fresco Enterprises Inc.^[60]

Project Americana[link]

From the mid-1950s and throughout the 1960s, Fresco developed what he called "Project Americana."^[19][61] It was a ten year plan for American social change.^[19] His vision included a circular city and the application of full cyber-automation of city operations wherein machines direct other machines to operate. Such was Fresco's conception of a "thinking city" in "The Machine-Machine Age." The national plan also included methods for aiding struggling nations by erecting prefabricated factories that produce prefabricated products for building, installation of cultural centers, and a new curriculum for schooling. In 1962, CBS approached Fresco about developing a series on his ideas after appearing on two successive episodes of On the Town with Fred Fischer.^[62]

Beginning in 1960, California lawyer, Gerald V. Barron introduced Fresco to Hubert Humphrey with whom correspondence continued through the mid-1960s.^[26] The intention was to get Project Americana incorporated and implemented through Humphrey. Humphrey would later serve as Vice-President under Lyndon B. Johnson who implemented the new social programs known as the Great Society.

Looking Forward[link]

In 1969, with Ken Keyes, a book was written about Fresco's ideas, entitled Looking Forward. Abiding rationalist-humanist premises,^[63] the first half of the book was dedicated to detailing some of the causes of many problems in humanity's thinking and behavior and the changes that humanity will have to make as it enters the future. It described three components which can be used to best correctly analyze the future: humanity's values, methods of thinking, and tools i.e. technological developments.^[64] All three are described as being interdependent much like a set of gears. The second half of the book was dedicated to a speculative look at the future revolving around the experiences of the fictional characters, Scott and Hella, as they pursue their projects in a cybernetic society wherein individual gratification is the total concern, while human labor and personal possessions no longer exist.^[63] It was one of the earliest publications to theorize the possible social implications of a central network knowledge bank (Corcen) used to bring about a "humanized man-machine symbiosis".^[65] The book was highly speculative as Fresco and Keyes gave consideration for a wide range of technological and social possibilities, referred to as "out of this world."^[66] The society depicted in Looking Forward has been described as an ideal warranting a comparison to Plato's Republic whose inconsistencies and problems, it was argued, Looking Forward succeeded in resolving through technological means, primarily through the function of Corcen (the correlation center).^[67]

Sociocyberneering, Inc.[link]

Fresco's ideas for Project Americana evolved into what he called "Sociocyberneering." Fresco introduced this concept to students at the University of Miami in 1970. Due to appearances on television and radio, public lectures, and word-of-mouth, Fresco had built a following and was prepared to start an organization. He called this Sociocyberneering Inc. It was a non-profit organization founded in 1971 for which Fresco was president.^[68] It was a non-political and non-sectarian membership organization having, at its peak, 250 members,^[69] many of whom became Fresco's pupils. Fresco frequently hosted educational lectures in Miami Beach and at his home in Coral Gables.^[70] His lecture topics pertained to society, social change, science, technology, engineering, architecture, religion, prudence, semantics, anthropology, psychology, systems theory, and education, among other topics. Aside from educating, Fresco worked with members of the organization to produce designs, films, and booklets pertaining to the aims and goals of the organization.^[69]

At work in Venus studio

Construction in Venus

The term "sociocyberneering" is also a concept and was defined as "the application of the most sophisticated forms of computer technology in the management of human affairs."^[71] The stated goal of Sociocyberneering Inc. was to apply "the most sophisticated forms of science and technology toward problem solving ... an approach at the restructuring of society in humanistic terms," ^[72] and dedicated to finding practical solutions that could be rapidly applied to the many problems that faced society.^[73] The primary focus was to "investigate alternative solutions based in conservation of energy, international cooperation in all areas of social endeavor, and the assimilation of a systems approach for the design of cities."^[74] There was also heavy emphasis on the prospects of cybernated technology in the societies of human beings, arguing that, "the future of man and his cities does not depend on whether or not this or that design is preferred. It is determined by the forces of social and environmental evolution in which computerized approaches to human and environmental systems will ultimately emerge as the ultimate technique in all areas of the social sequences."^[75]

By this time Fresco had designed his circular city to be one mile in diameter with radially connected concentric rings "resembling the spokes of a wheel."^[76] Each ring was dedicated to a general function such as agriculture, recreation, housing, among others. At the nucleus center, in the dome, was a supercomputer that was intended to function as the centralized data management system for the automated processes throughout the city.

Throughout the 1970s Fresco worked to expand the organization and elevate its exposure to the general public by lecturing at universities^[77] and appearing on radio and television, such as on South Florida's popular Larry King Show and Joe Abrell's Montage.^[73] Fresco became acquainted with Larry King when King's career was emerging out of Miami. King featured Fresco on his television show and radio show several times to discuss, with academics and local callers, the proposals of Sociocyberneering Inc.^[72][78]

At the apex of the organization's membership, they began investing in 40 acres of land in Naples. The organization set out to construct an experimental community in which they would live and expand. They encountered a setback in 1978 when members feared that the Collier County zoning board would complicate implementation. The result was a partial dissolution of Sociocyberneering Inc. membership.^[79] The investment was abandoned and the land was resold. Fresco sold his home^[79] and new land was located in rural Venus. On agricultural land he established a research center for Sociocyberneering Inc. in 1980.^[80] With the help of remaining members, Fresco constructed buildings based on the designs of his futuristic renderings. After the move, Sociocyberneering Inc. became less popular as many members remained in Miami. Eventually, Sociocyberneering Inc. became much less active and through the 1980s Fresco dedicated his time to designing and studying alongside Roxanne Meadows who remained with Fresco as his colleague.

Later life[link]

Fresco with Roxanne Meadows in Venus

In 1994, Fresco developed a new image for Sociocyberneering Inc. and rebooted it under the new name, The Venus Project.^[5] By this time, Fresco had accumulated a large quantity of designs and models that could represent a general outline of how his vision may look and operate, and were used to gain exposure for the organization through educational films and literature distributed to teachers and universities.^[17] Aside from their educational materials, Fresco and Meadows continued to support the project throughout the '90s through freelance inventing, such as for Pratt and Whitney,^[81] industrial engineering, conventional architectural modeling,^[26] and invention consultations.^[26] In the process, some of Fresco's futuristic designs succeeded in inspiring some development companies.^[82] At one point, Fresco claimed that The Venus Project was under consideration for developing plans to build a theme park/experimental city in Turkey.^[83][84] A similar consideration occurred with Dubai. In 2002, Fresco published his main work The Best That Money Can't Buy. In 2006, William Gazecki directed the semi-biographical film about Fresco, "Future by Design" in which Fresco was compared to the Renaissance polymath Leonardo Da Vinci.^[6] In 2008, Peter Joseph featured Fresco in the film Zeitgeist Addendum wherein his vision of the future was presented as a possible solution for the societal and environmental crisis expounded in the film.^[7] The reaction that followed was manifested by the development of The Zeitgeist Movement which actively professes Fresco's ideas^[85] and once considered itself the "activist arm" of The Venus Project. As of April, 2011, however, the Venus Project and Zeitgeist Movement disaffiliated.^[26]

In 2010, Fresco attempted to trademark the phrase "Resource-Based Economy"^[86] in the midst of its popularization to preserve his definition of it. The phrase was reviewed and found to be too generic to qualify. The action to trademark Fresco's specific meaning was therefore blocked. Other small Internet organizations now profess a version of a resource-based economy based on Fresco's original conception.^[87]

Throughout 2010, Fresco traveled with Meadows on a worldwide tour in response to a growing interest in The Venus Project.^[88][89] On January 15, 2011, Zeitgeist: Moving Forward was released in theaters, again featuring Fresco and a more elaborate articulation of his vision as a possible solution for planetary dilemmas.^[8] Currently, Fresco holds lectures and tours at The Venus Project location^[90][91] and has initiated the funding of a major motion picture that may be made which will depict The Venus Project future.^[26] In November, 2011, Fresco spoke to protestors at the "occupy Miami" site at Government Center in Miami.^[92]

The Venus Project[link]

The Venus Project is an organization depicting, as well as professing, the culmination of Fresco's life work and serves as a foundation that represents his vision of a future without poverty, crime, war, corruption, or waste. It was founded in 1980 and took its name in 1994. It is located in central Florida near west Lake Okeechobee about fifty miles northeast of Fort Myers. On its 21.5-acre lot, there are ten buildings designed by Fresco, which showcase limited versions of Fresco's architectural designs. It is partly a research center for Fresco and Roxanne Meadows, and partly an educational center for supporters of the project.^[93] They produce videos and literature depicting and explaining the future vision and the goals to actualize it. Among these goals, the salient are to produce a major motion picture portraying the future world the project promotes; constructing a theme park with the intention of exhibiting technologies and the ideas of the Venus Project; and constructing an experimental city in an attempt to test Fresco's hypotheses. Its ultimate aim is to improve society by moving towards a global, sustainable, technological social design that is termed a "resource-based economy".^[94]

Personal life and family[link]

Fresco was born to immigrants from Europe, Isaac and Lena Fresco.^[10] His father was born in 1880^[95] and around 1905 immigrated from Istanbul to New York where he worked as a horticulturalist.^[10] He died in 1963.^[95] Fresco's mother was born in 1887^[96] in Jerusalem and also migrated to New York around 1904.^[10] She died in 1988.^[96] Fresco was brother to two siblings,^[10] a sister, Freda, and a brother, David. His brother was born in 1909.^[97] He was a draftsman,^[98] a private during World War II,^[98] and became a theater actor and a character actor in Hollywood.^[13] After being blacklisted by Hollywood in the 1950s for not cooperating with the House Un-American Activities Committee,^[99][100] he resurrected his career in the 1960s eventually appearing in many films and television shows.^[99][101] He died in 1997.^[97]

Fresco had two marriages when he lived in Los Angeles, California and carried his second marriage through his first couple years in Miami.^[28] He divorced his second wife in 1957 and remained unmarried thereafter.^[102] His second wife, Patricia, gave birth to a son, Richard, in 1953 and a daughter, Bambi, in 1956. Richard was an army private^[103] and died in 1976.^[104] Bambi died of cancer in 2010.^[105]

Vision[link]

Fresco himself cites several theorists and authors for contributing to his vision, such as Jacques Loeb, who established the Mechanistic Conception of Life; Edward Bellamy, who wrote the extremely influential book, Looking Backward; Thorstein Veblen, who influenced the Technocracy movement and Howard Scott, who popularized it; Alfred Korzybski, who originated General Semantics; H. G. Wells, and many others.^[1] Fresco has often been heard stating, "I have been able to achieve what I have achieved because I stood on the shoulders of giants," paraphrasing Einstein, (though the metaphore was first made famous by Isaac Newton, and stated by others before him).

Fresco's vision has formed as the culmination of many disciplines and schools of thought. The majority of Fresco's ideas and concepts have not been categorized or classified by scholars in academia. However, the dominant features of it have been compared to earlier thinkers from as early as the nineteenth century. Titles such as The Paradise within the Reach of all Men without Labor by Powers of Nature and Machinery, Emigration to the Tropical World for the Melioration of All Classes of People of All Nations, and The New World or Mechanical System were written in the 1800s by John Adolphus Etzler who has been described as an early forerunner to Fresco's vision.^[106] Likewise, Ebenezer Howard and his book Garden Cities of Tomorrow, as well as the Garden City Movement during the early 1900s has been described as another predecessor.^[107] Fresco's vision removes the mechanics of modern economics and his view toward modern economics has been compared to Thorstein Veblen's concept of "the predatory phase in human development."^[108] Other facets of Fresco's vision have been labeled a "tabula rasa approach."^[107]

Values and natural forces often undergo emphasis in Fresco's vision. Jack Catran provides a succinct summary of the significance for these two factors,

According to Fresco, the scientist of today is involved in a conflict between two value systems: 1. The orderly world of scientific methodology; 2. The non-scientific culture (and language) which surrounds him on all sides, but in which is embodied the embryo of the future. It is difficult, says Fresco, for non-scientific man to grasp the full implications of science because of the limitations imposed on him by his social environment. New forces, inherent in the framework of his present culture, are continually acting upon him, forces which are by their very nature unidirectional and irreversible, and tending always toward higher technical and social achievement.^[109]

Also noted is the organic nature of Fresco's city designs and the evolutionary (rather than revolutionary) development he expects them to take.^[110] The relationship and functions between city facilities and humans is compared to the relationships and functions of organismic bodies.^[111] Such cities are posited as the answer to Walter B. Cannon's idea of achieving homeostasis for society.^[110]

Other concepts prevalent in Fresco's thought include: sociocyberneering (the application of science and technology, especially cybernation, to human affairs),^[71] extensionality (relatability between people, formerly conceived as love); biosocial pressures (spawned by the interactions between self-preservation and resource availability); functional ethics (a view in which moral transgressions are effectively rendered improbable by the reinforcement provided through technological infrastructures),^[112] emergent society (a society continuously in flux and bound only by natural law rather than artificial limitations imposed by humans); "the march of events" (a progression in which social, technological, and economic forces propel a necessary course of change as the sum total effect of natural laws, for instance, the evolutionary factors of natural selection or supply and demand)^[109][113]; intellectronics (Fresco's term used before artificial intelligence was coined); self-erecting structures (architecture or objects that construct themselves);^[114] total enclosure systems (self-contained, self-sufficient dwellings);^[113] thinking cities;^[110] and resource-based economy.

Reception[link]

Throughout his life Fresco has been labeled a "dreamer,"^[55][115][9] an "eccentric,"^[115] an "utopian,"^[116][17] an "idealist,"^[79] a "crackpot,"^[19] a "charlatan,"^[11] yet, concurrently, a genius, a prophet, and a visionary.^{[116][117][118]} Some feel that his vision is impractical, idealistic,^[83] and/or borderline science fiction.^[119][120] The books Nineteen Eighty-Four or Brave New World are sometimes referenced in relation to his vision. These attitudes continue today across some Web sites. Even further, some claims have labeled him a cult leader due to his figurehead status in The Zeitgeist Movement.^[119][121] Others accuse him of affiliations with conspirators of a New World Order.^[122] Fresco dismisses these accusations.

Form of Governance, Human Nature, Scientism, Calculation Problem[link]

His hypothesis of a resource-based economy is sometimes equated with Marxism,^[123] socialism, communism, or fascism.^{[90][119][124]} Fresco responds to these comparisons by stating, "The aims of The Venus Project have no parallel in history, not with communism, socialism, fascism or any other political ideology. This is true because cybernation is of recent origin. With this system, the system of financial influence and control will no longer exist."^[107]

One writer notes, "it's also true that his system of governance, in which authority is given to the expert in each field — in this case, specially programmed computers — is one that many writers, including Nobel-prize-winner Friedrich Hayek, have shown to be disastrous."^[79]

Another writer reviewing one of Fresco's films writes,

the more I listened to Fresco's specifics and fuzzy non-specifics it seemed to me I was encountering a God-like hubris coupled with the standard sci-fi dreamer's naivete vis á vis human nature. But just as I was jotting this last down in my notes, Fresco cautioned viewers — and it gave me the shivers, since he seemed to be responding directly to my written reservations — to remember that human nature is not synonymous with human behavior; the latter can be changed. Although Fresco's futurist scenario is — in my humble opinion — rife with problems, it's not every day that somebody comes along ambitious enough to offer a blueprint for re-designing the world.^[123]

Other criticisms have implied a scientistic approach due to Fresco's heavy emphasis on science alone to overcome humanity's obstacles,

His vision is eminently practical, and although this constitutes an innovative and welcome element with reference to previous utopian projections, his focus on science alone makes him fail as a generalist – the criticism Fresco himself passed on academics and scientists. Today's pressing problems require a holistic approach – various disciplines, arts science, philosophy working on a "convergence mode", unfortunately Fresco's vision seems to consolidate the long established view that the "two cultures" (Science and Art) are antagonistic.^[106]

The calculation problem has also been raised against a resource-based economy.^[125] In a resource-based economy, it is claimed, there is no ability to calculate the availability and desirability of resources because the price mechanism is not utilized. Fresco responds to this issue stating, "we can achieve a level of production so high that it would be superfluous to put a price tag on things."^[126]

Question of Utopianism[link]

Exploring whether Fresco's vision is utopian, Viktor Vakhshtayn, the director of the Department of Sociology at the Moscow School of Social and Economic Sciences, claims that Fresco has carried forth a perspective that bypassed utopian perspectives of the twentieth-century. He describes the whole of Fresco's vision as "telling us about the deep past of the future." That, "in fact, the whole history of the 20th century is the history of death of utopia. This is in fact what gives Jacque Fresco such power. He jumped from the 19th century to the 21st century, leap-frogging the 20th century. It's a single step from Jules Verne to Jacque Fresco. This is very powerful. This keeps amazing me."^[127]

In response to association with utopianism, Fresco has stated, "We do not believe in the erroneous notion of a utopian society. There is no such thing. Societies are always in a state of transition. We propose an alternative direction, which addresses the causes of many of our problems. There are no final frontiers for human and technological achievement."^[107]

With a broader conception of utopianism than Fresco, Vakhshtayn upon initial assessment states that Fresco appears to have four out of five characteristic features of utopianism of the nineteenth-century, namely, the belief in rationality of science, belief in the technological process, that technology should better human life, and the overseeing of cities from a center.^[127] The only feature remaining to close the question of utopianism is a "final frontier, and this is exactly the element that Fresco is stressing so much." Vakhshtayn concludes by saying, "When we say utopia, we don't mean it cannot be implimented. So many utopias have been implimented in the twentieth-century. And they were discredited because they were actually put into life." Vakhshtayn further accuses Fresco of not answering the "epistemological" question, i.e. how does one certainly know that a course of events will unfold as one expects them to.^[127]

Fresco has addressed this by making an appeal to induction,

We have the technology to build a global paradise on earth, and at the same time we have the power to end life as we know it. I am a futurist. I cannot predict the actual future — only what it can be if we manage the earth and its resources intelligently. [...] If civilization continues on its present course, we will simply repeat the same mistakes all over again.^[1]

Focusing on accusations of utopianism, a writer from the Copenhagen Institute for Futures Studies remarks, "For most people, the promise of the project sounds like an unattainable utopia, but if you examine it more closely, there are surprisingly many scientifically founded arguments that open up an entire new world of possibilities."^[128] Another writer for CIFS points out,

Perhaps the modern interpretation of the word "utopia" is to blame when the Renaissance man and futurist Jacque Fresco says ... he doesn't want to call his life work, The Venus Project, a utopia. However, this visionary idea of a future society has many characteristics in common with the utopia. ... the word utopia carries a double meaning, since in Greek it can mean both the good place (eutopia) and the nonexisting place (outopia). A good place is precisely what Fresco has devoted his life to describing and fighting for."^[129]

One writer suggests instead that "The Venus project is no static utopia, rather a dynamic one: it requires an incremental process driven by an ever-changing extropic ideal."^[106]

As an influence and inspiration[link]

Hans-Ulrich Obrist notes, "Fresco's future may, of course, seem outmoded and his writings have been subject to critique for their fascistic undertones of order and similitude, but his contributions are etched in the popular psyche and his eco-friendly concepts continue to influence our present generation of progressive architects, city planners and designers."^[130]

When asked by a reporter why he has such difficulty actualizing his many ideas, Fresco responded, "Because I can't get to anybody. I have no credentials."^[83] Nevertheless, positive attitudes toward Fresco regard him as "a genius, a prophet, and a visionary." General praise appears among futurists, especially the World Future Society who have considered him a visionary engineer in review of his work in the Futurist,^{[131] [132]} commenting, "Whether the future Fresco envisions is probable or even possible is open to debate, but he succeeds in conveying the power of thinking of the future on a grander scale than we're used to."^[132] Fresco's work has been compared to the work of Paolo Soleri^[117] and especially Buckminster Fuller^[133] for all attempting to actualize their vision against great odds,^[106][134] as well as Nikola Tesla,^[84] Thomas Edison,^[19] and Da Vinci^[107] for sharing affluence in prolific innovation.

The elaborate scope of Fresco's vision intrigued the science fiction critic, Forest Ackerman,^[13] early on, who placed Fresco next to such names as H. G. Wells, Aldous Huxley, Philip Wylie, Hugo Gernsback, Arthur C. Clarke, Isaac Asimov, Robert Heinlein, Edgar Rice Burroughs, and Ray Bradbury.^[135] Fresco would later attract Star Trek animator, Doug Drexler, who worked with Fresco to produce several computer renderings of his designs,^[136] as well as Arthur C. Clarke who, late in his life, briefly attempted to help Fresco get exposure for the Venus Project.^[137] Synergetics theorist Norman Arthur Coulter appreciated Fresco's vision for his attempt to accomplish it "not for profit, but to meet the needs of human beings."^[137] Author, Harold Cober, comments, "Once you've seen the man's ideas and buildings, you can't let go of it."^[79] Bruce Eisner mentions that the Venus Project shares similar aims as his Island Sanctuary Project.^[138] Commenting on what he sees as Fresco's inspirational and charismatic teaching methods, physicist, Paul G. Hewitt, cites Fresco as being one of the three major sources of inspiration, turning him away from work as a sign painter and toward a career in science.^[70][139]

Psychologist and scientist, Jack Catran, notes,

Contemplate the staggering realistic views of the future published by Jacque Fresco ... There are many futurists, "geniuses", and self-styled seers in our midst who, upon careful examination, turn out to be disappointingly commercial and exploitive. Most extrapolations into the future are made from fixed and narrow points of view. We are all products of today's mediocrity-breeding culture, but if anyone can be called a genius in our money system society, Jacque Fresco should be singled out as the broadest, most aware, individual of our time.^[140]

At Drexel University, sociologist and futurist, Arthur B. Shostak, often incorporated Fresco's ideas into his writing and teaching, stating,^[141]

His contribution to futuristics is singular, as few, if any around the globe, dare the sweep, the depth, and the drama of his vision. When he writes or speaks, futurists grow quiet, pensive, and finally, appreciative — as his work is sound in its call for a thorough examination of the assumptions under which we labor. While little of his vision may materialize in the lifetime of us all, our grandchildren may yet salute much of what Jacque first helped them set in motion.^[17]

In 2008 the Raelian Movement gave Fresco their Honorary Guide award for dedicating "his life to the betterment of humanity as a whole."^[142] Fresco received the International Design Award in 2009 from the a! Diseño organization of Mexico. In 2010, it was announced that Fresco was selected to receive the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Exemplar-Zero Initiative in the summer of 2011.^[143] In April of 2012, Fresco was honoree at Sustainatopia in Miami.^[144]

Works[link]

Books[link]

• with Keyes, Ken. Looking Forward. South Brunswick, New Jersey: A.S. Barnes. (1969). ISBN 0-498-06752-1. OCLC 21606. http://www.thevenusproject.com/images/stories/Looking-Forward-v2.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
• Introduction to Sociocyberneering. Lidiraven Books. (1977). OCLC 6036204. http://books.google.com/books?id=JbktHAAACAAJ. Retrieved 2010-12-30. 
• Structural Systems and Systems of Structure. Sociocyberneering, Inc. (1979). 
• The Venus Project: The Redesign of Culture. Venus, Fla.: Global Cyber-Visions. (1995). ISBN 0-9648806-0-1. OCLC 33896367. http://www.archive.org/stream/TheVenusProjectTheRedesignOfCulture/1995-TheVenusProject-TheRedesignOfCulturee-book#page/n1/mode/2up. Retrieved 2010-12-30. 
• The Best that Money Can't Buy: Beyond Politics, Poverty & War. Venus, Fla.: Global Cyber-Visions. (2002). ISBN 0-9648806-7-9. OCLC 49931422. http://books.google.com/books?id=JhzxAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2009-03-26. 
• Designing the Future. Venus, Fla.: The Venus Project, Inc. (2007). OCLC 568770383. http://deluxe-catalog.ro/1/393/publication.html#/1/. Retrieved 2011-01-09. 

Articles[link]

• Modern Food Production
• "Project Americana: Man in the World of Tomorrow", Feedback. Vol. 1, No. 5, May 1961.: 6 
• "Science in 1980". Florida Living Magazine (Miami): pp. 8–9. (Dec. 31, 1961). http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OAxgAAAAIBAJ&sjid=UOkFAAAAIBAJ&pg=2940%2C4969865. 
• Designing the Future: A Cybernetic City For the Next Century in The Futurist. Vol. 28, No. 3. pp. 29–33. (May/June 1994).
• The Future and Beyond The Venus Project, Inc. (2000)
• with Meadows, Roxanne. Beyond Utopia in Utopian Thinking in Sociology: Creating the Good Society. pp. 86–92 edited by Arthur B. Shostak. American Sociological Association. (2001). OCLC 49561995.
• with Meadows, Roxanne. The Future by Design: Beyond Money and Politics in Viable Utopian Ideas: Shaping a Better World. pp. 197–205 edited by Arthur B. Shostak. London/Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe. (2003). ISBN 0-7656-1105-8. OCLC 473852611.
• with Meadows, Roxanne. Reinventing Iraq in In the Shadow of War. pp. 147–154 edited by Arthur B. Shostak. Philadelphia, PA: Chelsea House. (2004). ISBN 978-1-4381-2468-1. OCLC 646806392.

Films[link]

• The Venus Project: The Redesign of a Culture (1994)
• Welcome to the Future (1998)
• Cities in the Sea (2002)
• Self-erecting Structures (2002)
• Designing the Future (2006)
• Paradise or Oblivion (2012)

References[link]

• Durrani, Noni. (2007). The Future: Jacque Fresco On The Future, Forbes
• Gia Films. (2010). Frequency of Genius, Gia Film Productions
• Gazecki, William. (2006) Future By Design, Docflix
• Hoving, K. (2002). Engineering the Impossible, Discovery Channel
• Joseph, Peter. (2008). Zeitgeist Addendum, Gentle Machine Productions
• Joseph, Peter. (2011). Zeitgeist: Moving Forward, Gentle Machine Productions
• Maja Borg, M. (2011). Future For Sale, Sonja Henrici, SDI Productions Ltd.
• Wachtmeister, J. (2007). Great Expectations: A Journey through the History of Visionary Architecture, Solaris Filmproduktion

External links[link]

• www.thevenusproject.com — The Venus Project
• www.youtube.com/user/thevenusprojectmedia — The Venus Project YouTube channel

Dalai Lama
Gendun Drup, 1st Dalai Lama
Reign	1391–1474
Tibetan	ཏཱ་ལའི་བླ་མ་
Wylie transliteration	taa la'i bla ma
Pronunciation	[taːlɛː lama]
THDL	Dalai Lama
Pinyin Chinese	Dálài Lǎmā
Royal House	Dalai Lama / Takla

The Dalai Lama is a high lama in the Gelug or "Yellow Hat" branch of Tibetan Buddhism. The name is a combination of the Sino-Mongolian word далай (dalai) meaning "Ocean" and the Tibetan word བླ་མ་ bla-ma (with a silent "b") meaning "chief, high priest".^[1]

In religious terms, the Dalai Lama is believed by his devotees to be the rebirth of a long line of tulkus who are considered to be manifestations of the bodhisattva of compassion, Avalokiteśvara. Traditionally, the Dalai Lama is thought of as the latest reincarnation of a series of spiritual leaders who have chosen to be reborn in order to enlighten others. The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the leader of the Gelug School, but this position belongs officially to the Ganden Tripa, which is a temporary position appointed by the Dalai Lama who, in practice, exerts much influence. The line of Dalai Lamas began as a lineage of spiritual teachers; the 5th Dalai Lama assumed political authority over Tibet.

For certain periods between the 17th century and 1959, the Dalai Lamas sometimes directed the Tibetan government, which administered portions of Tibet from Lhasa. The 14th Dalai Lama remained the head of state for the Central Tibetan Administration ("Tibetan government in exile") until his retirement on March 14, 2011. He has indicated that the institution of the Dalai Lama may be abolished in the future, and also that the next Dalai Lama may be found outside Tibet and may be female.^[2] The Chinese government was very quick to reject this and claimed that only it has the authority to select the next Dalai Lama.^[3]

[edit] The original use of the name Dalai Lama

In 1578 the Mongol ruler Altan Khan bestowed the title Dalai Lama on Sonam Gyatso. The title was later applied retrospectively to the two predecessors in his reincarnation line, Gendun Drup and Gendun Gyatso. Gendun Gyatso was also Sonam Gyatso's predecessor as abbot of Drepung monastery. However, the 14th Dalai Lama asserts that Altan Khan did not intend to bestow a title as such and that he intended only to translate the name "Sonam Gyatso" into Mongolian.

... many writers have mistranslated Dalai Lama as "Ocean of Wisdom". The full Mongolian title, "the wonderful Vajradhara, good splendid meritorious ocean", given by Altan Khan, is primarily a translation of the Tibetan words Sonam Gyatso (sonam is "merit").^[4]

The 14th Dalai Lama commented:

The very name of each Dalai Lama from the Second Dalai Lama onwards had the word Gyatso [in it], which means "ocean" in Tibetan. Even now I am Tenzin Gyatso, so the first name is changing but the second part [the word "ocean"] became like part of each Dalai Lama's name. All of the Dalai Lamas, since the Second, have this name. So I don't really agree that the Mongols actually conferred a title. It was just a translation.^[5]

Whatever the intention may have been originally, the Mongolian "Dalai", which does not have any meaning as a Tibetan term, came to be understood commonly as a title.

The name or title Dalai Lama in Mongolian may also have derived originally from the title taken by Temüjin or Genghis Khan when he was proclaimed emperor of a united Mongolia during 1206. Temüjin took the name Čingis Qāghan or "oceanic sovereign", the anglicized version of which is Genghis Khan.^[6]

Tibetans address the Dalai Lama as Gyalwa Rinpoche ("Precious Victor"), Kundun ("Presence"), Yishin Norbu ("Wish fulfilling Gem") and so on.^[7]

Sonam Gyatso was an abbot at the Drepung Monastery who was considered widely as one of the most eminent lamas of his time. Although Sonam Gyatso became the first lama to have the title "Dalai Lama" as described above, since he was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the "Third Dalai Lama". The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his supposed earlier incarnations.

Yonten Gyatso (1589–1616), the 4th Dalai Lama, and a non-Tibetan, was the grandson of Altan Khan.

The tulku tradition of the Dalai Lama has evolved into, and been inaugurated as, an institution:

The institution of the Dalai Lama has become, over the centuries, a central focus of Tibetan cultural identity; "a symbolic embodiment of the Tibetan national character." Today, the Dalai Lama and the office of the Dalai Lama have become focal points in their struggle towards independence and, more urgently, cultural survival. The Dalai Lama is regarded as the principal incarnation of Chenrezig (referred to as Avalokiteshvara in India), the bodhisattva of compassion and patron deity of Tibet. In that role, the Dalai Lama has chosen to use peace and compassion in his treatment of his own people and his oppressors. In this sense the Dalai Lama is the embodiment of an ideal of Tibetan values and a cornerstone of Tibetan identity and culture.^[8]

Verhaegen mentions the trans-polity influence that the Institution of the Dalai Lama has had historically in areas such as western China, Mongolia, Ladakh in addition to the other Himalayan Kingdoms:

The Dalai Lamas have also functioned as the principal spiritual guide to many Himalayan kingdoms bordering Tibet, as well as western China, Mongolia and Ladakh. The literary works of the Dalai Lamas have, over the centuries, inspired more than fifty million people in these regions. Those writings, reflecting the fusion of Buddhist philosophy embodied in Tibetan Buddhism, have become one of the world's great repositories of spiritual thought.^[9]

The current Dalai Lama is often called "His Holiness" (HH) by Westerners (by analogy with the Pope), although this does not translate to a Tibetan title.

Before the 20th century, European sources often referred to the Dalai Lama as the "Grand Lama". For example, in 1785 Benjamin Franklin Bache mocked George Washington by terming him the "Grand Lama of this Country".^[10] Some in the West believed the Dalai Lama to be worshipped by the Tibetans as the godhead.^[11]

History[link]

Part of a series on Tibetan Buddhism
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Kublai Khan

Güshi Khan

During 1252, Kublai Khan granted an audience to Drogön Chögyal Phagpa and Karma Pakshi, the 2nd Karmapa. Karma Pakshi, however, sought the patronage of Möngke Khan. Before his death in 1283, Karma Pakshi wrote a will to protect the established interests of his sect by advising his disciples to locate a boy to inherit the black hat. His instruction was based on the premise that Buddhist ideology is eternal, and that Buddha would send emanations to complete the missions he had initiated. Karma Pakshi's disciples acted in accordance with the will and located the reincarnated boy of their master. The event was the beginning of the teacher reincarnation system for the Black-Hat Line of Tibetan Buddhism. During the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yongle bestowed the title Great Treasure Prince of Dharma, the first of the three Princes of Dharma, upon the Black-Hat Karmapa. Various sects of Tibetan Buddhism responded to the teacher reincarnation system by creating similar lineages.

Unification of Tibet[link]

In the 1630s, Tibet became entangled in power struggles between the rising Manchu and various Mongol and Oirat factions. Ligden Khan of the Chakhar, retreating from the Manchu, set out to Tibet to destroy the Yellow Hat sect. He died on the way to Qinghai (Koko Nur) in 1634.^[12] His vassal Tsogt Taij continued the fight, even having his own son Arslan killed after Arslan changed sides. Tsogt Taij was defeated and killed by Güshi Khan of the Khoshud in 1637, who would in turn become the overlord of Tibet, and act as a "Protector of the Yellow Church."^[13] Güshi helped the Fifth Dalai Lama to establish himself as the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet and destroyed any potential rivals. The time of the Fifth Dalai Lama was, however, also a period of rich cultural development.^{[citation needed]}

The Fifth Dalai Lama's death was kept secret for fifteen years by the regent (Tibetan: སྡེ་སྲིད།, Wylie: sde-srid), Sanggye Gyatso. This was apparently done so that the Potala Palace could be finished, and to prevent Tibet's neighbours taking advantage of an interregnum in the succession of the Dalai Lamas.^[14]

Tsangyang Gyatso, the Sixth Dalai Lama, was not enthroned until 1697. Tsangyang Gyatso enjoyed a lifestyle that included drinking, the company of women, and writing love songs.^[15] In 1705, Lobzang Khan of the Khoshud used the sixth Dalai Lama's escapades as excuse to take control of Tibet. The regent was murdered, and the Dalai Lama sent to Beijing. He died on the way, near Koko Nur, ostensibly from illness. Lobzang Khan appointed a new Dalai Lama who, however was not accepted by the Gelugpa school. Kelzang Gyatso was discovered near Koko Nur and became a rival candidate.

The Dzungars invaded Tibet in 1717, and deposed and killed Lobzang Khan's pretender to the position of Dalai Lama. This was widely approved. However, they soon began to loot the holy places of Lhasa, which brought a swift response from Emperor Kangxi in 1718; but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars, not far from Lhasa.^[16][17]

A second, larger, expedition sent by Emperor Kangxi expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.^[18]

After him [Jamphel Gyatso the VIIIth Dalai Lama (1758–1804)], the IXth and Xth Dalai Lamas died before attaining their majority: one of them is credibly stated to have been murdered and strong suspicion attaches to the other. The XIth and XIIth were each enthroned but died soon after being invested with power. For 113 years, therefore, supreme authority in Tibet was in the hands of a Lama Regent, except for about two years when a lay noble held office and for short periods of nominal rule by the XIth and XIIth Dalai Lamas.

It has sometimes been suggested that this state of affairs was brought about by the Ambans—the Imperial Residents in Tibet—because it would be easier to control the Tibet through a Regent than when a Dalai Lama, with his absolute power, was at the head of the government. That is not true. The regular ebb and flow of events followed its set course. The Imperial Residents in Tibet, after the first flush of zeal in 1750, grew less and less interested and efficient. Tibet was, to them, exile from the urbanity and culture of Peking; and so far from dominating the Regents, the Ambans allowed themselves to be dominated. It was the ambition and greed for power of Tibetans that led to five successive Dalai Lamas being subjected to continuous tutelage.^[19]

Thubten Jigme Norbu, the elder brother of the present 14th Dalai Lama, describes these unfortunate events as follows:

It is perhaps more than a coincidence that between the seventh and the thirteenth holders of that office, only one reached his majority. The eighth, Gyampal Gyatso, died when he was in his thirties, Lungtog Gyatso when he was eleven, Tsultrim Gyatso at eighteen, Khadrup Gyatso when he was eighteen also, and Krinla Gyatso at about the same age. The circumstances are such that it is very likely that some, if not all, were poisoned, either by loyal Tibetans for being Chinese-appointed impostors, or by the Chinese for not being properly manageable.^[20]

Throne awaiting Dalai Lama's return. Summer residence of 13th Dalai Lama, Nechung, Tibet.

Thubten Gyatso, the 13th Dalai Lama, assumed ruling power from the monasteries, which previously had great influence on the Regent, during 1895. Due to his two periods of exile in 1904–1909, to escape the British invasion of 1904, and from 1910–1912 to escape a Chinese invasion, he became well aware of the complexities of international politics and was the first Dalai Lama to become aware of the importance of foreign relations. After his return from exile in India and Sikkim during January 1913, he assumed control of foreign relations and dealt directly with the Maharaja and the British Political officer in Sikkim and the king of Nepal rather than letting the Kashag or parliament do it.^[21]

Thubten Gyatso issued a Declaration of Independence for his kingdom in Central Tibet from China during the summer of 1912 and standardised a Tibetan flag, though no other sovereign state recognized the independence.^[22] He expelled the Ambans and all Chinese civilians in the country, and instituted many measures to modernise Tibet. These included provisions to curb excessive demands on peasants for provisions by the monasteries and tax evasion by the nobles, setting up an independent police force, the abolishment of the death penalty, extension of secular education, and the provision of electricity throughout the city of Lhasa in the 1920s.^[23] Thubten Gyatso died in 1933.

The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the People's Republic of China invasion of the kingdom. In 1951, he and the Tibetan government formally accepted the Seventeen Point Agreement by which Tibet was formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India where he has led a government in exile since.^[24][25] With the aim of launching guerrilla operations against the Chinese, the CIA funded the Dalai Lama $1.7 million a year in the 1960s.^[26] In 2001, he ceded his absolute power over the government to an elected parliament of selected Tibetan exiles. His original goal was full independence for Tibet, but by the late 1980s, he was seeking high-level autonomy instead.^[27] He is still seeking greater autonomy from China, although Dolma Gyari, deputy speaker of the parliament-in-exile has stated "If the middle path fails in the short term, we will be forced to opt for complete independence or selfdetermination as per the UN charter".^[28]

Residence[link]

Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama and until the 14th Dalai Lama's flight into exile during 1959, the Dalai Lamas spent winters at the Potala Palace and summers at the Norbulingka palace and park. Both are in Lhasa and approximately 3 km apart.

Following the failed 1959 Tibetan uprising, the 14th Dalai Lama sought refuge in India. The then Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, allowed in the Dalai Lama and his coterie of Tibetan government officials. The Dalai Lama has since lived in exile in Dharamshala, in the state of Himachal Pradesh in northern India, where the Central Tibetan Administration is also established. Tibetan refugees have constructed and opened many schools and Buddhist temples in Dharamshala.^[29]

Searching for the reincarnation[link]

The search for the 14th Dalai Lama took the High Lamas to Taktser in Amdo

By the Himalayan tradition, phowa (Tibetan) is the discipline that transfers the mindstream to the intended body. Upon the death of the Dalai Lama and consultation with the Nechung Oracle, a search for the Lama's reincarnation, or yangsi (yang srid), is conducted. Traditionally it has been the responsibility of the High Lamas of the Gelugpa Tradition and the Tibetan government to find his reincarnation. The process can take around two or three years to identify the Dalai Lama, and for the 14th, Tenzin Gyatso it was four years before he was found. The search for the Dalai Lama has usually been limited historically to Tibet, although the third tulku was born in Mongolia. Tenzin Gyatso, though, has stated that he will not be reborn in the People's Republic of China.^[30] In his autobiography, Freedom In Exile, he states that if Tibet is not free, he will reincarnate elsewhere."

The High Lamas used several ways in which they can increase the chances of finding the reincarnation. High Lamas often visit the holy lake, called Lhamo La-tso, in central Tibet and watch for a sign from the lake itself. This may be either a vision or some indication of the direction in which to search and this was how Tenzin Gyatso was found. It is said that Palden Lhamo, the female guardian spirit of the sacred lake, Lhamo La-tso, promised Gendun Drup, the 1st Dalai Lama in one of his visions "that she would protect the reincarnation lineage of the Dalai Lamas." Ever since the time of Gendun Gyatso, the 2nd Dalai Lama, who formalised the system, the Regents and other monks have gone to the lake to seek guidance on choosing the next reincarnation through visions while meditating there.^[31]

The particular form of Palden Lhamo at Lhamo La-tso is Gyelmo Maksorma, "The Victorious One who Turns Back Enemies". The lake is sometimes referred to as "Pelden Lhamo Kalideva", which indicates that Palden Lhamo is an emanation of the goddess Kali, the shakti of the Hindu God Shiva.^[32]

Lhamo Latso ... [is] a brilliant azure jewel set in a ring of grey mountains. The elevation and the surrounding peaks combine to give it a highly changeable climate, and the continuous passage of cloud and wind creates a constantly moving pattern on the surface of the waters. On that surface visions appear to those who seek them in the right frame of mind.^[33]

It was here that during 1935, the Regent, Reting Rinpoche, received a clear vision of three Tibetan letters and of a monastery with a jade-green and gold roof, and a house with turquoise roof tiles, which led to the discovery of Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama.^[34][35][36]

High Lamas may also have a vision by a dream or if the Dalai Lama was cremated, they will often monitor the direction of the smoke as an indication of the direction of the rebirth.^[30]

Once the High Lamas have found the home and the boy they believe to be the reincarnation, the boy undergoes a series of tests to affirm the rebirth. They present a number of artifacts, only some of which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, and if the boy chooses the items which belonged to the previous Dalai Lama, this is seen as a sign, in conjunction with all of the other indications, that the boy is the reincarnation.

If there is only one boy found, the High Lamas will invite Living Buddhas of the three great monasteries together with secular clergy and monk officials, to confirm their findings and will then report to the Central Government through the Minister of Tibet. Later a group consisting of the three major servants of Dalai Lama, eminent officials and troops will collect the boy and his family and travel to Lhasa, where the boy would be taken, usually to Drepung Monastery to study the Buddhist sutra in preparation for assuming the role of spiritual leader of Tibet.^[30]

However, if there are several possibilities of the reincarnation, in the past regents and eminent officials and monks at the Jokhang in Lhasa, and the Minister to Tibet would decide on the individual by putting the boys' names inside an urn and drawing one lot in public if it was too difficult to judge the reincarnation initially.^[37]

List of Dalai Lamas[link]

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There have been 14 recognised reincarnations of the Dalai Lama:

	Name	Picture	Lifespan	Recognised	Enthronement	Tibetan/Wylie	Tibetan pinyin/Chinese	Alternative spellings
1	Gendun Drup		1391–1474	–	N/A[38]	དགེ་འདུན་འགྲུབ་ dge 'dun 'grub	Gêdün Chub 根敦朱巴	Gedun Drub Gedün Drup Gendun Drup
2	Gendun Gyatso		1475–1542	–	N/A[38]	དགེ་འདུན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ dge 'dun rgya mtsho	Gêdün Gyaco 根敦嘉措	Gedün Gyatso Gendün Gyatso
3	Sonam Gyatso		1543–1588	?	1578	བསོད་ནམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bsod nams rgya mtsho	Soinam Gyaco 索南嘉措	Sönam Gyatso
4	Yonten Gyatso		1589–1617	?	1603	ཡོན་ཏན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ yon tan rgya mtsho	Yoindain Gyaco 雲丹嘉措	Yontan Gyatso, Yönden Gyatso
5	Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso		1617–1682	1618	1622	བློ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ blo bzang rgya mtsho	Lobsang Gyaco 羅桑嘉措	Lobzang Gyatso Lopsang Gyatso
6	Tsangyang Gyatso		1683–1706	1688	1697	ཚངས་དབྱངས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho	Cangyang Gyaco 倉央嘉措	Tsañyang Gyatso
7	Kelzang Gyatso		1708–1757	?	1720	བསྐལ་བཟང་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bskal bzang rgya mtsho	Gaisang Gyaco 格桑嘉措	Kelsang Gyatso Kalsang Gyatso
8	Jamphel Gyatso		1758–1804	1760	1762	བྱམས་སྤེལ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ byams spel rgya mtsho	Qambê Gyaco 強白嘉措	Jampel Gyatso Jampal Gyatso
9	Lungtok Gyatso		1805–1815	1807	1808	ལུང་རྟོགས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ lung rtogs rgya mtsho	Lungdog Gyaco 隆朵嘉措	Lungtog Gyatso
10	Tsultrim Gyatso		1816–1837	1822	1822	ཚུལ་ཁྲིམས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ tshul khrim rgya mtsho	Cüchim Gyaco 楚臣嘉措	Tshültrim Gyatso
11	Khendrup Gyatso		1838–1856	1841	1842	མཁས་གྲུབ་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ mkhas grub rgya mtsho	Kaichub Gyaco 凱珠嘉措	Kedrub Gyatso
12	Trinley Gyatso		1857–1875	1858	1860	འཕྲིན་ལས་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ 'phrin las rgya mtsho	Chinlai Gyaco 成烈嘉措	Trinle Gyatso
13	Thubten Gyatso		1876–1933	1878	1879	ཐུབ་བསྟན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ thub bstan rgya mtsho	Tubdain Gyaco 土登嘉措	Thubtan Gyatso Thupten Gyatso
14	Tenzin Gyatso		born 1935	1937	1950 (currently in exile)	བསྟན་འཛིན་རྒྱ་མཚོ་ bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho	Dainzin Gyaco 丹增嘉措	Tenzing Gyatso

There has also been one nonrecognised Dalai Lama, Ngawang Yeshey Gyatso, declared 28 June 1707, when he was 25 years old, by Lha-bzang Khan as the "true" 6th Dalai Lama – however, he was never accepted as such by the majority of the population.^[17][39][40]

Future of the position[link]

The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso in 2007

The main teaching room of the Dalai Lama in Dharamshala, India

In the mid-1970s, Tenzin Gyatso, the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, told a Polish newspaper that he thought he would be the last Dalai Lama. In a later interview published in the English language press he stated, "The Dalai Lama office was an institution created to benefit others. It is possible that it will soon have outlived its usefulness."^[41] These statements caused a furor amongst Tibetans in India. Many could not believe that such an option could even be considered. It was further felt that it was not the Dalai Lama's decision to reincarnate. Rather, they felt that since the Dalai Lama is a national institution it was up to the people of Tibet to decide whether the Dalai Lama should reincarnate.^[42]

The government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) has claimed the power to approve the naming of "high" reincarnations in Tibet, based on a precedent set by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing Dynasty. The Qianlong Emperor instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama by a lottery that used a golden urn with names wrapped in clumps of barley. This method was used a few times for both positions during the 19th century, but eventually fell into disuse. In 1995, the Dalai Lama chose to proceed with the selection of the 11th reincarnation of the Panchen Lama without the use of the Golden Urn, while the Chinese government insisted that it must be used. This has led to two rival Panchen Lamas: Gyaincain Norbu as chosen by the Chinese government's process, and Gedhun Choekyi Nyima as chosen by the Dalai Lama.

During September 2007 the Chinese government said all high monks must be approved by the government, which would include the selection of the 15th Dalai Lama after the death of Tenzin Gyatso. Since by tradition, the Panchen Lama must approve the reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, that is another possible method of control.

In response to this scenario, Tashi Wangdi, the representative of the 14th Dalai Lama, replied that the Chinese government's selection would be meaningless. "You can't impose an Imam, an Archbishop, saints, any religion...you can't politically impose these things on people," said Wangdi. "It has to be a decision of the followers of that tradition. The Chinese can use their political power: force. Again, it's meaningless. Like their Panchen Lama. And they can't keep their Panchen Lama in Tibet. They tried to bring him to his monastery many times but people would not see him. How can you have a religious leader like that?"^[43]

The Dalai Lama said as early as 1969 that it was for the Tibetans to decide whether the institution of the Dalai Lama "should continue or not".^[44] He has given reference to a possible vote occurring in the future for all Tibetan Buddhists to decide whether they wish to recognize his rebirth.^[45] In response to the possibility that the PRC may attempt to choose his successor, the Dalai Lama has said he will not be reborn in a country controlled by the People's Republic of China or any other country which is not free.^[30][46] According to Robert D. Kaplan, this could mean that "the next Dalai Lama might come from the Tibetan cultural belt that stretches across northern India, Nepal, and Bhutan, presumably making him even more pro-Indian and anti-Chinese".^[47]

See also[link]

Buddhism portal

• Engaged Spirituality
• Tibet Autonomous Region

Notes and references[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Dowman, Keith. (1988). The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide. Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., London. ISBN 0-7102-1370-0 (pbk).
• Laird, Thomas (2006). The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama. Grove Press, New York. ISBN 978080218271.
• Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)
• Murray Silver, "When Elvis Meets the Dalai Lama," (Bonaventure Books, Savannah, 2005).
• Norbu, Thubten Jigme and Turnbull, Colin M. (1968). Tibet: An account of the history, the religion and the people of Tibet. Reprint: Touchstone Books. New York. ISBN 0-671-20559-5.
• Schulemann, Guenther: Geschichte der Dalai-Lamas, Harrassowitz, Leipzig, 1958.
• Sheel, R. N. Rahul. "The Institution of the Dalai Lama." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XIV No. 3. Autumn 1989.
• Stein, R. A. (1972). Tibetan Civilization. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7 (paper).
• Diki Tsering, edited & introduced by Khedroob Thondop. (2000). Dalai Lama, My Son: A Mother's Story. Virgin Publishing Company, London. ISBN 0-7535-0571-1.
• Verhaegen, Ardy (2002). The Dalai Lamas: The Institution and Its History. Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies, no. 15. New Delhi, India: D. K. Printworld (P) Ltd. ISBN 81-246-0202-6.
• Yá Hánzhāng 牙含章: The Biographies of the Dalai Lamas (Dálài Lǎmá chuán 达赖喇嘛传; Beijing, Foreign Languages Press 1993); ISBN 7-119-01267-3.

Further reading[link]

• Dalai Lama. (1991) Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the Dalai Lama. San Francisco, CA.
• Goodman, Michael H. (1986). The Last Dalai Lama. Shambhala Publications. Boston, MA.
• Mullin, Glenn H. (2001). The Fourteen Dalai Lamas: A Sacred Legacy of Reincarnation. Clear Light Publishers. Santa Fe, NM. ISBN 1-57416-092-3.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dalai Lamas

• Official website
• Dalai Lama at the Open Directory Project