Bouvet Island

Friday, 04 January 2013

Invitation to the EXPEDITION for the FUTURE

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Adélie Land
Adélie Land is a claimed territory in the continent of Antarctica. It stretches from a coastline area along the Great Southern Ocean back to the South Pole. The territory is claimed by France as one of five districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, although not all nations have given it diplomatic recognition.
Adélie Land lies between 136° E (near Pourquoi Pas Point at 66°12′S 136°11′E / 66.2°S 136.183°E / -66.2; 136.183) and 142° E (near Point Alden at 66°48′S 142°02′E / 66.8°S 142.033°E / -66.8; 142.033), with a shore length of 350 kilometres (220 mi) and with its hinterland extending as a sector about 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) toward the South Pole. It borders on the Australian Antarctic Territory both West and East, namely on Clarie Land (part of Wilkes Land) in the West, and George V Land in the East. The total land area, mostly ice covered, is estimated at 432,000 square kilometres (167,000 sq mi).
The coast was discovered in 1840 by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville (1790–1842) who named it after his wife, Adélie.

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Anguilla
Anguilla ( /æŋˈɡwɪlə/ ang-GWIL-ə) is a British overseas territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territory consists of the main island of Anguilla itself, approximately 26 km (16 mi) long by 5 km (3.1 mi) wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population. The island's capital is The Valley. The total land area of the territory is 91 km² (35 sq mi), with a population of approximately 13,500 (2006 estimate).
Anguilla has become a popular tax haven, having no capital gains, estate, profit or other forms of direct taxation on either individuals or corporations.
Anguilla was first settled by Amerindian tribes who migrated from South America. The earliest Amerindian artifacts found on Anguilla have been dated to around 1300 BC, and remains of settlements date from 600 AD. The date of European discovery is uncertain: some sources claim that Columbus sighted the island in 1493, while others state that the island was first discovered by the French in 1564 or 1565. The name Anguilla derives from the word for "eel" in any of various Romance languages (modern Spanish: anguila; French: anguille; Italian: anguilla; Portuguese: enguia), probably chosen because of the island's eel-like shape.

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Antarctic
The Antarctic ( /ænˈtɑrktɪk/ or /ænˈtɑrtɪk/) is a polar region, specifically the region around the Earth's South Pole, opposite the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica and the ice shelves, waters, and island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence. The region covers some 20% of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5.5% (14 million km²) is the surface area of the continent itself.
The maritime part of the region constitutes the area of application of the international Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), where for technical reasons the Convention uses an approximation of the Convergence line by means of a line joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The implementation of the Convention is managed through an international Commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance.

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Argentina
Argentina ⁱ/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.

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Aruba
Aruba ( /əˈruːbə/ ə-ROO-bə, Dutch pronunciation: [aˈruba]) is a 33 km-long island of the Lesser Antilles in the southern Caribbean Sea, located 27 km north of the coast of Venezuela and 130 km (approx.) east of Guajira Peninsula (Colombia). Together with Bonaire and Curaçao, it forms a group referred to as the ABC islands of the Leeward Antilles, the southern island chain of the Lesser Antilles.
Aruba is one of the four constituent countries that form the Kingdom of the Netherlands, together with the Netherlands, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten whose citizens share a single nationality: Dutch citizen. Aruba has no administrative subdivisions, but for census purposes is divided into 8 regions. Its capital is Oranjestad. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, Aruba has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape. This climate has helped tourism as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. It has a land area of 179 square kilometres (69 sq mi) and is densely populated with a total of 101,484 inhabitants at the 2010 Census. It lies outside the hurricane belt. It is also home to the endemic Aruba Island Rattlesnake.

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Australia
Australia ( /əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.

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Bergen
Bergen (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈbærɡən] (listen)) is a city and municipality in Hordaland on the west coast of Norway. As of 26 June 2012, the municipality had a population of 265,800 and Greater Bergen had a population of 391,000, making Bergen the second-largest city in Norway. The municipality covers and area of 465 square kilometers (180 sq mi) and is located on the peninsula of Bergenshalvøyen. The city center and northern neighborhoods are located on Byfjorden and the city is built around the Seven Mountains. Many of the extra-municipal suburbs are located on islands. Bergen is the administrative center of Hordaland and consists of eight boroughs—Arna, Årstad, Åsane, Bergenhus, Fana, Fyllingsdalen, Laksevåg and Ytrebygda.
Trading in Bergen may have started as early as the 1020s, but the city was not incorporated until 1070. It served as Norway's capital from 1217 to 1299, and from the end of the 13th century became a bureau city of the Hanseatic League. Until 1789, Bergen enjoyed exclusive rights to mediate trade between Northern Norway and abroad. The remains of the quays, Bryggen, is a World Heritage Site. The city was hit by numerous fires. The Norwegian School of Economics was founded in 1936 and the University of Bergen in 1946. From 1831 to 1972, Bergen was its own county, after which Bergen amalgamated with the surrounding municipalities.

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Bermuda
Bermuda ( /bɜrˈmjuːdə/), officially the Bermudas or Somers Islands, is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Located off the east coast of the United States, its nearest landmass is Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, about 1,030 kilometres (640 mi) to the west-northwest. It is about 1,373 kilometres (853 mi) south of Halifax, Nova Scotia and 1,770 kilometres (1,100 mi) northeast of Miami, Florida, USA. Its capital city is Hamilton.
Bermuda was discovered in 1505 by Spanish sea captain Juan de Bermúdez, after whom the islands are named. Apparently uninhabited, he claimed them for the Spanish Empire. Although he paid two visits to the archipelago, Bermúdez was persuaded never to set foot on any of the islands by the dangerous reef surrounding them. Subsequent Spanish or other visitors are believed to have released the feral pigs that were abundant on the island when settlement began. In 1609, the Virginia Company, which had established Virginia and Jamestown on the American continent two years earlier, established a settlement on behalf of the English colonial empire. Initially, it was administered as an extension of Virginia by the Company until 1614, before its successor, the Somers Isles Company, took over until 1684. Bermuda then became a British colony following the 1707 unification of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the unified Kingdom of Great Britain. After Newfoundland became part of Canada in 1949, Bermuda became the oldest (and, since the return of Hong Kong to China in 1997, the most populous) remaining British overseas territory. Its first capital, St George's, was established in 1612 and is the oldest continuously-inhabited English town in the Americas.

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Bonaire
Bonaire ( /bɒˈnɛər/; Dutch: Bonaire, Papiamentu: Boneiru) is a special municipality (officially public body) of the Netherlands, consisting of the Caribbean island of Bonaire and, nestled in its western crescent, the uninhabited islet of Klein Bonaire. Together with Aruba and Curaçao it forms a group referred to as the ABC islands of the Leeward Antilles, the southern island chain of the Lesser Antilles. The name Bonaire is thought to have originally come from the Caiquetio word 'Bonay'. The early Spanish and Dutch modified its spelling to Bojnaj and also Bonaire, which means "Good Air".
Bonaire was part of the Netherlands Antilles until the country's dissolution on 10 October 2010, when the island (including Klein Bonaire) became a special municipality within the country of the Netherlands.
Bonaire's earliest known inhabitants were the Caquetio Indians, a branch of the Arawak who came by canoe from Venezuela in about AD 1000. Archeological remains of Caquetio culture have been found at certain sites northeast of Kralendijk and near Lac Bay. Caquetio rock paintings and petroglyphs have been preserved in caves at Spelonk, Onima, Ceru Pungi, and Ceru Crita-Cabai. The Caquetios were apparently a very tall people, for the Spanish name for the ABC Islands was 'las Islas de los Gigantes' or 'the islands of the giants.'

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Bouvet Island
Bouvetøya (English: Bouvet Island), is an uninhabited subantarctic volcanic island and dependency of Norway located in the South Atlantic Ocean. Lying at the southern end of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, it is the most remote island in the world. The island has an area of 49 square kilometers (19 sq mi), of which 93 percent is covered by a glacier. The center of the island is an ice-filled crater of an inactive volcano. Along the coast lie some skerries and one island, Larsøya. Nyrøysa, created by a rock slide in the late 1950s, is the only easy place to land and features a weather station.
The island was first spotted on 1 January 1739 by and has since been named for Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier. He recorded inaccurate coordinates and the island was not sighted again until James Lindsay named it Lindsay Island in 1808. The first claim of landing, although disputed, was by Benjamin Morrell. The island was claimed for the British Crown by George Norris in 1825, who named it Liverpool Island. He also spotted a nearby phantom island, Thompson Island. The First Norvegia Expedition landed on the island in 1927 and claimed it for Norway. After a dispute with the UK, it was declared a Norwegian dependency in 1930. It became a nature reserve in 1971.

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Canary Islands
The Canary Islands (English /kəˈnɛəri ˈaɪləndz/; Spanish: Islas Canarias [ˈizlas kaˈnaɾjas, ˈihlah kaˈnaɾjas]), also known as the Canaries (Spanish: Canarias), is a Spanish archipelago located just off the northwest coast of mainland Africa, 100 km west of the border between Morocco and the Western Sahara. The Canaries are a Spanish autonomous community and an outermost region of the European Union. The islands include (from largest to smallest): Tenerife, Fuerteventura, Gran Canaria, Lanzarote, La Palma, La Gomera, El Hierro, La Graciosa, Alegranza, Isla de Lobos, Montaña Clara, Roque del Este and Roque del Oeste. The Canary Islands are legally recognized as a nationality of Spain. Geographically it is a part of the African Continent.^{[citation needed]}
The archipelago's beaches, climate and important natural attractions, especially Teide National Park and Mount Teide (the third tallest volcano in the world measured from its base on the ocean floor), make it a major tourist destination, with over 12 million visitors per year, especially Tenerife, Gran Canaria and Lanzarote. The islands have a subtropical climate, with long warm summers and moderately warm winters. Due to their location above the temperature inversion layer, these islands are ideal for astronomical observation. For this reason, two professional observatories, Teide Observatory on the island of Tenerife and Roque de los Muchachos Observatory on the island of La Palma, have been built on the islands.

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Cape Verde
Cape Verde ⁱ/ˌkeɪp ˈvɜrd/ (Portuguese: Cabo Verde, pronounced: [ˈkabu ˈveɾdɨ]), officially the Republic of Cape Verde, is an island country, spanning an archipelago of 10 islands located in the central Atlantic Ocean, 570 kilometres off the coast of Western Africa. The islands, covering a combined area of slightly over 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 sq mi), are of volcanic origin and while three of them (Sal, Boa Vista and Maio) are fairly flat, sandy and dry, the remaining ones are generally rockier and have more vegetation. However, because of the infrequent occurrence of rainfall the overall landscape is not particularly green.
The name of the country stems from the nearby Cap Vert, on the Senegalese coast, which in its turn was originally named "Cabo Verde" when it was sighted by Portuguese explorers in 1444, a few years before the islands were discovered (verde is Portuguese for "green").
The previously uninhabited islands were discovered and colonized by the Portuguese in the 15th Century, and became important in the Atlantic slave trade for their location. The islands' prosperity often attracted privateers and pirates, including Sir Francis Drake, a corsair (privateer) under the authority of the British crown, who twice sacked the (then) capital Ribeira Grande, in the 1580s. The islands were also visited by Charles Darwin's expedition in 1832. The decline in the slave trade in the 19th century resulted in an economic crisis for the islands. With few natural resources, and without strong sustainable investment from the Portuguese, the citizens grew increasingly discontent with the colonial masters, who nevertheless refused to provide the local authorities with more autonomy. This discontent festered and culminated in 1975, when a movement originally led by Amílcar Cabral who was assassinated on 20 January 1973 then passed onto his half-brother Luís Cabral, achieved independence for the archipelago.

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Cayman Islands
The Cayman Islands ( /ˈkeɪmən/ or /keɪˈmæn/) is a British Overseas Territory located in the western Caribbean Sea. The territory comprises the three islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac, and Little Cayman, located south of Cuba and northwest of Jamaica. The Cayman Islands are considered to be part of the geographic Western Caribbean Zone as well as the Greater Antilles. The territory is a major world offshore financial centre.
The Cayman Islands were first logged as sighted by Christopher Columbus on 10 May 1503 during his fourth and final voyage to the New World. He named the islands Las Tortugas after the large number of sea turtles observed there. The first recorded English visitor to the islands was Sir Francis Drake in 1586. He subsequently named the islands "Cayman" after caiman, a Neo-Taino word for "alligator".
The Cayman Islands remained largely uninhabited until the 17th century. While there is no archaeological evidence for an indigenous people on the islands, a variety of settlers from various backgrounds made their home on the islands, including pirates, refugees from the Spanish Inquisition, shipwrecked sailors, and deserters from Oliver Cromwell's army in Jamaica.

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Ceuta
Ceuta (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈθeuta]) is an 18.5-square-kilometre (7.1 sq mi) autonomous city of Spain and an exclave located on the north coast of North Africa surrounded by Morocco. Separated from the Iberian peninsula by the Strait of Gibraltar, Ceuta lies on the border of the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. After Spain returned Ifni to Morocco in 1969, Ceuta and Melilla remained the sole Spanish enclave territories within mainland Africa. Ceuta was deemed a part of Cadiz province prior to 14 March 1995, when the city's Statute of Autonomy was passed.
Ceuta (like Melilla) was a free port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2011, it has a population of 78,674. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims (chiefly Moroccan Arabic speakers), and small minorities of Jews and Hindus. Spanish is the official language.
Morocco had previously called for negotiations on the future of Ceuta, Melilla and a number of Mediterranean islands and enclaves that border it. The majority of the city's population are ethnic Spanish who are opposed to the idea of being ruled by Morocco. A poll conducted by Instituto Opina found that 87.9% of people from mainland Spain consider the two cities to be Spanish.

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Chile
Chile (ⁱ/ˈtʃɪliː/ or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] ( listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. Along with Ecuador, it is one of two countries in South America that do not border Brazil. Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas and Easter Island. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty.
Chile's distinctive shape—4,300 kilometres (2,700 mi) long and on average 175 kilometres (109 mi) wide—makes it the longest country in the world, north to south, with the fifth lengthiest coastline at over 78 thousand kilometers. The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama—through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, humid subtropical in Easter Island, to an Oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. The northern desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources, and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.

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Crozet Islands
The Crozet Islands (French: Îles Crozet; or, officially, Archipel Crozet) are a sub-antarctic archipelago of small islands in the southern Indian Ocean. They form one of the five administrative districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.
Not including minor islets or rock reefs etc., the Crozet group consists of six islands. From east to west:
⁽¹⁾group of two major islands (Grand Île - Big Island, and Petite Île - Little Island) and about 20 pinnacle rocks.
The Eastern and Western Groups are 94.5 kilometres (58.7 mi) apart (from Île des Pingouins to Île de la Possession)
The Crozet Islands are uninhabited, except for the research station Alfred Faure (Port Alfred) on the East side of Île de la Possession, which has been continuously manned since 1963. Previous scientific stations included La Grande Manchotière and La Petite Manchotière.
Analysis of magnetic anomalies on the sea floor indicates that the Crozet Plateau formed some 50 million years ago. The islands are of volcanic origin, and basalt. Rock samples indicate volcanic origins going back to at least 8.8 million years.

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Curaçao
Curaçao (Dutch: Curaçao;Papiamentu: Kòrsou) is an island in the southern Caribbean Sea, off the Venezuelan coast. The Country of Curaçao (Dutch: Land Curaçao, Papiamentu: Pais Kòrsou), which includes the main island plus the small, uninhabited island of Klein Curaçao ("Little Curaçao"), is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Its capital is Willemstad.
Curaçao is the largest and most populous of the three ABC islands (for Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao) of the Lesser Antilles, specifically the Leeward Antilles. It has a land area of 444 square kilometres (171 square miles). As of 1 January 2009, it had a population of 141,766.
Prior to 10 October 2010, when the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved, Curaçao was administered as the Island Territory of Curaçao (Dutch: Eilandgebied Curaçao, Papiamentu: Teritorio Insular di Kòrsou), one of five island territories of the former Netherlands Antilles. The ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country code CUW and the ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code CW has been assigned to Curaçao.

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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.

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Falkland Islands
The Falkland Islands (English pronunciation: /ˈfɒlklənd/ or English pronunciation: /ˈfɔːlklənd/; Spanish: Islas Malvinas) are an archipelago in the South Atlantic Ocean, located more than 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi) east of the coast of mainland South America. The archipelago comprises East Falkland, West Falkland, and 776 lesser islands. Stanley, the capital and only city, is on East Falkland. The islands are a self-governing British Overseas Territory, with the United Kingdom responsible for their defence and foreign affairs.
Controversy exists over the Falklands' original discovery and subsequent colonisation by Europeans. At various times there have been French, British, Spanish, and Argentine settlements. Britain re-established its rule in 1833, yet the islands continue to be claimed by Argentina. In 1982, following Argentina's invasion of the islands, the two-month-long undeclared Falklands War between both countries resulted in the withdrawal of all Argentine forces. Despite its defeat, Argentina still pursues its claim; however, UK policy supports the islanders' self-determination to remain British citizens.

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France
France (English ⁱ/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km² (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km² / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.

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French Guiana
French Guiana (French: Guyane française; French pronunciation: [ɡɥijan fʁɑ̃sɛz]; officially just Guyane) is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department located on the northern Atlantic coast of South America. It has borders with two nations: Brazil to the east and south, and Suriname to the west. Its 83,534 km² (32,253 sq mi) have a very low population density of less than 3 /km² (7.8 /sq mi), with almost half of its 229,000 people in 2009 living in the urban area of Cayenne, its capital.
The addition of the adjective "French" in English comes from colonial times when five such colonies existed (The Guianas), namely from west to east: Spanish Guiana (now Guayana Region in Venezuela), British Guiana (now Guyana), Dutch Guiana (now Suriname), French Guiana, and Portuguese Guiana (now Amapá, a state in far northern Brazil). French Guiana and the two larger countries to the north and west, Guyana and Suriname, are still often collectively referred to as the Guianas and comprise one large shield landmass.

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French Polynesia
French Polynesia (ⁱ/ˈfrɛntʃ pɒlɨˈniːʒə/; French: Polynésie française, pronounced: [pɔlinezi fʁɑ̃sɛz]; Tahitian: Pōrīnetia Farāni) is an overseas country of the French Republic (pays d'outre-mer). It is made up of several groups of Polynesian islands, the most famous island being Tahiti in the Society Islands group, which is also the most populous island and the seat of the capital of the territory (Papeetē). Although not an integral part of its territory, Clipperton Island was administered from French Polynesia until 2007.
The island groups that make up French Polynesia were not officially united until the establishment of the French protectorate in 1889. The first of these islands to be settled by indigenous Polynesians were the Marquesas Islands in AD 300 and the Society Islands in AD 800. The Polynesians were organized in loose chieftainships.
European communication began in 1521 when the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sighted Pukapuka in the Tuāmotu-Gambier Archipelago. Dutchman Jakob Roggeveen came across Bora Bora in the Society Islands in 1722, and the British explorer Samuel Wallis visited Tahiti in 1767. The French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville visited Tahiti in 1768, while the British explorer James Cook visited in 1769. Christian missions began with Spanish priests who stayed in Tahiti for a year from 1774; Protestants from the London Missionary Society settled permanently in Polynesia in 1797.

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Gough Island
Gough Island (/ˈɡɒf/, rhymes with cough), also known historically as Gonçalo Álvares (after the Portuguese explorer) or mistakenly as Diego Alvarez, is a volcanic island in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is a dependency of Tristan da Cunha and part of the British overseas territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. It is uninhabited except for the personnel of a weather station (usually six people) which the South African National Antarctic Programme has maintained continually on the island since 1956. It is one of the most remote places with a constant human presence.
The island was first named Ilha de Gonçalo Álvares on Portuguese maps (Spanish Isla de Gonzalo Álvarez). It was named Gough Island after Captain Charles Gough of the Richmond who sighted the island in 1713. Confusion of the unusual Portuguese saint name Gonçalo with Spanish Diego led to the misname "Diego Alvarez island" in English sources from 1800s to 1930s.
Gough Island rises to heights of over 900 m (2,953 ft) above sea level. Its area is 35 square miles (91 km²) according to the South African Antarctic Programme. It is located at 40°19′05″S 9°56′07″W / 40.3181°S 9.9353°W / -40.3181; -9.9353Coordinates: 40°19′05″S 9°56′07″W / 40.3181°S 9.9353°W / -40.3181; -9.9353. Topographic features include the highest Peak, Edinburgh Peak, Hags Tooth, Mount Rowett, Sea Elephant Bay, Quest Bay, and Hawkins Bay.

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Greenland
Greenland (Kalaallisut: Kalaallit Nunaat, "Land of the Kalaallit";Danish: Grønland) is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and later Denmark) for more than a millennium. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island. With a population of 56,615 (January 2011 estimate) it is the least densely populated dependency or country in the world.
Greenland has been inhabited, though not continuously, by Arctic peoples via Canada for 4500–5000 years. In the 10th century, Norsemen settled on the uninhabited southern part of Greenland. In the 13th century, the Inuit arrived, and in the late 15th century the Norse colonies were abandoned. In the early 18th century, contact between Scandinavia and Greenland was re-established and Denmark established rule over Greenland.

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Guadeloupe
Coordinates: 16°15′N 61°35′W / 16.25°N 61.583°W / 16.25; -61.583
Guadeloupe ( /ɡwɑːdəˈluːp/; French pronunciation: [ɡwadəlup]; Antillean Creole: Gwadloup) is a Caribbean island located in the Leeward Islands, in the Lesser Antilles, with a land area of 1,628 square kilometres (629 sq. mi) and a population of 400,000. It is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. Its departmental code is "971". As the other overseas departments, Guadeloupe is also an integral part of the Republic. Besides Guadeloupe island, the smaller islands of Marie-Galante, La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes are included in Guadeloupe.
As part of France, Guadeloupe is part of the European Union and the Eurozone; hence, as for all Eurozone countries, its currency is the euro. However, Guadeloupe is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture and the capital of Guadeloupe is Basse-Terre. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, in Extremadura.

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Italy
Italy ⁱ/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km² (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.

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Kerguelen Islands
The Kerguelen Islands ( /ˈkɜrɡəlɛn/ or /ˈkɜrɡələn/; in French commonly Îles Kerguelen or Archipel de Kerguelen but officially Archipel des Kerguelen or Archipel Kerguelen, pronounced: [kɛʁɡeˈlɛn]), also known as the Desolation Islands, are a group of islands in the southern Indian Ocean constituting one of the two emerged parts of the mostly submerged Kerguelen Plateau. The islands, along with Adélie Land, the Crozet Islands and the Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands are part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and are administered as a separate district. There are no indigenous inhabitants, but France maintains a permanent presence of 50 to 100 scientists, engineers and researchers.
The main island, Grande Terre, is 6,675 km² (2,577 sq mi) in area and is surrounded by a further 300 smaller islands and islets, forming an archipelago of 7,215 km² (2,786 sq mi). The climate is raw and chilly with frequent high winds throughout the year. While the surrounding seas are generally rough, they remain ice-free year-round. There is no airport on the islands, so all travel and transport from the outside world is conducted by ship.

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Lampione
Lampione (Sicilian: Lampiuni, English: Lantern) is a small rocky island located in the Mediterranean Sea, which belongs geographically to the Pelagie Islands and administratively to the comune of Lampedusa e Linosa, Province of Agrigento, region of Sicily, Italy. It is 700 metres long and 180 metres across, and has an area of 1.2 km² and a highest elevation of 36 metres.
The islet is uninhabited, the only building being a redundant lighthouse. According to legend, the island was a rock which had fallen from the hands of a cyclops.
Lampione is part of the Riserva Marina Isole Pelagie, and its vegetation and wildlife are strictly protected. Animal species include the endemic Podarcis filfolensis ssp. laurentimulleri',(also found on Linosa) which is a subspecies of Maltese Wall Lizard, numerous migrating birds and the Armadillidium hirtum pelagicum, a land crustacean. The waters are populated by sharks, including the sandbar shark, groupers, lobsters and varieties of yellow and pink coral.
Coordinates: 35°33′N 12°19′E / 35.55°N 12.317°E / 35.55; 12.317

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Larsøya
Larsøya, sometimes anglicized as Lars Island, is a rocky island, less than 0.2 nautical miles (0.37 km; 0.23 mi) long, which lies just off the southwest extremity of Bouvet Island. First roughly charted in 1898 by a German expedition under Carl Chun. The Norwegian expedition under Captain Harald Horntvedt made a landing on the island from the ship Norvegia in December 1927. They named it after Lars Christensen, sponsor of the First Norvegia Expedition.
Coordinates: 54°27′11″S 3°18′54″E / 54.45306°S 3.315°E / -54.45306; 3.315
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document "Larsøya" (content from the Geographic Names Information System).

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Linosa
Linosa (Sicilian: Linusa) is one of the Pelagie Islands in the Sicily Channel of the Mediterranean Sea. It is a frazione of the comune of Lampedusa e Linosa, part of the province of Agrigento, Sicily, Italy. It has a population of 450 inhabitants.
The island has an area of 5.45 km² and is of volcanic origin. It is formed by a series of craters of which Monte Vulcano, 195 m high, is the most important. The closest land to Linosa is the island of Lampedusa, which lies 43 km to the south. Linosa is situated 119 km west of Gozo, Malta, 121 km southeast of Pantelleria, 163 km south of Sicily and 165 km east of Cape Mahida in Tunisia.
The Greeks, Romans, and the Arabs (then called Saracens) have all colonized this island in the Ancient World and the Middle Ages.
Linosa's population subsists on fishing, agriculture and tourism.
Coordinates: 35°52′N 12°52′E / 35.867°N 12.867°E / 35.867; 12.867

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Lykketoppen
Lykketoppen, occasionally anglicized as Lykke Peak, is a snow-covered, 765 meters (2,510 ft) tall summit that surmounts the southwest part of Bouvetøya. It stands 1 nautical mile (1.9 km) east of Norvegia Point. First roughly charted in 1898 by a German expedition under Carl Chun. Recharted and named in December 1927 by the First Norvegia Expedition under Captain Harald Horntvedt.
Coordinates: 54°27′S 3°23′E / 54.45°S 3.383°E / -54.45; 3.383
This article incorporates public domain material from the United States Geological Survey document "Lykketoppen" (content from the Geographic Names Information System).

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Macquarie Island
Macquarie Island (or Macca) lies in the southwest corner of the Pacific Ocean, about half-way between New Zealand and Antarctica, at 54°30S, 158°57E. Politically, it is part of Tasmania, Australia since 1900 and became a Tasmanian State Reserve in 1978. In 1997 it became a World Heritage Site. It was a part of Esperance Municipality until 1993, when the municipality was merged with other municipalities to Huon Valley. The island is home to the entire Royal Penguin population on earth during their annual nesting season. Ecologically, it is part of the Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion.
Since 1948 the Australian Antarctic Division (AAD) has maintained a permanent base, the Macquarie Island Station, on the isthmus at the northern end of the island at the foot of Wireless Hill. The population of the base, the island's only human inhabitants, usually varies from 20 to 40 people over the year.
The Australian/Briton Frederick Hasselborough discovered the uninhabited island accidentally on 11 July 1810 when looking for new sealing grounds. He claimed Macquarie Island for Britain and annexed it to the colony of New South Wales in 1810. The island took its name after Colonel Lachlan Macquarie, Governor of New South Wales from 1810 to 1821. Hasselborough reported a wreck "of ancient design", which has given rise to speculation that the island may have been visited before by Polynesians or others.

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Martinique
Martinique (French pronunciation: [maʁtinik]) is an island in the Lesser Antilles in the eastern Caribbean Sea, with a land area of 1,128 km² (436 sq mi). Like Guadeloupe, it is an overseas region of France, consisting of a single overseas department. To the northwest lies Dominica, to the south St Lucia, and to the southeast Barbados. As with the other overseas departments, Martinique is one of the twenty-seven regions of France (being an overseas region) and an integral part of the Republic. The first European to encounter the island was Christopher Columbus in 1502.
As part of France, Martinique is part of the European Union, and its currency is the Euro. Its official language is French, although many of its inhabitants also speak Antillean Creole (Créole Martiniquais).
The island was occupied first by Arawaks, then by Caribs. It was charted by Columbus in 1493, but Spain had little interest in the territory. It was claimed by France in 1635 and, despite several interludes of British occupation, once during the Seven Years' War and twice during the Napoleonic Wars, has remained a French possession. In 1946, the French National Assembly voted unanimously to transform the colony into an overseas department.

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Mayotte
Mayotte (French: Mayotte, pronounced: [majɔt]; Shimaore: Maore, IPA: [maˈore]; Malagasy: Mahori) is an overseas department and region of France consisting of a main island, Grande-Terre (or Mahoré), a smaller island, Petite-Terre (or Pamanzi), and several islets around these two. The archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, namely between northwestern Madagascar and northeastern Mozambique. Mayotte's area is 374 square kilometres (144 sq mi), and with its estimated 194,000 people is very densely populated (520 /km² or 1,300 /sq mi). Its biggest city and prefecture is Mamoudzou. The territory is geographically part of the Comoro Islands, but has been politically separate since a 1974 referendum in which it elected to remain under French rule. The territory is also known as Mahoré, the native name of its main island, especially by advocates of its inclusion in the Union of Comoros. In a 2009 referendum, the population overwhelmingly approved accession to status of department (95.2% voted in favour of departmental status). On March 31, 2011, Mayotte became an overseas department.

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Melilla
Melilla (Spanish pronunciation: [meˈliʎa]) is an autonomous city of Spain and an exclave on the north coast of Morocco, with an area of 12.3 square kilometres (4.7 sq mi). Melilla, along with the Spanish exclave Ceuta, is one of the two Spanish territories located in mainland Africa. It was regarded as a part of Málaga province prior to 14 March 1995, when the city's Statute of Autonomy was passed.
Melilla (like Ceuta) was a free port before Spain joined the European Union. As of 2008 it has a population of 73,460. Its population consists of Christians, Muslims (chiefly Riffians), and small minorities of Jews. Both Spanish and Tarifit are widely spoken. Spanish is the only official language, while there have been calls to recognise Tamazight, a standardized version of all Berber languages official in Morocco, as well.
Morocco had previously called for negotiations on the future of Melilla, Ceuta and a number of Mediterranean islands which border it. The majority of the city's population are ethnic Spanish who are opposed to the idea of being a part of Morocco. A poll conducted by Instituto Opina found that 87.9% of people from mainland Spain consider the two cities to be Spanish.

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Montserrat
Coordinates: 16°45′N 62°12′W / 16.75°N 62.2°W / 16.75; -62.2
Montserrat ( /mɒntsəˈræt/) is an island that is a British overseas territory located in the Leeward Islands, part of the chain of islands called the Lesser Antilles in the West Indies. This island measures approximately 16 km (9.9 mi) long and 11 km (6.8 mi) wide, giving 40 kilometres (25 mi) of coastline. Montserrat is nicknamed the Emerald Isle of the Caribbean both for its resemblance to coastal Ireland and for the Irish ancestry of some of its inhabitants.
Montserrat's Georgian era historic capital city of Plymouth was destroyed and two-thirds of the island's population was forced to flee because of an eruption of the previously dormant Soufriere Hills volcano that began on July 18, 1995. The eruption continues today on a much reduced scale, the damage being confined to the area around Plymouth, including its docking facilities, and also the area around the former W. H. Bramble Airport on the eastern side of the island, the remnants of which were buried by flows from volcanic activity on February 11, 2010.

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New Caledonia
Coordinates: 21°15′S 165°18′E / 21.25°S 165.30°E / -21.25; 165.30
New Caledonia (French: Nouvelle-Calédonie) is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) east of Australia and about 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi) from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of Pines and a few remote islets. The Chesterfield Islands in the Coral Sea are also part of New Caledonia. Locals refer to Grande Terre as "Le Caillou", the rock.
New Caledonia has a land area of 18,576 square kilometres (7,172 sq mi). The population (2011 estimate) is 256,275. The capital of the territory is Nouméa.
The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia date back to the Lapita period. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific.
The British first sighted New Caledonia on September 4, 1774, during the second voyage of Captain James Cook. He named the territory New Caledonia, as the north-east of the island reminded him of Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse in 1788, shortly before his disappearance, and the Loyalty Islands were first visited in 1796. From then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago were recorded. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia.

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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.

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Norway
Norway ⁱ/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.

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Olavtoppen
Olavtoppen, occasionally anglicized as Olav Peak, is the highest point Bouvetøya, a volcanic island and dependency of Norway. Olavtoppen is located north of the center of the island, immediately south of Kapp Valdivia, and rises 780 meters (2,560 ft) above mean sea level.
Coordinates: 54°25′14″S 3°23′13″E / 54.42056°S 3.38694°E / -54.42056; 3.38694

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Oslo
Oslo (English pronunciation: /ˈɒzloʊ/, OZ-loh,Norwegian pronunciation: [²ʊʃlʊ] ( listen) or [²ʊslʊ]) is the capital of and most populous city in Norway. Founded around 1048 by King Harald III, the city was elevated to a bishopric in 1070 and a capital under Haakon V around 1300. Personal unions with Denmark from 1397 to 1523 and again from 1536 to 1814 and with Sweden from 1814 to 1905 reduced its influence. After being destroyed by a fire in 1624, the city was moved closer to Akershus Castle during the reign of King Christian IV and renamed Christiania in his honour. It was established as a municipality (formannskapsdistrikt) on 1 January 1838. Following a spelling reform, it was known as Kristiania from 1877 to 1925, when its original Norwegian name was restored.
Oslo is the economic and governmental centre of Norway. The city is also a hub of Norwegian trade, banking, industry and shipping. It is an important centre for maritime industries and maritime trade in Europe. The city is home to many companies within the maritime sector, some of which are amongst the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers and maritime insurance brokers. Oslo is a pilot city of the Council of Europe and the European Commission intercultural cities programme.

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Pantelleria
Pantelleria (Sicilian: Pantiddirìa), the ancient Cossyra, is an Italian island in the Strait of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, 100 km (62.1 mi) southwest of Sicily and just 60 km (37.3 mi) east of the Tunisian coast. Administratively Pantelleria is a comune belonging to the Sicilian province of Trapani. With an area of 83 km² (32 sq mi), it is the largest volcanic satellite island of Sicily.
The island of Pantelleria is located above a drowned continental rift in the Strait of Sicily and has been the locus of intensive volcano-tectonic activity. The 15-km-long (9.3 mi) island is the emergent summit of a largely submarine edifice. Two large Pleistocene calderas dominate the island, the older of the two formed about 114,000 years ago and the younger, Cinque Denti caldera formed about 45,000 years ago. The eruption that formed the Cinque Denti caldera produced the distinctive Green Tuff deposit that covers much of the island, and is found across the Mediterranean, as far away as the island of Lesbos in the Aegean.Holocene eruptions have constructed pumice cones, lava domes, and short, blocky lava flows. Post Green Tuff activity constructed the cone of Monte Gibele, part of which was subsequently uplifted to form Montagna Grande. Several vents are located on three sides of the uplifted Montagna Grande block on the southeast side of the island. A submarine eruption in 1891 from a vent off the northwest coast is the only confirmed historical activity.

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Parliament of Norway
The Storting (English: Great thing) (Norwegian: Stortinget, literally "the great thing") is the supreme legislature of Norway, located in Oslo. The unicameral parliament has 169 members, and is elected every four years based on party-list proportional representation in nineteen plural member constituencies. The assembly is led by a presidium of a president and five vice presidents; since 2009 Dag Terje Andersen has been president. The members are allocated to twelve standing committees, as well as four procedural committees. Almost all public agencies of Norway are subordinate to the government, but three ombudsmen, the Parliamentary Intelligence Oversight Committee and the Office of the Auditor General are directly subordinate to parliament.
Parliament was established by the Constitution of Norway in 1814 and has since 1866 met in the Parliament of Norway Building, designed by Emil Victor Langlet. Parliamentarianism was established in 1884, and until 2009 practiced qualified unicameralism with two chambers: the Lagting and the Odelsting. Following the 2009 election, seven parties are represented in parliament: the Labour Party (64 representatives), the Progress Party (41), the Conservative Party (30), the Socialist Left Party (11), the Centre Party (11), the Christian Democratic Party (10) and the Liberal Party (2).

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Peter I Island
Peter I Island (Norwegian: Peter I Øy) is an uninhabited volcanic island in the Bellingshausen Sea, 450 kilometres (280 mi) from Antarctica. It is claimed as a dependency of Norway, and along with Queen Maud Land and Bouvet Island comprises one of the three Norwegian dependent territories in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic. Peter I Island is 11 by 19 kilometres (6.8 by 12 mi) long and 156 square kilometres (60 sq mi). The tallest peak is the ultra and 1,640-meter (5,380 ft) tall Lars Christensen Peak. Nearly all of the island is covered by a glacier and it is surrounded most of the year by pack ice, making it inaccessible almost all year round. There is little life on the island, although there are some marine birds, such as southern fulmars, and seals.
The island was first sighted by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on 21 January 1821 and was named for Peter I of Russia. Not until 2 February 1929 did anyone set foot on the island, when Nils Larsen and Ola Olstad's Second Norvegia Expedition, financed by Lars Christensen, was successful. They claimed it for Norway, who annexed it in 1931 and made it a dependency in 1933. The next landing occurred in 1948 and the island has been subject to some scientific research and a limited amount of tourism. The island became subject to the Antarctic Treaty in 1961. Since 1987, there has been an automated meteorological station on the island. Three DX-peditions have visited the island and there are sporadic landings by tourists.

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Peñón de Alhucemas
Peñón de Alhucemas (Spanish pronunciation: [peˈɲon de aluˈθemas], "Lavender Rock") is one of the Spanish plazas de soberanía just off the Moroccan coast in the Alboran Sea. It is also one of several peñones, or rock-fortresses, on the coast of Northern Africa.
Peñón de Alhucemas and the islets of "Isla de Mar" and "Isla de Tierra" slightly to the west form the Alhucemas Islands. They are located 300 m (984 feet) off the Moroccan town of Al Hoceima, or Alhucemas (former Villa Sanjurjo), 146 km (96 mi) east of Ceuta and 84 km (62 mi) west of Melilla.
Peñón de Alhucemas is a tiny rock island, measuring 220 meters east-west and up to 84 meters north-south, with an area 1.5 ha or 0.015 km², and a height of 27 meters (88 ft). The rock is entirely occupied by a fort, several houses, and a church.
Isla de Tierra is a steep, 11 m (33 ft) high rocky platform, 114 meters north of the Moroccan beach, 192 meters long northeast-southwest, and up to 87 meters wide, yielding an area of 1.7 ha or 0.017 km².

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Pitcairn Islands
The Pitcairn Islands ( /ˈpɪtkɛərn/;Pitkern: Pitkern Ailen), officially named the Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie and Oeno Islands, form a group of four volcanic islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. The islands are a British Overseas Territory. The four islands—named Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno—are spread over several hundred miles of ocean and have a total land area of about 18 square miles (47 km²). Only Pitcairn, the second largest and measuring about 2 miles (3.2 km) across, is inhabited.
The islands are best known as home of the descendants of the Bounty mutineers and the Tahitians (or Polynesians) who accompanied them, an event retold in numerous books and films. This history is still apparent in the surnames of many of the islanders. With only about 48 inhabitants (currently from four main families: Christian, Warren, Young, and Brown), Pitcairn is the least populous jurisdiction in the world. The United Nations Committee on Decolonisation includes the Pitcairn Islands on the United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories.

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Portugal
Portugal ⁱ/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.

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Queen Maud Land
Queen Maud Land (Norwegian: Dronning Maud Land) is a c. 2.7 million-square-kilometre (1 million sq mi) region of Antarctica claimed as a dependent territory by Norway. The territory lies between 20° west and 45° east, between the British Antarctic Territory to the west and the Australian Antarctic Territory to the east. The latitudinal limits of the territory are not officially defined. Positioned in East Antarctica, the territory comprises one-sixth of the total area of Antarctica. The claim is named for Maud (1869–1938), queen consort of King Haakon VII of Norway.
Norwegian Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen was the first person to set foot in the territory in 1930. On 14 January 1939, the territory was claimed by Norway. From 1939 until 1945, Germany claimed New Swabia, which consisted of part of Queen Maud Land. On 23 June 1961, Queen Maud Land became part of the Antarctic Treaty System, making it a demilitarised zone. It is one of two Antarctic claims made by Norway, the other being Peter I Island. They are administrated by the Polar Affairs Department of the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police in Oslo.

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Réunion
Réunion (French: La Réunion, IPA: [la 'ʁeynjɔ̃] ( listen); previously Île Bourbon) is a French island with a population of about 800,000 located in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar, about 200 kilometres (120 mi) south west of Mauritius, the nearest island.
Administratively, Réunion is one of the overseas departments of France. Like the other overseas departments, Réunion is also one of the 27 regions of France (being an overseas region) and an integral part of the Republic with the same status as those situated on the European mainland.
Réunion is an outermost region of the European Union and, as an overseas department of France, is part of the Eurozone.
Before the arrival of the Portuguese in the early sixteenth century, there is little to Réunion's recorded history. Arab traders were familiar with it by the name Dina Morgabin,. The island possibly features on a map from 1153 AD by Al Sharif el-Edrisi. The island may also have been visited by Swahili or Malay sailors.
The first European discovery of the area was made around 1507 by Portuguese explorers, but the specifics are unclear. The uninhabited island may have been first sighted by the expedition led by Don Pedro Mascarenhas, who gave his name to the island group around Réunion, the Mascarenes. Réunion itself was dubbed Santa Apolonia after a favorite saint, which suggests that the date of the Portuguese discovery may have been February 9, her saint day. Diego Lopes de Sequeira is claimed to have landed on the island in 1509.

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Saba
Saba ( /ˈseɪbə/) is a Caribbean island and the smallest special municipality (officially public body) of the Netherlands. It consists largely of the potentially active volcano Mount Scenery (877 m), the highest point within both the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Netherlands proper.
Saba, including the islet of Green Island, became a special municipality within the country of the Netherlands after the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles on 10 October 2010.
The island has a land area of 13 km² (5 sq. miles). At the 2001 Netherlands Antilles census, the population was 1,824 inhabitants, which means a population density of 140 inhabitants per km². Its current major towns and settlements include The Bottom (the capital), Windwardside, Hell's Gate and St. Johns.
As the island is part of the Netherlands, Dutch is the official language. Despite the island's Dutch affiliation, English is the principal language spoken on the island and has been used in its school system since the 19th century. English can therefore be used in communications of and to the government although there is a local dialect. Since January 1, 2011, the U.S. dollar has been the official currency, replacing the Netherlands Antillian Guilder.

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Saint Barthélemy
Saint Barthélemy (French: Saint-Barthélemy, French pronunciation: [sɛ̃baʁtelemi]), officially the Territorial collectivity of Saint Barthélemy (French: Collectivité territoriale de Saint-Barthélemy), is an overseas collectivity of France. Often abbreviated to Saint-Barth in French, or St. Barts (also, St. Barth's) in English, the indigenous people called the island Ouanalao. The collectivity is one of four territories among the Leeward Islands in the northeastern Caribbean that comprise the French West Indies, along with Guadeloupe (200 km southeast), Martinique and Saint Martin. St. Barts lies c. 35 km southeast of Sint Maarten/Saint Martin, and north of St Kitts. Puerto Rico is 240 km to its west in the Lesser Antilles.
Saint Barthélemy, a volcanic island fully encircled by shallow reefs, has an area of 21 km² and a population of 8,823 (census 2008). Its capital is Gustavia, which also contains the main harbour to the island. It is the only Caribbean island which was a Swedish colony for any significant length of time; Guadeloupe was under Swedish rule only briefly, at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. Symbolism from the Swedish national arms, the Three Crowns, still appears in the island's coat of arms. The language, cuisine and culture, however, are distinctly French. The island is a popular tourist destination during the winter holiday season, especially the rich and famous during the Christmas and New Year period.

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Sint Eustatius
Sint Eustatius, also known affectionately to the locals as Statia/ˈsteɪʃə/ or Statius, is a Caribbean island and a special municipality (officially public body) of the Netherlands.
It lies in the northern Leeward Islands portion of the West Indies, southeast of the Virgin Islands and immediately to the northwest of Saint Kitts and Nevis and to the southeast of Saba, at 17°30′N 62°58′W / 17.5°N 62.967°W / 17.5; -62.967. The island is named after the legendary Christian martyr Saint Eustace. The regional capital is Oranjestad.
The island has an area of 21 km² (8.1 sq. miles). In the 2001 census, the population was recorded as 3,543 inhabitants, equating to a population density of 169 inhabitants per square kilometre. The official language is Dutch, however English is also recognised as an administrative language. A local English-based creole is also spoken informally. Travel to the island by air is through F.D. Roosevelt Airport.
Formerly part of the Netherlands Antilles, Sint Eustatius became a special municipality within the country of the Netherlands on 10 October 2010.

wn.com/Sint_Eustatius
Sint Maarten
Sint Maarten (Dutch pronunciation: [sɪnt ˈmaːrtə(n)]) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It encompasses the southern half of the Caribbean island of Saint Martin, while the northern half of the island constitutes the French overseas collectivity of Saint-Martin. Its capital is Philipsburg.
Before 10 October 2010, Sint Maarten was known as the Island Territory of Sint Maarten (Dutch: Eilandgebied Sint Maarten), and was one of five island territories (Eilandgebieden) that constituted the Netherlands Antilles.
In 1493, during Christopher Columbus' second voyages to the West Indies, upon first sighting the island he named it Isla de San Martín after Saint Martin of Tours because it was 11 November, St. Martin Day. However, though he claimed it as a Spanish territory, Columbus never landed there, and Spain made the settlement of the island a low priority.
The French and Dutch, on the other hand, both coveted the island. While the French wanted to colonize the islands between Trinidad and Bermuda, the Dutch found San Martín a convenient halfway point between their colonies in New Amsterdam (present day New York) and Brazil. With few people inhabiting the island, the Dutch easily founded a settlement there in 1631, erecting Fort Amsterdam as protection from invaders. Jan Claeszen Van Campen became its first governor, and soon thereafter the Dutch East India Company began their salt mining operations. French and British settlements sprang up on the island as well. Taking note of these successful colonies and wanting to maintain their control of the salt trade, the Spanish now found St. Martin much more appealing. The Eighty Years' War which had been raging between Spain and the Netherlands provided further incentive to attack.

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South Africa
Coordinates: 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces and has 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline. To the north of the country lie the neighbouring territories of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa is multi-ethnic and has diverse cultures and languages. Eleven official languages are recognised in the constitution. Two of these languages are of European origin: South African English and Afrikaans, a language which originated mainly from Dutch that is spoken by the majority of white and Coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language. All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President.

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Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean (also known as the Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean, and the South Polar Ocean) comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica. It is usually regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions. This ocean zone is where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters.
Geographers disagree on the Southern Ocean's northern boundary or even its existence, with many considering the waters part of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans instead. Others regard the Antarctic Convergence, an ocean zone which fluctuates seasonally, as separating the Southern Ocean from other oceans, rather than the 60th parallel.Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) has not yet ratified its 2000 definition of the ocean as being south of 60°S. Its latest published definition of oceans dates from 1953; this does not include the Southern Ocean. However, the more recent definition is used by the IHO and others.

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Spain
Spain (ⁱ/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.

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Svalbard
Svalbard (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈsʋɑlbɑɖ]) is an archipelago in the Arctic, constituting the northernmost part of Norway. It is located north of mainland Europe, midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of islands range from 74° to 81° north latitude (inside the Arctic Circle), and from 10° to 35° east longitude. Spitsbergen is the largest island, followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya. The administrative center is Longyearbyen, and other settlements include the Russian mining community of Barentsburg, the research community of Ny-Ålesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva. The archipelago is administered by the Governor of Svalbard.
The islands were first used as a whaling base in the 17th and 18th centuries, after which they were abandoned. Coal mining started at the beginning of the 20th century, and several permanent communities were established. The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty, and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway. This act also established Svalbard as a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone. The Norwegian Store Norske and the Russian Arktikugol are the only mining companies remaining on the islands. Research and tourism have become important supplementary industries. Two major research facilities are the University Centre in Svalbard and the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. No roads connect the settlements; instead snowmobiles, aircraft and boats serve inter-community transport. Svalbard Airport, Longyear serves as the main gateway to the rest of Europe.

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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.

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University of Oslo
The University of Oslo (Norwegian: Universitetet i Oslo), formerly The Royal Frederick University (Norwegian: Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet), is the oldest and largest university in Norway, situated in the Norwegian capital of Oslo. One of northern Europe's most prestigious universities, it is frequently ranked among the world's top 100 universities.
The university has around 27,700 students and employs around 6,000 people. It has faculties of (Lutheran) Theology (Norway's state religion since 1536), Law, Medicine, Humanities, Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Social Sciences, Dentistry, and Education. The university's old campus, strongly influenced by Prussian architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel's neoclassical style, is found in the centre of Oslo, near the National Theatre, the Royal Palace, and the Parliament. Today the old campus is occupied by the Faculty of Law, whereas most of the other faculties are located at the Blindern campus in the suburban West End, erected from the 1930s. The Faculty of Medicine is split between several university hospitals in the Oslo area.

wn.com/University_of_Oslo
Wallis and Futuna
Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands (French: Wallis et Futuna or Territoire des îles Wallis et Futuna, Fakauvea and Fakafutuna: Uvea mo Futuna), is a Polynesian French island territory in the South Pacific between Tuvalu to the northwest, Rotuma of Fiji to the west, the main part of Fiji to the southwest, Tonga to the southeast, Samoa to the east, the New Zealand-associated state of Tokelau to the northeast and to a more distant north the Phoenix Islands (Kiribati). (However, Wallis and Futuna is not part of, nor even contiguous with, French Polynesia. Wallis and Futuna is located at the very opposite western end of Polynesia.)
Its land area is 264 km² with a population of about 15,000. Mata-Utu is the capital and biggest city. The territory is made up of three main volcanic tropical islands along with a number of tiny islets, and is split into two island groups that lie about 260 km apart, namely Wallis Islands (Uvea) in the northeast, and Hoorn Islands (also called the Futuna Islands) in the southwest, including Futuna Island proper and the mostly uninhabited Alofi Island.

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Île Amsterdam
Île Amsterdam (French pronunciation: [ilamstəʁˈdam], also known as Amsterdam Island, New Amsterdam, or Nouvelle Amsterdam, is an island named after the city of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. It lies in the southern Indian Ocean. It is part of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands and, together with neighbouring Île Saint-Paul 85 km/53 mi to the south, forms one of the five districts of the territory. Its base, the Martin-de-Viviès research station, first called Camp Heurtin, then La Roche Godon, and the only settlement on the island, is the capital of the territory and is home to about 30 (non-permanent) inhabitants involved in biological, meteorological and geomagnetic studies.
Île Amsterdam is one of only three land antipodes of the continental United States. It corresponds to an area about 20 miles (32 km) southeast of Lamar, Colorado (the other two land antipodes of the US are île Saint-Paul and the Kerguelen Islands).
The island was discovered by the Basque Spanish explorer Juan Sebastián Elcano on 18 March 1522, in the course of his voyage of global circumnavigation. However, he did not name the island. Having found the island unnamed, Dutch captain Anthonie van Diemen named it Nieuw Amsterdam after his ship on 17 June 1633. The first recorded landing was made in December 1696 by Dutchman Willem de Vlamingh.

wn.com/Île_Amsterdam

Benjamin Morrell
Benjamin Morrell (5 July 1795 – 1839) was an American sealing captain and explorer who between 1823 and 1831 made a series of voyages, mainly to the Southern Ocean and the Pacific Islands, which are recorded in a colourful memoir A Narrative of Four Voyages. Morrell's reputation among his peers was for untruth and fantasy, and claims in his partly ghost-written account, especially those relating to his Antarctic experiences, have been disputed by geographers and historians.
Morrell had an eventful early career, running away to sea at the age of 16 and being twice captured and imprisoned by the British during the War of 1812. He subsequently sailed before the mast for several years before being appointed as chief mate, and later as captain, of the New York sealer Wasp. In 1823 he took Wasp for an extended voyage into subantarctic waters, and it was from this first voyage of a sequence of four that much of the controversy surrounding his reputation developed. Many of his claims—the first landing on Bouvet Island, a Weddell Sea penetration to 70°S, an extremely rapid passage of 3,500 nautical miles (6,500 km) at improbably high latitudes, and the discovery of a coastline he called New South Greenland—have been doubted or proved false. His subsequent three voyages, in different ships, were less contentious, although his descriptions of various incidents have been dismissed as fanciful or absurd. His unreliability is also aggravated by his acknowledged habit of working the experiences of others into his narratives.

wn.com/Benjamin_Morrell
Carl Chun
Dr. Carl Chun (October 1, 1852 – April 11, 1914) was a German marine biologist.
Chun was born in Höchst, today a part of Frankfurt, and studied zoology at the University of Leipzig where, after posts in Königsberg and Breslau, he was appointed professor for biology in 1892. He initiated and led the German deep sea expedition, which set out on August 1, 1898 from Hamburg to explore the deep sea in the subantarctic seas. They visited Bouvetøya, the Kerguelen Islands, and other islands in the area, before returning to Hamburg, where they arrived on April 30, 1899.
Chun was a specialist on cephalopods and plankton. He discovered and named the Vampire Squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis, which means "vampire squid from hell").
He died on April 11, 1914 in Leipzig, Germany.

wn.com/Carl_Chun
David McGonigal
David McGonigal (born 1950) is an award winning Australian travel writer, a widely-translated author and an internationally-exhibited photographer. He is a Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society and a past President of the Australian Society of Travel Writers. McGonigal has visited Antarctica more than 80 times (many as Expedition Leader) as well as making 20 trips to the Arctic including passing through both the Northwest and Northeast Passages and circumnavigating Svalbard.
McGonigal was born in New South Wales, grew up in Singleton, NSW and attended Newington College (1966-1967). He studied Arts/Law at Sydney University (1968-1975) graduating in Arts in 1971 and Law in 1975.
McGonigal has led Antarctica courses at the University of Sydney with guest lecturers Sir Edmund Hillary, Andrew Denton, Lincoln Hall and Phillip Law and has taken tours of Antarctica for the university.
McGonigal has twice travelled around the world on a motorcycle and, in 1998, was the first person ever to motorcycle on all seven continents.

wn.com/David_McGonigal
Harald V of Norway
Harald V (born 21 February 1937) is the King of Norway. He succeeded to the throne of Norway upon the death of his father Olaf V on 17 January 1991. The son of the then-Crown Prince Olaf and of Princess Märtha of Sweden, Harald was born at the Crown Prince Residence at Skaugum, Akershus, Norway.
A member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg, originally from Northern Germany, Harald became the first Norwegian-born prince since Olaf IV, who was born in 1370. Harald V is the formal head of the Church of Norway and the Norwegian Armed Forces. He has two children, Crown Prince Haakon and Princess Märtha Louise. His grandchildren are Maud Angelica (2003), Leah Isadora (2005), Emma Tallulah (2008), Princess Ingrid Alexandra (2004), and Prince Sverre Magnus (2005).
Harald has two older sisters: Princess Ragnhild of Norway, Mrs. Lorentzen (Ragnhild Alexandra, born Oslo, 9 June 1930), who lives in Brazil, and Princess Astrid of Norway, Mrs. Ferner (Astrid Maud Ingeborg, born Oslo, 12 February 1932), who lives in Oslo.

wn.com/Harald_V_of_Norway
Hugh Robert Mill
Hugh Robert Mill (28 May 1861 – 5 April 1950) was a Scottish geographer and meteorologist who was influential in the reform of geography teaching, and in the development of meteorology as a science. Educated in Scotland, he graduated from the University of Edinburgh in 1883. In 1892 he was appointed librarian to the Royal Geographical Society in London, a post which he held during the Society's involvement with the leading British Antarctic expeditions of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was a friend and confidant to Scott, Shackleton, and especially to William Speirs Bruce, who led the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902–04. He initiated Bruce's move from medicine to polar research by recommending him to the Dundee Whaling Expedition to the Antarctic, 1892–93, and to other Arctic expeditions. In 1923 he produced the first full-length biography of Shackleton.
Mill is commemorated by the Mill Glacier, a tributary of the Beardmore Glacier at 85°10′S 168°30′E / 85.167°S 168.5°E / -85.167; 168.5

wn.com/Hugh_Robert_Mill
James Burney
James Burney (13 June 1750 – 17 November 1821) was an English rear-admiral, who accompanied Captain Cook on his last two voyages.
Burney was born in London, the son of the composer and music scholar Charles Burney and his wife Esther Sleepe (c. 1725-1762). He was the brother of Charles Burney and the novelist and diarist Fanny Burney, and half-brother to the novelist Sarah Burney, who kept house for him from 1798 to 1803.
Burney's father obtained him a berth as a midshipman on Cook's Resolution, which sailed for the South Seas in June 1772. Back in England in 1774, he acted as interpreter for Omai, the first Tahitian to visit Britain. He witnessed Cook's killing in Hawaii in 1779. He was belatedly promoted, but in June 1782 commissioned captain of the 50-gun Bristol on a 12-ship convoy to Madras. he was action as part of Sir Edward Hughes's squadron in the final engagement with the French fleet off Cuddalore on 20 June 1783.
At the end of 1784 Burney fell seriously ill and departed for England. This was the end of his active naval career. Repeated petitions for a new command were rebuffed, in part because of his openly republican political views. However, he became a prolific naval author, who enjoyed the friendship of Charles Lamb, Henry Crabb Robinson and other literary figures.

wn.com/James_Burney
James Cook
Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.
Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society. This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook's career and the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HM Bark Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages.
In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved. As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.

wn.com/James_Cook
Lars Christensen
Lars Christensen (6 April 1884 – 10 December 1965) was a Norwegian shipowner and whaling magnate with a keen interest in the exploration of Antarctica.
Lars Christensen was born in Sandar. Born into a wealthy family, Christensen inherited his whaling fleet from his father, Christen Christensen. He started his career as a ship owner in 1906. He ventured into the whaling industry in 1909, and directed several companies, including Framnæs Mekaniske Værksted, AS Thor Dahl, AS Odd, AS Ørnen, AS Thorsholm and Bryde og Dahls Hvalfangstselskap.
Endurance, the ship that became famous after Sir Ernest Shackleton's failed Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, was originally built for Christensen, who intended to use her for polar cruises for tourists to hunt polar bears. When this did not happen, Christensen sold the ship to Shackleton.
Christensen had a deep interest in Antarctica and its animal life. He was particularly interested in making geographical discoveries, and gave his captains wide latitude to do so. He financed several expeditions specifically devoted to the exploration of the Antarctic continent and its waters, and participated in some of these himself, even bringing his wife Ingrid with him in the 1936–1937 expedition. He was among the first to use aerial surveying with seaplanes to map the coast of East Antarctica, which he completed from the Weddell Sea to the Shackleton Ice Shelf, concentrating on Bouvetøya and the region from Enderby Land to Coats Land. From the seaplane brought on the 1936–1937 expedition, members took 2,200 oblique aerial photographs, covering 6,250 square miles (16,200 km²). Mrs. Christensen became the first woman to fly over the continent.

wn.com/Lars_Christensen
Moss
Mosses are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm (0.4–4 in) tall, though some species are much larger. They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations. They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry stems. At certain times mosses produce spore capsules which may appear as beak-like capsules borne aloft on thin stalks.
There are approximately 12,000 species of moss classified in the Bryophyta. The division Bryophyta formerly included not only mosses, but also liverworts and hornworts. These other two groups of bryophytes now are often placed in their own divisions.
Botanically, mosses are bryophytes, or non-vascular plants. They differ from 'higher' plants by not having internal water-bearing vessels or veins, and no flowers and therefore no fruits, cones or seeds. They are small (a few centimeters tall) and herbaceous (nonwoody) and absorb water and nutrients through their leaves. Mosses have stems which may be simple or branched and upright or lax, simple leaves that often have midribs, roots (rhizoids) that anchor them to their substrate, and spore-bearing capsules on long stems. They harvest sunlight to create food through photosynthesis. Mosses do not absorb water or nutrients from their substrate through their roots, so while mosses often grow on trees, they are never parasitic on the tree.

wn.com/Moss

Missing Transmission - The Last Place

A dark ambient composition to create feelings of pressure and isolation.... The quote sour...

published: 03 Oct 2010

author: MissingTransmission

Invitation to the EXPEDITION for the FUTURE

I have chartered a great ship, the HANSE EXPLORER, to traverse the sub-antarctic seas from...

published: 08 Dec 2011

author: TheNomadsTv

Bouvet x

Mapa geografia Isla bouvet...

published: 04 Oct 2009

author: Josep Bartomeus

MW: 5.4, BOUVET ISLAND REGION

MW: 5.4, LOCATION: BOUVET ISLAND REGION C201212062133A More information is available: glob...

published: 07 Dec 2012

author: theshakemovie

GREETINGS FROM NORWAY [1/5]

The Kingdom of Norway is a constitutional monarchy in Northern Europe that occupies the we...

published: 20 Aug 2008

author: ygdrasil21

GREETINGS FROM NORWAY [2/5]

The Kingdom of Norway is a constitutional monarchy in Northern Europe that occupies the we...

published: 20 Aug 2008

author: ygdrasil21

Bouvet Island

...

published: 08 Jun 2011

author: abidjamilpakistan

Bouvet Island sex,

Did this video to let women who I slept with from there know that they are in my books, I ...

published: 29 Dec 2012

author: Clive Worth

GREETINGS FROM NORWAY [3/5]

The Kingdom of Norway is a constitutional monarchy in Northern Europe that occupies the we...

published: 20 Aug 2008

author: ygdrasil21

Bouvet Island Jesus

...

published: 14 Jan 2011

author: Jesusreborn1

I LOVE BOUVET ISLAND!

...

published: 30 Aug 2011

author: cardsforall

MW: 5.1, BOUVET ISLAND REGION

MW: 5.1, LOCATION: BOUVET ISLAND REGION 200906191754A More information is available: globa...

published: 06 Sep 2012

author: theshakemovie

psychic in bouvet Island (312) 772-7198

i am a born gifted psychic reader and spiritual healer. i have a gift to help and heal oth...

published: 18 May 2012

author: worldsbesttarot

Norway - Highlights from Winter time.

Norway - a beautiful country far north in Europe. Country: Norway Capital: Oslo. Populatio...

published: 07 Jan 2010

author: BeautyNorway

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photo: AP / Emanuel Ekra

An Ivory Coast troop stands next to the belongings of people involved in a deadly stampede in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, Tuesday, Jan. 1 2013.

Stampede after fireworks kills 61 in Ivory Coast

The Guardian

01 Jan 2013

INZA BAKAYOKO. Associated Press= ABIDJAN, Ivory Coast (AP) — A crowd stampeded after leaving a New Year's fireworks show early Tuesday in Ivory Coast's commercial center, killing 61 people — many of them youths — and injuring more than 200, rescue workers said. The death toll was expected to rise, the officials said ... Issa Sako of the fire department rescue team.....(size: 8.1Kb)

photo: WN / Imran Nissar

Youth Brigade of Kashmir carry out a protest demonstration in Srinagar, India, on Monday 24, December 2012. As solidarity with Delhi gang-rape case. The protesters were demanding action against people involved in rape incidents across the country.

Indian gang rape: suspects to appear in court

The Daily Telegraph

03 Jan 2013

A gang of men accused of repeatedly raping a 23-year-old student on a moving bus in New Delhi in a deadly crime that repulsed the nation are to appear in court today for the first time. A British tourist join others in a candlelight vigil to mourn the death of a gang rape victim, in Kolkata, India Photo. AP. 3.52AM GMT 03 Jan 2013 ... Police have ordered a bone test to determine his age and whether he can stand trial in an adult court....(size: 11.3Kb)

photo: AP / Ng Han Guan

North Korean leader Kim Jong Un attends a ceremony to reopen the Kumsusan Palace of the Sun in Pyongyang, North Korea, on Monday, Dec. 17, 2012.

North Korea's leader calls for peace with South in New Year's speech

Pittsburgh Post-Gazette

02 Jan 2013

SEOUL -- In a domestically televised New Year's Day speech, North Korean supreme leader Kim Jong Un said he wanted to "remove confrontation" on this divided peninsula and called on "anti-reunification forces" in South Korea to cease their hostility toward the North. The lengthy address, which laid out the national goals for 2013, marked Mr ... Mr. Kim on Tuesday asked for a detente -- but with prerequisites that the conservative Ms ... ....(size: 3.2Kb)

photo: AP / Juan Karita

File - Argentina's President Cristina Fernandez, front, gestures during a ceremony honoring Bolivia's Independence heroines in Cochabamba, Bolivia, Wednesday, July 18, 2012.

Argentina reasserts claim over Falklands

Al Jazeera

04 Jan 2013

Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner has released a public letter urging the United Kingdom to relinquish its control over the disputed Falkland Islands. ... The veterans delivered a letter addressed to the British Ambassador in Argentina, John Freeman, criticising the British government for refusing to discuss the sovereignty of the islands with the Argentine government....(size: 19.6Kb)

photo: US Navy / HMC Josh Ives

U.S. Army Lt. Col. Mark Martin, right, civil affairs team lead for Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) Farah, shakes hands and laughs with Mawlawi Guhlam M. Ruhaani, director of Hajj and Endowment, at the conclusion of a key leader engagement in Farah City, Dec. 29, 2012.

US working hard to have support for Afghan reconciliation

Zeenews

03 Jan 2013

Washington. Aiming to get cooperation through dialogue, the US said that it is working hard to create an environment within Afghanistan and also in the region to have support for Afghan-Afghan reconciliation ... Responding to questions, Nuland said the US supports an Afghan-led process of reconciliation ... Saying that Pakistan needs to engage with Afghanistan directly, Nuland said the US supports dialogue between the two ... PTI ... First Published....(size: 2.3Kb)

Bouvetøya

Government

Dependent territory

Monarch of Norway

Harald V

Administration

Ministry of Justice and the Police

Dependency of Norway

Claimed

1 December 1927

Annexed

23 January 1928

Dependency

27 February 1930

Nature reserve

17 December 1971

Area

Total

49 km²
19 sq mi

Glaciated

93%

Population

census

Uninhabited

Time zone

UTC+1

Internet TLD

.bv (not in use)

Bouvetøya (English: Bouvet Island), is an uninhabited subantarctic volcanic island and dependency of Norway located in the South Atlantic Ocean. Lying at the southern end of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, it is the most remote island in the world. The island has an area of 49 square kilometers (19 sq mi), of which 93 percent is covered by a glacier. The center of the island is an ice-filled crater of an inactive volcano. Along the coast lie some skerries and one island, Larsøya. Nyrøysa, created by a rock slide in the late 1950s, is the only easy place to land and features a weather station.

The island was first spotted on 1 January 1739 by and has since been named for Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier. He recorded inaccurate coordinates and the island was not sighted again until James Lindsay named it Lindsay Island in 1808. The first claim of landing, although disputed, was by Benjamin Morrell. The island was claimed for the British Crown by George Norris in 1825, who named it Liverpool Island. He also spotted a nearby phantom island, Thompson Island. The First Norvegia Expedition landed on the island in 1927 and claimed it for Norway. After a dispute with the UK, it was declared a Norwegian dependency in 1930. It became a nature reserve in 1971.

1 History
2 Geography
3 Climate
4 Nature
5 Politics and government
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
9 External links

History [link]

Discovery and early sightings [link]

Southeast coast of Bouvet Island in 1898

The island was discovered on 1 January 1739 by Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier, commander of the French ships Aigle and Marie.^[1] This was the first time land had been spotted south of the 50th parallel south. Bouvet, who was searching for a presumed large southern continent, spotted the island through the fog and named the cape he saw Cap de la Circoncision. He was not able to land and did not circumnavigate his discovery, thus not clarifying if it was an island or part of a continent.^[2] but his plotting of its position was inaccurate^[3] forcing several expeditions to fail to find the island again.^[4] James Cook's second voyage set off from Cape Verde on 22 November 1772 to find Cape Circoncision, but was unable to find the cape.^[5]

The next expedition to spot the land was the 1808 spotting by James Lindsay, captain of the Samuel Enderby & Sons' (SE&S) whaler Snow Swan.^[6] They reached the island and recorded its position, though they were unable to land.^[7]^[8] Lindsay could confirm that the "cape" was indeed an island.^[2] The next expedition to arrive at the island was American Benjamin Morrell and his vessel seal hunting ship Wasp. Morrell, by his own account, found the island without difficulty—with "improbable ease", in the words of historian William Mills—^[7]before landing and hunting 196 seals.^[2] In his subsequent lengthy description, Morrell does not mention the island's most obvious physical feature, its permanent ice cover.^[9] This has caused some commentators to doubt whether he actually visited the island.^[7]^[10]

On 10 December 1825, SE&S's George Norris, master of the Sprightly, landed on the island,^[2] named it Liverpool Island and claimed it for the British Crown and George IV on 16 December.^[11] The next expedition to spot the island was Joseph Fuller and his ship Francis Allyn in 1893, but he was not able to land on the island. German Carl Chun's Valdivia expedition arrived at the island in 1898. They were not able to land, but dredged the seabed for geological samples.^[12] They were also the first to accurately fix the island's position.^[11]

Norris also spotted a second island, which he named Thompson Island, which he placed 72 kilometers (45 mi) north-north-east of Liverpool Island, estimated to be about. Thompson Island was also reported by Fuller, but Chun did not report seeing the island, nor has anyone since.^[12] However, the island continued to appear on maps as late as 1943.^[13] A 1967 paper suggested that the island might have disappeared in a undetected volcanic eruption, but by 1997 it was discovered that the ocean is more than 2,400 meters (7,900 ft) deep in the area.^[14]

Norwegian annexation [link]

The annexation of the island on 1 December 1927

The first hut, built on Kapp Circoncision in 1929

In 1927, the first Norwegian Norvegia expedition—led by Harald Horntvedt and financed by Lars Christensen—was the first to make an extended stay on the island. Observations and surveying were conducted on the islands and oceanographic measurements performed in the sea around. At Ny Sandefjord, a small hut was erected, and on 1 December the Norwegian Flag was hoisted and the island claimed for Norway. The annexation was established by a royal decree on 23 January 1928.^[11] The claim was initially protested by the United Kingdom, on the basis of Norris' landing and annexation. However, the British position was weakened by Norris' sighting of two islands and the uncertainty as to whether he had been on Thompson or Liverpool (i.e. Bouvet) Island. Norris' positioning deviating from the correct location combined with the island's lack of a natural harbor and small size made the UK accept the Norwegian claim.^[15] This resulted in diplomatic negotiations between the two counties, and in November 1929, Britain renounced its claim to the island.^[11]

The Second Norvegia Expedition arrived in 1928 with the intent of establishing a manned meteorological radio station, but a suitable location could not be found.^[11] By then both the flagpole and hut from the previous year had been washed away. The Third Norvegia Expedition, led by Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen, arrived the following year and built a new hut at Kapp Circoncision and on Larsøya. The expedition carried out aerial photography of the island and was the first Antarctic expedition to use aircraft.^[16] The Dependency Act, passed by the Parliament of Norway on 27 February 1930, established Bouvet Island as a dependency, along with Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land.^[17] The eared seal was protected on and around the island in 1929 and in 1935 all seals around the island were protected.^[18]

Recent history [link]

In 1955, the South African frigate Transvaal visited the island.^[19] Nyrøysa, a rock-strewn ice-free area, the largest such on Bouvet, was created sometime between 1955 and 1958, probably by a landslide.^[20] A scientific landing in 1978 measured the underground temperature at 25 °C (77 °F).^[21] The island was visited by the British naval ship HMS Protector in 1964. In addition to scientific surveys,^[12] a life raft was found at Nyrøysa, although no people were found.^[21] The entire island and its territorial waters were protected as a nature reserve on 17 December 1971.^[22]

Since the 1970s, the island has been frequently visited by Norwegian Antarctic expeditions. In 1977, an automated weather station was constructed, and for two months in 1978 and 1979 a manned weather station was operated.^[16] The Vela Incident incident took place on 22 September 1979 in the sea between Bouvetøya and Prince Edward Islands when the American Vela Hotel satellite registered an unexplained double flash, variously interpreted as a nuclear test, meteor, or instrumentation glitch.^[21]^[23]^[24]^[25]

In March 1985, a Norwegian expedition experienced sufficient clear weather that the entire island could be photographed from the air, resulting in the first accurate map of the whole island.^[26] In the late 1980s, consideration was given to locating the Norwegian International Ship Register to Bouvetøya, Jan Mayen or Svalbard, but the flag of convenience registry was ultimately established in Bergen in 1987.^[27] Several DX-peditions have been conducted to the island.^[28]^[29] The Norwegian Polar Institute established a 36 square meters (390 sq ft) research station made up of containers at Nyrøysa in 1996. On 2006, the island was hit by an earthquake at 5.5 on Richter's scale, weakening the station's foundation and causing it to be blown to sea in a winter storm.^[30] The 2004 film Alien vs. Predator is set on Bouvetøya.^[31] The island was in 2007 added to Norway's tentative list of nominations as a World Heritage Site as part of an transnational nomination of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.^[32]

Krill fishing in the Southern Ocean is subject to the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, which defines maximum catch quotas for a sustainable exploitation of Antarctic krill.^[33] Surveys conducted in 2000 showed high concentration of krill around Bouvetøya. In 2004, Aker BioMarine was awarded a concession to fish krill, and additional quotas were awarded from 2008 for a total catch of 620,000 tonnes (610,000 long tons; 680,000 short tons).^[34] There is a controversy as to whether the fisheries are sustainable, particularly in relation to krill being important food for whales.^[35] In 2009, Norway filed with the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf to extend the outer limited of the continental shelf past 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) surrounding the island.^[36]

Geography [link]

Bouvet Island

Glacier on Bouvet Island's west coast

Bouvetøya is a volcanic island constituting the top of a volcano located as the southern end of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge in the South Atlantic Ocean. The islands measures 9.5 by 7 kilometers (5.9 by 4.3 mi) and covers an area of 49 square kilometers (19 sq mi),^[18] including a number of small rocks and skerries and one sizable island, Larsøya.^[37] It is located in the Subantarctic, south of the Antarctic Convergence,^[38] which by some definitions would place the island in the Southern Ocean.^[39] Bouvet Island is the most remote island in the world.^[40] The closest land is Queen Maud Land of Antarctica, which is 1,700 kilometers (1,100 mi) to the south,^[4] and Gough Island, 1,600 kilometers (990 mi) to the north.^[41] The closest inhabited location is Cape Agulhas, South Africa, 2,200 kilometers (1,400 mi) to the northeast.^[18]

Nyrøysa is a 2-by-0.5-kilometer (1.2 by 0.3 mi) terrace located north-west on the island. Created by a rock slide sometime between 1955 and 1957, it is the easiest access point to the island.^[26] It is the site of the weather station.^[42] The north-west corner is the peninsula of Kapp Circoncision.^[43] From there to Kapp Valdivia, the coast is known as Morgenstiernekysten.^[44] Store-Kari is an islet located 1.2 kilometers (0.7 mi) east of the cape.^[45] From Kapp Valdivia to Kapp Lollo, on the west end of the island, the coast is known as Victoria Terasse.^[46] From there to the south-eastern corner the coast is known as Mowinckelkysten. Svartstranda is a section of black sand which runs 1.8 kilometers (1.1 mi) along the section.^[47] After rounding Kapp Fie, the coast along the south side is known as Vogtkysten.^[48] The western-most part of it is the 300 meters (980 ft) long shore of Sjøelefantstranda.^[49] Off Catoodden, on the south-western corner, lies Larsøya, the only island of any size off Bouvetøya.^[37] The western coast is known as Esmarchkysten. Midway to Nyrøysa lies Norvegiaodden^[50] and 0.5 kilometers (0.31 mi) off it the skerries of Bennskjæra.^[51]

The island is covered 93 percent by glaciers, giving the island a domed shape.^[26] The summit region of the island is Wilhelmplatået, slightly to the west of the island's center.^[12] The plateau is 3.5 kilometers (2.2 mi) across^[52] and surrounded by several peaks.^[12] The tallest is Olavtoppen, 780 meters (2,560 ft) above mean sea level (AMSL),^[26] followed by Lykketoppen (766 meters / 2,513 feet AMSL)^[53] and Mosbytoppen (670 meters / 2,200 feet AMSL).^[54] Below Wilhelmplatået lays the main caldera responsible for creating the island.^[12] The last eruption took place 2000 BC, producing a lava flow at Kapp Meteor.^[52] The volcano is presumed to be in a declining state.^[12] The temperatures 30 centimeters (12 in) below the surface has been measured to 25 °C (77 °F).^[26]

The island's coastline is 29.6 kilometers (18.4 mi).^[55] Landing on the island is very difficult, as the island normally experiences high seas and features a steep coast.^[26] During the winter, the island is surrounded in pack ice.^[18] The Bouvet Triple Junction is located 275 kilometers (171 mi) west of Bouvet Island. It is a triple junction between the South American Plate, the African Plate and the Antarctic Plate, and of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Southwest Indian Ridge and the American–Antarctic Ridge.^[56]

Bouvet Island west coast

Climate [link]

The island is located south of the Antarctic Convergence, giving a marine Antarctic climate dominated by heavy clouds and fog surround the island most of the time. The island experiences a mean temperature of −1 °C (30 °F),^[26] with January average at 1 °C (34 °F) and September average of −3 °C (27 °F).^[41] The monthly high mean temperatures fluctuate little through the year.^[57] The peak 14 °C (57 °F) being recorded in March 1980, caused by intense sun radiation. Spot temperatures of 20 °C (68 °F) have been recorded in sunny weather on rock faces.^[26] The island predominantly experiences a weak west wind.^[41]

Climate data for Bouvet Island
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Average high °C (°F)	3 (37)	4 (39)	3 (37)	2 (36)	1 (34)	0 (32)	−1 (30)	−1 (30)	−1 (30)	0 (32)	1 (34)	3 (37)	1.2 (34.1)
Average low °C (°F)	0 (32)	0 (32)	0 (32)	0 (32)	−2 (28)	−4 (25)	−5 (23)	−5 (23)	−5 (23)	−3 (27)	−2 (28)	−1 (30)	−2.3 (28.0)
Source: ^[57]

Nature [link]

Aerial photo

The harsh climate and ice-bound terrain limits vegetation to non-vascular plants, specifically Ascomycota fungi, lichen, moss and liverwort. The flora is representative for the maritime Antarctic and is phytogeographically similar to the South Sandwich Islands and the South Shetland Islands. Vegetation is limited because of the ice cover, although there is recorded snow algae. The remaining vegetation is located in snow-free areas such as nunatak ridges and other parts of the summit plateau, the coastal cliffs, capes and beaches. At Nyrøysa, five species of moss, five lichens, one Ascomycota fungus and twenty algae have been recorded. Most snow-free areas are so steep and frequented by avalanches that only crustose lichen and algal formations sustain. There are three endemic Ascomycotgi and three endemic lichen.^[42]

The island has been designated as a Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because of its importance as a breeding ground for seabirds. In 1978–79 there were an estimated 117,000 breeding penguins on the island, consisting of Macaroni Penguin and to a less extent Chinstrap Penguin and Adélie Penguin , although this was only estimated to 62,000 in 1989–90. Nyrøysa is the most important colony for penguins, supplemented by Posadowskybreen, Kapp Circoncision, Norvegiaodden and across from Larsøya. Southern Fulmar is by far the most common non-penguin bird with 100,000 individuals. Other breeding seabirds consist of Cape Petrel, Antarctic Prion, Wilson's Storm Petrel, Black-bellied Storm Petrel , Subantarctic Skua , Southern Giant Petrel , Snow Petrel, Slender-billed Prion and Antarctic Tern . Kelp Gull is though to have breeded on the island earlier. Non-breeding birds which can be found on the island include the King Penguin, Wandering Albatross, Black-browed Albatross, Campbell Albatross, Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross, Sooty Albatross, Light-mantled Albatross, Northern Giant Petrel, Antarctic Petrel, Blue Petrel, Soft-plumaged Petrel, Short-billed Minivet, White-headed Petrel, Fairy Prion, White-chinned Petrel, Great Shearwater, Common Diving Petrel, South Polar Skua and Parasitic Jaeger.^[42]

The only non-bird vertabrates on the island are seals, specifically the Southern Elephant Seal and Antarctic Fur Seal, which both breed on the island. In 1998–99 there were 88 Elephant Seal pups and 13,000 Fur Seal pups at Nyrøysa. Humpback whale and killer whale are seen in the surrounding waters.^[42]

Politics and government [link]

Bouvetøya is one of three dependencies of Norway.^[58] Unlike Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land, which are subject to the Antarctic Treaty System,^[59] Bouvetøya is not disputed.^[55] The dependency status entails that the islands is not part of the Kingdom of Norway, but is still under Norwegian sovereignty. Specifically, this implies that the island can be ceded without violating the first article of the Constitution of Norway.^[58] Norwegian administration of the island is handled by the Polar Affairs Department of the Ministry of Justice and the Police, located in Oslo.^[60]

The annexation of the island is regulated by the Dependency Act of 24 March 1933. It establishes that Norwegian criminal law, private law and procedural law applies to the island, in addition to other laws that explicitly state they are valid on the island. It further establishes that all land belongs to the state, and prohibits the storage and detonation of nuclear products.^[17] Bouvet Island has been designated with the ISO 3166-2 code SJ^[61] and was subsequently awarded the country code top-level domain .bv on 21 August 1997.^[62] The domain is managed by Norid but is not in use.^[63] The exclusive economic zone surrounding the island covers an area of 441,163 square kilometers (170,334 sq mi).^[64] Norwegian law places the island in the UTC+01 time zone.^[65]

Notes [link]

^ Mills (2003): 96
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Barr (1987): 62
^ Mill (1905): 47
^ ^a ^b Barr (1987): 58
^ Hough (1994): 248
^ Burney (1817): 35
^ ^a ^b ^c Mills (2003): 434–35
^ McGonigal (2003): 135
^ Mill (1905): 106–107
^ Simpson-Housley (1992): 60
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Barr (1987): 63
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g P. E. Baker (1967). "Historical and Geological Notes on Bouvetøya". British Antarctic Survey Bulletin (13): 71–84. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. http://www.webcitation.org/67VhQJ7uf. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ A. R. H. and N. A. M. (1943). "Review: A New Chart of the Antarctic". The Geographical Journal 102 (1): 29–34. DOI:10.2307/1789367. JSTOR 1789367.
^ "Thompson Island". Global Volcanism Program. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1806-03-. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ Kyvik (2008): 52
^ ^a ^b Barr (1987): 64
^ ^a ^b "Lov om Bouvet-øya, Peter I's øy og Dronning Maud Land m.m. (bilandsloven)" (in Norwegian). Lovdata. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. http://www.lovdata.no/all/tl-19300227-003-0.html#1. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Bouvetøya". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. http://placenames.npolar.no/stadnamn/Bouvet%C3%B8ya?ident=902593. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ "South African expedition to Bouvetøya, 1955". Polar Record 8 (54): 256–258. September 1956. DOI:10.1017/S003224740004907X.
^ http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Bouvet.pdf
^ ^a ^b ^c Rubin (2005): 155
^ "Forskrift om fredning av Bouvetøya med tilliggende territorialfarvann som naturreservat" (in Norwegian). Lovdata. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://lovdata.no/for/sf/md/xd-19711217-0009.html. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Hersh (1991): 271
^ Rhodes (2011): 164–169
^ Weiss, Leonard (2011). "Israel’s 1979 Nuclear Test and the U.S. Cover-Up". Middle East Policy 18 (4). http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/23198/Weiss_IsraelNuclearTest.pdf.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h Barr (1987): 59
^ Kyvik (2008): 189
^ "Bouvet Island 1990". NØHR. 19 December 2007. Archived from the original on 12 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080112115930/http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/4073/ftr_cty.html. Retrieved 12 January 2008.
^ "DXpedition to Bouvet/3Y0E". NØHR. 19 December 2007. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://www.n0hr.com/hamradio_blog/2007/12/19/dxpedition-to-bouvet3y0e//. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Jaklin, Patrick (20 July 2010). "Norsk feltstasjon tatt av naturkreftene ved Antarktis". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://www.npolar.no/no/nyheter/2007/2007-10-19-norsk-feltstasjon-tatt-av-naturkrefter.html. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ "Let's get ready to rumble!". Movie Magic: 62. January 2005.
^ "Islands of Jan Mayen and Bouvet as parts of a serial transnational nomination of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge system". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5162/. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Schiermeier, Quirin (2 September 2010). "Ecologists fear Antarctic krill crisis". Nature 467 (15): 15. DOI:10.1038/467015a. http://www.nature.com/news/2010/100901/full/467015a.html. Retrieved 9 December 2011.
^ Molde, Eivind (2 March 2008). "Satsar på krill - eit nytt oljeeventyr" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://nrk.no/okonomi/krill---eit-nytt-oljeeventyr_-1.4984136. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Haram, Øyvind Andre (5 November 2007). "Norge tek maten frå kvalen" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.3952784. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Cordero-Moss, Giuditta. "The Law applicable to the Continental Shelf and in the Exclusive Economic Zone". University of Oslo. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://folk.uio.no/giudittm/IACL_10_IIID%20Norway.pdf. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Larsøya". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 8 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Lars%C3%B8ya?ident=903010&lang=en. Retrieved 8 May 2012.
^ "Antarctic Convergence". Geographic Names Information System. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:5:::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:488. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
^ "The Antarctic convergence". United Nations Environment Programme/GRID-Arendal. 25 February 2012. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/the-antarctic-convergence_26e0. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
^ "Volcanology Highlights". Global Volcanism Program. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=18&rpage=highlights. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c "Bouvetøya". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. http://www.npolar.no/no/antarktis/bouvetoya.html. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Hyser, Onno. "Bouvetøya". BirdLife Internationaøl. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Bouvet.pdf. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Kapp Circoncision". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Bennskjera?ident=902575&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Kapp Valdivia". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Kapp+Valdivia?ident=901087&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Store-Kari". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Store-Kari?ident=902130&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Kapp Lollo". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Kapp+Lollo?ident=901082&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Svartstranda". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Svartstranda?ident=902185&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Vogtkysten". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Svartstranda?ident=902185&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Sjøelefantstranda". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Sj%C3%B8elefantstranda?ident=901938&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Norvegiaodden". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Vogtkysten?ident=902470&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ "Bennskjæra". Norwegian Polar Institute. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://stadnamn.npolar.no/stadnamn/Bennskjera?ident=902575&lang=en. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Bouvet". Global Volcanism Program. Archived from the original on 10 May 2012. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/volcano.cfm?vnum=1806-02-. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
^ "Lykke Peak". Geographic Names Information System. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:5:::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:9163. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
^ "Mosby Peak". Geographic Names Information System. Archived from the original on 12 May 2012. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:5:::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:10304. Retrieved 12 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Bouvet Island". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bv.html. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ Mitchell, Neil C.; Livermore, Roy A.; Fabretti, Paola; Carrara, Gabriela (2000). "The Bouvet triple junction, 20 to 10 Ma, and extensive transtensional deformation adjacent to the Bouvet and Conrad transforms". Journal of Geophysical Research 105 (B4): 8279–8296. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012. http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/neil.mitchell/pubs/2000JGRBouvet.pdf. Retrieved 11 May 2012.
^ ^a ^b "Monthly Averages for Bouvet Island". Climate Zone. http://www.climate-zone.com/climate/bouvet-island/celsius/bouvet-island.htm. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
^ ^a ^b Gisle (1999): 38
^ Barr (1987): 65
^ "Polar Affairs Department". Norwegian Ministry of the Environment. Archived from the original on 29 August 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/61Ime20Bt. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
^ Takle, Mona Takle; Vassenden, Kåre (March 1998). "Country classifications in migration statistics – present situation and proposals for a Eurostat standard". United Nations Statistical Commission and United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. http://www.unece.org/stats/documents/1998/03/migration/5.e.pdf.
^ "Delegation Record for .SJ". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority. 13 November 2009. Archived from the original on 13 August 2010. http://www.iana.org/domains/root/db/bv.html. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
^ "The .bv and .sj top level domains". Norid. 3 August 2010. Archived from the original on 5 October 2010. http://www.norid.no/omnorid/bv-sj.en.html. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
^ "EEZ Waters Of Bouvet Isl. (Norway)". University of British Columbia. Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. http://www.seaaroundus.org/eez/74.aspx. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
^ "LOV 2007-01-26 nr 04: Lov om målenheter, måling og normaltid" (in Norwegian). Lovdata. 26 January 2007. http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-20070126-004.html. Retrieved 06 January 2012.

References [link]

Barr, Susan (1987). Norway's Polar Territories. Oslo: Aschehoug. ISBN 82-03-15689-4.
Burney, James (1817). A Chronological History of the Discoveries in the South Sea Or Pacific Ocean. V. http://books.google.no/books?id=uNI-AAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.
Hersh, Seymour (1991). The Samson option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy. Random House. ISBN 0-394-57006-5.
Hough, Richard (1994). Captain James Cook. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-82556-1.
Kyvik, Helga, ed. (2008) (in Norwegian). Norge i Antarktis. Oslo: Schibsted Forlag. ISBN 82-516-2589-0.
Gisle, Jon, ed. (1999) (in Norwegian). Jusleksikon. Kunnskapsforlaget. ISBN 8257308625. http://urn.nb.no/URN:NBN:no-nb_digibok_2008092904084.
McGonigal, David (2003). Antarctica. London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 978-0-7112-2980-8. http://books.google.com/?id=8bFcJgX0lIUC&pg=PA135&lpg=PA135&dq=Benjamin+Morrell.
Mill, Hugh Robert (1905). The Siege of the South Pole. London: Alston Rivers.
Mills, William James (2003). Exploring Polar Frontiers: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1576074226. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=PYdBH4dOOM4C&pg=PA435.
Rhodes, Richard (2011). Twilight of the Bombs: Recent Challenges, New Dangers, and the Prospects for a World Without Nuclear Weapons. Random House. ISBN 0-307-38741-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=qZgBYgfJvc8.
Rubin, Jeff (2005). Antarctica. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-094-5.
Simpson-Housley, Paul (1992). Antarctica: Exploration, Perception and Metaphor. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-08225-9.

External links [link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Bouvet Island

Coordinates: 54°26′S 3°24′E / 54.433°S 3.4°E / -54.433; 3.4

v t e Integral overseas areas and dependencies of Norway

Integral territories	Svalbard Jan Mayen

Dependent territories	Bouvet Island Peter I Island Queen Maud Land

v t e Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories

Argentina Australia (Heard Island and McDonald Islands Macquarie Island) Bouvet Island Chile Falkland Islands French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Kerguelen Islands) New Zealand (New Zealand Subantarctic Islands) South Africa (Prince Edward Islands) South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

"Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the Antarctic") does not include territorial claims on Antarctica itself.

Outlying territories of European countries

Territories under European sovereignty but closer to or on continents other than Europe (see inclusion criteria for further information)

Denmark

Greenland

Bouvet Island
Peter I Island
Queen Maud Land

Portugal

Spain

United
Kingdom

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Contents

History [link]

Discovery and early sightings [link]

Norwegian annexation [link]

Recent history [link]

Geography [link]

Climate [link]

Nature [link]

Politics and government [link]

See also [link]

Notes [link]

References [link]

External links [link]

http://wn.com/Bouvet_Island

Related pages:

http://it.wn.com/Isola Bouvet

http://cs.wn.com/Bouvetův ostrov

http://id.wn.com/Pulau Bouvet

http://es.wn.com/Isla Bouvet

http://ru.wn.com/Остров Буве

http://nl.wn.com/Bouvet

http://pl.wn.com/Wyspa Bouveta

http://fr.wn.com/Île Bouvet

http://de.wn.com/Bouvetinsel

http://pt.wn.com/Ilha Bouvet