Demographics of Lebanon
Indicator	Rank	Measure
Economy
GDP (PPP) per capita	51th	$15,557
Unemployment rate	↓ 21st	20.89%*
CO2 emissions	78th	3.05t†
Electricity consumption	77th	49.72GWh
Economic Freedom	95th	2.98
Politics
Human Development Index	68rd	0.803
Political freedom	Unknown	4
Corruption (A higher score means less (perceived) corruption.)	↓ 43rd	5.1
Press freedom	45th	74.00
Society
Literacy Rate	43th	96.7%
Number of Internet users	59rd	2,604,000 users
E-readiness	14th	7.16±
Ease of Doing Business	24th	Unknown
Health
Life Expectancy	59th	77.0
Birth rate	113th	15.6‡
Fertility rate	157th	1.77††
Infant mortality	127th	14.39‡‡
Death rate	157st	7.5‡
HIV/AIDS rate	127st	0.10%
Quality-of-life	31th	6.808±
Notes
* including several non-sovereign entities ↓ indicates rank is in reverse order (e.g. 1st is lowest) † per capita ± score out of 10 ‡ per 1000 people †† per woman ‡‡ per 1000 live births

This article is about the demographic features of the population of Lebanon, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.

Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity since in reality, the Lebanese “are descended from many different peoples who have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world,” making Lebanon, “a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures”.^[1] While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, “for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict”.^[1] About 91% of the population of Lebanon includes numerous Muslim sects and Christian denominations. Because the matter of religious balance is a sensitive political issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932, before the founding of the modern Lebanese state. Consequently there is an absence of accurate data on the relative percentages of the population of the major religions and groups.^[2] 95% of Lebanese people worldwide are primarily Semitic and the rest of the 5% are Armenians.

Vital statistics[link]

[edit] UN estimates^[3]

Ethnic groups[link]

The Lebanese[link]

Three Lebanese women, 1873.

Ethnic background is an important factor in Lebanon. The country encompasses a great mix of cultural, religious, and ethnic groups which have been building up for more than 6,000 years. Although most of the population is today considered Arab, in the sense that Arabic is the national language, the ethnic self-designations vary. Whereas the Arabs first reached Lebanon in the 3rd century AD when the Ghassanids (mostly Christian Arabs) migrated north, the majority of the Maronite population is non-Arab in terms of ancestry. The predominant cultural backgrounds and ancestry of the Lebanese vary from Aramaean (Ancient Syria) to Canaanite (Phoenician), and Greek (Byzantine). Lebanese are overall genetically similar to the other modern Levantine populations, such as the Syrians and the Palestinians.^[4] The question of ethnic identity has come to revolve more around aspects of cultural self-identification more than descent. Religious affiliation has also become a substitute in some respects for ethnic affiliation.^[5] Generally it can be said that all religious sects and denominations comprise many different ethnic backgrounds, and that clear ethnic boundaries are difficult to define. Still, religious and ethnic distinctions sometimes coincide, since religious sects and denominations have tended to marry within their own group, thus preserving not only religious but ethnic characteristics.

The Maronite Christians, are a part of the Syriac people and belongs to the West Syriac Rite. Their Liturgical language is the Syriac-Aramaic language.^[6][7]

Melkite Greek Catholics, the Greek Orthodox, tend to focus more on the Greek heritage of the region from the days of the Byzantine Empire, and the fact that Greek was maintained as a liturgical language until very recently. Some Christians even claim partial descent from Crusader knights who ruled Lebanon for a couple of centuries during the Middle Ages, also backed by recent genetic studies which found many Lebanese Christians, especially North of the country. This identification with non-Arab civilizations also exists in other religious communities, albeit not to the same extent.

Palestinian refugees[link]

Palestinians celebrating in the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp, 2005.

402,582 descendants of Palestinian refugees were registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) in March 2005, almost all refugees or descendants of refugees from the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Some of these may have emigrated during the civil war, but there are no reliable figures available. There are also a number of Palestinians who are not registered as UNRWA refugees, because they left earlier than 1948 or were not in need of material assistance. The exact number of Palestinians remain a subject of great dispute and the Lebanese government will not provide an estimate. A figure of 400,000 Palestinian refugees would mean that Palestinians constitute more than 10% of the resident population of Lebanon.

Palestinians living in Lebanon are considered foreigners and are under the same restrictions on employment applied to other foreigners. Prior to 2010 they were under even more restrictive employment rules which permitted, other than work for the U.N., only the most menial employment. They are not allowed to attend public schools, own property, or make an enforceable will.^[8]

Palestinian refugees, who constitute nearly a tenth of the country’s population, have long been denied basic rights in Lebanon. They are not allowed to attend public schools, own property or pass on inheritances, measures Lebanon says it has adopted to preserve their right to return to their property in what constitutes Israel now.

Their presence is controversial, and resisted by large segments of the Christian population, who argue that the primarily Sunni Muslim Palestinians dilute Christian numbers. Many Shi'a Muslims also look unfavorably upon the Palestinian presence since the camps have tended to be concentrated in their home areas. The Lebanese Sunnis, however, would be happy to see these Palestinians given the Lebanese nationality, thus increasing the Lebanese Sunni population by well over 10% and tipping the fragile electoral balance much in favor of the Sunnis. Late Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri—himself a Sunni—had hinted on more than one occasion on the inevitability of granting these refugees Lebanese citizenship. Thus far the refugees are denied citizenship as well as many rights enjoyed by the rest of the population, and are confined to severely overcrowded refugee camps, in which construction rights are severely constricted.

Palestinians may not work in a large number of professions, such as lawyers and doctors. However, after negotiations between Lebanese authorities and ministers from the Palestinian National Authority some professions for Palestinians were allowed (such as taxi driver and construction worker). The material situation of the Palestinian refugees in Lebanon is difficult, and they are believed to constitute the poorest community in Lebanon, as well as the poorest Palestinian community with the possible exception of Gaza refugees. Their primary sources of income are UNRWA aid and menial labor sought in competition with Syrian guest workers.

The Palestinians are almost totally Sunni Muslim, though at some point Christians counted as high as 40% with Muslims at 60%. The numbers of Palestinian Christians has diminished in later years, as many have managed to leave Lebanon. During the Lebanese Civil War, Palestinian Christians sided with the rest of the Palestinian community, instead of allying with Lebanese Greek Orthodox or other Christian communities.

60,000 Palestinians have received Lebanese citizenship, including most Christian Palestinians.^[9][10]

Other immigrants and ethnic groups[link]

There are substantial numbers of immigrants from other Arab countries and non-Arab-speaking Muslim countries. Also, recent years have seen an influx of people from Ethiopia ^[11] and South East Asian countries such as Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia, Sri Lanka,^[12] as well as smaller numbers of other immigrant minorities, Colombians and Brazilians (of Lebanese descent themselves). Most of these are employed as guest workers in the same fashion as Syrians and Palestinians, and entered the country to search for employment in the post-war reconstruction of Lebanon. Apart from the Palestinians, there are approximately 180,000 stateless persons in Lebanon.

Lebanese Armenians, Jews, Persians form more distinct ethnic minorities, all of them in possession of a separate languages and a national home area outside of Lebanon. However, they total 5% of the population.

Due to the US-led invasion of Iraq, Lebanon has received a mass influx of Iraqi refugees numbering at around 100,000. The vast majority of them are undocumented, with a large number having been deported or put in prison.^[13]

There are an estimated 40,000 Assyrians (Syriac Christians) in Lebanon (estimate do not include the member of the Maronite Syriac Church).^[14][15] They belong to various Syriac denominations, including the Assyrian Church of the East, Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syriac Catholic Church, and the Chaldean Catholic Church.

There are about 200,000 Mardalli Arabs in Lebanon, i.e. Arabs originating from the Mardin province in Turkey, most of them live in Beirut. The Mardallis are often falsely referred to as Kurds by the Lebanese people because of the lack of knowledge about their background by the Lebanese people and since they originate from an area that have a big Kurdish population today.

During European colonialism, there was a fairly large French minority. Most of the French settlers left after Lebanese independence in 1943. Their most important colonial influence is the frequent use of French language.

Religious groups of Lebanon[link]

The sectarian system[link]

Lebanon's religious divisions are extremely complicated, and the country is made up by a multitude of religious groupings. The ecclesiastical and demographic patterns of the sects and denominations are complex. Divisions and rivalries between groups date back as far as 15 centuries, and still are a factor today. The pattern of settlement has changed little since the 7th century, but instances of civil strife and ethnic cleansing, most recently during the Lebanese Civil War, has brought some important changes to the religious map of the country. (See also History of Lebanon.)

Lebanon has by far the largest proportion of Christians of any Arab country, but both Christians and Muslims are sub-divided into many splinter sects and denominations. All population statistics are by necessity controversial, and all denomination and sects have a vested interest in inflating their own numbers. Sunnis, Shi'as and Maronites (the three largest denominations) all often claim that their particular religious affiliation holds a majority in the country, adding up to over 150% of the total population, even before counting the other denominations. One of the rare things that most Lebanese religious leaders will agree on is to avoid a new general census, for fear that it could trigger a new round of denoiminational conflict. The last official census was performed in 1932.

Religion has traditionally been of overriding importance in defining the Lebanese population. Dividing state power between the religious denominations and sects, and granting religious authorities judicial power, dates back to Ottoman times (the millet system). The practice was reinforced during French mandate, when Christian groups were granted privileges. This system of government, while partly intended as a compromise between sectarian demands, has caused tensions that still dominate Lebanese politics to this day.

The Christian population majority is believed to have ended in the early 1960s, but government leaders would agree to no change in the political power balance. This led to Muslim demands of increased representation, and the constant sectarian tension slid into violent conflict in 1958 (prompting U.S. intervention) and again in the grueling Lebanese Civil War, in 1975–90.

The balance of power has been slightly adjusted in the 1943 National Pact, an informal agreement struck at independence, in which positions of power were divided according to the 1932 census. The Sunni elite was then accorded more power, but Maronites continued to dominate the system. The sectarian balance was again adjusted towards the Muslim side but simultaneously further reinforced and legitimized. Shi'a Muslims (by now the largest sect) then gained additional representation in the state apparatus, and the obligatory Christian-Muslim representation in Parliament was downgraded from a 6:5 to a 1:1 ratio. Christians of various denominations were then generally thought to constitute about 40% of the population, although often Muslim leaders would cite lower numbers, and some Christians would claim that they still held a majority of the population.

The 18 recognized religious communities, Sects and Religions[link]

The present Lebanese Constitution officially acknowledges 18 religious groups (see below). These have the right to handle family law according to their own courts and traditions, and they are the basic players in Lebanon's complex sectarian politics. Still, it is important to note that these groups are not internally homogeneous; for example, the Maronite, Shi'a and Druze communities have been wracked by internal fighting even in recent times.

• Alawite
• Armenian Catholic
• Armenian Orthodox
• Assyrian Church of the East
• Chaldean Catholic
• Copts
• Druze
• Greek Catholic
• Greek Orthodox
• Isma'ili
• Jewish
• Maronite
• Protestant
• Roman Catholic
• Sunni
• Shi'a
• Syriac Catholic
• Syriac Orthodox

Religious population statistics[link]

Note: stateless Palestinians and Syrians are not included in the statistics below since they do not hold Lebanese citizenship. The numbers only include the present population of Lebanon, and not the Lebanese diaspora.

The 1932 census stated that Christians made up 54% of the population. Maronites, largest among the Christian denomination and then largely in control of the state apparatus, accounted for 29% of the total resident population. But since the 19th century, Muslim birth rates have been continually higher than Christian birth rates. Also, far larger numbers of Christians emigrated from Lebanon than Muslims. According to recent statistics by the CIA Factbook, 50% of the Lebanese population are Muslims, while 50% are Christians.^[16]

Christians[link]

Today, it is estimated that the Christian population makes up about 39%^[16] to 63%^[17] of the total population.

• The Maronites are the largest of the Christian groups. They have had a long and continuous association with the Roman Catholic Church, but have their own patriarch, liturgy, and customs. Traditionally they had good relations with the Western world, especially France and the Vatican.^{[citation needed]} They traditionally dominated the Lebanese government, and the President of Lebanon is always a Maronite. Their influence in later years has diminished, because of their relative decrease in numbers but also due to the Syrian occupation of Lebanon, which generally benefited Muslim communities, and was resisted by most Maronites. Today the Maronites are believed to compose about 21% of the population, scattered around the Lebanese countryside but with heavy concentrations on Mount Lebanon and in Beirut.
• The second largest Christian group is the Greek Orthodox. The church exists in many parts of the Arab world and Greek Orthodox Christians have often been noted for pan-Arab or pan-Syrian leanings; it has had less dealings with Western countries than the Maronites. The Greek Orthodox Lebanese Christians have a long and continuous association with Greek Orthodox European countries like Greece, Cyprus, Russia, Ukraine, Bulgaria and Serbia. They are believed to constitute about 8% of the total population, including the Palestinian Greek Orthodox community, many of whom have been given Lebanese citizenship. The Deputy Speaker of Parliament is always a Greek Orthodox.
• The remaining Christian churches are thought to constitute another 8% of the population (Greek Catholics or Melkites, Armenian Apostolic, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Assyrians, Protestants) with no single group over 4% of the total population. Please refer to their articles in the list above, for more information.

• For the Roman Catholics see Roman Catholicism in Lebanon.

Muslims[link]

Today, there is consensus that Muslims constitute a solid part of the population. According to the CIA World Factbook The Muslim population is estimated at 50% (Shia, Sunni, Druze, Isma'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri).^[16] Sectarian Breakdown:

• Shi'a Muslims are around 30%^[18][19] of the total population, though a study done by the CIA in 1988 put their numbers at 41% of the population.^[20] Shias are the only sect eligible for the post of Speaker of Parliament.^{[21][22][23][24]} The Shiites are concentrated in northern and western Beqaa, Southern Lebanon and in the southern suburbs of Beirut.^[25]
• Sunni Muslims constitute also about 30%^[25] of the total population. Sunni notables traditionally held power in the Lebanese state together, and they are still the only sect eligible for the post of Prime Minister^[26] Sunnis are concentrated only in Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon and in the countryside of the Akkar .^[25]
• The Druze constitute 5% of the population (however, most Druze do not consider themselves as an Islamic sect but rather as a separate religion).^{[original research?]}
• Other Muslim sects have a small presence, with the Isma'ilis and Alawites combined comprising less than 1% of the population.

Other religions[link]

Other religions account for only an estimated 1.3% of the population, according to the CIA Factbook. There remains a very small Jewish population, traditionally centered in Beirut. It has been larger: most Jews left the country after the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990).

The Lebanese diaspora[link]

Apart from the three and a half million citizens of Lebanon proper, there is a sizeable Lebanese diaspora. No accurate numbers are available, so estimates on the total size of the diaspora vary wildly, from conservative estimates of 4–5 million to a maximum, and probably inflated, figure of 15 million. Most Lebanese emigrants and their descendants are Christian; however, there are some who are Muslim. Lebanese Christian families are economically and politically prominent in several Latin American countries (in 2007 Mexican Carlos Slim Helú, son of Lebanese immigrants, was determined to be the wealthiest man in the World by Fortune Magazine), and make up a substantial portion of the Lebanese American community in the United States. The largest Lebanese diaspora is located in Brazil, where about 6–7 million people have Lebanese descent (see Lebanese Brazilian).

The large size of Lebanon's diaspora may be partly explained by the historical and cultural tradition of sea-faring and traveling, which stretches back to Lebanon's ancient Phoenician origins and its role as a "gateway" of relations between Europe and the Middle East. It has been commonplace for Lebanese citizens to emigrate in search of economic prosperity. Furthermore, on several occasions in the last two centuries the Lebanese population has endured periods of ethnic cleansing and displacement (for example, 1840–60 and 1975–90). These factors have contributed to the geographical mobility of the Lebanese people.

While under Syrian occupation, Beirut passed legislation which prevented second-generation Lebanese of the diaspora from automatically obtaining Lebanese citizenship. This has reinforced the émigré status of many diaspora Lebanese. There is currently a campaign by those Lebanese of the diaspora who already have Lebanese citizenship to attain the vote from abroad, which has been successfully passed in the Lebanese parliament and will be effective as of 2013 which is the next parliamentary elections. If suffrage was to be extended to these 1.2 million Lebanese émigré citizens, it would have a significant political effect, since as many as 90% of them are believed to be Christian.

Lebanese Civil War refugees and displaced persons[link]

With no official figures available, it is estimated that 600,000–900,000 persons fled the country during the Lebanese Civil War (1975–90). Although some have since returned, this permanently disturbed Lebanese population growth and greatly complicated demographic statistics.

Another result of the war was a large number of internally displaced persons. This especially affected the southern Shi'a community, as Israeli invasion of southern Lebanon in 1978, 1982 and 1996 prompted waves of mass emigration, in addition to the continual strain of occupation and fighting between Israel and Hizbullah (mainly 1982 to 2000).

Many Shi'a resettled in hastily constructed slum suburbs south of Beirut, the so-called "belt of misery". After the war, the pace of Christian emigration accelerated, as many Christians felt discriminated against in a Lebanon under increasingly oppressive Syrian occupation.

Languages in Lebanon[link]

Commonly spoken languages in Lebanon include Lebanese Arabic/Arabic (official), French and English. The minority languages mainly spoken between their respective populations are Armenian, Kurdish, Greek and many others.

CIA World Factbook demographic statistics[link]

US Census Statistics

The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.

• Population:

Total population: 4,143,101 (July 2011 est.)

• Age structure:
• 0–14 years: 21.5% (male 487,930/female 464,678)
• 15–64 years: 68% (male 1,370,628/female 1,466,173)
• 65 years and over: 10.5% (male 173,073/female 200,619) (2010 est.)

• Median age:

Total: 29.34 years

Male: 27.28 years

Female: 31.43 years (2011 est.)

• Population growth rate:

1.04% (2005 est.)

0.96% (2011 est.) according to CIA Factbook

• Net migration rate:

-4.43 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2011 est.)

• Sex ratio:

at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female

15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.83 male(s)/female

total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

• Life expectancy at birth:

total population: 76.82 years

male: 75.28 years

female: 78.36 years (2010 est.)

Marginalized portions of society[link]

According to a UNDP study, as much as 10% of the Lebanese had a disability in 1990.^[27] Other studies have pointed to the fact that this portion of society is highly marginalized due to the lack of educational and governmental support of their advancement.^[27]

References[link]

Lebanese Republic الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: كلّنا للوطن    Kulluna lil-watan   All Of Us, For Our Country! File:Lebanese national anthem.ogg
Location of Lebanon
Capital (and largest city)		Beirut 33°54′N 35°32′E / 33.9°N 35.533°E / 33.9; 35.533
Official language(s)		Arabic1
Recognised national languages		Arabic as primary language, French, English and Armenian languages.
Demonym		Lebanese
Government		Unitary confessionalist and Parliamentary republic[1]
-	President	Michel Suleiman
-	Prime Minister	Najib Mikati
-	Deputy Prime Minister	Samir Mouqbel
-	Speaker of Parliament	Nabih Berri
-	Deputy Speaker of Parliament	Farid Makari
Legislature		Parliament
Independence		End of French League of Nations Mandate
-	Declaration of Greater Lebanon	1 September 1920
-	Constitution	23 May 1926
-	Declared	26 November 1941
-	Recognized	22 November 1943
-	Withdrawal of Allies Forces	31 December 1946
Area
-	total	10,452 km2 (166th) 4,036 sq mi
-	Water (%)	1.6
Population
-	2008 estimate	4,224,000[2] (126th)
-	Density	404/km2 (25th) 1,046/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$61.444 billion[3] (83rd)
-	Per capita	$15,522[3] (57th)
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$39.039 billion[3] (80th)
-	Per capita	$9,862[3] (63rd)
HDI (2011)		0.739[4] ( high) (71st)
Currency		Lebanese pound (LBP)
Time zone		EET (UTC+2)
-	Summer (DST)	EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		LB
Internet TLD		.lb
Calling code		961[5]
1Article 11 of the Constitution of Lebanon states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used."

Lebanon (ⁱ/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان‎ Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic^{[nb 1]} (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.^[6]

The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history.^[7] Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.^[8]

Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the country experienced a period of relative calm and prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, and banking.^[9] Because of its financial power and diversity, Lebanon was known in its heyday as the "Switzerland of the East".^[10] It attracted large numbers of tourists,^[11] such that the capital Beirut was referred to as "Paris of the Middle East." At the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.^[12]

Lebanon is known for its efforts in the Middle East to guarantee civil rights and freedom to its citizens, ranking first in the Middle East and 26th worldwide (out of 66 countries) in the The World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index 2011.^[13] Lebanon is an emerging economy, with a private sector that contributes to 75% of aggregate demand and a large banking sector that supports this demand.

Etymology[link]

The name Lebanon comes from the Semitic root lbn, meaning "white", likely a reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon. Upon his arrival to Lebanon around 47 BC, Julius Caesar proclaimed "Lub" "Na'an", meaning "White-Land" in Semitic.^[14]

Occurrences of the name have been found in texts from the library of Ebla,^[15] which date to the third millennium BC, nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (perhaps as early as 2100 BC).^[16]

The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L.^[17]

Geography[link]

Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western and eastern mountain ranges

Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N, and longitudes 35° and 37° E.

The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.^[18] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.^[19]

Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains.

Mountain scenery in Barouk

The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10km and 56 km; it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine. The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180km long and 10 to 26 km wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft).^[18]

The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.^[18]

Climate[link]

Nahr Ibrahim running through the lush Adonis gorge

Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.^[20][18] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.^[21]

Environment[link]

In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of Cedar, the national emblem of the country.^[22] As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old Cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting, and this by creating the right conditions for germination and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.^[23][24][25] In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20% that is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.^[26] The plan, which was funded the U.S. development agency, USAID, and overseen by the U.S. Forest Service, and the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative, was inaugurated in 2011 by planting of seedlings, such as cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir and oak, in five regions around Lebanon.^[26] The forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;^[27] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.^[28]

History[link]

Ancient history[link]

Map of Phoenicia and trade routes

Evidence of an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, which is considered to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world,^[7] and date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.^[29]

Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants - the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.^[30] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Egyptian Empire, Persian, Assyrian, Hellenistic, Roman, Eastern Roman, Arab, Seljuk, Mamluk, Crusader, and the Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman Era[link]

In 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became successor to Korkmaz. He was a skilled politician and described as a pupil of Machiavelli. Fakhr-al-Din II adjusted to the lifestyles of the Druze, Christianity and Islam, according to his needs. He paid tribute to the Sultanate of the Ottoman Empire and shared the spoils of war with his masters. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sultan of Mt. Lebanon, with full authority. He was considered one of the greatest rulers of the region, also across the Middle of Lebanon. But, his enemies and governors angered the Ottoman Sultanate. Hence, a campaign, calling for the arrest of Fakhr-al-Din II, found the deposed leader in Istanbul, where he was executed by hanging.^[31] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mt. Lebanon that lasted more than 500 years was replaced, instead of the emirate meteor.

World War I and its aftermath[link]

Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, until 1918 when the area became a part of the French influence, following World War I. By the end of the war, famine had killed an estimated 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon, about 30% of the total population.^[32]

In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites.

French mandate[link]

Map of the autonomous areas under the French Mandate of Syria before 1937

On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.^[33] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims (including Druze). On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government.

Republic of Lebanon[link]

During WWII[link]

Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.^[34] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943 and recognized the independence of Lebanon.

The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the deputy speaker of Parliament and the deputy prime minister be Greek Orthodox.^[35]

Stability and growth[link]

Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.^[36]

In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.^[37] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.^[38] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.^[39]

During the war, some 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon, while Israel did not permit their return at the end of hostilities.^[40] Palestinians, previously prevented from working at all due to denial of citizenship, are now forbidden to work in some 20 professions after liberalization laws.^[41] Today, more than 400,000 refugees remain in limbo, about half in camps.^[42]

With the defeat of PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their violent campaign against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians vs. the Maronites and other Lebanese factions.

Civil war[link]

The Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982

In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, a full scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country's economy, and resulting in massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.^[43] Some 900,000 people, representing one-fifth of the pre-war population, were displaced from their homes.^[44] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.^[45]

GDP Change in Lebanon before and during the civil war (in real terms)^[46]

Occupation period[link]

Following the civil war, Syria remained to occupy large parts of Lebanon until 2005, while Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak led its full withdrawal a belief that the violence would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence in Lebanon.^[47] Hezbollah, however declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.^[48]

Internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.^[49]

Part of Rue Minet al Hosn, where Rafik Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005

On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Hotel in Beirut.^[50] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance, a pro-Western coalition, accused Syria of the attack^[51] because of its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending President Lahoud's term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.^[52]

This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, dubbed the 'Cedar Revolution,' which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on 7 April 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.^[53] Preliminary findings of the investigation were officially published on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that high-ranking members of the Syrian and Lebanese governments were involved in the assassination.^[54] Eventually, and under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.^[55] By 26 April 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.^[56] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that resulted in the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.^[57]

In 2005, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Mehlis as the Commissioner of the UN International Independent Investigation Commission (UNIIIC) into the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri and 21 other people in Beirut.^[58] In October 2005, Jund al-Sham threatened to kill Detlev Mehlis while he was heading the UN inquiry into the assassination of Rafik Hariri, claiming that Mehlis was connected with Israel and the CIA.^[59]

The Mehlis report was presented to the Secretary General on 20 October 2005. It implicated Lebanese and Syrian Military Intelligence in the assassination, and it accused Syrian officials, including now Foreign Minister Muallem, of misleading the investigation.^[60] A second report was submitted on 10 December 2005. On 11 January 2006 Mehlis, upon his own suggestion, was replaced by Serge Brammertz.^[61]

Liberated Lebanon (2005-present)[link]

With adoption of UN resolution 1559 Syria was forced to announce its full withdrawal from Lebanon on April 30, 2006.^[62] Syrian military withdrawal reshuffled the politic landscape of Lebanon, though still remaining an influential power, through its former allies - most notably the Shia party of Hizbollah.

Areas in Lebanon targeted by Israeli bombing, 12 July to 13 August 2006

On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks into Israeli towns and cities in proximity to the Israeli Lebanese border. This was combined with a cross border raid into Israeli territory where Hezbollah operatives killed three Israeli soldiers and captured a further two.^[63] Hezbollah claims that the objectives of the operation were to free Lebanese prisoners held in Israel. Israel responded with airstrikes and a ground incursion into Lebanon aimed at halting Hezbollah's rocket fire, reducing Hezbollah's military capacity and rescuing the two abducted Israeli soldiers. The 34 day campaign caused wide spread damage to Lebanon's infrastructure (including Beirut's airport). Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes where Hezbollah military infrastructure was deeply embedded among the civilian population.^[64]

The month-long conflict caused significant loss of life; some 1,191 Lebanese^[65] and 160 Israelis^[66] were killed in the conflict. While figures are debated, between one third and two thirds of Lebanese deaths are believed to have been civilians. 43 Israeli civilians were killed by Hezbollah rocket fire.^[66] Throughout the conflict, between 3,900 and 4,228 Hezbollah rockets landed on northern Israel, mainly in civilian areas. A number of rockets landed on Israeli forested areas causing wide spread bush fires. The conflict officially ended on 14 August 2006, when the United Nations Security Council issued resolution 1701 ordering a ceasefire between Hezbollah and Israel.^[67]

On 16 July 2008, Israel exchanged 5 Lebanese militants and the remains of 199 Palestinian and Lebanese militants killed in conflicts with Israel for the remains of the two captured Israeli soldiers, whose fates were unknown.^[68]

hich was named after the river that runs south of the camp. The camp was established in December 1949 by the League of Red Cross Societies in order to accommodate the Palestinian refugees suffering from the difficult winter conditions in the Beqaa Valley and the suburbs of Tripoli. The Lebanese Army is banned from entering all Palestinian camps under the 1969 Cairo Agreement.

Severe fighting erupted in 2007 in Nahr al-Bared, a Palestinian refugee camp in northern Lebanon, 16 km from the city of Tripoli. The camp became the center of the fighting between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. It sustained heavy shelling while under siege. UNRWA estimates the battle between the army and Islamic militant group Fatah al-Islam destroyed or rendered uninhabitable as much as 85% of homes in the camp and ruined infrastructure. The camp’s up to 40,000 residents were forced to flee, many of them sheltering in the already overcrowded Beddawi camp, 10 km to the south. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the army’s battle with the al-Qaeda-inspired militants. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize, and life for the displaced refugees is difficult.^[69]

When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut^[70] in Lebanon's worst internal violence since the 1975–90 civil war.^[71] Moreover, the violence, decried by the Lebanese government as an attempted coup,^[72] threatened to escalate into another civil war.^[73] At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.^[74]