- published: 14 Jul 2009
- views: 692009
- author: pocketpunkie
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- Abbas II of Persia
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- Afghanistan
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Afghanistan
Afghanistan
i/æfˈɡænɨstæn/ (Persian/Pashto: افغانستان, Afġānistān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of South Asia, Central Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
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Albania
Albania (i/ælˈbeɪniə/ al-BAY-nee-ə, Albanian: Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë pronounced Albanian pronunciation: [ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs]), is a country in Southern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.
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Algeria
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
Algeriai/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā'ir; Berber: ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash-Shaʿbiyyah), also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a large country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.
When referring to its land area, Algeria is the largest country in Africa, Maghreb and the Arab World. It is also the largest of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea; it is also the tenth-largest country in the world. The country is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali, in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost 2,400,000 square kilometres (926,645 sq mi) with an estimated population of 37.1 million as of 2012. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC and the United Nations. The country is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
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Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan (
i/ˌæzərbaɪˈdʒɑːn/ AZ-ər-by-JAHN; Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan), officially the Republic of Azerbaijan (Azerbaijani: Azərbaycan Respublikası) is the largest country in the Caucasus region located at the crossroads of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the east, Russia to the north, Georgia to the northwest, Armenia to the west, and Iran to the south. The exclave of Nakhchivan is bounded by Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, while having a short borderline with Turkey to the northwest.
Azerbaijan has an ancient and historic cultural heritage. Aside from having been the first Muslim-majority country to have operas, theater and plays, Azerbaijan today is among the Muslim-majority countries where support for secularism and tolerance is the highest. The Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, the first democratic and secular republic in the Muslim world, was established in 1918, but was incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1920. Azerbaijan regained independence in 1991. Shortly thereafter, during the Nagorno-Karabakh War, neighboring Armenia occupied Nagorno-Karabakh, its surrounding territories and the enclaves of Karki, Yukhary Askipara, Barkhudarly and Sofulu. The Nagorno-Karabakh Republic, which emerged in Nagorno-Karabakh, continues to be not diplomatically recognized by any nation and the region is still considered a de jure part of Azerbaijan, despite being de facto independent since the end of the war. Azerbaijan has come under repeated international criticism for its record on human rights.
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Bahrain
Bahrain (
pronunciation) (Arabic: البحرين, al-Baḥrayn) (Persian: بحرين, Baḥrain), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain (Arabic: مملكة البحرين, Mamlakat al-Baḥrayn), is a small island state near the western shores of the Persian Gulf. It is ruled by the Al Khalifa royal family. The population in 2010 stood at 1,234,571, including 666,172 non-nationals. Formerly an emirate, Bahrain was declared a kingdom in 2002.
Bahrain is an archipelago of 33 islands, the largest being Bahrain Island, at 55 km (34 mi) long by 18 km (11 mi) wide. Saudi Arabia lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the King Fahd Causeway. The peninsula of Qatar is to the southeast across the Gulf of Bahrain. The planned Qatar Bahrain Causeway will link Bahrain and Qatar and become the world's longest marine causeway.
Known for its oil and pearls, Bahrain is also home to many large structures, including the Bahrain World Trade Center and the Bahrain Financial Harbour, with a proposal in place to build the 1,022 m (3,353 ft) high Murjan Tower. The Qal'at al-Bahrain (the harbour and capital of the ancient land of Dilmun) was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2005. The Bahrain Formula One Grand Prix takes place at the Bahrain International Circuit.
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Bangalore
Bangalore /ˈbæŋɡəlɔər/, also rendered Bengaluru,[needs IPA] is the capital of the Indian state of Karnataka. Bangalore is nicknamed the Garden City for its gardens and parks and was once called a pensioner's paradise. Located on the Deccan Plateau in the south-eastern part of Karnataka, Bangalore is India's third most populous city and fifth-most populous urban agglomeration. Bangalore is well known as a hub for India's information technology sector. It is among the top 10 preferred entrepreneurial locations in the world.
A succession of South Indian dynasties ruled the region of Bangalore until in 1537 AD Kempe Gowda—a feudatory ruler under the Vijayanagara Empire—established a mud fort considered to be the foundation of modern Bangalore. Following transitory occupation by Maratha and Mughal, the city remained under the Mysore kingdom. Bangalore continued to be a cantonment of the British and a major city of the Princely State of Mysore which existed as a nominally sovereign entity of the British Raj. Following the independence of India in 1947, Bangalore became the capital of Mysore state, and later Karnataka.
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Bangladesh
Coordinates: 23°N 90°E / 23°N 90°E / 23; 90
Bangladesh (i/ˈbɑːŋɡlədɛʃ/ or i/bæŋɡləˈdɛʃ/ (Anglicized pronunciation); Bengali: বাংলাদেশ), officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh (Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh) is a sovereign state located in South Asia. It is bordered by India and Burma and by the Bay of Bengal to the south. The capital (and largest city) is Dhaka, located in central Bangladesh. The official state language is Bengali. The name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal" the in the Bengali language, from Bangla "Bengal" and desh holding a dual meaning of "land" and "country" as English "country," German land, French pays, etc.
The borders of present-day Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal during the reign and demise of the British India. Its map was chartered by Sir Cyril Radcliffe during the creation of Pakistan and India in 1947, when the region became East Pakistan, part of the newly formed nation of Pakistan. Due to political exclusion and economic exploitation by the politically dominant West Pakistan, popular agitation grew against West Pakistan and led to the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971, after the Bangladeshi Declaration of Independence on 26 March 1971. With the intervention of the Indian Army, the war came to an end on 16 December 1971 with the surrender of the Pakistan Army at Ramna Race Course.
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Belarus
Belarus (i/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Croatia
Croatia (i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
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Cyprus
Cyprusi/ˈsaɪprəs/ (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾos]; Turkish: Kıbrıs, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs]), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [cipɾiaˈci ðimokɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs dʒumhuɾijeˈti]), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria, Lebanon, northwest of Israel and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Republic of Cyprus is a member state of the European Union.
The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this period include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, which has been declared a World Heritage Site with an "enhanced protection" status in the event of armed conflict by UNESCO, along with the archaeological sites of Paphos and the Painted Churches of the Troodos Region. Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.
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Damascus
Damascus (Arabic: دِمَشق / ALA-LC: Dimashq; commonly known in Syria as al-Sham (Arabic: الشام / al-Shām), and as the City of Jasmine (Arabic: مدينة الياسمين / Madīnat al-Yāsmīn), is the capital and the second largest city of Syria. Both are part of the country's 14 governorates. In addition to being one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of the Levant. The city has an estimated population of 1,711,000 (2009 est.).
Located in southwestern Syria, Damascus is the center of a large metropolitan area of 2.6 million people (2004). Geographically embedded on the eastern foothills of the Anti-Lebanon mountain range 80 kilometres (50 mi) inland from the eastern shore of the Mediterranean on a plateau 680 metres (2,230 ft) above sea-level, Damascus experiences a semi-arid climate due to the rain shadow effect. The Barada River flows through Damascus.
First settled in the 2nd millennium BC, it was chosen as the capital of the Umayyad Caliphate from 661 to 750. After the victory of the Abbasid dynasty, the seat of Islamic power was moved to Baghdad. Damascus saw a political decline throughout the Abbasid era, only to regain significant importance in the Ayyubid and Mamluk periods. During Ottoman rule, the city decayed completely while maintaining a certain cultural prestige. Today, it is the seat of the central government and all of the government ministries. Damascus was chosen as the 2008 Arab Capital of Culture.
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Deir ez-Zor
Coordinates: 35°20′N 40°9′E / 35.333°N 40.15°E / 35.333; 40.15
Deir ez-Zor, also spelled Dayr al-Zawr, Der Ezzor, Deir Azzor, and other variants (Arabic: دير الزور; Syriac: ܕܝܪܐ ܙܥܘܪܬܐ, Armenian: Տէր Զօր, Դեր Զոր, Ter Zor), is the 7th largest city in Syria and the largest in the eastern part of Syria. Located 450 km to the northeast from the capital Damascus on the shores of Euphrates River, Deir ez-Zor is the capital of the Deir ez-Zor Governorate. According to the 2004 official census, 211,857 people are residing in the city.
Among Syrians and neighbouring regions, Ad-Deir is used for short to indicate Deir ez Zor[citation needed]. The Current name, which has been extended to the region around it, indicates an ancient site for one of the Early Christian secluded monasteries spread since the persecution times and Apostolic Age throughout Mesopotamia. Although Deir, which is Arabic for "monastery", thought to be kept throughout Medieval and Modern Age renaming, Zor, which indicates the riverbank bush, appeared only in some late Ottoman records.
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Egypt
Egypti/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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Gilan Province
Gilan Province (Persian: استان گیلان, Ostān-e Gīlān ) is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. It lies along the Caspian Sea, just west of the province of Mazandaran, east of the province of Ardabil, north of the provinces of Zanjan and Qazvin. The northern part of the province is part of territory of South (Iranian) Talysh. At the center of the province is the main city of Rasht. Other towns in the province include Astara, Astaneh-e Ashrafiyyeh, Fuman, Lahijan, Langrud, Masouleh, Manjil, Rudbar, Roudsar, Shaft, Talesh, and Soumahe Sara.
The main harbor port of the province is Bandar-e Anzali (previously Bandar-e Pahlavi).
During the Persian era, this area was a province known as Daylam (sometimes Daylaman, Dailam or Delam). The Daylam region corresponds to the modern region of Gīlān. It was the place of origin of the Buyid dynasty. The people of the province had a prominent position during the Sassanid dynasty, their presence extended to Mesopotamia.
The first recorded encounter between Gilak and Deylamite warlords and invading Muslim Arab armies was at the Battle of Jalula in 637 AD. Deylamite commander Muta led an army of Gils, Deylamites, Azerbaijanis and people of the Rey region. Muta was killed in the battle and his defeated army managed to retreat in an orderly manner.
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Gujarat
Gujarat /ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːt/ (Gujarati: ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt [ɡudʒ(ə)ɾat] (
listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,030 km2) with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.
The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch and Khambhat, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mahatma Gandhi, India's "father of the nation", who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule was a Gujarati.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister was also from Gujarat.
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Hyderabad (India)
Hyderabad (i/ˈhaɪdərəbæd/) is the capital of the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. Located on the banks of the Musi River in the Deccan Plateau, the city is one of the largest in India with an area of 650 square kilometres (250 sq mi) and a population of 6.8 million, while the metropolitan area contains 7.7 million residents, making it the fourth most populous city and the sixth most populous urban agglomeration in the country. In 2008, the nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of Hyderabad was US$ 60 billion—ranking fourth in India and ninety third in the world.
Hyderabad city was established in 1591 CE by Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah, whose dynasty lasted until 1658 when Mughal emperor Aurangzeb occupied Golconda Sultanate and the city became part of the Mughal empire's Deccan province. In 1724 Asif Jah I, a Mughal viceroy, declared his sovereignty and formed the Asif Jahi Dynasty, also known as the Nizams of Hyderabad. The Nizams ruled the princely state of Hyderabad for more than two centuries, under subsidiary alliance with the British Raj. The city remained the dynasty's capital from 1769 until 1948—when the Nizam signed an Instrument of Accession with the Indian Union following Operation polo. In 1956, the city was merged with Andhra State. Since 1969 Hyderabad is a major center of the Telangana movement, which demands a separate state for the Telengana region of Andhra Pradesh.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ ori/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: 
جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Kolkata
Kolkata /kɒlˈkætə/, or Calcutta /kælˈkʌtə/, is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Located on the east bank of the Hooghly River, it is the principal commercial, cultural, and educational centre of East India, while the Port of Kolkata is India's oldest port as well as its sole major riverine port. As of 2011, the city had 4.5 million residents; the urban agglomeration, which comprises the city and its suburbs, was home to approximately 14.1 million, making it the third-most populous metropolitan area in India. As of 2008, its economic output as measured by gross domestic product ranked third among South Asian cities, behind Mumbai and Delhi. As a growing metropolitan city in a developing country, Kolkata confronts substantial urban pollution, traffic congestion, poverty, overpopulation, and other logistic and socioeconomic problems.
In the late 17th century, the three villages that predated Kolkata were ruled by the Nawab of Bengal under Mughal suzerainty. After the Nawab granted the East India Company a trading license in 1690, the area was developed by the Company into an increasingly fortified mercantile base. Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah occupied Kolkata in 1756, and the East India Company retook it in the following year and by 1772 assumed full sovereignty. Under East India Company and later under the British Raj, Kolkata served as the capital of India until 1911, when its perceived geographical disadvantages, combined with growing nationalism in Bengal, led to a shift of the capital to New Delhi. The city was a centre of the Indian independence movement; it remains a hotbed of contemporary state politics. Following Indian independence in 1947, Kolkata—which was once the centre of modern Indian education, science, culture, and politics—witnessed several decades of relative economic stagnation. Since the early 2000s, an economic rejuvenation has led to accelerated growth.
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Koyilandy
Koyilandy (or Quilandy/Quilandi) is a city and a municipality in Kozhikode district in North Malabar region of the Indian state of Kerala. This town is between Calicut and Vatakara(Badagara) and is on NH 17. It is sometimes identified with Tyndis in Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. The freedom fighter K. Kelappan was born in a near-by village, Muchukunnu.[citation needed]
Koyilandy is located at 11°26′N 75°42′E / 11.43°N 75.70°E / 11.43; 75.70. It has an average elevation of 2 m (6.6 ft).
As of 2001[update] India census, Quilandy had a population of 68,970. Males constitute 48% of the population and females 52%. Quilandy has an average literacy rate of 83%, higher than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 86%, and female literacy is 80%. In Quilandy, 10% of the population is under 6 years of age.
Koyilandy hookahs, traditional smoking pipes, of Calicut made in Koyilandy were famous across North India, Gulf and Pakistan. Prepared by Moosari, a coppersmith community, these Hookahs were once considered a pride of Koyilandy. However it is not so any more. But in Gulf countries, Koyilandy hookahs are still very popular as "Malabar Hookah".
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Kuwait
Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwaiti/kuːˈweɪt/ (Arabic: دولة الكويت, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic أكوات ākwāt, the plural of كوت kūt, meaning a fortress built near water. The country covers an area of 17,820 square kilometers (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 3.5 million.
Historically, the region was the site of Characene, a major Parthian port for trade between Mesopotamia and India. The Bani Utbah tribe were the first permanent Arab settlers in the region, and laid the foundation of the modern emirate. By the 19th century, Kuwait came under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, and after World War I, it emerged as an independent sheikhdom under the protection of the British Empire. Kuwait's large oil fields were discovered in the late 1930s.
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Lebanon
Lebanon (i/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.
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Makati
The City of Makati (/məˈkɑːtɪ/ mə-KAH-tee; Filipino: Makati), in the Philippines, is one of the 17 cities that make up Metro Manila, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. Makati is the financial center of the Philippines. As the host of various embassies, it is also an important center for international affairs.
With a population of 510,383, Makati is the 16th largest city in the country and ranked as the 44th most densely populated city in the world with 18,654 inhabitants per km2.
Makati was founded by Spaniard Miguel López de Legazpi, who dismissed Makati as a worthless swamp. According to folklore, Legazpi asked for the name of the place but, because of the language barrier, was misinterpreted by the natives. Pointing to the receding tide of Pasig River, the natives answered, “Makati, kumakati na,” literally meaning ebbing tide.
Makati became the financial center of the Philippines during the 1950s. Makati is home of the Philippine Stock Exchange and the Makati Business Club.
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Maldives
Maldives (i/ˈmɒldaɪvz/ or /ˈmɒldiːvz/), (Dhivehi: ދިވެހިރާއްޖެ, Dhivehi Raa'je), officially Republic of Maldives (Dhivehi: ދިވެހިރާއްޖޭގެ ޖުމްހޫރިއްޔާ, Dhivehi Raa'jeyge Jumhooriyya), also referred to as the Maldive Islands, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean formed by a double chain of twenty-six atolls oriented north-south off India's Lakshadweep Islands, between Minicoy Island and Chagos Archipelago. It stands in the Laccadive Sea, about 700 kilometres (430 mi) south-west of Sri Lanka and 400 kilometres (250 mi) south-west of India. During the colonial era, the Dutch referred to the country as "Maldivische Eilanden" in their documentation, while "Maldive Islands" is the anglicised version of the local name used by the British, which later came to be written "Maldives".
The archipelago is located on top of the Chagos-Maldives-Laccadive Ridge, a vast submarine mountain range in the Indian Ocean. Maldives also form a terrestrial ecoregion together with the Chagos and the Lakshadweep. The atolls of Maldives encompass a territory spread over roughly 90,000 square kilometres (35,000 sq mi), making it one of the world's most geographically dispersed countries. Its population of 328,536 (2012) inhabits 200 of its 1,192 islands. Maldives' capital and largest city Malé had a population of 103,693 in 2006. It is located at the southern edge of North Malé Atoll, in the Kaafu Atoll. It is also one of the Administrative divisions of the Maldives. Traditionally it was the King's Island where the ancient Maldive Royal dynasties were enthroned.
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Morocco
Morocco (Arabic: المغرب al-Maghrib ; Berber: ⵍⵎⴻⵖⵔⵉⴱ / ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵔⵓⴽElmeɣrib / Amerruk), officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of about 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², including the disputed region of the Western Sahara, seen by and mostly administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. Morocco is part of the Maghreb region, in addition to Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, and Libya, with which it shares cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including the power to dissolve the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government but more importantly by the king himself. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. The latest Parliamentary elections were held in November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters, but only about 25% of Moroccan adult citizens actually voted. The rest either chose not to vote or they were not registered as voters. The political capital is Rabat, but the largest city is Casablanca; other main cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador.
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
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Oman
Oman (i/oʊˈmɑːn/ oh-MAAN; Arabic: عمان ʻUmān), officially called the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عُمان Salṭanat ʻUmān), is an Arab state in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam enclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries.
For a period, Oman was a moderate regional power, formerly having a sultanate extending across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran, and modern day Pakistan, and far south to Zanzibar on the coat of south-east Africa. Over time, as its power declined, the sultanate came under heavy influence from the United Kingdom, though Oman was never formally part of the British Empire, or a British protectorate. The Omani royal family claim that Oman has been ruled by the Al Said dynasty since 1744, although without substantial proof. Oman has long-standing military and political ties with the United Kingdom and the United States, although it maintains an independent foreign policy.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Persia
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.
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Philippines
The Philippinesi/ˈfɪlɨpiːnz/ FI-lə-peenz (Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas) is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 98 million people, the Philippines is the 7th most populated Asian country and the 12th most populated country in the world. An additional 12.5 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic societies. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences which remain to this day.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Rajasthan
Rājasthān /ˈrɑːdʒəstæn/ (Hindustani pronunciation: [raːdʒəsˈt̪ʰaːn] ( listen)) the land of Rajasthanis, ("the land of kings"), is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It is located in the northwest of India. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert), which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with Pakistan. The state is bordered by Pakistan to the west, Gujarat to the southwest, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana to the northeast and Punjab to the north. Rajasthan covers 10.4% of India, an area of 342,269 square kilometres (132,151 sq mi).
Jaipur is the capital and the largest city of the state. Geographical features include the Thar Desert along north-western Rajasthan and the termination of the Ghaggar River near the archaeological ruins at Kalibanga of the Indus Valley Civilization, which are the oldest in the Indian subcontinent discovered so far.
One of the world's oldest mountain ranges, the Aravalli Range, cradles the only hill station of Rajasthan, Mount Abu, famous for Dilwara Temples, a sacred pilgrimage for Jains. Eastern Rajasthan has the world famous Keoladeo National Park near Bharatpur, a World Heritage Site known for its bird life. It also has two national tiger reserves, Ranthambore and Sariska Tiger Reserve, and a famous temple in Khatu, Sikar district, dedicated to Khatu Shyam Ji. Rajasthan was formed on 30 March 1949, when the region known until then as Rajputana, consisting of erstwhile princely states ruled mainly by Rajputs.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Somalia
Somalia ( /soʊˈmɑːliə/ soh-MAH-lee-ə; Somali: Soomaaliya; Arabic: الصومال aṣ-Ṣūmāl), officially the Somali Republic (Somali: Jamhuuriyadda Soomaaliya, Arabic: جمهورية الصومال Jumhūriyyat aṣ-Ṣūmāl) and formerly known as the Somali Democratic Republic under Socialist rule, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. Since the outbreak of the Somali Civil War in 1991 there has been no central government control over most of the country's territory. The internationally recognized Transitional Federal Government controls only a small part of the country. Somalia has been characterized as a failed state and is one of the poorest and most violent states in the world.
Somalia lies in the easternmost part of Africa. It is bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden with Yemen to the north, the Indian Ocean to the east, and Ethiopia to the west. It has the longest coastline on the continent, and its terrain consists mainly of plateaus, plains and highlands. Hot conditions prevail year-round, along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall.
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Sudan
Sudan (i/suːˈdæn/ or /suːˈdɑːn/;Arabic: السودان, as-Sūdān), officially the Republic of the Sudan (Arabic: جمهورية السودان, Jumhūrīyat as-Sūdān), sometimes called North Sudan, is an Arab state in North Africa (sometimes also considered to be part of the Middle East). It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, and Libya to the northwest. The population of Sudan is a combination of indigenous inhabitants of Nile Valley, and descendants of migrants from the Arabian Peninsula. Due to the process of Arabisation common throughout the rest of the Arab World, today Arab culture predominates in Sudan. The majority of the population of Sudan adheres to Islam. The Nile divides the country between east and west sides.
The people of Sudan have a long history extending from antiquity which is intertwined with the history of Egypt. Sudan suffered seventeen years of civil war during the First Sudanese Civil War (1955–1972) followed by ethnic, religious and economic conflicts between the Muslim Arab northern Sudanese and the mostly animist and Christian Nilotes of Southern Sudan. This led to the Second Sudanese Civil War in 1983. Because of continuing political and military struggles, Sudan was seized in a bloodless coup d'état by colonel Omar al-Bashir in 1989, who thereafter proclaimed himself President of Sudan. The civil war ended with the signing of a Comprehensive Peace Agreement which granted autonomy to what was then the southern region of the country. Following a referendum held in January 2011, South Sudan seceded on 9 July 2011 with the consent of Sudan's President al-Bashir.
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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emiratesi/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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Uzbekistan
Uzbekistani/ʊzˌbɛkɨˈstɑːn/, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan (Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi, Ўзбекистон Республикаси) is the only doubly landlocked country in Central Asia and one of only two such countries worldwide. It shares borders with Kazakhstan to the west and to the north, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan to the east, and Afghanistan and Turkmenistan to the south. Before 1991, it was part of the Soviet Union.
Uzbekistan is one of the Turkic states in Central Asia.
Once part of the Persian Samanid and later Timurid empires, the region was conquered in the early 16th century by Uzbek nomads, who spoke an Eastern Turkic language. Most of Uzbekistan’s population today belong to the Uzbek ethnic group and speak the Uzbek language, one of the family of Turkic languages.
Uzbekistan was incorporated into the Russian Empire in the 19th century, and in 1924 became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, known as the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (Uzbek SSR). It became independent on 31 August 1991 (officially, from the following day).
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Yemen
The Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah), commonly known as Yemeni/ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman), is a country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east. Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in the Arab world. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes over 200 islands, the largest of which is Socotra, about 415 km (258 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen, off the coast of Somalia. It is the only state in the Arabian Peninsula to have a purely republican form of government. Approximately 53% of Yemenis are Sunnis, while 45% are Zaydi Shias.
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia), which was their term for northern Arabia.
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Abbas I of Persia
Shāh ‘Abbās the Great (or Shāh ‘Abbās I) (Persian: شاه عَباس بُزُرگ) (January 27, 1571 – January 19, 1629) was Shah (king) of Iran, and generally considered the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad.
Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for Iran. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1587, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash in the government and the military and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals. Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. In his later years, the shah became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded.
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Abbas II of Persia
Shah Abbas II (Persian: شاه عباس دوم) (born 31 December 1632; died 25/26 October 1666) was Shah of Iran from 1642 to 1666. He was the seventh Shah of the Safavid Dynasty. He was the son of Shah Safi I and a Circassian, Anna Khanum, and originally bore the name Sultan Muhammed Mirza before his coronation on May 15, 1642. Since he was less than ten years old when he became shah, the job of governing Persia was placed in the hands of the grand vizier Saru Taqi, while Abbas concentrated on his education.
Saru Taqi led a drive against corruption and made many enemies. On October 11, 1645 he was assassinated by a group of army officers. He was succeeded by Khalifa Sultan, who held the office of grand vizier until his death in 1653 or 1654.
Unlike his father, Abbas took an active interest in government once he began to rule for himself (probably around age 15). His reign was relatively peaceful and is significant for being free of any Ottoman attack. In 1648 Abbas managed to conquer Kandahar and hold it against attacks by Mughal India (Mughal–Safavid War). He died in Khusruabad near Damghan on the night of 25–26 October 1666. The early death of this capable ruler was greatly regretted.
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Abdul-Qadir Gilani
Abd al-Qadir al-Gilani (Kurdish: Evdilqadirê Geylanî, Persian: عبد القادر گیلانی,Urdu: عبد القادر آملی گیلانی Abdolqāder Gilāni) (also spelled Abdulqadir Gaylani, Abdelkader, Abdul Qadir, Abdul Khadir - Jilani, Jeelani, Gailani, Gillani, Gilani, Al Gilani, Keilany) (470–561 AH) (1077–1166 CE) was a Kurdish or PersianIslamic preacher who is highly esteemed by Sunni scholars. Sheikh Abdul Qadir is considered the patron Saint of the Kurds and is held in great veneration by the Muslims of the Indo-Pak sub-continent. Among followers in Pakistan and India, he is also known as Ghaus-e-Azam. He was born on a Wednesday the 1st of ramadan in 470 AH, 1077 CE south of the Caspian Sea in what is now the Mazandaran Province of Iran.
Al-Gilani was born in 1078 CE (471 AH)1st of ramadan and died 11 rabi usani in a small town of Gilan Province.
His complete name al-Sayyid Muhiyudin Abu Muhammad Abdal Qadir al-Jilani al-Hasani wal-Hussaini,Sayyid denoting his descent from Muhammad,Muhiyudin the title "Reviver of Religion", al-Jilani his home region, although however he also had the epithet al-Baghdadi. (denoting also the city of Baghdad where he was now residing in and therefore also geographically recognised through, eventually being buried there), and al-Hasani wal-Hussaini affirming his lineal descent from both Hasan ibn Ali and Hussein ibn Ali, the grandsons of Muhammad.
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Akbar
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر - Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar), also known as Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of northern and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached a zenith as compared to his predecessors.
Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556), following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by marrying Rajput princesses.
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Arab Filipino
Arab settlement in the Philippines is part of the story of immigration in the Philippines. The Philippines, a country with many vast communities of immigrants and foreigners (especially Americans and Chinese), has a notable Arab community. According to a recent survey, present day Arab migrants to the Philippines number about 22,000.[citation needed] The majority of Filipinos with Arab parentage live in Mindanao. Recently, most are immigrants, most who are entrepreneurs, settled in Manila.
They speak the various languages of the Philippines, especially Tagalog, as well as the English language.
In 1380, Karim ul’ Makhdum, the first Islamic missionary to reach the Sulu Archipelago, brought Islam to what is now the Philippines, first arriving in Jolo. Subsequent visits of Arab Muslim missionaries strengthened the Islamic faith in the Philippines, concentrating in the south and reaching as far north as Manila. Starting with the conquest of Malaysia by the Portuguese and Indonesia by the Dutch, the Philippines began to receive a number of Malaysian-Arab refugees including several Malaysian princes and displaced court advisors. Soon, vast sultanates were established overlapping the existing indigenous Filipino barangay (village) governing system and Indianized royalty. The two largest were the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which loosely governed most of southern Mindanao and the Sultanate of Sulu, which included Basilan, Jolo, and parts of Borneo. Several other smaller but famous sultanates were also established such as the sultanate of Lanao in Mindanao and the sultanate of Cebu, which was later conquered by the Spanish in the 16th century. The ties between the sultanates in Mindanao remained economically and culturally close to Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia until the end of the 19th century when the sultanates were weakened by the Spanish and later the American militaries.
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Bernard Quaritch
Bernard Quaritch, full name Bernard Alexander Christian Quaritch, (April 23, 1819 – December 17, 1899) was a German-born British bookseller and collector.
He was born at Worbis, Germany. After being apprenticed to a bookseller, he went to London in 1842, and was employed by Henry Bohn, the publisher. In 1847 he started a bookseller's business off Leicester Square, becoming naturalized as a British subject. In 1848 he started to issue a monthly Catalogue of Foreign and English Books. About 1858 he began to purchase rare books, one of the earliest of such purchases being a copy of the Mazarin Bible, and within a period of forty years he possessed six separate copies of this rare and valuable edition.
In 1860 he moved to Piccadilly. In 1873 he published the Bibliotheca Xylographica, Typographica et Palaeographica, a remarkable catalogue of early productions of the printing press of all countries. He became a regular buyer at all the principal book-sales of Europe and America, and from time to time published a variety of other catalogues of old books. Amongst these may be mentioned the Supplemental Catalogue (1877), and in 1880 an immense catalogue of considerably over 2,000 pages. The last complete catalogue of his stock was published in 1887-88 under the title General Catalogue of Old Books and Manuscripts, in seven volumes, increased with subsequent supplements to twelve. All these catalogues are of considerable bibliographical value. By this time Quaritch had developed the largest trade in old books in the world.
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Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar
Fat′h Ali Shah Qajar (Persian: فتح على شاه قاجار; var. Fathalishah, Fathali Shah, Fath Ali Shah; 5 September 1772 – 23 October 1834) was the second Qajar king of Iran. He reigned from 17 June 1797 until his death.
Fat′h Ali Shah was the son of Hossein Qoli Khan Qajar, brother of Agha Mohammad Khan. He was governor of Fars when his uncle was assassinated in 1797. Fat′h Ali shah's real name was "Bābā Khān" but he was crowned as Fat′h Ali Shah. He became suspicious of his chancellor Hajji Ebrahim Khan Kalantar and ordered his execution. Hajji Ebrahim Khan had been chancellor to Zand and Qajar rulers for some fifteen years.
Much of his reign was marked by the resurgence of Persian arts and painting, as well as a deeply elaborate court culture with extremely rigid etiquette. In particular during his reign, portraiture and large-scale oil painting reached a height previously unknown under any other Islamic dynasty, largely due to his personal patronage.
Fat′h Ali also ordered the creation of much royal regalia, including coronations chairs, "Takht-e-Tâvoos" (Persian: تخت طاووس) or Peacock throne and "Takht-e-Nāderī" (Persian: تخت نادری) or Naderi throne, which was also used by later kings, and the "Tāj-i-Kīyānī" (Persian: تاج كيانى), or Kiani Crown, a modification of the crown of the same name created by his uncle Agha Mohammad Khan. This, like most of his regalia, was studded with a large number of pearls and gems.
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Gurjars
The Gurjar (Sanskrit: गुर्जर Gurjara,Gujari : गुर्जर, گُرجر, Shauraseni : Gujjar) are an ethnic group in India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Alternative spellings include Gurjara, Gujar, Gurjjara and Gūrjara. The spelling Gurjara or Gurjar is preferable to the rest.
While the origin of the Gurjars is uncertain, the Gurjar clan appeared in ancient North India about the time of the Huna invasions of the region. In the 6th to 12th Century, they were primarily classed as Kshatriya and Brahmin, and many of them later converted to Islam during the Muslim rule in South Asia. Today, the Gurjars are classified under the Other Backward Class (OBC) category in some states in India.Hindu Gurjars today are assimilated into several varnas.
The origin of the Gurjars is uncertain. Many Gurjars claim descent from Suryavanshi Kshatriyas (Sun Dynasty) and connect themselves with the Hindu deity Rama. Historically, the Gurjars were Sun-worshipers and are described as devoted to the feet of the Sun-god (God Surya).Their copper-plate grants bear an emblem of the Sun and on their seals too, this symbol is depicted. Also the Gurjar title of honor is Mihir which means Sun. Ancient Sanskrit Poet Rajasekhara in his plays styled Gurjar rulers as Raghu-kula-tilaka (Ornament of the race of Raghu), Raghu-gramani (the leader of the Raghus)and so forth.
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Kajars
The Kajars (also spelled Qajars, Kadzhars, Cadzhars, Cadjars and so on) are a Turkic people of the Oghuz Turks who lived variously, with other tribes, in the area that is now northeastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran. They are considered as a branch of the Azeri. In the 17th and 18th centuries the Kajars resisted the Safavids and settled the Karabakh Khanate. In 1794, a Kajar chieftain, Agha Mohammed, founded the Qajar dynasty which replaced the Zand dynasty in Iran. In the 1980s the Kajar population exceeded 15,000 people, most of whom lived in Iran.
A branch, known as the Kadzhar, lived in Russian Armenia in the 19th century and likely earlier. In 1873 they numbered 5,000.
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Karim Khan
Karim Khan Zand, (Persian: کریم خان زند), (c. 1705- 1779), was a ruler of Iran, and the founder of the Zand Dynasty.
He was born in Village of Pari near Malayer to a family of the Zand tribe of Lak or Lur deportees. Kurdish nationalists such as Abdul Rahman Ghassemlou considered him as a Kurdish hero Modern scholarships such as Wadie Jwaideh suggested his proud Kurdishness.
He never styled himself as "shah" or king, and instead used the title Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (Representative of the People).[citation needed]
Karim Khan Zand was one of the generals of Nader Shah Afshar. After Nader Shah's death in 1747, Persia fell into a state of civil war. At that time, Karim Khan, Abolfath Khan and Ali Mardan Khan reached an agreement to divide the country among themselves and give the throne to Ismail III. However, the cooperation ended after Ali Mardan Khan invaded Isfahan and killed Abdolfath Khan. Subsequently, Karim Khan killed Ali Mardan Khan and gained control over all of Iran except Khorasan, ruled by Shahrokh, grandson of Nader Shah. Nevertheless, he did not adopt the title of Shah for himself, preferring the title, Vakil e-Ra'aayaa (Advocate of the People = People's President)
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Louis XV of France
Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774) was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and of Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death. He succeeded his great-grandfather at the age of five, though Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, his first cousin twice removed, served as Regent of the kingdom until Louis's majority in 1723. Cardinal de Fleury was his chief minister from 1726 until the Cardinal's death in 1743, at which time the young king took over control of the Kingdom.
Louis enjoyed a favorable reputation at the beginning of his reign and earned the epithet "le Bien-Aimé" ("the Beloved"). In time, the debauchery of his court, his ill-advised financial policies, the return of the Austrian Netherlands (which were gained following the Battle of Fontenoy) at Aix-la-Chapelle, and the cession of New France at the conclusion of the Seven Years' War led Louis to become one of the most unpopular kings in the history of France. He even suffered an assassination attempt in 1757. However, his reign saw the incorporation of Lorraine and Corsica to the Kingdom.
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Nader Shah
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}} Nāder Shāh Afshār (Persian: نادر شاه افشار; also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November, 1688 or August 6, 1698 – June 19, 1747) ruled as Shah of Iran (1736–47) and was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty. Because of his military genius, some historians have described him as the Napoleon of Persia or the Second Alexander. Nader Shah was a member of the Turkic Afshar tribe of northern Persia, which had supplied military power to the Safavid state since the time of Shah Ismail I.
Nader rose to power during a period of anarchy in Iran after a rebellion by the Hotaki Afghans had overthrown the weak Persian Shah Sultan Husayn, and both the Ottomans and the Russians had seized Persian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Persian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become shah himself in 1736. His numerous campaigns throughout the Naderian Wars created a great empire that encompassed what is now part of or including Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, India, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Oman and the Persian Gulf but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Persian economy.
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Rajputs
A Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, “son of a king”) is a member of one of the patrilineal clans of western, central, northern India and some parts of Pakistan. They claim to be descendants of ruling Hindu warrior classes of North India.[dubious – discuss] Rajputs rose to prominence during the 6th to 12th centuries. Until the 20th century Rajputs ruled in the "overwhelming majority" of the princely states of Rajasthan and Surashtra, where the largest number of princely states were found.
The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread through much of the subcontinent, particularly in north, west and central India. Populations are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Surashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra.
Rajput is from the Sanskrit word Raja-Putra (son of a king). The word is found in ancient texts, including the Vedas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.[citation needed] It was used by the ancient Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini in the 4th century BCE.[citation needed] The word Kshatriya ("warrior") was used for the Vedic community of warriors and rulers. To differentiate royal warriors from other Kshatriyas the word Rajputra was used.[citation needed] Rajputra eventually was shortened to Rajput; gradually it became a caste.[citation needed] Rajputs claim descent from various mythological patrilineages, being Suryavanshi, Chandravanshi, Agnivanshi and Nagavanshi.[citation needed]
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Safi of Persia
Shah Safi (Persian: شاه صفی) was Shah of Iran from 1629 to 1642. He was the sixth ruler of the Safavid dynasty.
Safi was given the name Sam Mirza when he was born. He was the son of Mohammed Baqir Mirza, the eldest son of Shah Abbas I, and Dilaram Khanum, a Georgian wife. In 1615, Abbas had Mohammed Baqir killed, fearing he was plotting against his life. Over the next few years, the suspicious Abbas killed or blinded his other sons, leaving his grandson Safi heir to the throne.
Safi was crowned on 28 January 1629 at the age of eighteen. He ruthlessly eliminated anyone he regarded as a threat to his power, executing almost all the Safavid royal princes as well as leading courtiers and generals. He paid little attention to the business of government and had no cultural or intellectual interests (he had never learned to read or write properly), preferring to spend his time drinking wine or indulging in his addiction to opium. Supposedly, however, he abhorred tobacco smoke as much as his grandfather did, going as far as to have those caught smoking tobacco in public killed by pouring molten lead in their mouths.[citation needed]
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Suleiman I of Persia
Suleiman I (Persian: شاه سلیمان) was a Safavid shah of Persia who reigned between 1666 and 1694. He was the elder son of the previous shah Abbas II and a Circassian slave, Nakihat Khanum.
He was crowned on November 1, 1666 with the title Shah Safi II. The young ruler had been brought up in the harem and had no experience of the world outside. He was also addicted to alcohol and suffered from poor health. The first year of his reign was markedly unsuccessful. A series of natural disasters, combined with devastating raids by the Cossack Stenka Razin on the coast of the Caspian Sea, convinced court astrologers that the coronation had taken place at the wrong time, and the ceremony was repeated on March 20, 1667. The shah took the new name Suleiman I. He had little interest in the business of government, preferring retreat to the harem. He left political decision-making to his grand viziers or to a council of harem eunuchs, whose power increased during the shah's reign. Corruption became widespread in Persia and discipline in the army was dangerously lax. Suleiman made no attempt to exploit the weakness of Safavid Persia's traditional rival, the Ottoman Empire, after the Ottomans suffered a serious defeat at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. Persia also suffered raids by the Uzbeks and Kalmyks. Suleiman died on July 29, 1694, either as a result of heavy drinking or gout. The court eunuchs chose his elder son, Sultan Husayn, as successor.
wn.com/Suleiman_I_of_Persia -
Sultan Husayn
Sultan Husayn (also known as Soltan Hosayn and Soltan Hosein) (Persian: شاه سلطان حسین) (born ?1668; died 1726; reigned 1694–1722) was a Safavid king of Iran (Persia). He ruled from 1694 until he was overthrown in 1722 by Shah Mahmud Hotaki, an Afghan warrior of Pashtun ethnic background. His reign saw the downfall of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Persia since the beginning of the 16th century.
When his father Shah Suleiman was on his deathbed he asked his court eunuchs to choose between his two sons, saying that if they wanted peace and quiet they should pick the elder, Sultan Husayn, but if they wanted to make the empire more powerful then they should opt for the younger, Abbas. They decided to make Sultan Husayn shah. He had a reputation for being easy-going and had little interest in political affairs, his nickname being Yakhshidir ("Very well!"), the response he was said to give when asked to decide on matters of state. The young king was a devout Muslim and one of his first acts was to give power to the leading cleric Mohammed Baqer Majlesi. A series of measures against the Sufi order were introduced as well as legislation prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and opium and restrictions on the behaviour of women in public. Provincial governors were ordered to enforce Sharia law.
wn.com/Sultan_Husayn -
Tahmasp I
Tahmasp or Tahmasb I (Persian: شاه تهماسب یکم) (February 22, 1514 – May 14, 1576) was an influential Shah of Iran, who enjoyed the longest reign of any member of the Safavid dynasty. He was the son of Ismail I and Shah-Begi Khanum (known under the title Tajlu Khanum) of the Turcoman Mawsillu tribe.
During his childhood he was weak and came under the control of the Qizilbash, Turkic tribesmen who formed the backbone of Safavid power. The Qizilbash leaders fought among themselves for the right to be regents over Tahmasp. Upon adulthood, however, Tahmasp was able to reassert the power of the Shah and control the tribesmen.
His reign was marked by foreign threats, primarily from the Ottomans and the Uzbeks. In 1555, however, he regularized relations with the Empire through the Peace of Amasya. This peace lasted for 30 years, until it was broken in the time of Shah Mohammed Khodabanda.
He is also known for the reception he gave to the fugitive Mughal Emperor Humayun which is depicted in a painting on the walls of the Safavid palace of Chehel Sotoon. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and soldiers, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature.
wn.com/Tahmasp_I
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How To: Hookah
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:26
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
A short video i made for some friends that wanted to know how to best light and pack a hookah. sorry if the video is upside down, silly iphone.
http://wn.com/How_To_Hookah
A short video i made for some friends that wanted to know how to best light and pack a hookah. sorry if the video is upside down, silly iphone.
Smoking a $6 hookah from DealExtreme (Video Review)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:46
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
(VIEW ALL THIS INFO FOR MORE INFO) ***╔═╦╗╔╦╗╔═╦═╦╦╦╦╗╔═╗*** ***║╚╣║║║╚╣╚╣╔╣╔╣║╚╣═╣*** ***╠╗║╚╝║║╠╗║╚╣║║║║║═╣*** ***╚═╩══╩═╩═╩═╩╝╚╩═╩═╝*** This is a hookah from dx dot com. This is my first smoking with this hookah. It is excellent for the price and the size. You get about 30 minutes of smoking from it. I recommend using a smaller size coal and to NOT use the coal cover -- so the smoke does not get harsh. I can make other videos if you guys would ask. Enjoy the video Hookah from DX.COM info SKU: 46998 "Charming Shisha Water Pipe Set" Hookah Flavor : Starbuzz company Charcoal : I recommend getting Square natural coconut coals (coconara) Best hookah type for those that want to get it and be serious with best smoke : Kalil Mamoom This is tobacco, not marijuana -_-'
http://wn.com/Smoking_a_6_hookah_from_DealExtreme_Video_Review
(VIEW ALL THIS INFO FOR MORE INFO) ***╔═╦╗╔╦╗╔═╦═╦╦╦╦╗╔═╗*** ***║╚╣║║║╚╣╚╣╔╣╔╣║╚╣═╣*** ***╠╗║╚╝║║╠╗║╚╣║║║║║═╣*** ***╚═╩══╩═╩═╩═╩╝╚╩═╩═╝*** This is a hookah from dx dot com. This is my first smoking with this hookah. It is excellent for the price and the size. You get about 30 minutes of smoking from it. I recommend using a smaller size coal and to NOT use the coal cover -- so the smoke does not get harsh. I can make other videos if you guys would ask. Enjoy the video Hookah from DX.COM info SKU: 46998 "Charming Shisha Water Pipe Set" Hookah Flavor : Starbuzz company Charcoal : I recommend getting Square natural coconut coals (coconara) Best hookah type for those that want to get it and be serious with best smoke : Kalil Mamoom This is tobacco, not marijuana -_-'
- published: 16 Nov 2011
- views: 1276198
- author: AmirReborn
Hookah Bar Song - Khiladi 786 Ft. Akshay Kumar & Asin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:02
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Tera pyar "Hookah Bar" is a cult youth anthem with music and lyrics by "Himesh Reshammiya" and vocals by Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet Singh & Aman Trikha. Eros International presents "Khiladi 786", a film by Hari Om Entertainment Company and HR Musik. Khiladi 786 is produced by Twinkle Khanna,...
http://wn.com/Hookah_Bar_Song_Khiladi_786_Ft_Akshay_Kumar_Asin
Tera pyar "Hookah Bar" is a cult youth anthem with music and lyrics by "Himesh Reshammiya" and vocals by Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet Singh & Aman Trikha. Eros International presents "Khiladi 786", a film by Hari Om Entertainment Company and HR Musik. Khiladi 786 is produced by Twinkle Khanna,...
- published: 06 Nov 2012
- views: 4318909
- author: erosentertainment
Beginners Hookah Guide: How To Setup And Make A Perfect Hookah HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
How To Hookah! I made this video to teach you how to make and setup a perfect hookah. I cover everything you'll need to know like how to prepare materials, how to set up a hookah, how to pack a hookah bowl, how to light a hookah coal, and how to smoke a hookah. If you have any questions or comments feel free to ask. Filmed on Canon 60D with 50mm 1.8/f lens by Mike Kerslake ThePowerSymbol.com "How to hookah" "how to make a perfect hookah" "how to pack a hookah" "make a perfect hookah" "how to set up a hookah" "how to pack the perfect hookah" shisha tobacco smoke "how to" "how to smoke a hookah" vase bowl hose canon "canon 60d" goleskie kerslake hd "pack a bowl" 1080 1080p "how to prepare a hookah" hooka "al fakher" alfakher smoking dslr "50mm 1.8" rutgers "smoke rings" "smoke os" "hookah rings" "smoke tricks" xv8287 best prepare clouds most perfect "how to hookah hd" guide beginners
http://wn.com/Beginners_Hookah_Guide_How_To_Setup_And_Make_A_Perfect_Hookah_HD
How To Hookah! I made this video to teach you how to make and setup a perfect hookah. I cover everything you'll need to know like how to prepare materials, how to set up a hookah, how to pack a hookah bowl, how to light a hookah coal, and how to smoke a hookah. If you have any questions or comments feel free to ask. Filmed on Canon 60D with 50mm 1.8/f lens by Mike Kerslake ThePowerSymbol.com "How to hookah" "how to make a perfect hookah" "how to pack a hookah" "make a perfect hookah" "how to set up a hookah" "how to pack the perfect hookah" shisha tobacco smoke "how to" "how to smoke a hookah" vase bowl hose canon "canon 60d" goleskie kerslake hd "pack a bowl" 1080 1080p "how to prepare a hookah" hooka "al fakher" alfakher smoking dslr "50mm 1.8" rutgers "smoke rings" "smoke os" "hookah rings" "smoke tricks" xv8287 best prepare clouds most perfect "how to hookah hd" guide beginners
- published: 20 Nov 2011
- views: 87805
- author: goleskie
Hookah Review: Khalil Mamoon Beast
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:41
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Cloud 9 Hookah Review: Khalil Mamoon Beast aka KM Full Caste Mini Vendor: www.5starhookah.com Ratings Gary - 10/10 - This is a solid, well-built hookah with a convenient size. It smoke like a dream and the copper downstem keeps the smoke cold without the need of ice in the base. The price point is relatively high for a hookah this size but it is well worth it. Chris - 10/10 - Overall it's an excellent hookah with no flaws. Plain and simple, its the best hookah that I've ever smoked out of.
http://wn.com/Hookah_Review_Khalil_Mamoon_Beast
Cloud 9 Hookah Review: Khalil Mamoon Beast aka KM Full Caste Mini Vendor: www.5starhookah.com Ratings Gary - 10/10 - This is a solid, well-built hookah with a convenient size. It smoke like a dream and the copper downstem keeps the smoke cold without the need of ice in the base. The price point is relatively high for a hookah this size but it is well worth it. Chris - 10/10 - Overall it's an excellent hookah with no flaws. Plain and simple, its the best hookah that I've ever smoked out of.
- published: 11 Dec 2011
- views: 50612
- author: cloud9hookah
Funky Lava Lamp Hookah!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:01
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Combine a Lava Lamp with a Hookah for a groovy, psychedelic experience! Keep on truckin'! Lava Lamp: 14.5"/ 20 oz. Classic Lava Lamp Hookah: Mya Econo Gelato Tobacco: Romman - Good Times Flavor Thanks to Tatum Vay for the idea. TIPS: Let the lava cool and harden. You can throw that away and then flush the remaining liquid. You can use needle nose pliers to grab the coil from the bottle. Also, the water does not heat up like in a lava lamp due to the removal of the coil. ►Laser Videos: bit.ly ►Easy Projects: bit.ly ►Pranks & Jokes: bit.ly ►Hacks & Mods: bit.ly ►Spy Gadgets & Devices: bit.ly ►Explosions & Loud Things: bit.ly
http://wn.com/Funky_Lava_Lamp_Hookah!
Combine a Lava Lamp with a Hookah for a groovy, psychedelic experience! Keep on truckin'! Lava Lamp: 14.5"/ 20 oz. Classic Lava Lamp Hookah: Mya Econo Gelato Tobacco: Romman - Good Times Flavor Thanks to Tatum Vay for the idea. TIPS: Let the lava cool and harden. You can throw that away and then flush the remaining liquid. You can use needle nose pliers to grab the coil from the bottle. Also, the water does not heat up like in a lava lamp due to the removal of the coil. ►Laser Videos: bit.ly ►Easy Projects: bit.ly ►Pranks & Jokes: bit.ly ►Hacks & Mods: bit.ly ►Spy Gadgets & Devices: bit.ly ►Explosions & Loud Things: bit.ly
- published: 17 May 2011
- views: 1593275
- author: kipkay
The Hookah
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:32
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
In this video, I show the parts, how to set up and properly light and smoke a Hookah. It's an amazing way to smoke a light, great tasting tobacco that is far less dangerous than cigarettes. It doesn't smoke up the house, it smells fantastic, and everyone can share it, even if they don't smoke. It is also not addictive, so it's safe for those who are trying to quit cigarettes.
http://wn.com/The_Hookah
In this video, I show the parts, how to set up and properly light and smoke a Hookah. It's an amazing way to smoke a light, great tasting tobacco that is far less dangerous than cigarettes. It doesn't smoke up the house, it smells fantastic, and everyone can share it, even if they don't smoke. It is also not addictive, so it's safe for those who are trying to quit cigarettes.
- published: 16 Aug 2010
- views: 17984
- author: CraigTube
Hookah Olympics - Hookah All Around
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:25
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
www.hookah-shisha.com Hookah-Shisha Hookah Olympics 2008 all around hookah smoking competition. We race to see who can assemble, load, light and blow 25 smoke rings the fastest. Bring on the competition!
http://wn.com/Hookah_Olympics_Hookah_All_Around
www.hookah-shisha.com Hookah-Shisha Hookah Olympics 2008 all around hookah smoking competition. We race to see who can assemble, load, light and blow 25 smoke rings the fastest. Bring on the competition!
- published: 15 Aug 2008
- views: 212315
- author: hookahvideos
Cockroach in Hookah Prank (ft. Abdo the Arab) -Ownage Pranks
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:03
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
I called a hookah (tobacco water pipe) place and told them I found a cockroach in the water, the manager wasn't very pleased about it :) Please Like/Share the video if you enjoyed it! Voodoo Con Artist Prank - youtu.be Add me to facebook/twitter! I post on there when I'm doing a live prank show (the shows aren't scheduled, but I ALWAYS tweet when I'm live) facebook.com twitter.com Subscribe to my 2nd prank channel for short pranks & extras! youtube.com Subscribe to my vlog channel! youtube.com Register on the website and join the growing community on the forums! ownagepranks.com Subtitle help from youtube.com
http://wn.com/Cockroach_in_Hookah_Prank_ft_Abdo_the_Arab_-Ownage_Pranks
I called a hookah (tobacco water pipe) place and told them I found a cockroach in the water, the manager wasn't very pleased about it :) Please Like/Share the video if you enjoyed it! Voodoo Con Artist Prank - youtu.be Add me to facebook/twitter! I post on there when I'm doing a live prank show (the shows aren't scheduled, but I ALWAYS tweet when I'm live) facebook.com twitter.com Subscribe to my 2nd prank channel for short pranks & extras! youtube.com Subscribe to my vlog channel! youtube.com Register on the website and join the growing community on the forums! ownagepranks.com Subtitle help from youtube.com
- published: 16 Dec 2012
- views: 155920
- author: OwnagePranks
"Hooked on Hookah" OFFICIAL Spoof of Secreto "PAPA DIOS" by Juan Bago and O
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:13
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
Juan Bago and O are Addicted to Hookah and this is how they express it. Directed by Gil Flores Written and Performed by: Tommie Nibbs and Jeff Lapaixx For the MP3 please email Michaeldiaz@heightsentertainment.com
http://wn.com/Hooked_on_Hookah_OFFICIAL_Spoof_of_Secreto_PAPA_DIOS_by_Juan_Bago_and_O
Juan Bago and O are Addicted to Hookah and this is how they express it. Directed by Gil Flores Written and Performed by: Tommie Nibbs and Jeff Lapaixx For the MP3 please email Michaeldiaz@heightsentertainment.com
- published: 15 Aug 2012
- views: 20744
- author: Juanbagoando
How To Use A Hookah And Make The Greatest Hookah Experience
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Beginners Guide To How To Use A Hookah And Make The Greatest Hookah Experience. Read more: www.whatishookah.org
http://wn.com/How_To_Use_A_Hookah_And_Make_The_Greatest_Hookah_Experience
Beginners Guide To How To Use A Hookah And Make The Greatest Hookah Experience. Read more: www.whatishookah.org
- published: 15 Jun 2012
- views: 5789
- author: JohnnyFortuneChannel
d&b; hookah - What is Hookah/How to Smoke (pt 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:47
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
d&b; hookah - Episode One - Part Two davideo and brandyxbear talk about what exactly is hookah and how to set up and smoke a hookah.
http://wn.com/d&b;_hookah_What_is_Hookah_How_to_Smoke_pt_2
d&b; hookah - Episode One - Part Two davideo and brandyxbear talk about what exactly is hookah and how to set up and smoke a hookah.
- published: 18 Apr 2011
- views: 99520
- author: dnbhookah
Hookah (Jake and Amir)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:24
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
JAKE & AMIR OUTTAKES bit.ly LIKE us on: www.facebook.com Accept the smoke, that's it. See more www.collegehumor.com FOLLOW us on www.twitter.com FOLLOW us on: www.collegehumor.tumblr.com
http://wn.com/Hookah_Jake_and_Amir
JAKE & AMIR OUTTAKES bit.ly LIKE us on: www.facebook.com Accept the smoke, that's it. See more www.collegehumor.com FOLLOW us on www.twitter.com FOLLOW us on: www.collegehumor.tumblr.com
- published: 30 Jul 2012
- views: 347567
- author: collegehumor
Hookah Smoke Tricks
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
This is just a compilation of different hookah smoke tricks. There are a lot more tricks that we couldn't fit into the video due to time constraints, and some of the tricks don't represent our best work, but enjoy anyways! The Hookah is a Mya Bohemian Glass 23" and a wide variety of shisha was smoked, although Al-Fakher's Lemon Mint was used more often with some pure lemon juice in the vase of the hookah because it's delicious. EDIT (03/20/2012): I've received A LOT of PMs and comments asking for the details on how to get the thick smoke and also how to make the bubble solution. First let me thank you all for the interest - it means a lot! Rather than replying to each individual message or comment, I'll just post it here: Thick Smoke Recipe: 1.) Al Fakher Shisha. Pound per price this is the best shisha on the market. Sure there are other shisha brands that taste better or may have better smoke, but they are far in between and they are EXPENSIVE. Al Fakher is one of the cheapest brands you can buy and they use the most glycerol in their product, which translates into the heaviest, thickest smoke you can buy for the CHEAPEST price. Pretty much all of their flavors are good and smoke really well. Orange and Lemon Mint especially. 2.) Good coal management. Don't use Kwik-Lites and don't just set your coal in the middle of your bowl. Get some good Exotica's or Coco-naras and heat them well on a stove, making sure they're fully ignited. Place the coal on the edge of one side of ...
http://wn.com/Hookah_Smoke_Tricks
This is just a compilation of different hookah smoke tricks. There are a lot more tricks that we couldn't fit into the video due to time constraints, and some of the tricks don't represent our best work, but enjoy anyways! The Hookah is a Mya Bohemian Glass 23" and a wide variety of shisha was smoked, although Al-Fakher's Lemon Mint was used more often with some pure lemon juice in the vase of the hookah because it's delicious. EDIT (03/20/2012): I've received A LOT of PMs and comments asking for the details on how to get the thick smoke and also how to make the bubble solution. First let me thank you all for the interest - it means a lot! Rather than replying to each individual message or comment, I'll just post it here: Thick Smoke Recipe: 1.) Al Fakher Shisha. Pound per price this is the best shisha on the market. Sure there are other shisha brands that taste better or may have better smoke, but they are far in between and they are EXPENSIVE. Al Fakher is one of the cheapest brands you can buy and they use the most glycerol in their product, which translates into the heaviest, thickest smoke you can buy for the CHEAPEST price. Pretty much all of their flavors are good and smoke really well. Orange and Lemon Mint especially. 2.) Good coal management. Don't use Kwik-Lites and don't just set your coal in the middle of your bowl. Get some good Exotica's or Coco-naras and heat them well on a stove, making sure they're fully ignited. Place the coal on the edge of one side of ...
- published: 18 Mar 2011
- views: 50803
- author: TheFreezingM00N
Mozart La Para - La Hookah Official Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Mozart La Para - La Hookah ( Oficial Video )
http://wn.com/Mozart_La_Para_La_Hookah_Official_Video
Mozart La Para - La Hookah ( Oficial Video )
- published: 13 Sep 2011
- views: 1101356
- author: MozartLaParaRD
Tera Pyar Hookah Bar (Full Song) - Khiladi 786
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:15
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Tera Pyar Pyar Pyar Hookah Bar from Khiladi 786 sung by Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet SIngh, Aman Trikha. Song: Hookah Bar Music: Himesh Reshammiya Starring: Akshay Kumar & Asin Singer: Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet Singh, Aman Trikha
http://wn.com/Tera_Pyar_Hookah_Bar_Full_Song_Khiladi_786
Tera Pyar Pyar Pyar Hookah Bar from Khiladi 786 sung by Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet SIngh, Aman Trikha. Song: Hookah Bar Music: Himesh Reshammiya Starring: Akshay Kumar & Asin Singer: Himesh Reshammiya, Vineet Singh, Aman Trikha
- published: 31 Oct 2012
- views: 150728
- author: ishaan539
Balma & Hookah Bar Medley - Khiladi 786 ft. Akshay Kumar & Asin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:40
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
The blend of Balma & Hookah Bar song from Khiladi 786 is a fun track that will set you grooving. Check out this dance medley & enjoy! Eros International in association with HariOm Entertainment Company & HR Musik presents 'Khiladi 786' a Ashish R. Mohan film. 'Khiladi 786' is produced by Twinkle Khanna, Sunil Lulla & Himesh Reshammiya. For all the updates on Khiladi 786: twitter.com www.facebook.com For all the updates on Eros movies and more: www.facebook.com twitter.com Visit erosnow.com and sign up today for a 14 DAY COMPLETELY FREE TRIAL
http://wn.com/Balma_Hookah_Bar_Medley_Khiladi_786_ft_Akshay_Kumar_Asin
The blend of Balma & Hookah Bar song from Khiladi 786 is a fun track that will set you grooving. Check out this dance medley & enjoy! Eros International in association with HariOm Entertainment Company & HR Musik presents 'Khiladi 786' a Ashish R. Mohan film. 'Khiladi 786' is produced by Twinkle Khanna, Sunil Lulla & Himesh Reshammiya. For all the updates on Khiladi 786: twitter.com www.facebook.com For all the updates on Eros movies and more: www.facebook.com twitter.com Visit erosnow.com and sign up today for a 14 DAY COMPLETELY FREE TRIAL
- published: 30 Nov 2012
- views: 14419
- author: erosentertainment
Hookah Tricks Tutorial Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:22
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
How to do tricks with hookah smoke Enjoy!
http://wn.com/Hookah_Tricks_Tutorial_Part_1
How to pack a hookah bowl. (the good way)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:22
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
This is a instructional video on the best way to pack a hookah bowl. Not only are you conserving shisha(tobacco) but also getting a better smoke. For more tips flavor mixes or hookah awesomeness hit us up at hookahhore.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/How_to_pack_a_hookah_bowl_the_good_way
This is a instructional video on the best way to pack a hookah bowl. Not only are you conserving shisha(tobacco) but also getting a better smoke. For more tips flavor mixes or hookah awesomeness hit us up at hookahhore.blogspot.com
- published: 12 Feb 2011
- views: 42407
- author: thriftysureferjay
Why Smoke Hookah?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:29
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Well, a few reasons but its really up to you.
http://wn.com/Why_Smoke_Hookah?
Well, a few reasons but its really up to you.
- published: 05 Mar 2009
- views: 28841
- author: TrueHookahKing
BEST HOOKAH TRICK EVER! Vlog 94
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:51
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
LIKE VIDEO FOR MORE :D 2nd Youtube - www.youtube.com Facebook (SUBSCRIBE ONLY) - www.facebook.com Twitter - twitter.com Instagram - Derekvlogs
http://wn.com/BEST_HOOKAH_TRICK_EVER!_Vlog_94
LIKE VIDEO FOR MORE :D 2nd Youtube - www.youtube.com Facebook (SUBSCRIBE ONLY) - www.facebook.com Twitter - twitter.com Instagram - Derekvlogs
- published: 04 Oct 2012
- views: 11160
- author: DerekVlogs
Imperial Disposable Hookah Review
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:16
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
Here is my Semi First Review on imperial hookah, i did like this product 7.5/10 Blueberry Blast! www.facebook.com/kingshookahdearborn twitter realmoegaffara
http://wn.com/Imperial_Disposable_Hookah_Review
Here is my Semi First Review on imperial hookah, i did like this product 7.5/10 Blueberry Blast! www.facebook.com/kingshookahdearborn twitter realmoegaffara
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 15804
- author: Moe G
FUMO JAR HOOKAH REVIEW
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:01
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
FUMO JAR HOOKAH REVIEW Hookah Pipe Review www.HookahRev.com www.facebook.com www.fumodesign.com
http://wn.com/FUMO_JAR_HOOKAH_REVIEW
FUMO JAR HOOKAH REVIEW Hookah Pipe Review www.HookahRev.com www.facebook.com www.fumodesign.com
- published: 07 Jul 2012
- views: 5841
- author: hookahrev
photo: AP / Fahd al-Bakoush
20 Dec 2012
WASHINGTON (Reuters) - Three senior U.S. State Department officials were asked to resign after an official inquiry harshly criticized their offices for failing to provide adequate security at the U.S. mission in Benghazi, Libya, before it came under attack in September, a U.S. official said on Wednesday ... State Department officials declined to comment on the matter, saying it was a personnel issue ... Joint Chiefs of Staff ... facilities....(size: 5.4Kb)
photo: AP / Carolyn Kaster
20 Dec 2012
Obama held a White House news conference on Wednesday to announce that Vice President Joe Biden will lead an interagency effort to craft new gun policies. The group is expected to offer its proposals in January. “We know this is a complex issue that stirs deeply held passions and political divides,” Obama said. “But the fact that this problem is complex can no longer be an excuse for doing nothing.” ... WAKE-UP CALL ... ....(size: 6.1Kb)
photo: AP / Alfred de Montesquiou
21 Dec 2012
UNITED NATIONS -- The U.N. Security Council on Thursday authorized military action to wrest northern Mali from the control of al-Qaida-linked extremists, but it demanded progress first on political reconciliation, elections and training African troops and police ... Instead, it set out benchmarks to be met before the start of offensive operations, starting with progress on a political roadmap to restore constitutional order ... U.N ... On Nov ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
photo: AP / Ahn Young-joon
20 Dec 2012
SEOUL, South Korea — Park Geun-hye's election as South Korea's first female president could mean a new drive to start talks with bitter rival North Korea, though it's unclear how much further she will go than the hard-line incumbent, a member of her own conservative party ... On Thursday, Park mentioned the North Korean rocket launch during a nationally televised speech ... Ties between the Koreas plummeted during Lee's term ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: AP
22 Dec 2012
An Egyptian constitution drafted by Islamists is expected to be approved in a referendum on Saturday after the charter, which opponents say will create deeper turmoil, won approval in a first wave of voting a week ago. The opposition have already cried foul, saying a litany of abuses means last Saturday’s ballot, involving about half the electorate, should be re-run ... Polling stations open at 8 a.m. (0600 GMT) and close at 7 p.m....(size: 4.4Kb)
Indian Express
22 Dec 2012
The Bombay High Court on Thursday directed the Superintendent of Police (SP), Thane (Rural) to probe allegations that police officers had a nexus with owners of hookah parlours that continue to run despite a ban imposed by the state government....(size: 1.3Kb)
The Times of India
22 Dec 2012
Restaurants operating under the grab of hookah lounges will face crackdown from the food and drug administration (FDA) and health department ... Taking a stern view of the hookah lounges operational in the city, commission chairperson Usha Chaturvedi expressed surprise over the fact that no department issues licence of lounge and still they are functioning....(size: 2.7Kb)
Hernando Today
22 Dec 2012
The Euphoria Emporium Hookah Cafe is phantasmagoric ... Tucked into the corner of a strip mall on Kass Circle, business owner Cindy Gioia Oakes opened the cafe/hookah lounge a year ago primarily because she said, "Kids in their late teens in this town don't have a place to go and socialize." ... Cindy Oakes wants people to know about the alternative, non-tobacco substance for the hookah, suggesting "the electronic hookah is the way to go."....(size: 6.7Kb)
Newstrack India
22 Dec 2012
The numbers nominated in the most irritating song category are "Chinta ta chita chita" ("Rowdy Rathore"), "Son of sardaar" ("Son of Sardaar"), "Anarkali disco chali" ("Housefull 2"), "Disco deewane" ("Student Of The Year") and "Hookah bar" ("Khiladi 786") ... ("Son Of Sardaar"), "Chinta ta chita chita ("Rowdy Rathore") and "Hookah bar" ("Khiladi 786")....(size: 3.2Kb)
The Times of India
22 Dec 2012
Golden Kela Awards, the Indian version of Razzies - Golden Raspberry Awards (very popular awards in the West for awarding the worst in the film making industry) has announced its 2012 nominations list for the 'worst' attempts in Bollywood. It has a section called 'The Cream of Crap in Bollywood' with different categories under it. Here are some of its so-called nominations... Ajay Devgn ... Hookah Bar (Khiladi 786) ... Hookah Bar (Khiladi 786)....(size: 3.0Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
22 Dec 2012
At first they shared a hookah pipe and chatted amiably about religion, but the conversation quickly turned to extortion ... Advertisement ....(size: 0.8Kb)
The Times of India
22 Dec 2012
STL Today
22 Dec 2012
The Board of Aldermen on Dec ... Alderman Richard Morris, Ward 3, voted no. Alderman Richard Sidebottom, Ward 1, was absent. The bill defines the paraphernalia as “any instrument, utensil or device used for smoking or inhaling tobacco or similar plant products.” These include rolling papers; metal, wooden, acrylic, glass, stone or ceramic pipes; water pipes, hookahs, carburetion tubes and devices; and bongs ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
Khaleej Times
22 Dec 2012
Take two musical greats from India and Pakistan, put them on one stage and expect a creative explosion of endless possibilities ... Fresh from the success of his lates movie Khiladi 786, Himesh was in the mood to belt out chart-busters. The star had a medley of 24 songs lined up for the crowd as he started off with ‘Hookah Bar’ and ‘Balma’ ... muaz@khaleejtimes.com....(size: 1.9Kb)
The Times of India
21 Dec 2012
Yahoo Daily News
21 Dec 2012
New Year's Eve 2013 at E-Villa, one of Baltimore's sexiest lounges, will have some of Baltimore's best house, dance, and funk DJ's to keep the party moving all night long ... “Last year was so much fun, everyone danced all night long,” says E-Villa manager Kim Bury ... Vernon neighborhood in Midtown ... Mt ... It looks like you are walking into a row house, then when you get upstairs; customers are eating, enjoying cocktails and hookah, and dancing....(size: 3.0Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
21 Dec 2012
There's plenty of options when it comes to celebrating New Year's Eve 2013 in Las Vegas. For a more relaxed NYE 2013 scene in Vegas, try one of the http.//www.earlyvegas.com/ picks for the best Vegas lounges. Las Vegas, Nevada (PRWEB) December 21, 2012 There’s no better way to celebrate New Year’s Eve 2013 than in Las Vegas ... 1 ... 2 ... 3 ... Rhumbar serves up top notch rum mixed drinks and patrons can also purchase a flavored hookah if so desired....(size: 3.4Kb)
The Guardian
21 Dec 2012
Urfa, in eastern Turkey, is, at 11,000 years old, the oldest monument ever found, yet was only discovered a decade ago ... Pillars at the temple of Gobëkli Tepe ... the early Holocene ... The children are being served a delicious-looking array of homemade dishes by their mother and older sisters while the father, reclining jovially with a hookah pipe, is tending to his pet partridges, brought along to enjoy the air and the grass ... Way to go ... ....(size: 14.4Kb)
"Qalyan" redirects here. For the village in Iran, see Qolian, Lorestan.
- The homophone hooka can refer to surface-supplied underwater diving.
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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008) |
A hookah (hukkā or huqqah)[1][2] also known as a waterpipe,[3] narghile, or Qalyān (Persian: قلیان), is a single or multi-stemmed instrument for smoking flavored tobacco called Mu‘assel (also known as Shisha شیشه) in which the smoke is passed through a water basin (often glass based) before inhalation. The origin of the hookah is India, Pakistan[4][5][6] and Persia,[6][7][8][9] or at a transition point between the two.[6][10] The word hookah is a derivative of "huqqa", which is what the Indians used to call it.[11][12] According to author Cyril Elgood (pp. 41, 110), who does not mention his source, it was Abul-Fath Gilani (d. 1588), a Persian physician at the Indian court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who “first passed the smoke of tobacco through a small bowl of water to purify and cool the smoke and thus invented the hubble-bubble or hookah.”[13] Nevertheless, a quatrain of Ahli Shirazi (d. 1535) refers to the use of the ḡalyān in Safavid Iran.[14] (Falsafī, II, p. 277; Semsār, 1963, p. 15). Smoking the hookah has gained popularity outside of its native region, in India, Pakistan and the Middle East, and is gaining popularity in North America, South America, Europe, Australia[2] and South Africa.
Contents |
Names and etymology[link]
Nargile (but sometimes pronounced Argileh or Argilee) is the name most commonly used in Turkey, Italy, Greece, Cyprus, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Yemen, and Israel. Nargile derives from the Persianegypt word nārghile, meaning coconut, which in turn is from the Sanskrit word nārikela (नारिकेला), suggesting that early hookahs were hewn from coconut shells.[15][16]
In Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina the hookah is called "lula" or "lulava" in Romani, meaning "pipe"; the word "shishe" refers to the actual bottle piece.[citation needed]
In Croatia, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria, na[r]gile (на[р]гиле; from Turkish nargile) is used to refer to the pipe. Šiša (шиша) usually refers to the tobacco that is smoked in it.[citation needed] The pipes there often have one or two mouth pieces. The flavored tobacco, created by marinating cuts of tobacco in a multitude of flavored molasses, is placed above the water and covered by pierced foil with hot coals placed on top, and the smoke is drawn through cold water to cool and filter it.
"Narguile",[17] is the common word in Spain used to refer to the pipe, although "cachimba"[18] is also used, along with "shisha" by Moroccan immigrants in Spain.
Shisha (شيشة), from the Persian word shīshe (شیشه), meaning glass, is the common term for the hookah in Egypt, Sudan and the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf (including Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, UAE, and Saudi Arabia), and in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Somalia and Yemen.[citation needed]
In Iran/Persia, hookah is called "ḡalyān" (Farsi:قلیان). Persian qalyan is included in the earliest European compendium on tobacco, the tobacolgia written by Johan Neander and published in Dutch in 1622. It seems that over time water pipes acquired an Iranian connotation as in eighteenth-century Egypt the most fashionable pipes were called Karim Khan after the Iranian ruler of the day.[19] This is also the name used in Ukraine, Russia and Belarus.[citation needed]
In Uzbekistan and Afghanistan, a hookah is called chillim.[20]
In India and Pakistan the name most similar to the English hookah is used: huqqa (हुक़्क़ा /حقّہ).[21]
In Maldives, hookah is called "Gudugudaa".[22]
The hookah pipe is also known as the "Marra pipe" in the UK, especially in the North East, where it is used for recreational purposes.[citation needed]
The widespread use of the Indian word "hookah" in the English language is a result of the British Raj, the British dominion of India (1858–1947), when large numbers of expatriate Britons first sampled the water pipe. William Hickey, shortly after arriving in Kolkata, India, in 1775, wrote in his Memoirs:
-
- The most highly-dressed and splendid hookah was prepared for me. I tried it, but did not like it. As after several trials I still found it disagreeable, I with much gravity requested to know whether it was indispensably necessary that I should become a smoker, which was answered with equal gravity, "Undoubtedly it is, for you might as well be out of the world as out of the fashion. Here everybody uses a hookah, and it is impossible to get on without ...[I] have frequently heard men declare they would much rather be deprived of their dinner than their hookah.[23]
History[link]
Initial traces of hookah smoking have been found in the North Western provinces of India in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[citation needed] In North India, it is a great tradition followed by Gurjars, Jats, Bishnois, Rajputs, etc.[citation needed] According to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110) it was in India where the physician Hakim Abu’l-Fath Gilani (d. 1588), at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (1542 - 1605 AD) invented the idea.[24][25][26] Following the European introduction of tobacco to Persia and India, Hakim Abu’l-Fath Gilani, who came from Gilan, a province in the north of Iran, migrated to India. He later became a physician in the Mughal court and raised health concerns after smoking tobacco became popular among Indian noblemen. He subsequently envisaged a system which allowed smoke to be passed through water in order to be 'purified'.[24] Gilani introduced the ḡalyān after Asad Beg, the ambassador of Bijapur, encouraged Akbar I to take up smoking.[24] Following popularity among noblemen, this new device for smoking soon became a status symbol for the Indian aristocracy and gentry.[24][26] However, a quatrain of Ahlī Shirazi (d. 1535), a Persian poet, refers to the use of the ḡalyān (Falsafī, II, p. 277; Semsār, 1963, p. 15), thus dating its use at least as early as the time of the Shah Ṭahmāsp I. It seems, therefore, that Abu’l-Fath Gilani should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, into India.
Culture[link]
Middle East[link]
Arab world[link]
In the Arab world, people smoke it as part of their culture and traditions. Social smoking is done with a single or double hose hookah, and sometimes even triple or quadruple hose hookahs in the forms of parties or small get-togethers are used. When the smoker is finished, either the hose is placed back on the table signifying that it is available, or it is handed from one user to the next, folded back on itself so that the mouthpiece is not pointing at the recipient.
Most cafés (Arabic: مقهىً, transliteration: maqha, translation: coffeeshop) in the Middle East offer shishas.[27] Cafés are widespread and are amongst the chief social gathering places in the Arab world (akin to public houses in Britain).[28] Some expatriate Britons arriving in the Middle East adopt shisha cafés to make up for the lack of pubs in the region, especially where prohibition is in place.
Syria[link]
In Syria, shisha is widely used, usually called "argila"; it is available on almost every corner. It has become part of Syria's everyday culture. It is normal to see a female smoking shisha in Syria. It is a very sociable activity, often involving games as well as smoking.[citation needed]
See also: Smoking in Syria
Iran[link]
In Iran, the hookah is known as a ḡalyān (Persian: قليان, قالیون, غلیون, also spelled ghalyan, ghalyaan or ghelyoon). It is similar in many ways to the Arabic hookah.
The exact date of the first use of ḡalyān in Persia is not known. According to Cyril Elgood (pp. 41, 110), who does not mention his source, it was Abul-Fatḥ Gilani (d. 1588), a Persian physician at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I, who “first passed the smoke of tobacco through a small bowl of water to purify and cool the smoke and thus invented the hubble-bubble or hookah.” However, a quatrain of Ahli Shirazi (d. 1535) refers to the use of the ḡalyān (Falsafī, II, p. 277; Semsār, 1963, p. 15), thus dating its use at least as early as the time of Tahmasp I (1524–76). It seems, therefore, that Abul-Fath Gilani should be credited with the introduction of the ḡalyān, already in use in Persia, to India.
Although the Safavid Shah ʿAbbās I strongly condemned tobacco use, towards the end of his reign smoking ḡalyān and čopoq (q.v.) had become common on every level of the society, women included. In schools and learned circles, both teachers and students had ḡalyāns while lessons continued (Falsafī, II, pp. 278–80). Shah Safi of Persia (r. 1629-42) declared a complete ban on tobacco, but the income received from its use persuaded him to soon revoke the ban.[29] The use of ḡalyāns became so widespread that a group of poor people became professional tinkers of crystal water pipes. During the time of Abbas II of Persia (r. 1642-1666), use of the water pipe had become a national addiction (Chardin, tr., II, p. 899). The shah/king had his own private ḡalyān servants. Evidently the position of water pipe tender (ḡalyāndār) dates from this time. Also at this time, reservoirs were made of glass, pottery, or a type of gourd. Because of the unsatisfactory quality of indigenous glass, glass reservoirs were sometimes imported from Venice (Chardin, tr., II, p. 892). In the time of Suleiman I of Persia (r. 1694-1722), ḡalyāns became more elaborately embellished as their use increased. The wealthy owned gold and silver pipes. The masses spent more on ḡalyāns than they did on the necessities of life (Tavernier apud Semsār, 1963, p. 16).
An emissary of Sultan Husayn (r.1722-32) to the court of Louis XV of France, on his way to the royal audience at Versailles, had in his retinue an officer holding his ḡalyān, which he used while his carriage was in motion (Herbette, tr. p. 7; Kasrawī, pp. 211–12; Semsār, 1963, pp. 18–19). We have no record indicating the use of ḡalyān at the court of Nader Shah, although its use seems to have continued uninterrupted. There are portraits of Karim Khan of the Zand dynasty of Iran and Fat′h-Ali Shah Qajar which depict them smoking the ḡalyān.[30] Iranians had a special tobacco called Khansar (خانسار, presumably name of the origin city). The charcoals would be put on the Khansar without foil. Khansar has less smoke than the normal tobacco.
South Asia[link]
Pakistan[link]
Although it has been traditionally prevalent in rural areas for generations,[31] smoking hookahs has become very popular in the cosmopolitan cities of Pakistan. One can see many cafés in Pakistan offering hookah smoking to its guests. Even lots of households have hookahs for smoking or decoration purposes.
In Punjab, Pakhtunkhwa, and in northern Balochistan, the topmost part on which coals are placed is called chillum.
India[link]
The concept of hookah is thought to have originated In India,[32] once the province of the wealthy, it was tremendously popular especially during Mughal rule. The hookah has since become less popular; however, it is once again garnering the attention of the masses, and cafés and restaurants that offer it as a consumable are popular. The use of hookahs from ancient times in India was not only a custom, but a matter of prestige. Rich and landed classes would smoke hookahs.
Tobacco is smoked in hookahs in many villages as per traditional customs. Smoking tobacco-molasses is now becoming popular amongst the youth in India. There are several chain clubs, bars and coffee shops in India offering a wider variety of mu‘assels, including non-tobacco versions. Hookah was recently banned in Bangalore. However, it can be bought or rented for personal usage or organized parties.[33]
Koyilandy, a small fishing town on the west coast of India, once made and exported hookahs extensively. These are known as Malabar Hookhas or Koyilandy Hookahs. Today these intricate hookahs are difficult to find outside of Koyilandy and are becoming difficult even to find in Koyilandy itself.
As hookah makes a resurgence in India, there have been numerous raids and bans recently on hookah smoking, especially in Gujarat.[34]
Nepal[link]
Hookahs (हुक़्क़ा), especially wooden ones, are popular in Nepal. Use of hookahs is considered to symbolize elite family throughout history.[citation needed] These days hookahs are also getting popular among younger people and tourists.The main tourists places like Kathmandu,Pokhara and Dharan are famous for Hookah Bars. You can smoke hookahs at the rate of 250 Rs Minimum [35]
Bangladesh[link]
The hookah has been a traditional smoking instrument in Bangladesh, as it has been in India.[citation needed] However, flavored shisha was introduced in the early 2000s.[citation needed] Hookah lounges spread quite quickly between 2008–2011 and became very popular among young people as well as middle-aged people as a relaxation method.[citation needed] There have been allegations of a government crack-down on hookah bars to prevent illicit drug usage.[citation needed]
Southeast Asia[link]
Philippines[link]
In the Philippines, the hookah, where it is predominantly called shisha, was particularly used within the minority Arab Filipino and Indian Filipino communities, although particularly among indigenous Muslim Filipinos.{{Citation needed|
Hookah was virtually unknown by Christian Filipinos before the latter 20th century, yet the popularity among contemporary younger Christians is now vastly growing.[citation needed] In the capital's most cosmopolitan city, Makati, various high-end bars and clubs offer hookahs to patrons.[citation needed]
Although hookah use has been common for hundreds of years and enjoyed by people of all ages, it has just begun to become a youth-oriented pastime in Asia in recent times.[citation needed] Hookahs are most popular with college students and young adults, who may be underage and thus unable to purchase cigarettes.[36]
South Africa[link]
In South Africa, hookah, colloquially known as a hubbly bubbly or an okka pipe, is popular amongst the Cape Malay and Indian populations, wherein it is smoked as a social pastime.[37] However, hookah is seeing increasing popularity with white South Africans, especially the youth.[citation needed] Bars that additionally provide hookahs are becoming more prominent, although smoking is normally done at home or in public spaces such as beaches and picnic sites.[citation needed]
In South Africa, the terminology of the various hookah components also differ from other countries. The clay "head/bowl" is known as a "clay pot". The hoses are called "pipes" and the air release valve is known as a "clutch".[citation needed]
The windscreen (which is considered optional and not used by most people[citation needed]) is known as an "As-jas", which directly translates from Afrikaans to English as an "ash-jacket". Also, making/preparing the "clay pot" is commonly referred to as "racking the hubbly".[citation needed]
Some scientists point to the dagga pipe as an African origin of hookah.[38]
United States and Canada[link]
Main article: Hookah lounge
File:HarvardSquareHookah.jpg
A hookah and a variety of tobacco products are on display in a Harvard Square store window in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
During the 1960s and 1970s, hookahs were a popular tool for the consumption of various derivations of tobacco, among other things.[39] At parties or small gatherings the hookah hose was passed around with users partaking as they saw fit.
Recently, certain cities, counties, and states have implemented indoor smoking bans. In some jurisdictions, hookah businesses can be exempted from the policies through special permits. Some permits, however, have requirements such as the business earning a certain minimum percentage of their revenue from alcohol or tobacco.
In cities with indoor smoking bans, hookah bars have been forced to close or switch to tobacco-free mixtures. In many cities though, hookah lounges have been growing in popularity.[40] From the year 2000 to 2004, over 200 new hookah cafés opened for business, most of them targeted at young adults[41] and located near college campuses or cities with large Middle-Eastern communities. This activity continues to gain popularity within the post-secondary student demographic.[42] According to a 2011 study, 40.3 percent of college and university students surveyed had smoked tobacco from a hookah.[43]
Structure and operation[link]
Components[link]
Excluding grommets, a hookah consists of a number of components, four of which are essential for its operation.
Bowl[link]
Also known as the head of the hookah, the bowl is a container, usually made out of clay or marble, that holds the coal and tobacco during the smoking session. The bowl is loaded with tobacco then covered in a small piece of perforated aluminum foil or a glass or metal screen. Lit coals are then placed on top, which allows the tobacco to heat to the proper temperature.
There is also a variation of the head which employs a fruit rather than the traditional clay bowl. The fruit is hollowed out and perforated in order to achieve the same shape and system a clay bowl has, then it is loaded and used in the same manner.
Bowls have evolved in recent years to incorporate new designs that keep juices in the tobacco from running down the stem. The Tangiers Phunnel Bowl and Sahara Smoke Vortex Bowl are two examples of such bowls.
Windscreen[link]
A Hookah Cover windscreen is a cover which sits over the bowl area, with some form of air holes. This prevents wind from increasing the burn rate and temperature of the coal, and prevents ash and burning embers from being blown onto the surrounding environment. This may also offer some limited protection from fire as it may prevent the coal from being ejected if the hookah is bumped.
Hose[link]
Technically if the pipe has a hose it is not "hookah"—the term historically referred to a straight-neck tube[citation needed]. Today the hose (one or more) is a slender flexible tube that allows the smoke to be drawn for a distance, cooling down before inhalation. The end is typically fitted with a metal, wooden, or plastic mouthpiece of various shape, size, color or material type. According to J.S. Gamble in A Manual of Indian Timbers in 1902 (Page 668), the bark of the white Himalayan birch Betula utilis ssp. jacquemontii was used to make early hookah tubes.
Purge valve[link]
Many hookah are equipped with a purge valve connected to the airspace in the water jar to purge stale smoke which has been sitting unused in the jar for too long. This one-way valve is typically a simple ball bearing sitting over a port which seals the port by gravity alone and will open if positive pressure is created by blowing into the hose. The bearing will be held captive with a screw-on cover. The cover should be opened and the bearing and seat cleaned of residue and corrosion regularly to ensure proper sealing.
Water jar[link]
The body of the hookah sits on top of the water jar, or sometimes referred to as vase, or base. The downstem hangs down below the level of the water in the jar. Smoke passes through the body and out the downstem where it bubbles through the water. This cools and humidifies the smoke. Liquids such as fruit juice may be added to the water or used in substitution. Pieces of fruit, mint leaves, and crushed ice may be added.
Plate[link]
A plate or ashtray sits just below the bowl to catch ashes falling off the coals.
Grommets[link]
Grommets in a hookah are usually placed between the bowl and the body, the body's gasket and the water jar and between the body and the hose. The grommets, although not essential (the use of paper or tape has become common), will help to seal the joints between the parts, therefore decreasing the amount of air coming in and maximizing the smoke breathed in.
Diffuser[link]
A piece attached to the bottom of the stem, usually made of plastic and in a grid pattern, to make a smoother smoke and a subdued noise. By breaking the naturally larger bubbles coming up the water from the pipe into smaller ones, it lowers the amount of suction or "pull" needed to continue bringing smoke to the chamber. This also cools the smoke down more efficiently. It is used as a luxury item for a premium smoking experience and is not a required component.
Operation[link]
The jar at the bottom of the hookah is filled with water sufficient to submerge a few centimeters of the body tube, which is sealed tightly to it. Deeper water will only increase the inhalation force needed to use it. Tobacco is placed inside the bowl at the top of the hookah and then a foil or charcoal screen with a burning charcoal is placed on top. Some cultures cover the bowl with perforated tin foil or a metal screen to separate the coal and the tobacco, which minimizes inhalation of coal ash with the smoke. This may also reduce the temperature the tobacco is exposed to, in order to prevent burning the tobacco directly.
When one inhales through the hose, air is pulled through the charcoal and into the bowl holding the tobacco. The hot air, heated by the charcoal vaporizes (not burns) the tobacco, thus producing smoke, which is passed down through the body tube that extends into the water in the jar. It bubbles up through the water, losing heat, and fills the top part of the jar, to which the hose is attached. When a smoker inhales from the hose, smoke passes into the lungs, and the change in pressure in the jar pulls more air through the charcoal, continuing the process.
If the hookah has been lit and smoked but has not been inhaled for an extended period, the smoke inside the water jar may be regarded as "stale" and undesirable. Stale smoke may be exhausted through the purge valve, if present. This one-way valve is opened by the positive pressure created from gently blowing into the hose. It will not function on a multiple-hose hookah unless all other hoses are plugged. Sometimes one-way valves are put in the hose sockets to avoid the need to manually plug hoses.
Health effects[link]
Further information: Health effects of tobacco
A 2005 WHO report[3] states that smoking using a waterpipe poses a serious potential health hazard and is not a safe alternative to cigarette smoking. Smoke from a waterpipe contains high levels of toxic chemicals, including high levels of carbon monoxide, metals and cancer-causing chemicals.
The average hookah session typically lasts more than 40 minutes, and consists of 50 to 200 inhalations that each range from 0.15 to 0.50 liters of smoke.[44][45] In an hour-long smoking session of hookah, users consume about 100 to 200 times the volume of smoke of a cigarette. The chemical compositions of cigarette smoke and hookah smoke are different, however, as the workings of the charcoal in the modern hookah causes the tobacco mixture to be heated to a lower temperature, as opposed to the higher temperature in a cigarette where the tobacco is directly burnt. Consequently, the potential health effects of hookah smoke are expected to be very different.[46][47]
Despite a different chemical composition of the smoke, it is expected that heavy and long term use still has the potential to lead to diseases generally induced by tobacco, notably chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.[48] Mixtures with lighter concentrations or tobacco-free alternatives (e.g. tobamel, molasses and glycerin-soaked stones) are widely available and aim to reduce the negative effects of tobacco.[49]
A 2008 aetiological study on hookah smoking and cancer led by a group of Pakistani researchers[50] found that overall serum CEA levels (as a biological marker for cancer) in exclusive hookah smokers, who had been using weight equivalents of up to 60 cigarettes of tobacco in daily sessions for decades, were higher than in non-smokers but substantially lower than those recorded in cigarette smokers considering the same amount of tobacco. The study also concluded that heavy and non-moderate hookah smoking (2–4 daily preparations; 3–8 sessions a day; 2 to 6 hours net daily smoking time) substantially raises CEA levels.[50]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ The cyclopaedia of India and of eastern and southern Asia, Volume 2. Bernard Quaritch. 1885. http://books.google.com/?id=yvNWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA99&dq=hookah+india&q=hookah%20india. Retrieved 2007–08–01. "HOOKAH. Hindi. The Indian pipe and apparatus for smoking."
- ^ a b "Hookah". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/HIG_HOR/HOOKAH_the_English_spelling_of_.html. Retrieved 2008-04-08.
- ^ a b WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation (TobReg) an advisory note Waterpipe tobacco smoking:health effects, research needs and recommended actions by regulators, 2005
- ^ The Wealth of India. Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hm1XAAAAMAAJ&q=hookah+india&dq=hookah+india. Retrieved 2007–08–01. "The smoking of hookah and hubble-bubble started in India during the reign of the great Moghul emperor, Akbar"
- ^ Prakash C. Gupta (1992). Control of tobacco-related cancers and other diseases: proceedings of an international symposium, January 15–19, 1990, TIFR, Bombay. Prakash C. Gupta. p. 33. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Zqo67BjH7UC&pg=PA33&dq=hookah+origin++India#v=onepage&q=hookah%20origin%20%20India&f=false.
- ^ a b c Sandra Alters, Wendy Schiff (Jan 28, 2011). Essential Concepts for Healthy Living Update. Jones & Bartlett Learning. http://books.google.com/books?id=EciU_y1JroMC&pg=PA353&dq=hookah+origin+persia+india#v=onepage&q=hookah%20origin%20persia%20india&f=false.
- ^ Nichola Fletcher (Aug 1, 2005). Charlemagne's tablecloth: a piquant history of feasting. Macmillan. p. 10. http://books.google.com/books?id=vMfEyKvR59sC&pg=PA10&dq=Charlemagne's+Tablecloth+hookahs#v=onepage&q&f=false.
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External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Hookahs |
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Hookah. |
- WHO Report on water pipe (hookah), by WHO Study Group on Tobacco Product Regulation (TobReg).
- Some Facts about Hookah Tobacco
- Critique of the WHO Report on water pipe (hookah) by Chaouachi Kamal. A Critique of WHO's TobReg "Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking: Health Effects, Research Needs and Recommended Actions by Regulators". Journal of Negative Results in Biomedicine 2006 (17 Nov); 5:17
- Scientific Evidence of the Health Risks of Hookah Smoking (University of Maryland, College Park: June 9, 2008, vol 17, issue 23
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Wiki Summary
A hookah (hukkā or huqqah) also known as a waterpipe,narghile, or Qalyān (Persian: قلیان), is a single or multi-stemmed instrument for smoking flavored tobacco called Mu‘assel (also known as Shisha شیشه) in which the smoke is passed through a water basin (often glass based) before inhalation. The origin of the hookah is India, Pakistan and Persia, or at a transition point between the two. The word hookah is a derivative of "huqqa", which is what the Indians used to call it. According to author Cyril Elgood (pp. 41, 110), who does not mention his source, it was Abul-Fath Gilani (d. 1588), a Persian physician at the Indian court of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who “first passed the smoke of tobacco through a small bowl of water to purify and cool the smoke and thus invented the hubble-bubble or hookah.” Nevertheless, a quatrain of Ahli Shirazi (d. 1535) refers to the use of the ḡalyān in Safavid Iran. (Falsafī, II, p. 277; Semsār, 1963, p. 15). Smoking the hookah has gained popularity outside of its native region, in India, Pakistan and the Middle East, and is gaining popularity in North America, South America, Europe, Australia and South Africa.
