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Acropolis of Athens
Coordinates: 37°58′17″N 23°43′34″E / 37.971421°N 23.726166°E / 37.971421; 23.726166
The Acropolis of Athens (Greek: Ακρόπολη Αθηνών) is an ancient citadel located on a high rocky outcrop above the city of Athens and containing the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and historic significance, the most famous being the Parthenon. The word acropolis (pl. acropoleis) comes from the Greek words ἄκρον (akron, "edge, extremity") and πόλις (polis, "city"). Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as "The Acropolis" without qualification.
The Acropolis was formally proclaimed as the preeminent monument on the European Cultural Heritage list of monuments on 26 March 2007.
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Colosseum
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre (Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD under the emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
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Egypt
Egypt
i/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: 
جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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Egyptian pyramids
The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located in Egypt.
There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. Most were built as tombs for the country's Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.
The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis. The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BCE–2611 BCE) which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry.
The estimate of the number of workers it took to build the pyramids have a wide range from a few thousand, twenty thousand, and up to 100,000.
The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever built.
The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.
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Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain (Welsh: Prydain Fawr, Scottish Gaelic: Breatainn Mhòr, Cornish: Breten Veur) is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, the largest European island, and the largest of the British Isles. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populous island in the world, after Java and Honshū. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
All of the island is territory of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and most of the United Kingdom's territory is in Great Britain. Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island of Great Britain, as are their respective capital cities: London, Edinburgh, and Cardiff.
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Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the historical northern borders of China in part to protect the Chinese Empire or its prototypical states against intrusions by various nomadic groups or military incursions by various warlike peoples or forces. Several walls were being built as early as the 7th century BC; these, later joined together and made bigger, stronger, and unified are now collectively referred to as the Great Wall. Especially famous is the wall built between 220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on and off been rebuilt, maintained, enhanced; the majority of the existing wall was reconstructed during the Ming Dynasty.
Other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, regulation or encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. Furthermore, the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of watch towers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a transportation corridor.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] (
listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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NASA
Coordinates: 38°52′59″N 77°0′59″W / 38.88306°N 77.01639°W / 38.88306; -77.01639
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is the agency of the United States government that is responsible for the nation's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Since February 2006, NASA's mission statement has been to "pioneer the future in space exploration, scientific discovery and aeronautics research." On September 14, 2011, NASA announced that it had selected the design of a new Space Launch System that it said would take the agency's astronauts farther into space than ever before and provide the cornerstone for future human space exploration efforts by the U.S.
NASA was established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act on July 29, 1958, replacing its predecessor, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). The agency became operational on October 1, 1958. U.S. space exploration efforts have since been led by NASA, including the Apollo moon-landing missions, the Skylab space station, and later the Space Shuttle. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle and Commercial Crew vehicles. The agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program (LSP) which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches.
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Parthenon
Coordinates: 37°58′13″N 23°43′21″E / 37.97025°N 23.72247°E / 37.97025; 23.72247
The Parthenon (Greek: Παρθενών) is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their virgin patron. Its construction began in 447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC, although decoration of the Parthenon continued until 432 BC. It is the most important surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the stability of the partially ruined structure.
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Saqqara
Saqqara[pronunciation?] (or Sakkara, Saqqarah; Arabic: سقارة) is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, serving as the necropolis for the Ancient Egyptian capital, Memphis. Saqqara features numerous pyramids, including the world famous Step pyramid of Djoser, sometimes referred to as the Step Tomb due to its rectangular base, as well as a number of mastabas (Arabic word meaning 'bench'). Located some 30 km (19 mi) south of modern-day Cairo, Saqqara covers an area of around 7 by 1.5 km (4.3 by 0.93 mi).
At Saqqara, the oldest complete stone building complex known in history was built: Djoser's step pyramid, built during the third dynasty. Another 16 Egyptian kings built pyramids at Saqqara, which are now in various states of preservation or dilapidation. High officials added private funeral monuments to this necropolis during the entire pharaonic period. It remained an important complex for non-royal burials and cult ceremonies for more than 3,000 years, well into Ptolemaic and Roman times.
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Thanjavur
Thanjavur, formerly Tanjore, is a municipality and the headquarters of the Thanjavur District in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu. The name Thanjavur is derived from "Tanjan", a legendary asura in Hindu mythology. Thanjavur is one of the ancient cities in India and has a long and varied history dating back to the Sangam period. The town was founded by Mutharayar king Swaran Maran and rose to prominence during the rule of the Later Cholas when it served as the capital of the Chola empire. After the fall of the Cholas, the city was ruled by various dynasties like Pandyas, Vijayanagar Empire, Madurai Nayaks, Thanjavur Nayaks and British. It has been a part of independent India since 1947.
Thanjavur is an important center of South Indian art and architecture. Most of the Great Living Chola Temples which are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments are located in and around Thanjavur. The foremost among the Great Living Chola temples, the Brihadeeswara Temple, is located in the center of the city. Thanjavur is also the home of the Tanjore painting, a painting style unique to the region. The city is an important agricultural center located at the heart of the region, known as the Rice bowl of Tamil Nadu. South Zone Culture Centre in Thanjavur is one of many regional cultural centres established by Indian Government to preserve and promote traditional cultural heritage of India. It had a population of a 2,90,732 in 2011.
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Yale University
Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
Incorporated as the "Collegiate School," the institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony. In 1718, the College was renamed "Yale College" to honor a gift from Elihu Yale, a governor of the British East India Company. In 1861, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences became the first U.S. school to award the PhD. Yale became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. Yale College was transformed, beginning in the 1930s, through the establishment of residential colleges: 12 now exist and two more are planned. Yale employs over 1,100 faculty to teach and advise about 5,300 undergraduate and 6,100 graduate and professional students. Almost all tenured professors teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually.
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Alan Emtage
Alan Emtage (born November 27, 1964) conceived and implemented the first version of Archie, a pre-Web internet search engine for locating material in public FTP archives.
A native of Barbados, and the son of Sir Stephen and Lady Emtage, he attended high school at Harrison College from 1975 to 1983 (and in 1981 became the owner of a Sinclair ZX81 with 1K of memory), where he graduated at the top of his class, winning the Barbados Scholarship.
In 1983 he entered McGill University in Montreal, Canada studying for an honors Bachelor's degree in computer science which was followed by a Master's degree in 1987 from which he graduated in 1991. Emtage was part of the team that brought the first Internet link to eastern Canada (and only the second link in the country) in 1986. In 1989 while a student and working as a systems administrator for the School of Computer Science, Emtage conceived and implemented the original version of the Archie search engine, the world's first Internet search engine and the start of a line which leads directly to today's Altavista, Yahoo!, and Google.
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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
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Alessandro Volta
Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Gerolamo Umberto Volta (18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italianphysicist known especially for the invention of the battery in the 1800s.
Volta was born in Como, Italy on 18 February 1745. In 1774, he became a physics professor at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularized the electrophorus, a device that produced a static charge. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating in the same principle was described in 1762 by Swedish professor Johan Wilcke.
In the years between 1776–78, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin on "flammable air" and carefully searched for it in Italy. In November, 1776, he found methane at Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate methane. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel. Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential (V) and charge (Q), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This may be called Volta's Law of capacitance, and likely for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt.
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Archimedes
Archimedes of Syracuse (Ancient Greek: Ἀρχιμήδης; c. 287 BC – c. 212 BC) was a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, inventor, and astronomer. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Among his advances in physics are the foundations of hydrostatics, statics and an explanation of the principle of the lever. He is credited with designing innovative machines, including siege engines and the screw pump that bears his name. Modern experiments have tested claims that Archimedes designed machines capable of lifting attacking ships out of the water and setting ships on fire using an array of mirrors.
Archimedes is generally considered to be the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one of the greatest of all time. He used the method of exhaustion to calculate the area under the arc of a parabola with the summation of an infinite series, and gave a remarkably accurate approximation of pi. He also defined the spiral bearing his name, formulae for the volumes of surfaces of revolution and an ingenious system for expressing very large numbers.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
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Auguste Comte
Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier Comte (19 January 1798 – 5 September 1857), better known as Auguste Comte [oɡyst kɔ̃t], was a French philosopher. He was a founder of the discipline of sociology and of the doctrine of positivism. He may be regarded as the first philosopher of science in the modern sense of the term.
Strongly influenced by the Utopian socialist Henri Saint-Simon, Comte developed the positive philosophy in an attempt to remedy the social malaise of the French revolution, calling for a new social doctrine based on the sciences. Comte was a major influence on 19th century thought, impacting the work of social thinkers such as Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, and George Eliot. His concept of sociologie and social evolutionism, though now outdated, set the tone for early social theorists and anthropologists such as Harriet Martineau and Herbert Spencer, evolving into Modern academic sociology presented by Émile Durkheim as practical and objective social research.
Comte's social theories culminated in the "religion of humanity", which was influential to the development of religious humanist and Secular Humanist organizations in the 19th century. Comte likewise coined the word "altruism".
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Averroes
ʾAbū l-Walīd Muḥammad bin ʾAḥmad bin Rušd (Arabic: أبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد), better known just as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ابن رشد), and in European literature as Averroes ( /əˈvɛroʊ.iːz/; April 14, 1126 – December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern-day Spain, and died in Marrakesh, Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism.
Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from the influential Islamic theologian Ghazali who attacked philosophy so it would not become an affront to the teachings of Islam.
Averroes' name is also seen as Averroës, Averroès or Averrhoës, indicating that the "o" and the "e" form separate syllables. Averroes is a Latinisation of a Hebrew transcription of the Arab name Ibn Rushd.
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Carl Gustav Hempel
Carl Gustav "Peter" Hempel (January 8, 1905 in Oranienburg, Germany - November 9, 1997 in Princeton, New Jersey) was a philosopher of science and a major figure in 20th-century logical empiricism. He is especially well known for his articulation of the Deductive-nomological model of scientific explanation, which was considered the "standard model" of scientific explanation during the 1950s and 1960s. He is also known for the Raven paradox, which highlights the problem of induction.
Hempel studied mathematics, physics, and philosophy at the University of Göttingen, Heidelberg and Berlin. In Göttingen he encountered David Hilbert and was impressed by his attempt to base all of mathematics on solid logical foundations derived from a limited number of axioms (Hilbert's Program). Having moved to Berlin he participated in a congress on scientific philosophy in 1929, where he met Rudolf Carnap and became involved in the Berlin Circle of philosophers that was associated with the Vienna Circle. In 1934 he received his doctoral degree from the University of Berlin with a dissertation on probability theory.
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Daniel Dennett
Daniel Clement Dennett (born March 28, 1942) is an American philosopher, writer and cognitive scientist whose research centers on the philosophy of mind, philosophy of science and philosophy of biology, particularly as those fields relate to evolutionary biology and cognitive science. He is currently the Co-director of the Center for Cognitive Studies, the Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, and a University Professor at Tufts University. Dennett is a firm atheist and secularist, a member of the Secular Coalition for America advisory board, as well as an outspoken supporter of the Brights movement. Dennett is referred to as one of the "Four Horsemen of New Atheism," along with Richard Dawkins, Sam Harris, and the late Christopher Hitchens.
Born in Boston, Massachusetts, Dennett spent part of his childhood in Lebanon, where, during World War II, his father was a covert counter-intelligence agent with the Office of Strategic Services posing as a cultural attaché to the American Embassy in Beirut. When he was five, his mother took him back to Massachusetts after his father died in an unexplained plane crash. His sister is the investigative journalist Charlotte Dennett.
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Francis Bacon
Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban(s),KC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, jurist and author. He served both as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England. Although his political career ended in disgrace, he remained extremely influential through his works, especially as philosophical advocate and practitioner of the scientific method during the scientific revolution.
Bacon has been called the creator of empiricism. His works established and popularised inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method, or simply the scientific method. His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology today.
Bacon was knighted in 1603, and created both the Baron Verulam in 1618, and the Viscount St Alban in 1621; as he died without heirs both peerages became extinct upon his death. He famously died by contracting pneumonia while studying the effects of freezing on the preservation of meat.
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Galileo Galilei
Galileo Galilei (Italian pronunciation: [ɡaliˈlɛːo ɡaliˈlɛi]; 15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), was an Italian physicist, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher who played a major role in the Scientific Revolution. His achievements include improvements to the telescope and consequent astronomical observations and support for Copernicanism. Galileo has been called the "father of modern observational astronomy", the "father of modern physics", the "father of science", and "the Father of Modern Science".
His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments.
Galileo's championing of heliocentrism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or the Tychonic system. He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could only be supported as a possibility, not as an established fact. Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his finest works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now called kinematics and strength of materials.
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Genrich Altshuller
Genrikh Saulovich Altshuller (Ге́нрих Сау́лович Альтшу́ллер, pronounced [ˈɡʲɛnrʲɪx sʌ.uləvʲɪtɕ əlʲtʂu.lʲɪr]) (born Tashkent, Uzbek SSR, USSR, 15 October 1926; died Petrozavodsk, Russia, 24 September 1998), was a Soviet engineer, inventor, scientist, journalist and writer. He is most notable for the creation of the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving, better known by its Russia acronym TRIZ. He founded the Azerbaijan Public Institute for Inventive Creation, and was the first President of the TRIZ Association. He also wrote science fiction under the pen-name Genrikh Altov.
He created the Teoriya Resheniya Izobreatatelskikh Zadach (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving or TRIZ)). Working as a clerk in a patent office, Altshuller embarked on finding some generic rules that would explain creation of new, inventive, patentable ideas.
During one of Joseph Stalin's purges he was imprisoned for political reasons and continued his studies with his fellow inmates while in a labor camp. After his release, Altshuller settled in Baku, Azerbaijan.
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Georg Ohm
Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854) was a Bavarian (German) physicist and mathematician. As a high school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohm's law.
Georg Simon Ohm was born into a Protestant family in Erlangen, Bavaria, (then a part of the Holy Roman Empire)son to Johann Wolfgang Ohm, a locksmith and Maria Elizabeth Beck, the daughter of a tailor in Erlangen. Although his parents had not been formally educated, Ohm's father was a respected man who had educated himself to a high level and was able to give his sons an excellent education through his own teachings. Of the seven children of the family only three survived to adulthood: Georg Simon, his younger brother Martin, who later became a well-known mathematician, and his sister Elizabeth Barbara. His mother died when he was ten.
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Heinrich Hertz
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist who clarified and expanded James Clerk Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light, which was first demonstrated by David Edward Hughes using non-rigorous trial and error procedures. Hertz is distinguished from Maxwell and Hughes because he was the first to conclusively prove the existence of electromagnetic waves by engineering instruments to transmit and receive radio pulses using experimental procedures that ruled out all other known wireless phenomena. The scientific unit of frequency — cycles per second — was named the "hertz" in his honor.
Hertz was born in Hamburg, then a sovereign state of the German Confederation, into a prosperous and cultured Hanseatic family. His father, David Gustav Hertz, was a writer and later a senator. His mother was the former Anna Elisabeth Pfefferkorn. His paternal great-grandfather, David Wolff Hertz (1757–1822), fourth son of Benjamin Wolff Hertz, moved to Hamburg in 1793, where he made his living as a jeweller; he and his wife Schöne Hertz (1760–1834) were buried in the former Jewish cemetery in Ottensen. Their first son, Wolff Hertz (1790–1859), was chairman of the Jewish community. Hertz' paternal grandfather, Heinrich David Hertz (1797–1862), was a respected businessman, and his paternal grandmother, Betty Oppenheim, was the daughter of the banker Salomon Oppenheim, from Cologne. Hertz's father and paternal grandparents converted from Judaism to Christianity. His mother's family was Lutheran.
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Henri Poincaré
Jules Henri Poincaré (29 April 1854 – 17 July 1912) (French pronunciation: [ˈʒyl ɑ̃ˈʁi pwɛ̃nkaˈʁe]) was a French mathematician, theoretical physicist, engineer, and a philosopher of science. He is often described as a polymath, and in mathematics as The Last Universalist, since he excelled in all fields of the discipline as it existed during his lifetime.
As a mathematician and physicist, he made many original fundamental contributions to pure and applied mathematics, mathematical physics, and celestial mechanics. He was responsible for formulating the Poincaré conjecture, which was one of the most famous unsolved problems in mathematics until it was solved in 2002–2003. In his research on the three-body problem, Poincaré became the first person to discover a chaotic deterministic system which laid the foundations of modern chaos theory. He is also considered to be one of the founders of the field of topology.
Poincaré made clear importance of paying attention to the invariance of laws of physics under different transformations, and was the first to present the Lorentz transformations in their modern symmetrical form. Poincaré discovered the remaining relativistic velocity transformations and recorded them in a letter to Dutch physicist Hendrik Lorentz (1853–1928) in 1905. Thus he obtained perfect invariance of all of Maxwell's equations, an important step in the formulation of the theory of special relativity.
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Henry Petroski
Henry Petroski (February 6, 1942) is an American engineer specializing in failure analysis. A professor both of civil engineering and history at Duke University, he is also a prolific author. Petroski has written over a dozen books – beginning with To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design (1985) and including a number of titles detailing the industrial design history of common, everyday objects, such as pencils, paper clips, and silverware. He is a frequent lecturer and a columnist for the magazines American Scientist and Prism. His most recently published book is To Forgive Design: Understanding Failure.
Petroski was born in Brooklyn, New York, and was raised in Park Slope and Cambria Heights, Queens. In 1963, he received his bachelor's degree from Manhattan College. He graduated with his Ph.D. in Theoretical and Applied Mechanics from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1968.
Before beginning his work at Duke in 1980, Petroski worked at the University of Texas at Austin from 1968–74 and for the Argonne National Laboratory from 1975-80. Petroski is the Aleksandar S. Vesic Professor of Civil Engineering and a professor of history at Duke University.
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Herbert Spencer
Herbert Spencer (27 April 1820 – 8 December 1903) was an English philosopher, biologist, sociologist, and prominent classical liberal political theorist of the Victorian era.
Spencer developed an all-embracing conception of evolution as the progressive development of the physical world, biological organisms, the human mind, and human culture and societies. He was "an enthusiastic exponent of evolution" and even "wrote about evolution before Darwin did." As a polymath, he contributed to a wide range of subjects, including ethics, religion, anthropology, economics, political theory, philosophy, biology, sociology, and psychology. During his lifetime he achieved tremendous authority, mainly in English-speaking academia. "The only other English philosopher to have achieved anything like such widespread popularity was Bertrand Russell, and that was in the 20th century." Spencer was "the single most famous European intellectual in the closing decades of the nineteenth century" but his influence declined sharply after 1900; "Who now reads Spencer?" asked Talcott Parsons in 1937.
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Hugh of Saint Victor
Hugh of Saint Victor (c. 1096 – 11 February 1141) was born perhaps in France, or more probably in Saxony. His origins and early life are rather obscure. He studied and taught at the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Victor in Paris after which he is named. His writings include works of theology, mysticism, philosophy and the arts. Appointed a canon of the Victorines around the turn of the twelfth century.
The early Didascalion was an elementary, encyclopedic approach to God and Christ, in which Hugh avoided controversial subjects and focused on what he took to be commonplaces of Catholic Christianity. In it he outlined three types of philosophy or "science" [scientia] that can help mortals improve themselves and advance toward God: theoretical philosophy (theology, mathematics, physics) provides them with truth, practical philosophy (ethics, economics, politics) aids them in becoming virtuous and prudent, and "mechanical" or "illiberal" philosophy (e.g., carpentry, agriculture, medicine) yields physical benefits. A fourth philosophy, logic, is preparatory to the others and exists to ensure clear and proper conclusions in them. Hugh's deeply mystical bent did not prevent him from seeing philosophy as a useful tool for understanding the divine, or from using it to argue on behalf of faith.
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Imhotep
Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep; called Imuthes (Ἰμούθης) by the Greeks), fl. 27th century BC (circa 2650-2600 BC) (Egyptian ỉỉ-m-ḥtp *jā-im-ḥātap meaning "the one who comes in peace, is with peace") was an Egyptian polymath, who served under the Third Dynasty king Djoser as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He is considered to be the first architect and engineer and physician in early history though two other good physicians, Hesy-Ra and Merit-Ptah lived around the same time. The full list of his titles is:
Imhotep was one of very few mortals to be depicted as part of a pharaoh's statue. He was one of only a few commoners ever to be accorded divine status after death. The center of his cult was Memphis. From the First Intermediate Period onward Imhotep was also revered as a poet and philosopher. His sayings were famously referred to in poems: "I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hordedef with whose discourses men speak so much."
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (German pronunciation: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from Königsberg (today Kaliningrad of Russia), who researched, lectured, and wrote on philosophy and anthropology during the Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. At the time, there were major successes and advances in the sciences (for example, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Robert Boyle) applying reason and logic.
Kant’s major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781), aimed to unite reason with experience to move beyond what he took to be failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He hoped to end an age of speculation where objects outside experience were used to support what he saw as futile theories, while opposing the skepticism of thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley and Hume.
He stated:
Kant proposed a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in reverse, saying that:
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788) and the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics. And the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology. He aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was both a theme of the Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy.
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Imre Lakatos
Imre Lakatos (November 9, 1922 – February 2, 1974) was a Hungarian philosopher of mathematics and science, known for his thesis of the fallibility of mathematics and its 'methodology of proofs and refutations' in its pre-axiomatic stages of development, and also for introducing the concept of the 'research programme' in his methodology of scientific research programmes.
Lakatos was born Imre (Avrum) Lipschitz to a Jewish family in Debrecen, Hungary in 1922. He received a degree in mathematics, physics, and philosophy from the University of Debrecen in 1944. He avoided Nazi persecution of Jews by changing his name to Imre Molnár. His mother and grandmother died in Auschwitz. He became an active communist during the Second World War. He changed his last name once again to Lakatos (Locksmith) in honor of Géza Lakatos.
After the war, from 1947 he worked as a senior official in the Hungarian ministry of education. He also continued his education with a PhD at Debrecen University awarded in 1948, and also attended György Lukács's weekly Wednesday afternoon private seminars. He also studied at the Moscow State University under the supervision of Sofya Yanovskaya in 1949. When he returned, however, he found himself on the losing side of internal arguments within the Hungarian communist party and was imprisoned on charges of revisionism from 1950 to 1953. More of Lakatos' activities in Hungary after World War II have recently become known.
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Isaac Newton
Sir Isaac Newton PRS MP (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 [NS: 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727]) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, who has been "considered by many to be the greatest and most influential scientist who ever lived." His monograph Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published in 1687, lays the foundations for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described universal gravitation and the three laws of motion, which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws, by demonstrating the consistency between Kepler's laws of planetary motion and his theory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts about heliocentrism and advancing the Scientific Revolution.
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James Clerk Maxwell
James Clerk Maxwell of GlenlairFRS FRSE (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottishphysicist and mathematician. His most prominent achievement was formulating classical electromagnetic theory. This unites all previously unrelated observations, experiments, and equations of electricity, magnetism, and optics into a consistent theory.Maxwell's equations demonstrate that electricity, magnetism and light are all manifestations of the same phenomenon, namely the electromagnetic field. Subsequently, all other classic laws or equations of these disciplines became simplified cases of Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's achievements concerning electromagnetism have been called the "second great unification in physics", after the first one realised by Isaac Newton.
Maxwell demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields travel through space in the form of waves and at the constant speed of light. In 1865, Maxwell published A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field. It was with this that he first proposed that light was in fact undulations in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. His work in producing a unified model of electromagnetism is one of the greatest advances in physics.
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James Watt
James Watt, FRS, FRSE (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.
While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and re-heating the cylinder. Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water.
Watt attempted to commercialize his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until 1775 he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man. In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none were as significant as his steam engine work. He died in 1819 at the age of 83. Watt has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.
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John Dewey
John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey was an important early developer of the philosophy of pragmatism and one of the founders of functional psychology. He was a major representative of progressive education and liberalism.
Although Dewey is known best for his publications concerning education, he also wrote about many other topics, including experience, nature, art, logic, inquiry, democracy, and ethics.
In his advocacy of democracy, Dewey considered two fundamental elements—schools and civil society—as being major topics needing attention and reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality. Dewey asserted that complete democracy was to be obtained not just by extending voting rights but also by ensuring that there exists a fully formed public opinion, accomplished by effective communication among citizens, experts, and politicians, with the latter being accountable for the policies they adopt.[citation needed]
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John Stuart Mill
John Stuart Mill, FRSE (20 May 1806 – 8 May 1873) was a British philosopher, political economist and civil servant. He was an influential contributor to social theory, political theory, and political economy. He has been called "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century". Mill's conception of liberty justified the freedom of the individual in opposition to unlimited state control. He was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by Jeremy Bentham. Hoping to remedy the problems found in an inductive approach to science, such as confirmation bias, he clearly set forth the premises of falsification as the key component in the scientific method. Mill was also a Member of Parliament and an important figure in liberal political philosophy.
John Stuart Mill was born on Rodney Street in the Pentonville area of London, the eldest son of the Scottish philosopher, historian and economist James Mill, and Harriet Burrow. John Stuart was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham had died.
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Jürgen Habermas
Jürgen Habermas ( /ˈjɜrɡən/ or /ˈjʊərɡən ˈhɑːbərmɑːs/;German: [ˈjʏʁɡən ˈhaːbɐmaːs]; born June 18, 1929) is a German sociologist, geographer and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theory on the concepts of 'communicative rationality' and the 'public sphere'. His work focuses on the foundations of social theory and epistemology, the analysis of advanced capitalistic societies and democracy, the rule of law in a critical social-evolutionary context, and contemporary politics, particularly German politics. Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests. Habermas is known for his work on the concept of modernity, particularly with respect to the discussions of "rationalization" originally set forth by Max Weber. While influenced by American pragmatism, action theory, and even poststructuralism, many of the central tenets of Habermas' thought remain broadly Marxist in nature. Global polls identified him as one of the leading intellectuals of the present day.
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Karl Pearson
Karl Pearson FRS (27 March 1857 – 27 April 1936) was an influential English mathematician who has been credited for establishing the discipline of mathematical statistics.
In 1911 he founded the world's first university statistics department at University College London. He was a proponent of eugenics, and a protégé and biographer of Sir Francis Galton.
A sesquicentenary conference was held in London on 23 March 2007, to celebrate the 150th anniversary of his birth.
Carl Pearson, later known as Karl Pearson (1857–1936), was born to William Pearson and Fanny Smith, who had three children, Aurthur, Carl (Karl) and Amy. William Pearson also sired an illegitimate son, Frederick Mockett.
Pearson's mother, Fanny Pearson née Smith, came from a family of master mariners who sailed their own ships from Hull; his father read law at Edinburgh and was a successful barrister and Queen's Counsel (QC). William Pearson's father's family came from the North Riding of Yorkshire.
"Carl Pearson" inadvertently became "Karl Pearson" when he enrolled at the University of Heidelberg in 1879, which changed the spelling. He used both variants of his name until 1884 when he finally adopted Karl — supposedly also after Karl Marx[citation needed], though some argue otherwise. Eventually he became universally known as "KP".
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Karl Popper
Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRSFBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-Britishphilosopher and professor at the London School of Economics. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
Popper is known for his attempt to repudiate the classical observationalist/inductivist form of scientific method in favour of empirical falsification. He is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy". In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing "open society" possible.
Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a legal partner[clarification needed] of Vienna's liberal mayor Raimond Grübl and, after his death in 1898, took over the firm (Karl received his middle name from the mayor).
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Larry Laudan
Larry Laudan (b. Austin, Texas, 1941) is a contemporary philosopher of science and epistemologist. He has strongly criticized the traditions of positivism, realism, and relativism, and he has defended a view of science as a privileged and progressive institution against popular challenges. Laudan's philosophical view of "research traditions" is seen as an important alternative to Imre Lakatos's "research programs."
His most important contributions to the philosophy of science can be found in his book Progress and its Problems (1977) while acting as chair of the history and philosophy of science department at the University of Pittsburgh. Laudan charges philosophers of science with paying lip service to the view that “science is fundamentally a problem-solving activity” without taking seriously the view's implications for the history of science and its philosophy, and without questioning certain issues in the historiography and methodology of science. Against empiricism, which is represented by Karl Popper, and "revolutionism," represented by Thomas Kuhn, Laudan maintained in Progress and its Problems that science is an evolving process that accumulates more empirically validated evidence while solving conceptual anomalies at the same time. Mere evidence collecting or empirical confirmation does not constitute the true mechanism of scientific advancement; conceptual resolution and comparison of the solutions of anomalies provided by various theories form an indispensable part of the evolution of science.
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Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Italian pronunciation: [leoˈnardo da ˈvintʃi] pronunciation (help·info); April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519, Old Style) was an Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination". He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote". Marco Rosci points out, however, that while there is much speculation about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.
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Leonardo Da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (Italian pronunciation: [leoˈnardo da ˈvintʃi] pronunciation (help·info); April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519, Old Style) was an Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination". He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote". Marco Rosci points out, however, that while there is much speculation about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.
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Michael Faraday
Michael Faraday, FRS (22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was a British scientist, chemist, physicist and philosopher who greatly contributed to the fields of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His main discoveries include that of the magnetic field, electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism and electrolysis.
Although Faraday received little formal education and knew little of higher mathematics such as calculus, he was one of the most influential scientists in history; historians of science refer to him as having been the best experimentalist in the history of science. It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a DC electric current that Faraday established the basis for the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena. He similarly discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became viable for use in technology.
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Otto Neurath
Otto Neurath (Vienna, December 10, 1882 - Oxford, December 22, 1945) was an Austrian philosopher of science, sociologist, and political economist. Before he was to flee his native country in 1934, Neurath was one of the leading figures of the Vienna Circle.
Neurath was born in Vienna, the son of Wilhelm Neurath (1840–1901), a well-known political economist at the time. He studied mathematics in Vienna and gained his Ph.D. in the department of Political Science and Statistics at the University of Berlin.
He married Anna Schapire in 1907. She died as a result of childbirth (Paul Neurath) in 1911, and he married a close friend, the mathematician and philosopher Olga Hahn. Perhaps because of Olga's blindness and then because of the outbreak of war, his son, Paul Neurath was sent to a children's home outside Vienna, where Neurath's mother lived, and returned to live with his father and Olga when he was nine years old.
Neurath taught political economy at the Neue Wiener Handelsakademie (New College of Commerce, Vienna) until war broke out. Subsequently he became director of the Deutsches Kriegwirtschaftsmuseum (German Museum of War Economy, later the Deutsches Wirtschaftmuseum) at Leipzig. Wolfgang Schumann, known from the Dürerbund for which Neurath had written many articles, urged him to work out a plan for socialization. Neurath joined the German Social Democratic Party in 1918-19 and ran an office for central economic planning in Munich. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was defeated, Neurath was imprisoned but returned to Austria after intervention from the Austrian government. While in prison he wrote "Anti-Spengler", a critical attack on Oswald Spengler's "Decline of the West".
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Paul Feyerabend
Paul Karl Feyerabend (January 13, 1924 – February 11, 1994) was an Austrian-born philosopher of science best known for his work as a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley, where he worked for three decades (1958–1989). He lived a peripatetic life, living at various times in England, the United States, New Zealand, Italy, Germany, and finally Switzerland. His major works include Against Method (published in 1975), Science in a Free Society (published in 1978) and Farewell to Reason (a collection of papers published in 1987). Feyerabend became famous for his purportedly anarchistic view of science and his rejection of the existence of universal methodological rules. He is an influential figure in the philosophy of science, and also in the sociology of scientific knowledge.
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Paul Häberlin
Paul Haeberlin (February 17, 1878, Kesswil – September 29, 1960, Basel) was a Swiss philosopher who at different times in his career took the standpoint that either religion or theoretical knowledge was the answer to human problems. He always gave philosophy an important role, but religion was to him the only way man could understand his real position in existence. Haeberlin made contributions to characterology and psychotherapeutics, and was especially successful in treating psychopathic youth and teens. Made a full professor of philosophy, psychology and pedagogics at the University of Basel.
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Pharaoh
Pharaoh ( /ˈfeɪ.roʊ/ or /fɛ.roʊ/) is a title used in many modern discussions of the ancient Egyptian rulers of all periods. The title originates in the term "pr-aa" which means "great house" and describes the royal palace. The title of Pharaoh started being used for the king during the New Kingdom, specifically during the middle of the eighteenth dynasty.
Pharaoh, meaning "Great House", originally referred to the king's palace, but by the reign of Thutmose III (ca. 1479-1425 BC) in the New Kingdom, had become a form of address for the person of the king.
The term pharaoh ultimately was derived from a compound word represented as pr-`3, written with the two biliteral hieroglyphs pr "house" and `3 "column". It was used only in larger phrases such as smr pr-`3 'Courtier of the High House', with specific reference to the buildings of the court or palace itself. From the twelfth dynasty onward the word appears in a wish formula 'Great House, may it live, prosper, and be in health', but again only with reference to the royal palace and not the person.
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Pierre Duhem
Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem ([pjˈɛʁ moʁˈis maʁˈi dyˈɛm] ( listen); 9 June 1861 – 14 September 1916) was a French physicist, mathematician and philosopher of science, best known for his writings on the indeterminacy of experimental criteria and on scientific development in the Middle Ages. Duhem also made major contributions to the science of his day, particularly in the fields of hydrodynamics, elasticity, and thermodynamics.
Duhem's views on the philosophy of science are explicated in The Aim and Structure of Physical Theory. In this work, he opposed Newton's statement that the Principia's law of universal mutual gravitation was deduced from 'phenomena', including Kepler's second and third laws. Newton's claims in this regard had already been attacked by critical proof-analyses of the German logician Leibniz and then most famously by Immanuel Kant, following Hume's logical critique of induction. But the novelty of Duhem's work was his proposal that Newton's theory of universal mutual gravity flatly contradicted Kepler's Laws of planetary motion because the interplanetary mutual gravitational perturbations caused deviations from Keplerian orbits. Since no proposition can be validly logically deduced from any it contradicts, according to Duhem, Newton must not have logically deduced his law of gravitation directly from Kepler's Laws.
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Pierre Gassendi
Pierre Gassendi (January 22, 1592 – October 24, 1655) was a French philosopher, priest, scientist, astronomer, and mathematician. With a church position in south-east France, he also spent much time in Paris, where he was a leader of a group of free-thinking intellectuals. He was also an active observational scientist, publishing the first data on the transit of Mercury in 1631. The lunar crater Gassendi is named after him.
He wrote numerous philosophical works, and some of the positions he worked out are considered significant, finding a way between scepticism and dogmatism. Richard Popkin indicates that Gassendi was one of the first thinkers to formulate the modern "scientific outlook", of moderated scepticism and empiricism. He clashed with his contemporary Descartes on the possibility of certain knowledge. His best known intellectual project attempted to reconcile Epicurean atomism with Christianity.
Gassendi was born at Champtercier, near Digne, in France. A youthful prodigy, at a very early age he showed academic potential and attended the college at Digne, where he displayed a particular aptitude for languages and mathematics. Soon afterwards he entered the University of Aix-en-Provence, to study philosophy under Philibert Fesaye. In 1612 the college of Digne called him to lecture on theology. Four years later he received the degree of Doctor of Theology at Avignon, and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he answered a call to the chair of philosophy at Aix-en-Provence University, and seems gradually to have withdrawn from theology.
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Plato
Plato ( /ˈpleɪtoʊ/; Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad"; 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the words of A. N. Whitehead:
The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.
Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics.
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René Descartes
René Descartes (French pronunciation: [ʁəne dekaʁt]; Latinized form: Renatus Cartesius; adjectival form: "Cartesian"; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, mathematician, and writer who spent most of his adult life in the Dutch Republic. He has been dubbed the 'Father of Modern Philosophy', and much subsequent Western philosophy is a response to his writings, which are studied closely to this day. In particular, his Meditations on First Philosophy continues to be a standard text at most university philosophy departments. Descartes' influence in mathematics is equally apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system — allowing algebraic equations to be expressed as geometric shapes in a two-dimensional coordinate system — was named after him. He is credited as the father of analytical geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry, crucial to the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and analysis. Descartes was also one of the key figures in the Scientific Revolution and has been described as an example of genius.
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Robert Kilwardby
Robert Kilwardby (c. 1215–11 September 1279) was an Archbishop of Canterbury in England and as well as a cardinal.
Kilwardby studied at the University of Paris, then was a teacher of grammar and logic there. He then joined the Dominican Order and studied theology, and became regent at Oxford University before 1261, probably by 1245. He was named provincial prior of the Dominicans for England in 1261, and in October 1272 Pope Gregory X appointed him as Archbishop of Canterbury to end a disupte over the election. Kilwardby was provided to the archbishopric on 11 October 1272, given the temporalities on 12 December 1272, and consecrated on 26 February 1273.
Kilwardby crowned Edward I and his wife Eleanor as king and queen of England in August 1274, but otherwise took little part in politics. He instead concentrated on his ecclesiastical duties, including charity to the poor and donating to the Dominicans.
In 1278 Pope Nicholas III named Kilwardby Cardinal Bishop of Porto and Santa Rufina. He then resigned Canterbury and left England, taking with him papers, registers and documents belonging to the see. He also left the see deep in debt again, after his predecessor had cleared the debt. He died in Italy in 1279 and was buried in the Dominican convent in Viterbo, Italy. While in theory this was a promotion, probably it was not, as the pope was unhappy with Kilwardy's support of efforts to resist the payment of papal revenues and with the lack of effort towards the reforms demanded at the Second Council of Lyon in 1274.
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Robert Maillart
Robert Maillart (February 6, 1872 – April 5, 1940) was a Swiss civil engineer who revolutionized the use of structural reinforced concrete with such designs as the three-hinged arch and the deck-stiffened arch for bridges, and the beamless floor slab and mushroom ceiling for industrial buildings. His completed Salginatobel (1929–1930) and Schwandbach (1933) bridges changed the aesthetics and engineering of bridge construction dramatically and influenced decades of architects and engineers after him. In 1991 the Salginatobel Bridge was declared an International Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Civil Engineers.
Robert Maillart was born in Berne, Switzerland. He attended the Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich. Maillart did not excel in academic theories, but understood the necessity to make assumptions and visualize when analyzing a structure. A traditional method prior to the 1900s was to use shapes that could be analyzed easily using mathematics.
This overuse of mathematics annoyed Maillart, as he greatly preferred to stand back and use common sense to predict full-scale performance. Also, as he rarely tested his bridges prior to construction, only upon completion would he verify the bridge was adequate. He often tested his bridges by crossing them himself. This attitude towards bridge design and construction was what provided him with his innovative designs.
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Roger Bacon
Roger Bacon, O.F.M. (c. 1214–1294), (scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, meaning "wonderful teacher"), was an English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empirical methods. He is sometimes credited, mainly starting in the 19th century, as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by the works of Aristotle and later pseudo-Aristotelian works, like the works of Muslim scientist Alhazen. However, more recent reevaluations emphasize that he was essentially a medieval thinker, with much of his "experimental" knowledge obtained from books, in the scholastic tradition. A survey of the reception of Bacon's work over centuries found that it often reflects the concerns and controversies central to the receivers.
Roger Bacon was born in Ilchester in Somerset, England, possibly in 1213 or 1214 at the Ilchester Friary. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and may have meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around 1220/1222. In the same passage he reports that for all but two of those forty years he had always been engaged in study. His family appears to have been well-off, but, during the stormy reign of Henry III of England, their property was despoiled and several members of the family were driven into exile.
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Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a major member of the Vienna Circle and an advocate of logical positivism.
Carnap was born to a west German family that had been humble until his parents' generation. He began his formal education at the Barmen Gymnasium. From 1910 to 1914, he attended the University of Jena, intending to write a thesis in physics. But he also studied carefully Kant's Critique of Pure Reason during a course taught by Bruno Bauch, and was one of very few students to attend Gottlob Frege's courses in mathematical logic. After serving in the German army during World War I for three years, he was given permission to study physics at the University of Berlin, 1917–18, where Albert Einstein was a newly appointed professor. Carnap then attended the University of Jena, where he wrote a thesis defining an axiomatic theory of space and time. The physics department said it was too philosophical, and Bruno Bauch of the philosophy department said it was pure physics. Carnap then wrote another thesis, with Bauch's supervision, on the theory of space in a more orthodox Kantian style, and published as Der Raum (Space) in a supplemental issue of Kant-Studien (1922). In it he makes the clear distinction between formal, physical and perceptual (e.g., visual) spaces.
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Stephen Toulmin
Stephen Edelston Toulmin (25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues. His works were later found useful in the field of rhetoric for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in computer science.
Stephen Toulmin was born in London, England, on 25 March 1922 to Geoffrey Edelson Toulmin and Doris Holman Toulmin. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from King's College, Cambridge in 1942. Soon after, Toulmin was hired by the Ministry of Aircraft Production as a junior scientific officer, first at the Malvern Radar Research and Development Station and later at the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Germany. At the end of World War II, he returned to England to earn a Master of Arts degree in 1947 and a PhD in philosophy from Cambridge University, subsequently publishing his dissertation as An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1950). While at Cambridge, Toulmin came into contact with the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose examination on the relationship between the uses and the meanings of language shaped much of Toulmin’s own work.
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Theodore von Kármán
Theodore von Kármán (original Hungarian name: Szőllőskislaki Kármán Tódor) (May 11, 1881 – May 7, 1963) was a Hungarian-American mathematician, aerospace engineer and physicist who was active primarily in the fields of aeronautics and astronautics. He is responsible for many key advances in aerodynamics, notably his work on supersonic and hypersonic airflow characterization. He is regarded as the outstanding aerodynamic theoretician of the twentieth century.
Von Kármán was born into a Jewish family at Budapest, Austria-Hungary as Kármán Tódor. One of his ancestors was Rabbi Judah Loew ben Bezalel. He studied engineering at the city's Royal Joseph Technical University, known today as Budapest University of Technology and Economics. After graduating in 1902 he moved to Germany and joined Ludwig Prandtl at the University of Göttingen, and received his doctorate in 1908. He taught at Göttingen for four years. In 1912 accepted a position as director of the Aeronautical Institute at RWTH Aachen, one of the country's leading universities. His time at RWTH Aachen was interrupted by service in the Austro-Hungarian Army 1915–1918, where he designed an early helicopter. He is believed to have founded the International Union of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics in September 1922 by organizing its first conference in Innsbruck. He left RWTH Aachen in 1930.
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Thomas Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury (5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679), in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.
Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.
He was one of the founders of modern political philosophy. His understanding of humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion, remains influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation, and of political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains one of the major topics of political philosophy.
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Thomas Savery
Thomas Savery (c. 1650–1715) was an English inventor, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England.
Savery became a military engineer, rising to the rank of Captain by 1702, and spent his free time performing experiments in mechanics. In 1696 he took out a patent for a machine for polishing glass or marble and another for "rowing of ships with greater ease and expedicion than hitherto beene done by any other" which involved paddle-wheels driven by a capstan and which was dismissed by the Admiralty following a negative report by the Surveyor of the Navy, Edmund Dummer.
Savery also worked for the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, contracting the supply of medicines to the Navy Stock Company, which was connected with the Society of Apothecaries. His duties on their behalf took him to Dartmouth, which is probably how he came into contact with Thomas Newcomen.
On 2 July 1698 Savery patented an early steam engine, "A new invention for raiseing of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefitt of water nor constant windes." He demonstrated it to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699. The patent has no illustrations or even description, but in 1702 Savery described the machine in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire, in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines.
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Vitruvius
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c. 80–70 BC, died after c. 15 BC) was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st century BC. He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ("On Architecture").
By his own description Vitruvius served as a ballista (artilleryman), the third class of arms in the military offices. He likely served as chief of the ballista (senior officer of artillery) in charge of doctores ballistarum (artillery experts) and libratores who actually operated the machines.
Little is known about Vitruvius' life. Most inferences about him are extracted from his only surviving work De Architectura. His first name Marcus and his cognomen Pollio are uncertain. He was possibly a praefectus fabrum during military service or praefect architectus armamentarius of the apparitor status group. Cetius Faventinus speaks of "Vitruvius Polio aliique auctores" in his epitome; it is possible that the cognomen derives from this mention by Cetius, meaning Vitruvius, Polio, and others - further confusing the cognomen, an inscription in Verona names Lucius Vitruvius Cordo and an inscription from Thilbilis North Africa (near Guelma) names Marcus Vitruvius Mamurra. From this inscription the archaeologist Dr. G. Q. Giglioli nearly concludes that Vitruvius and Mamurra are from the same family.
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Wilhelm Windelband
Wilhelm Windelband (May 11, 1848, Potsdam – October 22, 1915, Heidelberg) was a German philosopher of the Baden School.
Windelband is now mainly remembered for the terms nomothetic and idiographic, which he introduced. These have currency in psychology and other areas, though not necessarily in line with his original meanings. Windelband was a neo-Kantian who protested other neo-Kantians of his time and maintained that "to understand Kant rightly means to go beyond him". Against his positivist contemporaries, Windelband argued that philosophy should engage in humanistic dialogue with the natural sciences rather than uncritically appropriating its methodologies. His interests in psychology and cultural sciences represented an opposition to psychologism and historicism schools by a critical philosophic system.
Windelband relied in his effort to reach beyond Kant on such philosophers as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Johann Friedrich Herbart and Hermann Lotze. Closely associated with Windelband was Heinrich Rickert. Windelband's disciples were not only noted philosophers, but sociologists like Max Weber and theologians like Ernst Troeltsch and Albert Schweitzer.
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Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (16 August 1832 - 31 August 1920 in Germany) was a German physician, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded the first formal laboratory for psychological research at the University of Leipzig.
By creating this laboratory he was able to explore the nature of religious beliefs, identify mental disorders and abnormal behavior, and find damaged parts of the brain. In doing so, he was able to establish psychology as a separate science from other topics. He also formed the first journal for psychological research in 1881.
Asteroids 635 Vundtia and 11040 Wundt are named in his honour.
Wundt was born at Neckarau, Baden on August 16th, 1832 (now part of Mannheim), the fourth child to parents Maximilian Wundt (a Lutheran minister), and his wife Marie Frederike. When about four years of age, Wundt's family moved to Heidelsheim which was known to be a small town. He studied from 1851 to 1856 at the University of Tübingen, University of Heidelberg, and the University of Berlin. After graduating in medicine from Heidelberg (1856), Wundt studied briefly with Johannes Peter Müller, before joining the University's staff, becoming an assistant to the physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in 1858. There he wrote Contributions to the Theory of Sense Perception (1858–62). In 1865, he wrote a textbook about human physiology. In 1867 he became a professor in acquainting medical students with the exact physical needs for medical investigation. In 1874, he became a professor of "Inductive Philosophy" in Zurich. In 1875, he moved back to Leipzig.
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William of Ockham
William of Ockham ( /ˈɒkəm/; also Occam, Hockham, or several other spellings; c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. Although he is commonly known for Ockham's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, William of Ockham also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April.
William of Ockham joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but never completed his master's degree (the usual undergraduate degree in those times). Because of this, he acquired the byname Venerabilis Inceptor, or "Worthy Beginner" (an inceptor was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities). He was also known as the Doctor Invincibilis or "Unconquerable Teacher."
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William Whewell
William Whewell ( /ˈhjuːəl/ HEW-əl; 24 May 1794 – 6 March 1866) was an English polymath, scientist, Anglican priest, philosopher, theologian, and historian of science. He was Master of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Whewell was born in Lancaster. His father, a carpenter, wished him to follow his trade, but his success in mathematics at Lancaster and Heversham grammar schools won him an exhibition (a type of scholarship) at Trinity College, Cambridge (1812). In 1814 he was awarded the Chancellor's Gold Medal for poetry. He was Second Wrangler in 1816, President of the Cambridge Union Society in 1817, became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in 1841, succeeded Dr Christopher Wordsworth as master. He was professor of mineralogy from 1828 to 1832 and Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity") from 1838 to 1855.
Whewell died in Cambridge 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse.
Full bibliographical details are given by Isaac Todhunter, W. Whewell: an Account of his Writings (2 vols., 1876). See also Life of W. Whewell, by Mrs Stair Douglas (1881).
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
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Wright brothers
The Wright brothers, Orville (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were two Americans credited with inventing and building the world's first successful airplane and making the first controlled, powered and sustained heavier-than-air human flight, on December 17, 1903. In the two years afterward, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible.
The brothers' fundamental breakthrough was their invention of three-axis control, which enabled the pilot to steer the aircraft effectively and to maintain its equilibrium. This method became standard and remains standard on fixed-wing aircraft of all kinds. From the beginning of their aeronautical work, the Wright brothers focused on developing a reliable method of pilot control as the key to solving "the flying problem". This approach differed significantly from other experimenters of the time who put more emphasis on developing powerful engines. Using a small homebuilt wind tunnel, the Wrights also collected more accurate data than any before, enabling them to design and build wings and propellers that were more efficient than any before. Their first U.S. patent, 821,393, did not claim invention of a flying machine, but rather, the invention of a system of aerodynamic control that manipulated a flying machine's surfaces.
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Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections - (S01E01) Airbus A380
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:37
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Richard Hammond's: Engineering Connections - (S01E01) Airbus A380 The contents in this video belong to the BBC and I am only posting this up for entertainment purposes. I do not claim any rights on the video and am not making profit off it. Enjoy :)
http://wn.com/Richard_Hammond's_Engineering_Connections_S01E01_Airbus_A380
Richard Hammond's: Engineering Connections - (S01E01) Airbus A380 The contents in this video belong to the BBC and I am only posting this up for entertainment purposes. I do not claim any rights on the video and am not making profit off it. Enjoy :)
Is Engineering Right For Me?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:29
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Aimed at high school students considering engineering as a career, this video by the University at Buffalo School of Engineering and Applied Sciences describes the unique features of engineering thinking and problem solving.
http://wn.com/Is_Engineering_Right_For_Me?
Aimed at high school students considering engineering as a career, this video by the University at Buffalo School of Engineering and Applied Sciences describes the unique features of engineering thinking and problem solving.
- published: 03 Mar 2008
- views: 203885
- author: UBEngineering
Engineering
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:19
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Engineering is about designing processes and making products to solve real-world problems. Studying Engineering at university enables you to develop your knowledge, skills, imagination and experience to the highest levels in readiness for your future career. The Cambridge course is unique. It isn't a 'general' course but allows you to keep your options open while equipping you with all the analytical, design and computing skills that underpin modern engineering practice.. To find out more about Engineering at Cambridge, see www.study.cam.ac.uk Some of the students who appear in our course films are also featured in the 60 Second Impressions series, which can be found at www.cam.ac.uk - keep checking back as we'll be adding new films every couple of weeks!
http://wn.com/Engineering
Engineering is about designing processes and making products to solve real-world problems. Studying Engineering at university enables you to develop your knowledge, skills, imagination and experience to the highest levels in readiness for your future career. The Cambridge course is unique. It isn't a 'general' course but allows you to keep your options open while equipping you with all the analytical, design and computing skills that underpin modern engineering practice.. To find out more about Engineering at Cambridge, see www.study.cam.ac.uk Some of the students who appear in our course films are also featured in the 60 Second Impressions series, which can be found at www.cam.ac.uk - keep checking back as we'll be adding new films every couple of weeks!
- published: 14 Mar 2012
- views: 24063
- author: CambridgeUniversity
Engineering Disasters 13 - Software Flaws
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:41
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
This is an excerpt from Engineering Disaster Episode 13 explaining software flaws in Ariane 5 and Patriot Missiles.
http://wn.com/Engineering_Disasters_13_Software_Flaws
This is an excerpt from Engineering Disaster Episode 13 explaining software flaws in Ariane 5 and Patriot Missiles.
- published: 31 Mar 2010
- views: 73064
- author: SEKYEEN
Engineering The Impossible: Freedom Ship (Discovery Channel)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:21
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
From the Discovery Channel documentary series "Engineering The Impossible". Discovery
http://wn.com/Engineering_The_Impossible_Freedom_Ship_Discovery_Channel
From the Discovery Channel documentary series "Engineering The Impossible". Discovery
- published: 17 Sep 2012
- views: 60102
- author: improvisera
Lec 1 | MIT 18.085 Computational Science and Engineering I, Fall 2008
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 54:05
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Lecture 1: Four special matrices License: Creative Commons BY-NC-SA More information at ocw.mit.edu More courses at ocw.mit.edu
http://wn.com/Lec_1_|_MIT_18085_Computational_Science_and_Engineering_I,_Fall_2008
Lecture 1: Four special matrices License: Creative Commons BY-NC-SA More information at ocw.mit.edu More courses at ocw.mit.edu
- published: 25 Feb 2009
- views: 105905
- author: MIT
"Engineering Failure" - University of Toronto Flash Mob
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:20
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Probably the best flash mob performance ever. Clearly, a lot of work went into this. It's like a scene from Community. Based on the 1995 Coolio hit "Gangsta's Paradise". Credit: skulenite crew - www.skulenite.ca - Check them out.
http://wn.com/Engineering_Failure_University_of_Toronto_Flash_Mob
Probably the best flash mob performance ever. Clearly, a lot of work went into this. It's like a scene from Community. Based on the 1995 Coolio hit "Gangsta's Paradise". Credit: skulenite crew - www.skulenite.ca - Check them out.
- published: 21 Sep 2012
- views: 229461
- author: SportsNewsTube
How to Reverse-Engineer a Satellite TV Smart Card
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:35
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Notorious hacker Chris Tarnovsky opens his underground laboratory to Wired.com, providing a peek into the world of satellite TV smart-card hacking. This complicated process involves nail polish, a pin head and various acids -- so don't try this at home (unless you're Chris Tarnovsky)!
http://wn.com/How_to_Reverse-Engineer_a_Satellite_TV_Smart_Card
Notorious hacker Chris Tarnovsky opens his underground laboratory to Wired.com, providing a peek into the world of satellite TV smart-card hacking. This complicated process involves nail polish, a pin head and various acids -- so don't try this at home (unless you're Chris Tarnovsky)!
- published: 02 Jun 2008
- views: 807578
- author: wired
How an Engineer folds a T-Shirt
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:17
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
I know what I'm doing this weekend UPDATE: To the sudden explosion of people who commented on this, allow me to clarify a few things. I'm not an engineer, I am a nerd and do like making odd stuff like this occasionally. I made one of these devices using this vid and posted it up here so a mate of mine in Canada could see it. To the people leaving rather idiotic comments about me needing a life, to each his own, but someone did this in plastic and is probably making millions. I didn't make the video, something I should have clarified, I don't own the company shown, and yes I know they use em in department stores, that would be where I got the idea of making my own, seeing as this probably took bit of nutting out to make I think it qualifies as engineering, as most engineers I know like complex solutions to simple problems Lastly, it's a bit of fun. Remember that? Or is a pre-requisite to have all whimsy forcibly extracted when you get an internet connection?
http://wn.com/How_an_Engineer_folds_a_T-Shirt
I know what I'm doing this weekend UPDATE: To the sudden explosion of people who commented on this, allow me to clarify a few things. I'm not an engineer, I am a nerd and do like making odd stuff like this occasionally. I made one of these devices using this vid and posted it up here so a mate of mine in Canada could see it. To the people leaving rather idiotic comments about me needing a life, to each his own, but someone did this in plastic and is probably making millions. I didn't make the video, something I should have clarified, I don't own the company shown, and yes I know they use em in department stores, that would be where I got the idea of making my own, seeing as this probably took bit of nutting out to make I think it qualifies as engineering, as most engineers I know like complex solutions to simple problems Lastly, it's a bit of fun. Remember that? Or is a pre-requisite to have all whimsy forcibly extracted when you get an internet connection?
- published: 08 Jun 2006
- views: 1612314
- author: OGTalon
Introduction Video of Civil Engineering
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:17
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
The video clip for the Hong Kong Tang King Po College, Oscar Presentation 2007, 6A. Topic : Civil Engineering.
http://wn.com/Introduction_Video_of_Civil_Engineering
The video clip for the Hong Kong Tang King Po College, Oscar Presentation 2007, 6A. Topic : Civil Engineering.
- published: 03 Jun 2007
- views: 264814
- author: joeccleung
What Mechanical Engineers Do When They Retire
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:18
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Here's what retired engineers decided to do :)
http://wn.com/What_Mechanical_Engineers_Do_When_They_Retire
Here's what retired engineers decided to do :)
- published: 19 Dec 2008
- views: 112685
- author: ChaldeanSoldier
Engineering Careers Intro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:15
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
ACEC California / CELSOC video about engineering
http://wn.com/Engineering_Careers_Intro
ACEC California / CELSOC video about engineering
- published: 07 Jul 2008
- views: 24340
- author: BUbrat87
Trust me, i'm an engineer !
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:34
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Trust me, i'm an engineer ! come and visit my book of faces ! www.facebook.com or birdy site twitter.com Comment, subscribe and share ! you can download like a pirat, or simply here download : www.vilkaz.com if you have questions (like can you give me link to the Video of the Washmashine) or guitar acords :) Check your PM on youtube ;) or simply ask me on facebook, i answer everyone. washmashine clip = www.youtube.com ps facebook follovers allready listening to new video ;) but no1 does read this anyways :} TEXT : i'm igor pachmelnik zakuskov and i'm an engineer ! just let me take my breakfast first, cornflakes, vodka and beer ! and then i'll show you all of mine constructions ewerywhere i can explain the world for you, all that i need is chair i built many buildings, well some of them have failed i had to leave my country, so through the sea i sailed ! Refrain Trust me, i'm an engineer ! i think we'll put this thing right here trust me, i'm an engineer what the fuck did just happened here ? trust me, i'm anengineer ! with epic skill and epic gear ! trust me, i'm an engineer ! oh shit, i think i'm outta here ! i built alot of bridges, some of them even dance my buildings are very secure ! Intruders have no chance ! you want to drive a broken car i can help you in this ! no wheel, no tire ! no problem ! those parts i never miss ! my good diploma give me jobs although i didn't study, i simply got this from a friend, as a Birthday gift, from buddy ! since then i travel ...
http://wn.com/Trust_me,_i'm_an_engineer_!
Trust me, i'm an engineer ! come and visit my book of faces ! www.facebook.com or birdy site twitter.com Comment, subscribe and share ! you can download like a pirat, or simply here download : www.vilkaz.com if you have questions (like can you give me link to the Video of the Washmashine) or guitar acords :) Check your PM on youtube ;) or simply ask me on facebook, i answer everyone. washmashine clip = www.youtube.com ps facebook follovers allready listening to new video ;) but no1 does read this anyways :} TEXT : i'm igor pachmelnik zakuskov and i'm an engineer ! just let me take my breakfast first, cornflakes, vodka and beer ! and then i'll show you all of mine constructions ewerywhere i can explain the world for you, all that i need is chair i built many buildings, well some of them have failed i had to leave my country, so through the sea i sailed ! Refrain Trust me, i'm an engineer ! i think we'll put this thing right here trust me, i'm an engineer what the fuck did just happened here ? trust me, i'm anengineer ! with epic skill and epic gear ! trust me, i'm an engineer ! oh shit, i think i'm outta here ! i built alot of bridges, some of them even dance my buildings are very secure ! Intruders have no chance ! you want to drive a broken car i can help you in this ! no wheel, no tire ! no problem ! those parts i never miss ! my good diploma give me jobs although i didn't study, i simply got this from a friend, as a Birthday gift, from buddy ! since then i travel ...
- published: 24 Jun 2012
- views: 1802692
- author: TheVilkaz
Introduction to Chemical Engineering | Lecture 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 48:09
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
Professor Channing Robertson of the Stanford University Chemical Engineering Department gives an introductory lecture, outline, and background for the course. Introduction to Chemical Engineering (E20) is an introductory course offered by the Stanford University Engineering Department. It provides a basic overview of the chemical engineering field today and delves into the applications of chemical engineering. Stanford Chemical Engineering Department: cheme.stanford.edu Stanford University: www.stanford.edu Stanford University Channel on YouTube: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Introduction_to_Chemical_Engineering_|_Lecture_1
Professor Channing Robertson of the Stanford University Chemical Engineering Department gives an introductory lecture, outline, and background for the course. Introduction to Chemical Engineering (E20) is an introductory course offered by the Stanford University Engineering Department. It provides a basic overview of the chemical engineering field today and delves into the applications of chemical engineering. Stanford Chemical Engineering Department: cheme.stanford.edu Stanford University: www.stanford.edu Stanford University Channel on YouTube: www.youtube.com
- published: 19 Aug 2008
- views: 193081
- author: StanfordUniversity
Engineer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:49
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Worship engineers -dilbert
http://wn.com/Engineer
Twin Turbo Camaro - 510 Race Engineering
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:21
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Here is the rundown on the Twin Turbo Camaro built by 510 Race Engineering. www.510raceengineering.com Check out www.hightechcorvette.com http HTC Facebook www.facebook.com HPD Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com Fan Page: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Twin_Turbo_Camaro_510_Race_Engineering
Here is the rundown on the Twin Turbo Camaro built by 510 Race Engineering. www.510raceengineering.com Check out www.hightechcorvette.com http HTC Facebook www.facebook.com HPD Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com Fan Page: www.facebook.com
- published: 30 Aug 2012
- views: 53380
- author: hightechcorvette
Free Energy - Nuclear Engineer MT Keshe @ ElektorLive!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 100:05
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Nuclear Engineer MT Keshe explains how a new understanding of physics leads to alternative methods to generate electricity. The presentation was held at the Elektor Live! electronics event held in Eindhoven, Netherlands 26 November 2011. This is the entire presentation. For the 13-minute version go to: youtu.be
http://wn.com/Free_Energy_Nuclear_Engineer_MT_Keshe_@_ElektorLive!
Nuclear Engineer MT Keshe explains how a new understanding of physics leads to alternative methods to generate electricity. The presentation was held at the Elektor Live! electronics event held in Eindhoven, Netherlands 26 November 2011. This is the entire presentation. For the 13-minute version go to: youtu.be
- published: 24 Dec 2011
- views: 132493
- author: Tech theFuture
'Engineers are cool' - Produced by Arup for the HKIE 2009 Presidential Address
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:25
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
A film we created to showcase some of the interesting and exciting things that engineers do.
http://wn.com/'Engineers_are_cool'_Produced_by_Arup_for_the_HKIE_2009_Presidential_Address
A film we created to showcase some of the interesting and exciting things that engineers do.
- published: 17 Sep 2009
- views: 33203
- author: Ben Richardson
"the worst test" - an engineering flash mob
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:20
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
skule nite 1t3 warns students about the hardships of engineering at an university of toronto engineering exam. originally performed in skule nite 1t0 - directed by dan marquez. lyrics by jonny sun. based on gangster's paradise by coolio. www.skulenite.ca http
http://wn.com/the_worst_test_an_engineering_flash_mob
skule nite 1t3 warns students about the hardships of engineering at an university of toronto engineering exam. originally performed in skule nite 1t0 - directed by dan marquez. lyrics by jonny sun. based on gangster's paradise by coolio. www.skulenite.ca http
- published: 16 Sep 2012
- views: 3386348
- author: skulenite
An Engineer's Guide to Cats
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:58
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Two professional engineers illustrate the proper care and practical benefits of cats. None of the cats, humans, or engineers were mistreated in the making of this film. They were however, slightly annoyed. T-shirts and other goodies available at: www.cafepress.com "Art Critic" music is Mozart "Requiem, Rex Tremendae" and song on ending credits is called "Sparky's New Bike" both from Shockwave-sound.com royalty free music website.
http://wn.com/An_Engineer's_Guide_to_Cats
Two professional engineers illustrate the proper care and practical benefits of cats. None of the cats, humans, or engineers were mistreated in the making of this film. They were however, slightly annoyed. T-shirts and other goodies available at: www.cafepress.com "Art Critic" music is Mozart "Requiem, Rex Tremendae" and song on ending credits is called "Sparky's New Bike" both from Shockwave-sound.com royalty free music website.
- published: 13 Feb 2008
- views: 5953571
- author: klusmanp
NASA | NASA for Kids: Intro to Engineering
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:43
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
What is engineering, and who exactly is an engineer? Learn more in this video! This video is public domain and can be downloaded at: svs.gsfc.nasa.gov Like our videos? Subscribe to NASA's Goddard Shorts HD podcast: svs.gsfc.nasa.gov Or find NASA Goddard Space Flight Center on facebook: www.facebook.com Or find us on Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/NASA_|_NASA_for_Kids_Intro_to_Engineering
What is engineering, and who exactly is an engineer? Learn more in this video! This video is public domain and can be downloaded at: svs.gsfc.nasa.gov Like our videos? Subscribe to NASA's Goddard Shorts HD podcast: svs.gsfc.nasa.gov Or find NASA Goddard Space Flight Center on facebook: www.facebook.com Or find us on Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 31 Jan 2011
- views: 14470
- author: NASAexplorer
Why study engineering?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 11 Nov 2012
Why study electrical, computer or telecommunications engineering (SECTE) at the university of Wollongong (UOW)? There is more jobs then graduates and our degrees are of the highest quality and alow you to have fun. Work on power, robots, environment, networks, signals, management, team work and much more. You will be suprised what you can do with a degree in engineering.
http://wn.com/Why_study_engineering?
Why study electrical, computer or telecommunications engineering (SECTE) at the university of Wollongong (UOW)? There is more jobs then graduates and our degrees are of the highest quality and alow you to have fun. Work on power, robots, environment, networks, signals, management, team work and much more. You will be suprised what you can do with a degree in engineering.
- published: 29 May 2008
- views: 11258
- author: secteuow
What is Engineering
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:38
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
http://wn.com/What_is_Engineering
photo: AP / Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
08 Jan 2013
MOSCOW, January 8 (RIA Novosti) – At least 17 billion Earth-size planets may inhabit the Milky Way galaxy, SPACE.com reported citing a new study by US astronomers ... That translates to a minimum of 17 billion planets as there are about 100 billion stars in the Milky Way ... Over a hundred of candidates have been confirmed as planets so far, NASA said....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
06 Jan 2013
ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake
07 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When Congress granted President Lyndon B. Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity....(size: 5.2Kb)
photo: AP / New South Wales Rural Fire Service
08 Jan 2013
SYDNEY - Firefighters battled scores of wildfires raging across southeast Australia on Tuesday with officials evacuating national parks and warning that blistering temperatures and high winds had led to "catastrophic" fire conditions in some areas. Enlarge. A charred vehicle sits near the remains of a destroyed home following a wildfire near Dunalley, east of the Tasmanian capital of Hobart, Australia, Saturday, Jan. 5, 2013 ... Editorial ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
Canada Newswire
08 Jan 2013
During a geophysical survey flight east of Saskatoon, an internal component in the right engine of the Fugro CASA C-212 failed, causing the engine to lose power. The crew of three then completed the engine failure checklist, stowed the survey equipment and turned toward the Saskatoon airport. Fourteen minutes later, with the aircraft just short of the airport, the left engine lost power....(size: 2.4Kb)
PR Newswire
08 Jan 2013
8, 2013 /PRNewswire-iReach/ -- AB Engine Inc ... With this method, any internal combustion engine can have similar fuel efficiency to that of the Atkinson engine design. Although the theory of efficiency behind the AB Engine technology is similar to that of the Atkinson engine, the AB Engine can be implemented without the mechanical complications of Atkinson and other disadvantages associated with conventional engine designs....(size: 6.4Kb)
StreetInsider
08 Jan 2013
This five-year parts and repair services program covers over 230 engines. Under the terms of the PBL, Pratt & Whitney will provide key support for the F100 engines in the intermediate engine shops and at the depot level....(size: 1.3Kb)
CBC
08 Jan 2013
A mechanical failure in one engine and fuel starvation in a ... Investigators say one engine failed and then as the plane headed back to the airport for an emergency landing, the second engine's fuel nozzle clogged....(size: 1.1Kb)
The Times of India
08 Jan 2013
They know their two-year-old internet search engine won't ever supplant Google as the most popular place to search on laptop and desktop computers ... a search engine designed especially for Apple's iPads and tablets running Google's Android software....(size: 1.2Kb)
Newsvine
08 Jan 2013
World-renowned artificial intelligence expert and Google’s new Director of Engineering, Ray Kurzweil, wants to build a search engine so sophisticated that it could act like a ......(size: 1.0Kb)
noodls
08 Jan 2013
Engineering and project services company Clough Limited (ASX.CLO) today ... Clough AMEC has been providing engineering services to Chevron under contract since 2008. Contracted work scope includes conceptual studies, front end engineering design, detailed engineering, procurement support, development of construction work packs and construction planning....(size: 2.7Kb)
The Times of India
08 Jan 2013
Divisional commissioner Chanchal Kumar Tiwari has written to the government recommending stern action against the superintending engineer of UP Jal Nigam "for not performing well and showing laxity in work" ... action against the executive engineer of UP Jal Nigam for his "non-performance and fake reporting"....(size: 1.6Kb)
Stockhouse
08 Jan 2013
RWWI), a global leader in providing technology solutions to organizations with engineering design and information technology requirements, today announced that IMAGINiT Technologies has been awarded the Autodesk MEP Systems Engineering Specialization designation in the United States ... IMAGINiT Technologies, a division of Rand Worldwide, advances the way architects and engineers design, develop, and manage projects....(size: 3.2Kb)
noodls
08 Jan 2013
SGS is pleased to announce the acquisition of E&S; Engineering Solutions Inc., Tucson, Arizona, USA. E&S; Engineering Solutions Inc.(E&S;) is the parent company for KD Engineering (KDE) and METCON Research (Metcon). The companies provide metallurgical testing and process flow sheet development, plant design, plant optimization and project engineering services to the non-ferrous mining industry....(size: 2.7Kb)
Stockhouse
08 Jan 2013
UTX), has received a $300 million Performance Based Logistics (PBL) contract from the Republic of Korea government in support of the F100 engines powering the Republic of Korea Air Force fleet of Lockheed Martin F-16 fighters and Boeing F-15K fighters ... Under the terms of the PBL, Pratt & Whitney will provide key support for the F100 engines in the intermediate engine shops and at the depot level....(size: 2.8Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
08 Jan 2013
Search Engine Academy Washington DC features an infographic from Conductor that shows the top 20 cities that have a high demand for SEO specialists. Washington, DC (PRWEB) January 08, 2013 Search Engine Academy Washington DC is highlighting an infographic from Conductor that features the top 20 cities where search engine optimization (SEO) work is available ... About Search Engine Academy ... Search Engine Academy Washington DC....(size: 2.6Kb)
Star Tribune
08 Jan 2013
safety agency has cleared the 2012 Jeep Grand Cherokee after an investigation into possible engine fires. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration began investigating 107,000 of the SUVs in July after getting complaints about power steering hoses coming loose and leaking fluid onto the engines ... The investigation found five reports of engine ......(size: 1.8Kb)
Engineering is the discipline, skill, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes.
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET)[1] has defined "engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.[2][3]
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized sub disciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology.
Contents |
History[link]
Main article: History of engineering
Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects.
The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to “a constructor of military engines.”[4] In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). Notable exceptions of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention.”[5]
Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering[3] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering.
Ancient era[link]
The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, the Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjavur and tombs of India, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers.
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[3] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC.[6] He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture[citation needed].
Ancient Greece developed machines in both the civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the first known mechanical computer,[7][8] and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution, and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[9]
Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,[10] the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the Trebuchet was developed.
Renaissance era[link]
The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who coined the term "electricity".[11]
The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery.[12] The development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production.
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering.
Modern era[link]
Electrical engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of Electronics. The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty.[3]
The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad.[3]
Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution.[3] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants.[3] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes.[3]
Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design.[13] Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering.[14]
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[15]
Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage.
Main branches of engineering[link]
Main article: List of engineering branches
Engineering, much like other science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches:[16][17]
- Chemical engineering – The application of physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale.
- Civil engineering – The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges, dams, and buildings.
- Electrical engineering – The design and study of various electrical and electronic systems, such as electrical circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic devices, electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls, and electronics.
- Mechanical engineering – The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon systems, transportation products engines, compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains, vacuum technology, and vibration isolation equipment.
Beyond these four, sources vary on other main branches. Historically, naval engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Modern fields sometimes included as major branches include aerospace, petroleum, systems, audio engineering, architectural, biosystems, biomedical,[18] industrial, materials science[19] and nuclear engineering.[20][citation needed]
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches. A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or prominent enough to warrant classification as a new "branch." One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field.
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Methodology[link]
Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, they may keep on learning new material throughout their career.
If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility, and serviceability. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.
Problem solving[link]
Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions.
Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected.
Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product designer in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of greatest value after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to establish the cause or causes of the failure.
Computer use[link]
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (Computer-aided technologies) specifically for engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.
One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of Product Data Management software.[21]
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM).[22]
Social context[link]
 |
This section may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (July 2010) |
Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering.
By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility. Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of Sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.
Engineering is a key driver of human development.[23] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.[24]
All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind:
- Engineers Without Borders
- Engineers Against Poverty
- Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
- Engineers for a Sustainable World
- Engineering for Change
- Engineering Ministries International[25]
Relationships with other disciplines[link]
Science[link]
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.
There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations.
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,[29] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.
Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation[citation needed].
As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics:
"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born."[30]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication, as well as legal considerations such as patent infringement or liability in the case of failure of the solution.
Medicine and biology[link]
The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.
Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.[32][33] The fields of Bionics and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine.[34][35]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.
Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods.[36]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[37] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,[38] the brain produces electrical signals etc.[39] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems.[36]
Art[link]
There are connections between engineering and art;[40] they are direct in some fields, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a University's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others.[40][41][42][43]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design.[44] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic.[45] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering.[41][46]
Among famous historical figures Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering.[31][47]
Other fields[link]
In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Financial engineering has similarly borrowed the term.
See also[link]
Main article: Outline of engineering
References[link]
- ^ ABET History
- ^ Engineers' Council for Professional Development. (1947). Canons of ethics for engineers
- ^ a b c d e f g h Engineers' Council for Professional Development definition on Encyclopaedia Britannica (Includes Britannica article on Engineering)
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary
- ^ Origin: 1250–1300; ME engin < AF, OF < L ingenium nature, innate quality, esp. mental power, hence a clever invention, equiv. to in- + -genium, equiv. to gen- begetting; Source: Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Random House, Inc. 2006.
- ^ Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2005, p. 159
- ^ "The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project", The Antikythera Mechanism Research Project. Retrieved 2007-07-01 Quote: "The Antikythera Mechanism is now understood to be dedicated to astronomical phenomena and operates as a complex mechanical "computer" which tracks the cycles of the Solar System."
- ^ Wilford, John. (July 31, 2008). Discovering How Greeks Computed in 100 B.C.. New York Times.
- ^ Wright, M T. (2005). "Epicyclic Gearing and the Antikythera Mechanism, part 2". Antiquarian Horology 29 (1 (September 2005)): 54–60.
- ^ Britannica on Greek civilization in the 5th century Military technology Quote: "The 7th century, by contrast, had witnessed rapid innovations, such as the introduction of the hoplite and the trireme, which still were the basic instruments of war in the 5th." and "But it was the development of artillery that opened an epoch, and this invention did not predate the 4th century. It was first heard of in the context of Sicilian warfare against Carthage in the time of Dionysius I of Syracuse."
- ^ Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
- ^ Jenkins, Rhys (1936). Links in the History of Engineering and Technology from Tudor Times. Ayer Publishing. p. 66. ISBN 0-8369-2167-4.
- ^ Imperial College: Studying engineering at Imperial: Engineering courses are offered in five main branches of engineering: aeronautical, chemical, civil, electrical and mechanical. There are also courses in computing science, software engineering, information systems engineering, materials science and engineering, mining engineering and petroleum engineering.
- ^ Van Every, Kermit E. (1986). "Aeronautical engineering". Encyclopedia Americana. 1. Grolier Incorporated. pp. 226.
- ^ Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs — the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press. ISBN 1-881987-11-6.
- ^ Journal of the British Nuclear Energy Society: Volume 1 British Nuclear Energy Society - 1962 - Snippet view Quote: In most universities it should be possible to cover the main branches of engineering, ie civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering in this way. More specialised fields of engineering application, of which nuclear power is ...
- ^ The Engineering Profession by Sir James Hamilton, UK Engineering Council Quote: "The Civilingenior degree encompasses the main branches of engineering civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical." (From the Internet Archive)
- ^ Bronzino JD, ed., The Biomedical Engineering Handbook, CRC Press, 2006, ISBN 0-8493-2121-2
- ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/10.1525/hsps.2001.31.2.223
- ^ http://www.careercornerstone.org/pdf/nuclear/nuceng.pdf
- ^ Arbe, Katrina (2001.05.07). "PDM: Not Just for the Big Boys Anymore". ThomasNet. http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2001/05/pdm_not_just_fo.html.
- ^ Arbe, Katrina (2003.05.22). "The Latest Chapter in CAD Software Evaluation". ThomasNet. http://news.thomasnet.com/IMT/archives/2003/05/the_latest_chap.html.
- ^ PDF on Human Development
- ^ MDG info pdf
- ^ Home page for EMI
- ^ Rosakis, Ares Chair, Division of Engineering and Applied Science. "Chair's Message, CalTech.". http://www.eas.caltech.edu/about/chair. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
- ^ Ryschkewitsch, M.G. NASA Chief Engineer. "Improving the capability to Engineer Complex Systems –Broadening the Conversation on the Art and Science of Systems Engineering". p. 8. http://sdm.mit.edu/conf09/presentations/ryschkewitsch.pdf. Retrieved 15 October 2011.
- ^ American Society for Engineering Education (1970). Engineering education. 60. American Society for Engineering Education. p. 467. http://books.google.ca/books?id=frZVAAAAMAAJ&q=Scientists+study+the+world+as+it+is;+engineers+create+the+world+that+has+never+been&dq=Scientists+study+the+world+as+it+is;+engineers+create+the+world+that+has+never+been&hl=en&ei=v7OZTrXBL6Lx0gGpu5TgBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBQ. "The great engineer Theodore von Karman once said, "Scientists study the world as it is, engineers create the world that never has been." Today, more than ever, the engineer must create a world that never has been..."
- ^ Vincenti, Walter G. (1993). What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History. Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-3974-2.
- ^ Classical and Computational Solid Mechanics, YC Fung and P. Tong. World Scientific. 2001.
- ^ a b Bjerklie, David. “The Art of Renaissance Engineering.” MIT’s Technology Review Jan./Feb.1998: 54-9. Article explores the concept of the “artist-engineer”, an individual who used his artistic talent in engineering. Quote from article: Da Vinci reached the pinnacle of “artist-engineer”-dom, Quote2: “It was Leonardo da Vinci who initiated the most ambitious expansion in the role of artist-engineer, progressing from astute observer to inventor to theoretician.” (Bjerklie 58)
- ^ Ethical Assessment of Implantable Brain Chips. Ellen M. McGee and G. Q. Maguire, Jr. from Boston University
- ^ IEEE technical paper: Foreign parts (electronic body implants).by Evans-Pughe, C. quote from summary: Feeling threatened by cyborgs?
- ^ Institute of Medicine and Engineering: Mission statement The mission of the Institute for Medicine and Engineering (IME) is to stimulate fundamental research at the interface between biomedicine and engineering/physical/computational sciences leading to innovative applications in biomedical research and clinical practice.
- ^ IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology: Both general and technical articles on current technologies and methods used in biomedical and clinical engineering...
- ^ a b Royal Academy of Engineering and Academy of Medical Sciences: Systems Biology: a vision for engineering and medicine in pdf: quote1: Systems Biology is an emerging methodology that has yet to be defined quote2: It applies the concepts of systems engineering to the study of complex biological systems through iteration between computational and/or mathematical modelling and experimentation.
- ^ Science Museum of Minnesota: Online Lesson 5a; The heart as a pump
- ^ Minnesota State University emuseum: Bones act as levers
- ^ UC Berkeley News: UC researchers create model of brain's electrical storm during a seizure
- ^ a b Lehigh University project: We wanted to use this project to demonstrate the relationship between art and architecture and engineering
- ^ a b National Science Foundation:The Art of Engineering: Professor uses the fine arts to broaden students' engineering perspectives
- ^ MIT World:The Art of Engineering: Inventor James Dyson on the Art of Engineering: quote: A member of the British Design Council, James Dyson has been designing products since graduating from the Royal College of Art in 1970.
- ^ University of Texas at Dallas: The Institute for Interactive Arts and Engineering
- ^ Aerospace Design: The Art of Engineering from NASA’s Aeronautical Research
- ^ Princeton U: Robert Maillart's Bridges: The Art of Engineering: quote: no doubt that Maillart was fully conscious of the aesthetic implications...
- ^ quote:..the tools of artists and the perspective of engineers..
- ^ Drew U: user website: cites Bjerklie paper
Further reading[link]
- Dorf, Richard, ed. (2005). The Engineering Handbook (2 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC. ISBN 0-8493-1586-7.
- Billington, David P. (1996-06-05). The Innovators: The Engineering Pioneers Who Made America Modern. Wiley; New Ed edition. ISBN 0-471-14026-0.
- Petroski, Henry (1992-03-31). To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-73416-3.
- Petroski, Henry (1994-02-01). The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as They are. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-74039-2.
- Lord, Charles R. (2000-08-15). Guide to Information Sources in Engineering. Libraries Unlimited. DOI:10.1336/1563086999. ISBN 1-56308-699-9.
- Vincenti, Walter G. (1993-02-01). What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0-8018-4588-2.
- Hill, Donald R. (1973-12-31) [1206]. The Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices: Kitáb fí ma'rifat al-hiyal al-handasiyya. Pakistan Hijara Council. ISBN 969-8016-25-2.
External links[link]
 |
Look up engineering in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
 |
Wikiversity has learning materials about Engineering |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Engineering |
- National Society of Professional Engineers position statement on Licensure and Qualifications for Practice
- National Academy of Engineering (NAE)
- American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
- The US Library of Congress Engineering in History bibliography
- ICES: Institute for Complex Engineered Systems, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA
- History of engineering bibliography at University of Minnesota
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Richard Hammond | |
|---|---|
 Hammond in May 2006. |
|
| Born | Richard Mark Hammond (1969-12-19) 19 December 1969 (age 42)[1] Solihull, Warwickshire, England |
| Residence | Weston under Penyard, Herefordshire, England |
| Other names | Hamster |
| Education | Solihull School Ripon Grammar School |
| Alma mater | Harrogate College of Art and Technology |
| Occupation | Broadcaster, journalist, author, media personality, talk and game show host, voice-over artist |
| Years active | 1998, 2002–present |
| Employer | BBC, The Daily Mirror (prev. ITV & Sky) |
| Known for | Presenting:
Brainiac: Science Abuse |
| Home town | Solihull, West Midlands, England |
| Height | 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m)[2] |
| Spouse | Amanda Etheridge (m. 2002) «start: (2002-05-04)»"Marriage: Amanda Etheridge to Richard Hammond" Location: (linkback:http://en-wiki.pop.wn.com/index.php/Richard_Hammond) |
| Children | 2 |
| Parents | Eileen and Alan Hammond |
Richard Mark Hammond (born 19 December 1969) is an English broadcaster, writer, and journalist most noted for co-hosting the car programme Top Gear with Jeremy Clarkson and James May, as well as presenting series 1–4 of Brainiac: Science Abuse on Sky 1. Since 2009, Hammond has co-hosted Total Wipeout with Amanda Byram on BBC One which has since been cancelled.
Hammond is currently presenting Planet Earth Live alongside Julia Bradbury.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Hammond was born in Solihull and is the grandson of workers in the Birmingham automobile industry.[3][4] In the mid-1980s Hammond moved with his family (mother Eileen, father Alan, and younger brothers Andrew, writer of the 'Crypt' Series, and Nicholas) to the North Yorkshire cathedral city of Ripon where his father ran a probate business in the market square. Originally a pupil of Solihull School, a fee-paying boys' independent school, he moved to Ripon Grammar School, and from 1987 to 1989 attended Harrogate College of Art and Technology. After his graduation he worked for several radio stations, including Radio Cleveland, Radio York, Radio Cumbria, Radio Leeds, Radio Newcastle and Radio Lancashire, before auditioning for Top Gear.[5]
Top Gear[link]
Hammond became a presenter on Top Gear in 2002, when the show began in its present format. He is sometimes referred to as "Hamster" by fans and his co-presenters on Top Gear due to his name and comparatively small stature.[6] His nickname was further reinforced when on three separate occasions in series 7, Hammond ate cardboard,[7] mimicking hamster-like behaviour. A running gag is Hammond's supposed use of teeth whitener.[8] In a series 7 episode, co-presenter Jeremy Clarkson claimed to have found a pack of teeth whiteners in a Marcos TSO GT2 that Hammond had tested. Hammond objected, claiming it was a set-up. In a series 10 episode that featured the Peel P50, Clarkson was seen supposedly talking to Hammond on the phone about him considering a tooth whitening treatment costing £4000. Later, during a series 13 episode that featured the presenters in their office searching for car insurance prices, a teeth whitening kit was pictured on his desk. It was staged to appear that he was caught looking at a website on teeth whiteners on Richard Hammond's 5 O'Clock Show.
In the first episode of series 9 broadcast on 28 January 2007, having recovered from his high speed crash Hammond returned to a hero's welcome, complete with dancing girls, aeroplane style stairs and fireworks. The show also contained images of the crash, which had made international headlines, with Hammond talking through the events of the day after which the audience broke into spontaneous applause. Hammond then requested that the crash never be mentioned on the show again, though all three Top Gear presenters have since referred to it in jokes during the news segment of the programme. He told his colleagues, "The only difference between me now, and before the crash, is that I like celery now and I didn't before".[9]
During the third episode of series sixteen, Hammond suggested that no one would ever want to own a Mexican car, since cars are supposed to reflect national characteristics and so a Mexican car would be a "lazy, feckless, flatulent, overweight oaf." Hammond finished with the remark "I'm sorry, but can you imagine waking up and remembering you're Mexican?!"[10] Following complaints, the BBC defended the broadcast of this segment on the grounds that such national stereotyping was a "robust part" of traditional British humour.[11]
Brainiac: Science Abuse[link]
In 2003, Hammond became the first presenter of Brainiac: Science Abuse; he was joined by Jon Tickle with Charlotte Hudson joining in series 2.[12] After the fourth series it was announced that Hammond was no longer going to present the Sky1 show after he signed an exclusive deal with the BBC. Vic Reeves took his place as main presenter.[13]
Other television work[link]
Early in his career, as well as his radio work, Hammond presented a number of daytime lifestyle shows and motoring programmes such as Motor Week on Men & Motors.
He presented the Crufts dog show in 2005, the 2004 and 2005 British Parking Awards, and has appeared on School's Out, a quiz show on BBC One where celebrities answer questions about things they learned at school. He has also presented The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding The Legend.[14] Along with his work on Top Gear, he presented Should I Worry About...? on BBC One, Time Commanders on BBC Two and the first four series of Brainiac: Science Abuse on Sky One. He was also a team captain on the BBC Two quiz show, Petrolheads, in which a memorable part was one where Hammond was tricked into smashing his classic Ferrari while trying to parallel park blindfolded in another car.
From 3 January 2006 until 10 February 2006, Hammond was the eponymous star of Richard Hammond's 5 O'Clock Show with his co-star Mel Giedroyc of Light Lunch fame.[15] The programme, which discussed a wide range of topics, was shown every weekday on ITV between 17:00 and 18:00.[15]
In July 2005, Hammond was voted number one in a Heat magazine poll of top "weird celebrity crushes". Also in 2005 he was voted one of the top 10 British TV talents.[16]
He presented Richard Hammond and the Holy Grail in 2006. During the special, he travelled to various locations around the world, including the Vatican Secret Archives, exploring the history of the Holy Grail.[17]
In one episode of Top Gear, fellow presenter James May was mocked by both Hammond and Clarkson for being named the celebrity with the worst hairstyle, while Hammond was named the celebrity with the best.
As part of Red Nose Day 2007, Hammond stood for nomination via a public telephone vote, along with Andy Hamilton and Kelvin MacKenzie, to be a one-off co-presenter of BBC Radio 4's Woman's Hour on 16 March 2007.[18] However, he was defeated by Andy Hamilton.
In April 2007, Hammond presented a one off special on BBC Radio 2 for Good Friday followed by another in August 2007 for the Bank Holiday. He is scheduled to present more Bank Holiday specials for the station.
Hammond recorded an interview with the famed American stuntman Evel Knievel, which aired on 23 December 2007 on BBC One, and was Knievel's last interview before his death on 30 November 2007.[19]
In September 2008, Hammond presented the first episode of a new series; Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections on the National Geographic Channel.[20] In this show, Hammond discovers how the inventions of the past, along with assistance from nature, help designers today. Episodes include the building of the Airbus A380, Taipei 101 and the Keck Observatory.[20] Series 2 of Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections began in May 2010 and has included the building of the Wembley Stadium and the Sydney Opera House.
Hammond also filmed an advertisement for Morrisons supermarkets in 2008,[21] and joined the cast of TV show Ashes To Ashes for a special insert on the 2008 Children in Need special.
While in New Zealand for Top Gear Live 2009, Hammond filmed several television commercials for Telecom New Zealand's new XT UTMS mobile network. Telecom claimed that the new network was "faster in more places", compared to its competitors and its existing CDMA network. After the network repeatedly failed in late 2009 and early 2010, Hammond became the butt of a joke when he did not return to New Zealand for Top Gear Live 2010. His fellow Top Gear co-hosts said he was too embarrassed to come back to New Zealand, and in a supposed live feed back to Hammond, the feed suddenly drops out as the "XT Network had crashed".[22] Hammond was later given the right of reply to his colleagues during an interview with Marcus Lush on RadioLIVE's breakfast show in New Zealand.[23]
Hammond is currently hosting the UK version of the US series Wipeout, called Total Wipeout. It takes place in Argentina, and is co-presented by Hammond and Amanda Byram. Hammond presents and does the voiceover for the clips in a London studio, and Byram is filmed at the obstacle course in Buenos Aires.[24]
Hammond also presented a science-themed game show for children, Richard Hammond's Blast Lab which aired on BBC Two and CBBC.[25]
In March 2010, Hammond presented a 3 episode series called Richard Hammond's Invisible Worlds, which looked at things too fast for the naked eye to see, things that are beyond the visible spectrum (e.g. ultraviolet and infra-red light), as well as microscopic things.
One of Hammond's lesser known television roles was as presenter of the BBC2 'gameshow' Time Commanders, a sophisticated warfare simulator which used a modified version of Creative Assembly's Rome: Total War game engine.[26]
Since February 2011, Hammond has presented a online technology series "Richard Hammond's Tech Head".[27]
In July 2011, Hammond presented a two-part natural science documentary Richard Hammond's Journey To The Centre Of The Planet, focused on Earth geology and plate tectonics.[28][29]
Hammond will also host the upcoming BBC America programme Richard Hammond's Crash Course.[30]
Personal life[link]
Hammond has been married to Amanda Etheridge (mostly known as Mindy)[31] since May 2002; the couple have two daughters.[3] The family lives in a mock castle in Herefordshire and also has an apartment in London. Hammond also plays the bass guitar, on which he accompanied the other Top Gear presenters when they performed alongside Justin Hawkins on Top Gear of the Pops for Comic Relief in 2007. Hammond likes to ride his bicycle in cities, for which he is mocked mercilessly by fellow presenter Jeremy Clarkson.[32]
Hammond is a fan of Porsche 911s and claims the Pagani Zonda to be the ultimate supercar. He once owned a 1982 Porsche 911 SC (sold in the mid-2000s),[33][34] and later purchased a 2006 Porsche 911 (997) Carrera S.[35] In 2004, Hammond purchased a Porsche 928 for the purpose of daily driving.[36] Much unlike Clarkson and May, he also has an interest in American muscle cars. Hammond has owned a 1969 Dodge Charger R/T,[36] a 1967 Ford Mustang GT 390,[37] and a 2008 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 (which was purchased in the United States on a Series 12 episode of Top Gear).[38]
Hammond had also owned a Morgan AeroMax, in which he was involved in a car accident on 9 August 2009. He also owns a Jaguar E-Type[39] and is also a fan of monster trucks, having attended Truckfest '07.
An interview with The Sunday Times in February 2008 reported Hammond as having moved briefly from Gloucestershire to Buckinghamshire, then back again because he missed the country life.[40]
Hammond is a keen motorcyclist[41] and Land Rover Defender fan. He spent over £70,000 rebuilding his 110 "Buster" in 2008.[citation needed]
During the news segment of Top Gear's 2010 USA Road Trip special, Hammond openly expressed his dislike of the band Genesis. This fact was later exploited by his co-presenters in two special episodes: during the Middle East Special, when they installed a secret second stereo unit in his Fiat Barchetta that only plays the band's Live over Europe 2007 concert; in the India Special, Clarkson played the same song used in the previous special through the megaphone mounted in his Jaguar XJS, despite Hammond driving a different car (a Mini Cooper Sport).
In October it was reported he had spent over £2 million buying Bollitree Castle which is situated near Weston under Penyard, Ross-on-Wye. It has been rumoured he has also bought a large house in the small town of Wantage, Oxfordshire[citation needed].[42][43]
On Top Gear in 2007, Hammond went to Africa on an 'Epic Road Trip' across Botswana. While there he found a 1963 Opel Kadett, in which he drove across Botswana. Hammond named it Oliver. On Top Gear a week after the special was aired, Hammond announced during the news, that he had shipped Oliver back to the UK, where it was restored by a team from Practical Classics magazine. Oliver features on Hammond's children's science television show Richard Hammond's Blast Lab and in another episode of Top Gear as a kind of "Hill-holder" in the trailer truck challenge (after it acquired the personal plate "OLI V3R"). Oliver is also mentioned in Hammond's second autobiography As You Do.[citation needed]
In 2010, Hammond was the President of the 31st Herefordshire Country Fair held at Hampton Court in Hope under Dinmore. His involvement caused unprecedented attendance with "nearly 15,000 people" drawn to the event to meet the presenter.[45]
In 2010, Hammond gained a private pilot licence PPL(H) in an R44 helicopter.
During season 18 of Top Gear it was revealed that he owns a Fiat 500 TwinAir.
Charity work[link]
Richard Hammond is a Vice-President of UK children's brain injury charity The Children's Trust, Tadworth.[46]
[edit] Vampire dragster crash
File:TopGearVampireCrash.jpg
Hammond in the Vampire immediately before the crash. The front-right tyre has burst.
During filming of a Top Gear segment at the former RAF Elvington airbase near York on 20 September 2006, Hammond was injured in the crash of the jet-powered car he was piloting.[47][48][49]:1 Hammond was travelling at 288 mph (463 km/h) at the time of the crash.[50]
His vehicle, a dragster called Vampire, was theoretically capable of travelling at speeds of up to 370 mph (595 km/h).[48] The vehicle was the same car that in 2000, piloted by Colin Fallows, set the British land speed record at 300.3 mph (483.3 km/h).[49]:3[51] The Vampire was powered by a single Bristol-Siddeley Orpheus afterburning turbojet engine producing 10000 hp (7.5 MW).[48][50]
Some accounts suggested that the accident occurred during an attempt to break the British land speed record,[47][52] but the Health and Safety Executive report on the crash found that a proposal to try to officially break the record was vetoed in advance by Top Gear executive producer Andy Wilman, due to the risks and complexities of such a venture.[49]:4 (The report stated: "Runs were to be carried out in only one direction along a pre-set course on the Elvington runway. Vampire’s speed was to be recorded using GPS satellite telemetry. The intention was to record the maximum speed, not to measure an average speed over a measured course, and for [Hammond] to describe how it felt.")[49]:1
Hammond was completing a seventh and final run to collect extra footage for the programme when his front-right tyre failed,[49]:8[53] and, according to witness and first responder Dave Ogden, "one of the parachutes had deployed but it went on to the grass and spun over and over before coming to a rest about 100 yards from us."[54] The emergency crew quickly arrived at the car, finding it inverted and partially embedded in the grass.[52] During the roll, Hammond's helmet had embedded itself into the ground, flipping the visor up and forcing dirt into his mouth and left eye, damaging the eye. Rescuers felt a pulse and heard the unconscious Hammond breathing before the car was turned upright.[52] Hammond was cut free with hydraulic shears, and placed on a backboard.[49]:9 "He was regaining consciousness at that point and said he had some lower back pain".[52] He was then transported by the Yorkshire Air Ambulance to the neurological unit of the Leeds General Infirmary.[47][49]:9[55] Hammond's family visited him at the hospital along with Top Gear co-presenters James May and Jeremy Clarkson.[54][55] Clarkson wished Hammond well, saying "Both James and I are looking forward to getting our 'Hamster' back", referring to Hammond by his nickname.[47][54]
The Health & Safety Executive report stated that "Hammond's instantaneous reaction to the tyre blow out seems to have been that of a competent high performance car driver, namely to brake the car and to try to steer into the skid. Immediately afterwards he also seems to have followed his training and to have pulled back on the main parachute release lever, thus shutting down the jet engine and also closing the jet and afterburner fuel levers. The main parachute did not have time to deploy before the car ran off the runway."[49]:13 The HSE notes that, based on the findings of the North Yorkshire Police (who investigated the crash), "the accident may not have been recoverable", even if Hammond's efforts to react were as fast as "humanly possible".[49]:13
The crash was shown on an episode of Top Gear on 28 January 2007; this was the first episode of the new series, which had been postponed pending Hammond's recovery. Hammond requested at the end of the episode that his fellow presenters never mention the crash again, a request which has been generally observed by both Hammond and the other presenters, although occasional oblique references have been made. On The Edge: My Story, which contains first hand accounts from both Hammond and his wife about the crash, immediate aftermath, and his recovery was published later that year.
In February 2008 Hammond gave an interview to The Sunday Times newspaper in which he described the effects of his brain injuries and the progression of his recovery.[56] He reported suffering loss of memory, depression, and difficulties with emotional experiences, for which he was consulting a psychiatrist.[56] He also talked about his recovery in a 2010 television programme where he interviewed Sir Stirling Moss and they discussed the brain injuries they had both received as a result of car crashes.[57]
After the car crash the BBC website Have Your Say received more than 10,000 messages of good wishes and sympathy for Richard Hammond from people around the world.
Works[link]
TV shows[link]
| Year | Title | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| 1998 | Motorweek (Men & Motors TV series) | Presenter |
| 2002–present | Top Gear | Presenter |
| 2003–06 | Brainiac: Science Abuse | Presenter |
| 2004–05 | Crufts | Presenter |
| Should I Worry About...? | Presenter | |
| 2005 | The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding The Legend | Presenter |
| Time Commanders | Presenter | |
| Inside Britain's Fattest Man | Presenter | |
| 2006 | Richard Hammond's 5 O'Clock Show | Presenter |
| Petrolheads | Contestant | |
| School's Out | Contestant | |
| Richard Hammond: Would You Believe It? | Presenter | |
| Richard Hammond: The Holy Grail | Presenter | |
| Battle of the Geeks | Presenter | |
| 2007 | Last Man Standing | Narrator |
| Helicopter Heroes | Narrator | |
| Richard Hammond Meets Evel Knievel | Presenter | |
| 2008 | BBC Timewatch | Narrator |
| Sport Relief | Presenter | |
| 2009–2011 | Richard Hammond's Blast Lab | Presenter |
| Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections | Presenter | |
| 2009–2012 | Total Wipeout | Presenter |
| 2010 | Richard Hammond's Invisible Worlds | Presenter |
| Sport Relief 2010 | Presenter | |
| Hammond Meets Moss | Presenter | |
| 2011 | Richard Hammond's Journey To The Centre Of The Planet | Presenter |
| 2011 | Richard Hammond's Journey To The Bottom Of The Ocean | Presenter |
| 2012 | Richard Hammond's Crash Course | Presenter |
| Planet Earth Live | Presenter |
Books[link]
Car books[link]
- Hammond, Richard (13 October 2005). What Not To Drive. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 276 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-84800-4.
- Hammond, Richard (5 October 2006). Richard Hammond's Car Confidential. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 144 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-84445-7.
- Hammond, Richard (28 May 2009). A Short History of Caravans in the UK. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 144 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-84446-4.
- Hammond, Richard (20 May 2010). Richard Hammond's Caravan Confidential. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 144 pages. ISBN 978-0-7538-2671-3.
Children's books[link]
- Hammond, Richard (29 June 2006). Can You Feel the Force?: Putting the Fizz Back into Physics. Dorling Kindersley Publishers. pp. 96 pages. ISBN 978-1-4053-1543-2.
- Hammond, Richard (2 June 2008). Car Science (Hardback). Dorling Kindersley Publishers. pp. 96 pages. ISBN 978-1-4053-3200-2.
- Hammond, Richard (1 September 2008). Car Science (Paperback). Dorling Kindersley Publishers. pp. 96 pages. ISBN 978-0-7566-4026-2.
Biographies[link]
- Hammond, Richard (20 September 2007). On The Edge: My Story (Hardback). Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 308 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-85327-5.
- Hammond, Richard (29 May 2008). On The Edge: My Story (Paperback). Phoenix. pp. 308 pages. ISBN 978-0-7538-2404-7.
- Hammond, Richard (7 August 2008). On The Edge: My Story (Abridged). Phoenix. pp. 256 pages. ISBN 978-0-7538-2330-9.
- Hammond, Richard (18 September 2008). As You Do: Adventures with Evel, Oliver and the Vice-President of Botswana (Hardback). Orion Publishing Co. pp. 268 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-85520-0.
- Hammond, Richard (28 May 2009). As You Do: Adventures with Evel, Oliver and the Vice-President of Botswana (Paperback). Orion Publishing Co. pp. 314 pages. ISBN 978-0-7538-2562-4.
- Hammond, Richard (1 October 2009). Or Is That Just Me? (Hardback). Phoenix. pp. 256 pages. ISBN 978-0-297-85521-7.
- Hammond, Richard (20 May 2010). Or Is That Just Me? (Paperback). Phoenix. pp. 352 pages. ISBN 978-0-7538-2562-4.
DVDs[link]
- Top Gear Interactive Challenge Quiz (2007, 2|Entertain).
- Top Gear Interactive Stunt Challenge Quiz (2008, 2|Entertain).
- Top Gear Uncovered: The DVD Special (2009, 2|Entertain).
- Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections: Series One (2009, Nat Geo DVD).
- Richard Hammond's Invisible Worlds (2010, 2|Entertain).
- Top Gear: Apocalypse (With James May) (2010, 2|Enertain).
- Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections: Series Two (2010, Nat Geo DVD).
- Hammond Meets Moss (2010, Acorn Media UK).
- Richard Hammond's Journey To The Centre Of The Planet (2011, 2|Entertain).
- Top Gear: At The Movies (With James May) (2011, 2|Entertain).
- Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections: Series Three (2011, Nat Geo DVD).
Television advertisements[link]
- Morrisons (2008)
- Morrisons (Christmas 2008)
- Morrisons (2009)
- Morrisons (Christmas 2009)
- Top Gear Turbo Challenge Trading Cards Test Set (2009)
- Top Gear Turbo Challenge Trading Cards (2010)
- Top Gear Interactive Challenge DVD (2007)
- Top Gear Interactive Stunt Challenge DVD (2009)
- Top Gear Uncovered DVD (2009)
- Top Gear [Re-Runs On Dave] (2009)
- Telecom XT network NZ (2009)
References[link]
- ^ Researcha[dead link]
- ^ "Not just anybody Richard Hammond". The Times (London). 14 January 2006. http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/body_and_soul/article1081903.ece. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ a b Hammond, Richard (2007). On The Edge: My Story. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-85327-9.
- ^ Barratt, Nick (12 April 2008). "Family detective: Richard Hammond". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/exclusions/familyhistory/fd100207.xml. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ "Richard Hammond Trivia and Quotes on TV.com". CBS Interactive Inc. 2010. http://australia.bbcknowledge.com/topgear/richard-hammond.html. Retrieved 4 September 2010. [dead link]
- ^ Litson, Jo (23 November 2008). "Richard Hammond, Hamster driven by Top Gear | The Daily Telegraph". News.com.au. http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,24691429-5009160,00.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ "Top Gear – Richard Hammond – BBC Knowledge". BBC. http://www.tv.com/richard-hammond/person/169867/trivia.html. Retrieved 4 September 2010.
- ^ Times Online
- ^ "Why Richard Hammond acquired a taste for celery after his crash // Current". Current.com. 27 May 2008. http://current.com/items/88981381/why_richard_hammond_acquired_a_taste_for_celery_after_his_crash.htm. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ Camarena, Rodrigo (4 February 2011). "Can Top Gear laugh off its Mexican insults?". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2011/feb/04/mexico-top-gear.
- ^ "BBC defends "Top Gear" jokes about Mexico". Reuters. 4 February 2011. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/02/04/us-britain-mexico-dd-idUSTRE7134II20110204.
- ^ "Brainiac: Science Abuse on TV.com – Free Full Episodes & Clips, & Show Info". Tv.com. http://www.tv.com/brainiac-science-abuse/show/29974/summary.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ The Sun Online – Vic lands mad science show[dead link]
- ^ "Richard Hammond's Gunpowder Plot: Exploding The Legend : Documentary". Movie-tv-episode-database.com. http://movie-tv-episode-database.com/Documentary/Richard-Hammond-s-Gunpowder-Plot-Exploding-The-Legend-625672/. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ a b ""5 O'Clock Show" (2006)". Imdb.com. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0498317/. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ BBC News – New Doctor Who tops talent list
- ^ "Richard Hammond and the Holy Grail". British Broadcasting Coroporation. 20 January 2006. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/01_january/20/grail.shtml. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
- ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Woman's Hour – Comic Relief 2007". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/womanshour/comicrelief2007.shtml. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ "Top Gear meets Evel Knievel". TV Tonight. http://www.tvtonight.com.au/2007/12/top-gear-meets-evel-knievel.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ a b "Richard Hammond's Engineering Connections | Programmes | National Geographic Channel". Natgeochannel.co.uk. http://natgeochannel.co.uk/engineering-connections. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ Salter, Jessica (9 August 2008). "Richard Hammond paid £750,000 for Morrisons advert". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2526419/Richard-Hammond-paid-750000-for-Morrisons-advert.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ "Top Gear duo get plenty of mileage out of Telecom's woes". The New Zealand Herald. 20 February 2010. http://www.nzherald.co.nz/telecom/news/article.cfm?o_id=207&objectid=10627382. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
- ^ "Has Richard Hammond crashed more times than Telecom XT?". RadioLIVE. 23 February 2010. http://www.radiolive.co.nz/LUSH--Has-Richard-Hammond-crashed-more-times-than-Telecom-XT/tabid/506/articleID/12199/Default.aspx. Retrieved 24 March 2010.
- ^ Rushton, Katherine (17 September 2008). "BBC1 hands Hammond Saturday night Wipeout | News | Broadcast". Broadcastnow.co.uk. http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/people/2008/09/BBC1_hands_hammond_saturday_night_wipeout.html. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ bbc.co.uk. "CBBC Programmes – Richard Hammond's Blast Lab". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/cbbc/blastlab. Retrieved 28 Oct 2010.
- ^ CVG. "CVG interviews Rome: Total War developers". http://www.computerandvideogames.com/140495/interviews/looking-back-rome-total-war/. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ http://www.channelflip.com/richard-hammonds-tech-head/
- ^ ""Richard Hammond's Journey to the Centre of the Planet" previous episode listings". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00x7fdp/episodes/2011. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ ""Richard Hammond's Journey to the Centre of the Planet" official programme website". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00x7fdp. Retrieved 21 July 2011.
- ^ "Richard Hammond's Crash Course – Launch Trailer". BBC America. BBC. http://www.bbcamerica.com/crash-course/videos/launch-trailer/. Retrieved 24 March 2012.
- ^ "Hammond 'has taken first steps'". BBC News. 23 September 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5372890.stm. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ "Hammond 'prefers cycling in town'". BBC News. 29 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6605717.stm. Retrieved 22 May 2010.
- ^ IMCDb.org: 1982 Porsche 911 SC in "Top Gear, 2002–2011"
- ^ Richard Hammond's 1982 Porsche 911 SC – Motorworld Forums
- ^ IMCDb.org: 2006 Porsche 911 Carrera 2S [997] in "Top Gear, 2002–2011"
- ^ a b Mopar Muscle for Top Gear's Hammond – DRC Review News Article
- ^ IMCDb.org: 1967 Ford Mustang GT390 in "Top Gear, 2002–2011"
- ^ IMCDb.org: 2008 Dodge Challenger SRT-8 in "Top Gear, 2002–2011"
- ^ Transmission – BBC Top Gear More video: James drives to the studio parts 3 and 4 «
- ^ On the Move: Richard Hammond
- ^ First bike ride 'elates' Hammond
- ^ http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30100-1276474,00.html Article reporting on Hammond's car abandonment
- ^ ANANOVA: Star dumps car to run 16 miles home
- ^ As You Do pp. 8–12, 89, 163, 200–11, 301
- ^ "Richard Hammond attracts record numbers at Country Fair". BBC Online. 2 August 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/herefordandworcester/hi/people_and_places/newsid_8878000/8878766.stm. Retrieved 4 August 2010. "The Top Gear presenter Richard Hammond was one of the main reasons for a record attendance at the 31st Herefordshire Country Fair."
- ^ Richard Hammond unveils new building
- ^ a b c d "TV presenter 'stable' after crash". BBC News website (British Broadcasting Corporation). 21 September 2006. 2006-09-21 11:59 (GMT). Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071017154900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/north_yorkshire/5366422.stm. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "The 36-year-old was thought to be driving at about 300mph on an airfield near York when he crashed on Wednesday."
- ^ a b c "Hammond talks to Top Gear co-star". BBC News website (British Broadcasting Corporation). 22 September 2006. 2006-09-22 19:57 (GMT). Archived from the original on 3 February 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070203095946/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/5371556.stm. Retrieved 8 December 2008. "Mr Hammond suffered a "significant brain injury" when he crashed a jet-powered car at a speed of up to 300mph during filming near York."
- ^ a b c d e f g h i (PDF) Investigation into the accident of Richard Hammond. Health and Safety Executive. 2007-06-22. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070928001836/http://www.hse.gov.uk/foi/releases/richardhammond.pdf. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "The BBC Top Gear programme production team had arranged for Richard Hammond (RH) to drive Primetime Land Speed Engineering’s Vampire jet car at Elvington Airfield, near York, on Wednesday 20 September 2006."
- ^ a b 0-288mph-0 in 20 seconds. BBC Magazines. 2007-01-28. Archived from the original on 21 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071021025011/http://www.topgear.com/content/features/stories/2007/01/stories/09/1.html. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "Watch the reconstruction step-by-step as we talk you through every stage of the events leading up to the 288mph crash, or play it through at full speed to appreciate the astonishing acceleration and G-force of the 10,000bhp rocket car."
- ^ "Speed king breaks 300mph barrier". BBC News website (British Broadcasting Corporation). 6 July 2000. 2000-07-06 09:09 (GMT). Archived from the original on 9 March 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080309121059/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/821539.stm. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "Engineer Colin Farrows has smashed the British land speed record with a 300mph run in his jet-propelled car."
- ^ a b c d "TV host seriously hurt in crash". BBC News website (British Broadcasting Corporation). 21 September 2006. 2006-09-21 07:28 (GMT). Archived from the original on 18 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071018162545/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/north_yorkshire/5365676.stm. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "He said: "We were down there with Top Gear who were filming him trying to break the British land speed record."
- ^ "Hammond crash report finds safety failings | Entertainment | Reuters". Uk.reuters.com. 22 June 2007. http://uk.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUKL2289040920070622. Retrieved 21 June 2009.
- ^ a b c "Top Gear's Hammond Has Brain Injury". Sky News website (British Sky Broadcasting). 2006-09-21 21:21 (GMT). Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071012131619/http://news.sky.com/skynews/article/0,,30000-13543385,00.html. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "Dave Ogden, one of the first on the scene, said Hammond had been travelling at speeds close to 300mph."
- ^ a b "Top Gear star 'making progress'". BBC News website (British Broadcasting Corporation). 22 September 2006. 2006-09-22 09:50 (GMT). Archived from the original on 7 March 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070307131425/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/north_yorkshire/5369512.stm. Retrieved 18 June 2009. "Doctors at Leeds General Infirmary, where he has been since Wednesday, said his condition was now "stable"."
- ^ a b Smith, Emma (2008-02-24). "On the Move: Richard Hammond". The Sunday Times (Times Newspapers). "He had reached 314mph – an unofficial British land-speed record – before the accident, which was caused by a tyre bursting and sending the car spinning out of control, turning it upside down and leaving Hammond’s head effectively to act as a brake as his helmet dug into the ground."
- ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00sfptv
External links[link]
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Richard Hammond |
- Official website
- Richard Hammond on Twitter
- Richard Hammond at the Internet Movie Database
- Donations to Yorkshire Air Ambulance double as a result of their life-saving rescue of Richard Hammond
- Richard Hammond on Top Gear
- Q&A – The Guardian – 2009-1-3. Hammond questions about himself. Retrieved 2009-6-29.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hammond, Richard |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | English motoring journalist and broadcaster |
| Date of birth | 19 December 1969 |
| Place of birth | Solihull, Warwickshire, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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Engineering is the discipline, skill, and profession of acquiring and applying scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge, in order to design and build structures, machines, devices, systems, materials and processes.
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET) has defined "engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property.
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur or European Engineer. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized sub disciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology.
