- published: 28 Jan 2012
- views: 174371
- author: HistoryFeed
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
Loading...
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Abraham Lincoln
- Albert J. Beveridge
- Alta California
- Ambrose Burnside
- American Civil War
- American Indian Wars
- American Old West
- Andrés Pico
- Apache
- Arizona
- Atlixco
- Baja California
- Banana Wars
- Battle of Cañada
- Battle of Chino
- Battle of Churubusco
- Battle of Contreras
- Battle of El Brazito
- Battle of Huamantla
- Battle of La Mesa
- Battle of La Paz
- Battle of Monterey
- Battle of Monterrey
- Battle of Mulege
- Battle of Natividad
- Battle of Olompali
- Battle of Palo Alto
- Battle of Veracruz
- Bay of Pigs Invasion
- Bear Flag
- Big Stick ideology
- Bleeding Kansas
- Blockade of Veracruz
- Bonus Army
- Boxer Rebellion
- Breech-loading
- Brooks–Baxter War
- Brown Bess
- California
- California Gold Rush
- California Republic
- California Trail
- Californio
- Camargo, Tamaulipas
- Capture of Santa Fe
- Carl Nebel
- Casus belli
- Category Mexico
- Chapultepec Park
- Chihuahua City
- Christopher Werner
- Cienega Affair
- Coahuila y Tejas
- Coal Creek War
- Colorado
- Colt Walker
- Comanche
- Comanches
- Compromise of 1850
- Congress of Mexico
- Congressman
- Corwin Amendment
- Covert operation
- Cristero War
- Cuban Missile Crisis
- Cuban Project
- Damon R. Eubank
- Daniel S. Dickinson
- Daniel Webster
- David Wilmot
- Dollar Diplomacy
- Dorr Rebellion
- Dragoons
- Edward A. Hannegan
- Farmland
- First Barbary War
- First Battle of Mora
- First Mexican Empire
- Fort Brown
- Fort Leavenworth
- Franklin Pierce
- Gabriel Valencia
- Gadsden Purchase
- George B. McClellan
- George Edmund Badger
- George Meade
- Georgia (U.S. state)
- Gila River
- Good Neighbor policy
- Guaymas
- Gulf of California
- Gulf War
- Hand to hand combat
- Harry S. Truman
- Henry David Thoreau
- Henry S. Burton
- Herschel V. Johnson
- History of Honduras
- History of Mexico
- History of San Diego
- Homestead Strike
- Hopi
- Horse artillery
- Illinois
- Indian wars
- Invasion of Grenada
- Iran–Contra affair
- Iraq War
- Ireland
- Izucar de Matamoros
- James K. Polk
- James Longstreet
- James Murray Mason
- Jefferson Davis
- Joaquin Rea
- Joaquín Rea
- John C. Calhoun
- John C. Frémont
- John D. Sloat
- John Drake Sloat
- John E. Wool
- John L. O'Sullivan
- John Quincy Adams
- John Salazar
- John Slidell
- John Tyler
- Jon Riley
- Joseph Lane
- Joshua Giddings
- Josiah Gregg
- José Castro
- José María Flores
- Kansas
- Kansas–Nebraska Act
- Ken Salazar
- Kirby Smith
- Kit Carson
- Korean Expedition
- Korean War
- La decena trágica
- La Década Perdida
- La Reforma
- Lancers
- Las Vegas Affair
- Latin America
- Lebanese Civil War
- Lewis Cass
- Light Corps
- Little Englander
- Lord Palmerston
- Los Angeles
- M1819 Hall rifle
- Major General
- Manifest Destiny
- Manifest destiny
- Manuel Armijo
- Manuel Pineda
- Mariano Arista
- Mariano G. Vallejo
- Mariano Paredes
- Matthew C. Perry
- Maximato
- Mazatlán, Mexico
- Mexican Cession
- Mexican Drug War
- Mexican independence
- Mexican miracle
- Mexican Revolution
- Mexican–American War
- Mexico
- Mexico 68
- Mexico City
- Millard Fillmore
- Missouri Compromise
- Moment of silence
- Monarch
- Monarchists
- Monroe Doctrine
- Monterey, California
- Monterrey
- Mormon War (1838)
- Mortar (weapon)
- Moses Austin
- Musket
- Napoleonic Wars
- Nathan Clifford
- Nathaniel Currier
- Navajo people
- Nevada
- New Mexico
- Nicholas Trist
- Nicolás Bravo
- Niños Héroes
- Northeastern Mexico
- Northwest Mexico
- Northwest Ordinance
- Nueces River
- Nullification Crisis
- Oklahoma
- Oregon
- Oregon Country
- Oregon Treaty
- Ostend Manifesto
- Owen Thomas Edgar
- Pacific Ocean
- Pacific Squadron
- Paraguay expedition
- Parras
- Pastry War
- Pedro de Ampudia
- Pedro Maria Anaya
- Percussion rifle
- Perote, Veracruz
- Philip Kearny
- Plan of Guadalupe
- Platt Amendment
- Plenipotentiary
- Porfiriato
- Portal Mexico
- Portal United States
- Pre-Columbian era
- Pre-Columbian Mexico
- Presidio of Sonoma
- Preston Brooks
- Project FUBELT
- Puebla, Puebla
- Pío Pico
- Quasi-War
- Ralph Waldo Emerson
- Ramón Eduardo Ruiz
- Reconquista (Mexico)
- Reform War
- Republic of Texas
- Revolvers
- Richard Pakenham
- Rio Grande
- Rio Grande River
- Robert E. Lee
- Robert F. Stockton
- Robert Letcher
- Robert Peel
- Robert Toombs
- Roosevelt Corollary
- Río Frío de Juárez
- Salinas Valley
- Sam Houston
- San Diego
- Second Barbary War
- Second Opium War
- Sectionalism
- Shays' Rebellion
- Siege of Fort Texas
- Siege of La Paz
- Siege of Los Angeles
- Siege of Puebla
- Siege of Veracruz
- Skirmish at Atlixco
- Slave Power
- Slavery
- Somali Civil War
- Sonoma, California
- Sonoran Desert
- Spanish–American War
- Spot Resolutions
- Star of the West
- Stephen A. Douglas
- Stephen F. Austin
- Stephen W. Kearny
- Stephen Watts Kearny
- Stonewall Jackson
- Tampico Affair
- Tariff of 1828
- Texan Army
- Texan Independence
- Texas
- Texas Annexation
- Texas Campaign
- Texas Revolution
- Thomas Childs
- Thomas O. Larkin
- Thornton Affair
- Treaties of Velasco
- Treaty of Cahuenga
- Ulysses S. Grant
- Uncle Tom's Cabin
- Underground Railroad
- United States
- United States Army
- United States dollar
- Utah
- Utah War
- Veracruz, Veracruz
- Vietnam War
- Waddy Thompson, Jr.
- War of 1812
- Whiskey Rebellion
- William J. Worth
- William Mervine
- Wilmot Proviso
- Winfield Scott
- World War I
- World War II
- Wyoming
- Yellow fever
- Zachary Taylor
-
Alta California
Alta California (English: Upper California) was a province and territory in the Viceroyalty of New Spain and later a territory and department in independent Mexico. The territory was created in 1769 out of the northern part of the former province of Las Californias, and consisted of the modern American states of California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, western Colorado and southwestern Wyoming. The territory passed to American control after the Mexican–American War and ceased to exist with the creation of the State of California in 1850.
wn.com/Alta_California -
Arizona
Arizona (
i/ɛrɪˈzoʊnə/; /ærɪˈzoʊnə/) (Navajo: Hoozdo Hahoodzo; O'odham: Alĭ ṣonak) is a state of the United States, located in the southwestern region of the country. Arizona is also part of the Western United States and of the Mountain West states. Arizona is the sixth most extensive and the 16th most populous of the 50 states. Its capital and largest city is Phoenix. The second largest city is Tucson, followed in population by eight cities of the Phoenix metropolitan area: Mesa, Chandler, Glendale, Scottsdale, Gilbert, Tempe, Peoria, and Surprise.
Arizona is the 48th state and last of the contiguous states to be admitted to the Union, and it achieved statehood on February 14, 1912. Arizona is noted for its desert climate in its southern half, where there are very hot summers and quite mild winters. The northern half of Arizona also features forests of pine, Douglas fir, and spruce trees, a very large, high plateau (the Colorado Plateau) and some mountain ranges—such as the San Francisco Mountains—as well as large, deep canyons, where there is much more moderate weather for three seasons of the year, plus significant snowfalls. There are ski resorts in the areas of Flagstaff and Alpine.
wn.com/Arizona -
Atlixco
Atlixco (originally called Atrisco) is a city and a municipality in the Mexican state of Puebla. It is located only 24 km south of the city of Puebla, yet it is 300 meters lower in altitude, at 1840 m. This drop in altitude causes a noticeable change in the weather of the city compared to the surrounding regions of the "Sierra Nevada" (literally "Snowy Mountains"). This makes Atlixco renowned for its benign climate, which varies by only a few degrees Celsius year round.
Atlixco, which reported a population of 86,173 in the 2005 census, is located on the foothills of the Popocatépetl volcano. The city is the third-largest community in the state, after Puebla and Tehuacán. The municipality of Atlixco, which has an area of 229.22 km² (88.5 sq mi), reported a population of 122,149.
The city is an agricultural, commercial and industrial centre. Alfalfa, flowers, corn, wheat,and fruits are the main crops grown in the area. Textile factories, grain mills, and soft-drink plants are also located in the city, as well as several car dealerships.
wn.com/Atlixco -
Baja California
Baja California (English /ˈbɑːhɑː kælɨˈfɔrnjə/, Spanish: [ˈbaxa kaliˈfornja]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Baja California (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Baja California, literally: Lower California), is one of the 31 states which, with the Federal District, comprise the 32 Federal Entities of Mexico. It is both the northernmost and westernmost state of Mexico, but before becoming a state in 1953, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 70,113 km2 (27,071 sq mi), or 3.57% of the land mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The state is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the east by Sonora, the U.S. State of Arizona, and the Gulf of California (also known as the Sea of Cortez), and on the south by Baja California Sur. Its northern limit is the U.S. state of California.
The state has a population of 2,844,469 (2005 census), and estimated 3,165,776 (June 2009) much more than the sparsely populated Baja California Sur to the south, and similar to San Diego County on its north. Over 75% of the population lives in the capital city, Mexicali, or in Ensenada and Tijuana. Other important cities include San Felipe, Rosarito and Tecate. The population of the state is composed of Mestizos, mostly immigrants from other parts of Mexico, and, as with most northern Mexican states, a large population of Mexicans of European ancestry, and also a large minority group of East Asian, Middle Eastern and indigenous descent. Additionally, there is a large immigrant population from the United States due to its proximity to San Diego and the cheaper cost of living compared to San Diego. There is also a significant population from Central America. Many immigrants moved to Baja California for a better quality of life and the number of higher paying jobs in comparison to the rest of Mexico and Latin America.
wn.com/Baja_California -
Battle of Chino
The Battle of Chino, a skirmish of the Mexican-American War occurred on September 26–27, 1846, during which 24 Americans led by Benjamin D. Wilson, who were hiding in the adobe house of Rancho Santa Ana del Chino, were captured by a group of about 50 Californios.
In late September 1846, as war between Mexico and the United States was declared, about 20 Americans led by Benjamin Davis Wilson assembled at Isaac Williams' Rancho Santa Ana del Chino. Williams, originally from Pennsylvania, had become a Mexican citizen - a prerequisite for owning land - and married Maria de Jesus Lugo, daughter of Antonio Maria Lugo. The Californios doubted the loyalty of Wilson's men and set out to arrest them.
Serbulo Varela, Diego Sepulveda and Ramon Carrillo left Los Angeles with about fifty men, while José del Carmen Lugo with another fifteen to twenty men left from San Bernardino to converge upon Rancho del Chino. On the night of September 26, 1846, the adobe ranch house was surrounded by the Californios. At dawn, the following day, gunfire was exchanged resulting in one Californio (Carlos Ballesteros, son of the grantee of Rancho Rosa Castilla) dead with two wounded and three American wounded. When the Californios attempted to set fire to the roof of the house, Wilson surrendered to Varela. This brief engagement became known as the Battle of Chino.
wn.com/Battle_of_Chino -
Battle of Churubusco
The Battle of Churubusco took place on August 20, 1847, in the immediate aftermath of the Battle of Contreras (Padierna) during the Mexican-American War. After defeating the Mexican army at Churubusco, the U.S. Army was only 5 miles (8 km) away from Mexico City, the capital of the nation. A month later, the US forces captured Mexico City and the war was over.
Following their defeats at Contreras and San Antonio, the Mexicans fell back to the village of Churubusco. During retreat from San Antonio, the Mexican defenders (called the 1st Line of Defense or sometimes the "Army of the Centre", led by Gen. N. Bravo, with about 2,000 men: 700 "Hidalgo," 500 "Victoria" Natl. Guards Battalions, 800 others: under Cols. A. Zerecero & J. G. Perdigon Garay), were struck in flank by Clarke's Brigade of the division of Gen. William J. Worth. The US forces captured about 500 prisoners, including Acting Gen. Perdigon Garay, and about five guns. The U.S. forces began to merge with forces coming from Contreras for a further attack.
wn.com/Battle_of_Churubusco -
Battle of Huamantla
The Battle of Huamantla was a U.S. victory late in the Mexican-American War that forced the Mexican Army to lift the Siege of Puebla.
The same day Mexico City fell to General Winfield Scott's army (September 14, 1847), Mexican forces began a siege on Puebla. Less than a month later, a relief force was organized and marched out to Puebla under the command of Major General Joseph Lane. Mexican reinforcements were also moving to Puebla under the command of Antonio López de Santa Anna, who had recently renounced his presidency.
On October 8, 1847, Lane sent out spies who learned that Santa Anna's force was waiting in Huamantla, 25 miles from Puebla. The next day, October 9, Lane's vanguard of Texas Rangers under Captain Samuel Walker reached the town and sighted roughly 2,000 Mexican lancers. At the head of his Rangers, Walker charged into the city to drive out the Mexicans, but Santa Anna led a counter attack and stopped the Rangers. Walker was mortally wounded and, for about an hour, the Rangers desperately fought to hold their position in the town, some of them seeking refuge in a church. The rest of Lane's infantry arrived, attacked and drove out Santa Anna's force. When Lane heard of Walker's death he turned his troops loose, who pillaged and burned Huamantla, the only instance in the war in which a sizeable U.S. force had sacked a city.
wn.com/Battle_of_Huamantla -
Battle of Monterey
The so-called Battle of Monterey, at Monterey, California, was waged on July 7, 1846, during the Mexican-American War. The United States captured the town unopposed. The action made the ongoing Bear Flag Revolt superfluous.
Prior to the Mexican-American War the Californio forces had already driven the Mexican appointed Governor Manuel Micheltorena and most of his soldiers from Alta California. The Californio Governor, Pio Pico, with about 100 poorly armed and poorly equipped soldiers, was nominally in charge in Alta California and had consolidated his forces in Pueblo de Los Angeles—the largest city then in California with about 3,500 residents.
The main forces available to the United States in California were the about 400-500 bluejacket sailors and U.S. Marines on board the five ships of the Pacific Squadron there. Speculating that war with Mexico over Texas etc. was very possible, the U.S. Navy had sent several additional naval vessels to the Pacific in 1845 and 1846 to protect U.S. interests there and prevent possible British action. It took about 200 days, on average, for ships to travel the over-12,000 miles (19,000 km) trip from the East coast around Cape Horn to get to California. More ships assigned to the Pacific Squadron would continue to arrive from 1846 to 1847.
wn.com/Battle_of_Monterey -
Battle of Olompali
The Battle of Olómpali was fought on June 24, 1846 in present day Marin County, California. It was the first battle of the Mexican-American War fought in California.
The skirmish began when Mexican Colonel José Castro’s forces from Monterey, under the command of Joaquín de la Torre, headed north reacting to the declaration of an independent California Republic in Sonoma ten days earlier. Near Olómpali (north of present day Novato) they met up with troops who had come from Sonoma in hopes of rescuing two American rebels who had been captured and (unbeknownst to their would-be rescuers) shot.
During the "Bear Flag Revolt", on June 24, 1846, the "Battle of Olómpali" occurred when a violent skirmish broke out between a group of American Bear Flaggers from Sonoma led by Henry Ford, and a Mexican force of 50 from Monterey, under the command of Joaquin de la Torre, at Camilo Ynitia's adobe. This was one of two engagements between California Republic militia and Mexican loyalist forces. Bear Flaggers attempted to seize horses from a corral of Californios, who were planning to recapture Sonoma from the Americans who had taken it earlier that week. Two Californios were killed and some wounded.
wn.com/Battle_of_Olompali -
Battle of Palo Alto
The Battle of Palo Alto was the first major battle of the Mexican-American War and was fought on May 8, 1846, on disputed ground five miles (8 km) from the modern-day city of Brownsville, Texas. A force of some 3,400 Mexican troops – a portion of the Army of The North – led by General Mariano Arista engaged a force of 2,400 United States troops – the so called "Army of Observation."
The war began as a result of Mexican efforts to besiege a U.S. army installation, "Fort Texas", (Garrison: Major Brown with 7th Infantry, Capt. Loud's Artillery Co. with four 18 pounders, & Lt. Bragg's Light Artillery four guns) which the Mexicans viewed as having been built within the boundaries of Mexican Texas. General Zachary Taylor, receiving supplies from Port Isabel, heard the distant report of cannon fire. The Mexicans had begun to attack Fort Texas. Taylor gathered his troops and rushed to relieve the defenders of the fort but was intercepted by a Mexican force commanded by General Arista. Another Mexican force (1,540 men, including Artillery 14 Guns, Matamoros Natl. Guards Battalion, Mexico, Puebla & Morelia Activoes Battalions) under General Francisco Mejia were left behind at Fort Brown & Matamoros.
wn.com/Battle_of_Palo_Alto -
Bonus Army
The Bonus Army was the popular name of an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, D.C., in the spring and summer of 1932 to demand immediate cash-payment redemption of their service certificates. Its organizers called it the Bonus Expeditionary Force to echo the name of World War I's American Expeditionary Force, while the media called it the Bonus March. It was led by Walter W. Waters, a former Army sergeant.
Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression. The World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a qualified veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldier's promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the immediate cash payment of their certificates.
Retired Marine Corps Major General Smedley Butler, one of the most popular military figures of the time, visited their camp to back the effort and encourage them. On July 28, U.S. Attorney General William D. Mitchell ordered the veterans removed from all government property. Washington police met with resistance, shots were fired and two veterans were wounded and later died. Veterans were also shot dead at other locations during the demonstration. President Herbert Hoover then ordered the army to clear the veterans' campsite. Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur commanded the infantry and cavalry supported by six tanks. The Bonus Army marchers with their wives and children were driven out, and their shelters and belongings burned.
wn.com/Bonus_Army -
California
California (pronouncedi/kælɨˈfɔrnjə/) is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third most extensive (after Alaska and Texas). It is home to the nation's second- and sixth-largest census statistical areas (Los Angeles Metropolitan Area and San Francisco Bay Area), and eight of the nation's fifty most populated cities (Los Angeles, San Diego, San Jose, San Francisco, Fresno, Sacramento, Long Beach and Oakland). The capital city is Sacramento.
California's diverse geography ranges from the Pacific Coast in the west, to the Sierra Nevada mountains in the east – from the Redwood–Douglas-fir forests of the northwest, to the Mojave Desert areas in the southeast. The center of the state is dominated by Central Valley, a major agricultural area. California contains both the highest and lowest points in the contiguous United States (Mount Whitney and Death Valley), and has the third-longest coastline of all states (after Alaska and Florida). Earthquakes are a common occurrence due to the state's location along the Pacific Ring of Fire: about 37,000 are recorded annually.
wn.com/California -
California Republic
The California Republic, also called the Bear Flag Republic, is the name used for a period of revolt against Mexico initially proclaimed by a handful of American settlers in Mexican California on June 14, 1846, in Sonoma. This was shortly before news of the Mexican–American War had reached the area. The participants declared independence from Mexico, but they did not form a functional provisional government. Thus, the "republic" never exercised any real authority, and it was never recognized by any nation. In fact, most of Alta California knew nothing about it. The revolt lasted 26 days, at the end of which the U.S. Army arrived to occupy the area. Once the leaders of the revolt knew the United States was claiming the area, they disbanded their "republic" and supported the U.S. federal effort to annex Alta California.
The California Republic is notable for creation of the "(Grizzly) Bear Flag", whose symbols were later incorporated into the California state flag — including the words "California Republic".
wn.com/California_Republic -
Coahuila y Tejas
Coahuila y Tejas (Coahuila and Texas) was one of the constituent states of the newly established United Mexican States under its 1824 Constitution.
It had two capitals: first Saltillo, and then Monclova. For administrative purposes, the state was divided into three districts: Béxar, comprising the area covered by Texas, Monclova, comprising northern Coahuila, and Río Grande Saltillo, comprising southern Coahuila.
The state remained in existence until the adoption of the 1835 "Constitutional Bases", whereby the federal republic was converted into a unitary one, and the nation's states, (estados), were turned into departments (departamentos). The State of Coahuila y Texas was split in two and became the Department of Coahuila and the Department of Texas. The latter eventually seceded and became the independent Republic of Texas, which is now the state of Texas within the United States of America.
Both Coahuila and Texas seceded from Mexico because of Santa Anna's attempts to centralize the government, with Texas forming the Republic of Texas and Coahuila joining with Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to form the short-lived Republic of the Rio Grande.
wn.com/Coahuila_y_Tejas -
Colorado
Colorado (i/kɒləˈrædoʊ/ or /kɒləˈrɒdoʊ/) is the US state that encompasses most of the Southern Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains. Colorado is part of the Western United States, the Southwestern United States, and the Mountain States. Colorado is the 8th most extensive and the 22nd most populous of the 50 United States. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the population of Colorado was 5,116,796 on July 1, 2011, an increase of +1.74% since the 2010 United States Census.
The state was named for the Colorado River, which early Spanish explorers named the Río Colorado for the red colored (Spanish: colorado) silt the river carried from the mountains. On August 1, 1876, U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed a proclamation admitting Colorado as the 38th state. Colorado is nicknamed the "Centennial State" because it was admitted to the Union in 1876, the centennial year of the United States Declaration of Independence.
wn.com/Colorado -
Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis, – known as the October Crisis in Cuba and the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Kарибский кризис) in the USSR – was a thirteen-day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and the United States on the other; the crisis occurred in October 1962, during the Cold War. In August 1962, after some unsuccessful operations by the US to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), the Cuban and Soviet governments secretly began to build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) with the ability to strike most of the continental United States. This action followed the 1958 deployment of Thor IRBMs in the UK (Project Emily) and Jupiter IRBMs to Italy and Turkey in 1961 – more than 100 US-built missiles having the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads. On October 14, 1962, a United States Air Force U-2 plane on a photoreconnaissance mission captured photographic proof of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba.
wn.com/Cuban_Missile_Crisis -
Fort Brown
Fort Brown was a military post of the United States Army in Texas during the later half of 19th century and the early part of the 20th century.
In 1845, the U.S. Army began construction of a new fort (then known as "Fort Texas") on the northern side of the Rio Grande River. The next year, the fort played a role during the opening of the Mexican-American War. During the Siege of Fort Texas, two Americans were killed, including Major Jacob Brown. In honor of the fallen major, General Zachary Taylor renamed the post Fort Brown. In 1849, the city of Brownsville, Texas, was established not far from the fort's grounds.
In 1861 Confederate Col. John "Rip" Ford occupied the fort until 1863 when they were finally driven out by Union forces under General Nathaniel P. Banks, who then camped in tents erected at the fort site. This ended in 1864 when Confederate forces under General J. S. Slaughter and Colonel Ford reoccupied the area. They would hold the post until the end of the war.
From 1867–1869, a permanent fort was constructed under the supervision of Capt. William A. Wainwright.
wn.com/Fort_Brown -
Fort Leavenworth
Fort Leavenworth is a United States Army facility located in Leavenworth County, Kansas, immediately north of the city of Leavenworth in the upper northeast portion of the state. It is the oldest active United States Army post west of Washington, D.C. and has been in operation for over 180 years. Fort Leavenworth has been historically known as the "Intellectual Center of the Army".
During the country's westward expansion, Fort Leavenworth was a forward destination for thousands of soldiers, surveyors, immigrants, American Indians, preachers and settlers who passed through. The garrison supports the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) by managing and maintaining the home of the United States Army Combined Arms Center (CAC). CAC's mission involves leader development, collective training, Army doctrine and battle command (current and future).
Fort Leavenworth is home to the Military Corrections Complex, consisting of the United States Disciplinary Barracks, the Department of Defense's only maximum security prison, and the Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility. In addition, the Fort Leavenworth Garrison supports numerous tenant organizations that directly and indirectly relate to the functions of the CAC, including the United States Army Command and General Staff College and the Foreign Military Studies Office.
wn.com/Fort_Leavenworth -
Guaymas
Guaymas (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈɡwajmas]) is a city and municipality located in the southwest part of the state of Sonora in northwestern Mexico. The city is located 117 km south of the state capital of Hermosillo, and 242 miles from the U.S. border, and is the principal port for the state. The municipality is located in the Sonora Desert and has a hot, dry climate and 117 km of beaches. The municipality’s formal name is Guaymas de Zaragoza and the city’s formal name is the Heróica Ciudad de Guaymas.
The city proper is mostly an industrial port, with nearby San Carlos being the major tourist attraction for its beaches. The city also has a well-attended annual carnival, which has been held since 1888.
Before the arrival of the Europeans, the areas now known as Guaymas was dominated by the Guaymas, Seri and Yaqui tribes. In 1539, two Spanish ships, the Santa Agueda and El Trinidad, arrived to Guaymas Bay. They were commanded by Francisco de Ulloa, who called the area “the port of ports.”
Some small Jesuit missions in the area were founded in the 1610s and 1620s, when Jesuits founded eight mission villages with the Yaqui. The Seri strongly opposed the settlement of Europeans and resisted fiercely until 1769.
wn.com/Guaymas -
Illinois
Illinois (i/ˌɪlɨˈnɔɪ/ IL-i-NOY) is the 25th most extensive and the 5th most populous of the 50 United States, and is often noted as a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a broad economic base. Illinois is a major transportation hub. The Port of Chicago connects the state to other global ports from the Great Lakes, via the Saint Lawrence Seaway, to the Atlantic Ocean; as well as the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River, via the Illinois River. For decades, O'Hare International Airport has ranked as one of the world's busiest airports. Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics.
Although the state's largest population centers today are in northern Illinois, originally the state's population grew from south to north, with settlers arriving from Kentucky in the 1810s. In 1818, Illinois achieved statehood. Chicago was founded in the 1830s on the banks of the Chicago River, one of the few natural harbors on southern Lake Michigan. Railroads and John Deere's invention of the self-scouring steel plow turned Illinois' rich prairie into some of the world's most productive and valuable farmlands, attracting immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden. By 1900, the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars. The Great Migration established a large community of African Americans in Chicago that created the city's famous jazz and blues cultures.
wn.com/Illinois -
Ireland
Coordinates: 53°20′N 08°00′W / 53.333°N 8°W / 53.333; -8
Ireland (pronounced [ˈaɪrlənd] (
listen); Irish: Éire [ˈeːɾʲə] ( listen); Ulster Scots: Airlann or Airlan) is an island to the northwest of continental Europe. It is the third-largest island in Europe and the twentieth-largest island on Earth. To its east is the larger island of Great Britain, from which it is separated by the Irish Sea.
Politically, Ireland is divided between the Republic of Ireland, which covers just under five-sixths of the island, and Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom, which covers the remainder and is located in the northeast of the island. The population of Ireland is approximately 6.4 million. Just under 4.6 million live in the Republic of Ireland and just under 1.8 million live in Northern Ireland.
Relatively low-lying mountains surrounding a central plain epitomise Ireland's geography with several navigable rivers extending inland. The island has lush vegetation, a product of its mild but changeable oceanic climate, which avoids extremes in temperature. Thick woodlands covered the island until the 17th century. Today, it is one of the most deforested areas in Europe. There are twenty-six extant mammal species native to Ireland.
wn.com/Ireland -
Kansas
Kansas (i/ˈkænzəs/) is a U.S. state located in the Midwestern United States. It is named after the Kansas River which flows through it, which in turn was named after the Kansa Native American tribe, which inhabited the area. The tribe's name (natively kką:ze) is often said to mean "people of the wind" or "people of the south wind," although this was probably not the term's original meaning. Residents of Kansas are called "Kansans."
For thousands of years what is now Kansas was home to numerous and diverse Native American tribes. Tribes in the Eastern part of the state generally lived in villages along the river valleys. Tribes in the Western part of the state were semi-nomadic and hunted large herds of bison. Kansas was first settled by European Americans in the 1830s, but the pace of settlement accelerated in the 1850s, in the midst of political wars over the slavery issue. When officially opened to settlement by the U.S. government in 1854, abolitionist Free-Staters from New England and pro-slavery settlers from neighboring Missouri rushed to the territory to determine if Kansas would become a free state or a slave state. Thus, the area was a hotbed of violence and chaos in its early days as these forces collided, and was known as Bleeding Kansas. The abolitionists eventually prevailed and on January 29, 1861, Kansas entered the Union as a free state. After the Civil War, the population of Kansas grew rapidly, when waves of immigrants turned the prairie into farmland. Today, Kansas is one of the most productive agricultural states, producing high yields of wheat, sorghum and sunflowers. Kansas is the 15th most extensive and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States.
wn.com/Kansas -
Los Angeles
Los Angeles (
i/lɒs ˈændʒələs/ loss-AN-jə-ləs; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], which is written Los Ángeles; British pronounciation /lɒs ˈændʒəliːz/ loss-AN-jə-leez) with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in the state of California, and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of 468.67 square miles (1,213.8 km2), and is located in Southern California. Often known by its initials L.A., the city is the focal point of the larger Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana metropolitan statistical area and Greater Los Angeles Area region, which contain 12,828,837 and nearly 18 million people respectively as of 2010, making it one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world and the second largest in the United States. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the United States, while the entire Los Angeles area itself has been recognized as the most diverse of the nation's largest cities. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos".
wn.com/Los_Angeles -
Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: 
Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
wn.com/Mexico -
Mexico City
Mexico City ( /ˈmɛksɨkoʊ ˈsɪti/; Spanish: Ciudad de México [sjuˈðað ðe ˈmexiko], also known as México D.F., or simply D.F.) is the Federal District (Distrito Federal), capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole. Mexico City is the country's largest city as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.
As an "alpha" global city Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in North America. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen boroughs.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was around 8.84 million people, and has a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Mexico City metropolitan area population is 21.2 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere and the fifth largest agglomeration in the world.
wn.com/Mexico_City -
Monterrey
Monterrey (Spanish pronunciation: [monteˈrei] ( listen)), is the capital city of the northeastern state of Nuevo León in the country of Mexico. The city is anchor to the third-largest metropolitan area in Mexico and is ranked as the ninth-largest city in the nation. Monterrey serves as a commercial center in the north of the country and is the base of many significant international corporations. It is Mexico's second richest city, and the world's 63rd richest, with an economy that had a 2008 GDP of USD $102 billion. Monterrey is one of Mexico's most developed cities, with the highest per capita income in the nation, and is regarded as a highly developed city. Although rich in history and culture, Monterrey is often regarded as the most "Americanized" city in the entire country, even above the cities along the U.S-Mexico border.
Monterrey as an important industrial and business center hosts an array of Mexican companies, including Pemex, Lanix Electronics, CEMEX, Vitro, Zonda Telecom, Mercedes-Benz Mexico, OXXO, Mastretta, BMW de Mexico, Mabe Grupo Bimbo, DINA S.A., Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma Brewery (Cervecería Cuauhtémoc Moctezuma), formerly fully owned by FEMSA now jointly owned with Heineken and Alestra Telecommunications. Monterrey is also home to international companies such as Sony, Toshiba, Carrier, Whirlpool, Samsung, Toyota, Daewoo, Ericsson, Nokia, Dell, Boeing, HTC, General Electric, Gamesa, LG, SAS Institute and Teleperformance, among others.
wn.com/Monterrey -
Nevada
Nevada (i/nəˈvædə/ or /nəˈvɒdə/) is a state in the western, mountain west, and southwestern regions of the United States. Nevada is the 7th most extensive, the 35th most populous, and the 9th least densely populated of the 50 United States. Over two-thirds of Nevada's people live in one single county, Clark County, which contains the Las Vegas–Paradise metropolitan area, where the state's three largest incorporated cities are located. Nevada's capital is Carson City.
Nevada is largely desert and semiarid, with much of it located within the Great Basin. Areas south of the Great Basin are located within the Mojave Desert, while Lake Tahoe and the Sierra Nevada mountains lie on the western edge. Approximately 86% of the state's land is owned by the US government under various jurisdictions, both civilian and military.
The name Nevada is derived from the nearby Sierra Nevada mountains, which means "snow-capped mountain range" in Spanish. The land comprising the modern state was inhabited by Native Americans of the Paiute, Shoshone, and Washoe tribes prior to European contact. It was subsequently claimed by Spain as a part of Alta California until the Mexican War of Independence brought it under Mexican control. The United States gained the territory in 1848 following its victory in the Mexican-American War and the area was eventually incorporated as part of Utah Territory in 1850. The discovery of silver at the Comstock Lode in 1859 led to a population boom that was an impetus to the creation of Nevada Territory out of western Utah Territory in 1861. Nevada became the 36th state on October 31, 1864.
wn.com/Nevada -
New Mexico
New Mexico (i/nuː ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/) is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. New Mexico is the 5th most extensive, the 36th most populous, and the 6th least densely populated of the 50 United States.
Inhabited by Native American populations for many centuries, New Mexico has also been part of the Imperial Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain, part of Mexico, and a U.S. territory. Among U.S. states, New Mexico has the highest percentage of Hispanics, including descendants of Spanish colonists and recent immigrants from Latin America. It also has the second-highest percentage of Native Americans, after Alaska, and the fourth-highest total number of Native Americans after California, Oklahoma, and Arizona. The tribes in the state consist of mostly Navajo and Pueblo peoples. As a result, the demographics and culture of the state are unique for their strong Hispanic and Native American influences. The flag of New Mexico is represented by the red and gold colors, which represent Spain, as well as the Zia symbol, an ancient Native American symbol for the sun.
wn.com/New_Mexico -
Northeastern Mexico
Northeastern Mexico, is a geographic region of Mexico, composed of the states of Coahuila, Nuevo León and Tamaulipas. The Northeast is one of the wealthiest and most industrialized regions of Mexico; with Nuevo León having the highest GDP per capita among the Mexican states, closely followed by Coahuila ranked third, and Tamaulipas ranked eighth. It also accounts for approximately 15% of Mexico's nominal gross domestic product, while its population represents only about 8.4% of the population of the whole country. The inhabitants from Northeastern Mexico are often known and referred themselves as "Norestenses" (Spanish for Northeasterns), they might be also referred as "Norteños", a term which they share with people of Northwestern Mexico applied to the inhabitants of all over Northern Mexico.
Northeastern Mexico, contains a wide variety of landscapes, ranging from pine and oak tree forests to prairie, snow covered mountains in winter to diverse types of deserts. The region, is predominantly mountainous. The Sierra Madre Oriental, sometimes considered an extension of the Rocky Mountains, is one of the largest mountain ranges in Mexico. It runs from Northwest of Coahuila to southeast through a great part of Nuevo León and to a lesser extent Tamaulipas.
wn.com/Northeastern_Mexico -
Nueces River
The Nueces River is a river in the U.S. state of Texas, approximately 315 miles (507 km) long. It drains a region in central and southern Texas southeastward into the Gulf of Mexico. It is the southernmost major river in Texas northeast of the Rio Grande. Nueces is Spanish for nut or nuts; early settlers named the river after the numerous pecan trees along its banks.
The Nueces rises northwest of San Antonio in the Edwards Plateau, in Real County approximately 50 mi (80 km) north of Uvalde. It flows south through the Texas Hill Country, past Barksdale and Crystal City, approaching to within 35 mi (56 km) of the Rio Grande on the border with Mexico. East of Carrizo Springs it turns to the east, flowing through the scrub plains of South Texas, across rural Dimmit, La Salle,and McMullen counties. In La Salle county the river hardly ever flows except for when it rains. In central Live Oak County it is joined from the northwest by the Frio River, then flows southeast along the coastal plain past Mathis, where it is impounded to form the Lake Corpus Christi reservoir. It enters Corpus Christi Bay on the Gulf of Mexico at Corpus Christi.
wn.com/Nueces_River -
Oklahoma
Oklahoma (i/ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə/) (Pawnee: Uukuhuúwa , Cayuga: Gahnawiyoˀgeh ) is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. Oklahoma is the 20th most extensive and the 28th most populous of the 50 United States. The state's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning "red people", and it is known informally by its nickname, The Sooner State. Formed by the combination of Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory on November 16, 1907, Oklahoma was the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans or, informally "Okies", and its capital and largest city is Oklahoma City.
A major producer of natural gas, oil, and agriculture, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. It has one of the fastest growing economies in the nation, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth and gross domestic product growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahoma's primary economic anchors, with nearly 60 percent of Oklahomans living in their metropolitan statistical areas.
wn.com/Oklahoma -
Oregon
Oregon (i/ˈɔrɨɡən/ ORR-ə-gən) is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located on the Pacific coast, with Washington to the north, California to the south, Nevada on the southeast and Idaho to the east. The Columbia and Snake rivers delineate much of Oregon's northern and eastern boundaries, respectively. The area was inhabited by many indigenous tribes before the arrival of traders, explorers, and settlers who formed an autonomous government in Oregon Country in 1843. The Oregon Territory was created in 1848, and Oregon became the 33rd state on February 14, 1859.
Oregon is the 9th most extensive and the 27th most populous of the 50 United States. Salem is the state's capital and third-most-populous city; Portland is the most populous. Portland is the 29th-largest U.S. city, with a population of 583,776 (2010 US Census) and a metro population of 2,241,841 (2009 estimate), the 23rd-largest U.S. metro area. The valley of the Willamette River in western Oregon is the state's most densely populated area and is home to eight of the ten most populous cities.
wn.com/Oregon -
Oregon Country
The Oregon Country was a predominantly American term referring to a disputed ownership region of the Pacific Northwest of North America. The region was occupied by British and French Canadian fur traders from before 1810, and American settlers from the mid-1830s, with its coastal areas north from the Columbia River frequented by ships from all nations engaged in the maritime fur trade, most of these from the 1790s through 1810s being Boston-based. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 ended disputed joint occupancy pursuant to the Treaty of 1818 and established the British-American boundary at the 49th parallel.
Oregon was a distinctly American term for the region. The British used the term Columbia District instead. The Oregon Country consisted of the land north of 42°N latitude, south of 54°40′N latitude, and west of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean. The area now forms part of the present day Canadian province of British Columbia, all of the US states of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming. The British presence in the region was generally administered by the Hudson's Bay Company, whose Columbia Department comprised most of the Oregon Country and extended considerably north into New Caledonia and beyond 54°40′N, with operations reaching tributaries of the Yukon River.
wn.com/Oregon_Country -
Pacific Ocean
The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth's oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, and the Americas in the east.
At 165.2 million square kilometres (64.1 million square miles) in area, this largest division of the World Ocean – and, in turn, the hydrosphere – covers about 46% of the Earth's water surface and about one-third of its total surface area, making it larger than all of the Earth's land area combined. The equator subdivides it into the North Pacific Ocean and South Pacific Ocean, with two exceptions: the Galápagos and Gilbert Islands, while straddling the equator, are deemed wholly within the South Pacific. The Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres (35,797 ft).
The eastern Pacific Ocean was first sighted by Europeans early in the 16th century. Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in 1513 and named it Mar del Sur (South Sea). The ocean's current name was given by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish expedition of world circumnavigation in 1521, who encountered favourable winds as he reached the ocean and called it Mar Pacifico in Portuguese, meaning "peaceful sea".
wn.com/Pacific_Ocean -
Presidio of Sonoma
El Presidio de Sonoma, or Sonoma Barracks, was a military outpost established in Alta California in 1836. It was built to house troops under General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo, the Commandant of the Northern Frontier, as part of Mexico's strategy to subdue the Native Americans of the Sonoma Valley and halt Russian incursions into the area.
The structure still stands at its original location (38°17′37″N 122°27′24″W / 38.2937°N 122.4566°W / 38.2937; -122.4566Coordinates: 38°17′37″N 122°27′24″W / 38.2937°N 122.4566°W / 38.2937; -122.4566) which is now the corner of Spain Street and First Street East, on the Sonoma Plaza in the city of Sonoma, California, United States. The building is located in the watershed of Nathanson Creek, which drains to Schell Creek.
The two-story adobe structure was built in stages between 1834 and 1841. Vallejo maintained a garrison of up to 40 men at the Presidio. During the California Republic of 1846, the Presidio was occupied by Bear Flag rebels, and afterwards it became a United States Army base. The building was remodelled in 1860 for use as a winery. It later served as a residence, a law office, and a store. The state of California purchased the property in 1958 and began restoring it.
wn.com/Presidio_of_Sonoma -
Project FUBELT
Project FUBELT (also known as Track II) is the code name for the secret Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operations that were to prevent Salvador Allende rise to power before his confirmation, and promote a military coup in Chile.
The highlights of Project FUBELT are cited in declassified U.S. government documents released by the National Security Archive on September 11, 1998, 25 years after the coup, as well as in papers uncovered by a 1975 congressional inquiry.
CIA memoranda and reports on Project FUBELT include meetings between United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and CIA officials, CIA cables to its Santiago station, and summaries of secret action in 1970 — detailing decisions and operations to undermine the election of Salvador Allende in September 1970 and promote a military coup.
Among the revelations in the formerly secret documents were the following:
Coordinates: 38°57′06″N 77°08′48″W / 38.95167°N 77.14667°W / 38.95167; -77.14667
wn.com/Project_FUBELT -
San Diego
San Diego /ˌsæn diːˈeɪɡoʊ/ is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest city in California. The city is located on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, immediately adjacent to the Mexican border. The birthplace of California, San Diego is known for its mild year-round climate, natural deep-water harbor, extensive beaches, long association with the U.S. Navy, and recent emergence as a healthcare and biotechnology enclave. The population was 1,301,617 at the 2010 census.
Historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Cabrillo claimed the entire area for Spain, forming the basis for the settlement of Alta California 200 years later. The Presidio and Mission of San Diego, founded in 1769, were the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of newly independent Mexico, and in 1850, became part of the United States following the Mexican-American War and the admission of California to the union.
wn.com/San_Diego -
Sonoran Desert
The Sonoran Desert is a North American desert which covers large parts of the Southwestern United States in Arizona, California, Northwest Mexico in Sonora, Baja California, and Baja California Sur. It is one of the largest and hottest deserts in North America, with an area of 311,000 square kilometers (120,000 sq mi). The western portion of the United States-Mexico border passes through the Sonoran Desert.
In phytogeography, the Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran Floristic Province of the Madrean Region in southwestern North America, part of the Holarctic Kingdom of the northern Western Hemisphere. The desert contains a variety of unique and endemic plants and animals, such as the Saguaro (Carnegiea gigantea) and Organ Pipe cactus (Stenocereus thurberi).
The Sonoran desert wraps around the northern end of the Gulf of California, from Baja California Sur (El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in central and Pacific west coast, Central Gulf Coast subregion on east to southern tip), north through much of Baja California, excluding the central northwest mountains and Pacific west coast, through southeastern California and southwestern and southern Arizona to western and central parts of Sonora.
wn.com/Sonoran_Desert -
Texas
Texas (i/ˈtɛksəs/) (Alibamu: Teksi ) is the second most populous and the second most extensive of the 50 United States, and the most extensive state of the 48 contiguous United States. The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas. Located in the South Central United States, Texas shares an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south, and borders the US states of New Mexico to the west, Oklahoma to the north, Arkansas to the northeast, and Louisiana to the east. Texas has an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km2), and a growing population of 25.7 million residents.
During the Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas. Antonio Margil de Jesús was known to be the first person to use the name in a letter to the Viceroy of Mexico in July 20, 1716. The name was not popularly used in daily speech but often appeared in legal documents until the end of the 1800s.
wn.com/Texas -
Texas Campaign
The Texas Campaign was the first front in the Mexican-American War, fought between the United States and Mexico. The front started with a Mexican assault near Brownsville. US forces were forced to surrender after hours of resisting, which lead President James K. Polk to declare war on Mexico. After the United States defeated a larger Mexican Army at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Mexican Forces led by Mariano Arista retreated out of Texas.
wn.com/Texas_Campaign -
United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
wn.com/United_States -
Utah
Utah (/ˈjuːtɔː/ ori/ˈjuːtɑː/) (Arapaho: Wo'tééneihí' ) is a state in the Western United States. It became the 45th state admitted to the Union on January 4, 1896. Utah is the 13th-most extensive, the 34th-most populous, and the 10th-least-densely populated of the 50 United States. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,817,222 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the sixth most urbanized in the U.S. The name "Utah" is derived from the name of the Ute tribe and means "people of the mountains" in the Ute language. Utah is bordered by Arizona on the south, Colorado on the east, Wyoming on the northeast, Idaho on the north and Nevada on the west. It also touches a corner of New Mexico.
Utah is the most religiously homogeneous state in the Union. It is home to the Salt Lake Temple, and approximately 60% of Utahns are reported to be members of LDS Church which greatly influences Utah culture and daily life.
wn.com/Utah -
Wyoming
Wyoming (i/waɪˈoʊmɪŋ/) is a state in the mountain region of the Western United States. Wyoming is the 10th most extensive, but the least populous and the 2nd least densely populated of the 50 States. The western two thirds of the state is covered mostly with the mountain ranges and rangelands in the foothills of the Eastern Rocky Mountains, while the eastern third of the state is high elevation prairie known as the High Plains. Cheyenne is the capital and the most populous city of Wyoming with a population of nearly 60,000 people within its city proper.
As specified in the designating legislation for the Territory of Wyoming, Wyoming's borders are lines of latitude, 41°N and 45°N, and longitude, 104°3'W and 111°3'W (27° W and 34° W of the Washington Meridian), making the shape of the state a latitude-longitude quadrangle. Wyoming is one of only three states (along with Colorado and Utah) to have borders along only straight latitudinal and longitudinal lines, rather than being defined by natural landmarks. Due to surveying inaccuracies during the 19th century, Wyoming's legal border deviates from the true latitude and longitude lines by up to half of a mile (.8 km) in some spots, especially in the mountainous region along the 45th parallel. Wyoming is bordered on the north by Montana, on the east by South Dakota and Nebraska, on the south by Colorado, on the southwest by Utah, and on the west by Idaho. It is the ninth largest state in the United States in total area, containing 97,818 square miles (253,350 km2) and is made up of 23 counties. From the north border to the south border it is 276 miles (444 km); and from the east to the west border is 365 miles (587 km) at its south end and 342 miles (550 km) at the north end.
wn.com/Wyoming
-
Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincolni/ˈeɪbrəhæm ˈlɪŋkən/ (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. He successfully led his country through its greatest constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union while ending slavery, and promoting economic and financial modernization. Reared in a poor family on the western frontier, Lincoln was mostly self-educated. He became a country lawyer, a Whig Party leader, Illinois state legislator in the 1830s, and a one-term member of the United States House of Representatives in the 1840s. After a series of debates in 1858 that gave national visibility to his opposition to the expansion of slavery, Lincoln lost a Senate race to his arch-rival Stephen A. Douglas. Lincoln, a moderate from a swing state, secured the Republican Party nomination. With almost no support in the South he swept the North and was elected president in 1860. His election was the signal for seven southern slave states to declare their secession from the Union and form the Confederate States of America. The departure of the Southerners gave Lincoln's party firm control of Congress, but no formula for compromise or reconciliation was found. And the war came.
wn.com/Abraham_Lincoln -
Ambrose Burnside
Ambrose Everett Burnside (May 23, 1824 – September 13, 1881) was an American soldier, railroad executive, inventor, industrialist, and politician from Rhode Island, serving as governor and a U.S. Senator. As a Union Army general in the American Civil War, he conducted successful campaigns in North Carolina and East Tennessee but was defeated in the disastrous Battle of Fredericksburg and Battle of the Crater, earning his reputation as one of the most incompetent generals of the war. His distinctive style of facial hair is now known as sideburns, derived from his last name.
Burnside was born in Liberty, Indiana, the fourth of nine children of Edghill and Pamela (or Pamilia) Brown Burnside, a family of Scottish origin. His great-great-grandfather Robert Burnside (1725–1775) was born in Scotland and settled in the Province of South Carolina. His father, a native of South Carolina, was a slave owner who freed his slaves when he relocated to Indiana. Ambrose attended Liberty Seminary as a young boy, but his education was interrupted when his mother died in 1841; he was apprenticed to a local tailor, eventually becoming a partner in the business. His interest in military affairs and his father's political connections obtained an appointment to the United States Military Academy in 1843. He graduated in 1847, ranking 18th in a class of 38, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Artillery. He traveled to Veracruz for the Mexican-American War but arrived after hostilities ceased and performed mostly garrison duty around Mexico City.
wn.com/Ambrose_Burnside -
Andrés Pico
Andrés Pico (November 18, 1810 – February 14, 1876) was a Californio who became a successful rancher, served as a military commander during the Mexican-American War; and was elected to the state assembly and senate after California became a state, when he was also commissioned as a brigadier general in the state militia.
Andrés Pico was born at San Diego in the Spanish Las Californias Province of New Spain in 1810. He was one of several sons of José María Pico and María Eustaquia López, who together were of Native American, Spanish and African mixed-race ancestry. Andrés Pico was the younger brother of Pío Pico, who served briefly as governor of the Mexican Alta California Province.
In 1845 under the law for secularization of former Church properties, his older brother Governor Pío Pico granted Andrés Pico and his associate Juan Manso a nine-year lease for the Mission San Fernando Rey de España lands, which encompassed nearly the entire San Fernando Valley. At that time a 35-year old rancher, Andrés Pico lived in Pueblo de Los Angeles. He ran cattle on the ranch and made the Mission complex his rancho-base, with the Rómulo Pico Adobe his rancho residence.
wn.com/Andrés_Pico -
Californio
Californio (historic and regional Spanish for "Californian") is a term used to identify a Spanish-speaking, mostly Roman Catholic people, or of Latin American descent, regardless of race, born in California before 1848. The much larger population of indigenous peoples of California were not Californios because they did not speak Spanish and/or were not Catholic. Neither were the significant numbers of non-Spanish speaking California-born children of resident foreigners (primarily U.S. and British).
The military, religious and civil components of pre-1848 California society were embodied in the thinly populated presidios, missions, pueblos and ranchos. Until they were secularized in the 1830s, the twenty-one Spanish Missions of California, with their thousands of more or less captive native converts, controlled the most (about 1,000,000 acres (4,000 km2) per Mission) and best land, had large numbers of workers, grew the most crops and had the most sheep, cattle and horses. After secularization, most of the Mission lands were divided up into new ranchos and granted to Mexican citizens (including many Californios) resident in California.
wn.com/Californio -
Carl Nebel
Carl Nebel (March 18, 1805 – June 4, 1855) was a German engineer, architect and draughtsman, best known for his detailed paintings of the Mexican landscape and people and of the battles of the Mexican-American War.
Nebel was born at Altona, today a part of Hamburg. After studies in Hamburg and Paris, he travelled to America, where he was a resident of Mexico from 1829 until 1834. In 1836, he published in Paris his renowned illustrated work on that country—Voyage pittoresque et archéologique dans la partie la plus intéressante du Méxique, with 50 lithographs made from his paintings, twenty of which were hand-colorized, and an introduction written by Alexander Humboldt.
In 1851, he published together with George Wilkins Kendall some of his paintings of the events of the Mexican-American War in the book The War between the United States and Mexico Illustrated. The book contained twelve color lithographs done by Adolphe Jean-Baptiste Bayot and was printed by Joseph Lemercier - a leading lithographic team of the time. In both cases, Nebel's illustrations were enhanced by his making use of the newest printing developments in France.
wn.com/Carl_Nebel -
Christopher Werner
Christopher W. Werner (1805–1875) was a well known nineteenth-century wrought iron manufacturer, artisan and entrepreneur from the state of South Carolina, USA.
Werner was born at Münster, in Prussian Westphalia (now the North Rhine-Westphalia region of Germany) in 1805. His father, Burnhard, was a wealthy carriage builder. The young Werner learned his initial blacksmithing skills of iron working in his father's blacksmith shop. Werner was known as a carriage maker, blacksmith, wrought iron worker, and a businessman.
Knowing that he would have to enter the authoritarian Prussian army, Werner instead emigrated to the United States at an unknown date in the 1830s. He took up residence in Charleston, South Carolina, and obtained American citizenship in 1839. He almost certainly arrived in America more than five years before that, as the naturalization process at that time took at least five years to complete. Werner married Isabella Hanna, from Liverpool, England, in 1841. They had six children, five of whom lived to adulthood, with a son named Bernard dying at the age of six. Their children were literate and some received formal schooling. John Hanna was sent to Germany for part of his schooling.
wn.com/Christopher_Werner -
Cristero War
The Cristero War (1926-29) also known as the La Cristiada was an uprising and counter-revolution against the Mexican government. The rebellion was set off by the persecution of Roman Catholics and a ban on their public religious practices. More specifically, the strict enforcement of the anti-clerical provisions by atheist and former President of Mexico Plutarco Elias Calles through the Mexican Constitution of 1917 along with the further expansion of anti-clerical laws exacerbated the conflicts. The rebellion is particularly known for the women and children who assisted the rebels in smuggling guns and ammunition in secret and certain priests who were tortured and murdered in public, as later canonized by Pope John Paul II.
After a period of peaceful resistance by select citizens, a number of skirmishes took place in 1926 while the formal violent rebellions began on 2 January 1927, with the rebels who called themselves Cristeros, invoking the name of Jesus Christ under the title of "Cristo Rey" or Christ the King. The rebellion eventually ended by diplomatic means brokered by the United States Ambassador to Mexico, Dwight Whitney Morrow, with the assistance of the Knights of Columbus.
wn.com/Cristero_War -
Daniel Webster
Daniel Webster (January 18, 1782 – October 24, 1852) was a leading American statesman and senator from Massachusetts during the period leading up to the Civil War. He first rose to regional prominence through his defense of New England shipping interests. Webster's increasingly nationalistic views, and his effectiveness as a speaker, made him one of the most famous orators and influential Whig leaders of the Second Party System. He was one of the nation's most prominent conservatives, leading opposition to Democrat Andrew Jackson and the Democratic Party. He was a spokesman for modernization, banking and industry, but not for the common people who composed the base of his enemies in Jacksonian Democracy. "He was a thoroughgoing elitist, and he reveled in it," says biographer Remini. During his 40 years in national politics, Webster served in the House of Representatives for 10 years (representing New Hampshire), in the Senate for 19 years (representing Massachusetts), and was appointed the Secretary of State under three presidents.
wn.com/Daniel_Webster -
David Wilmot
David Wilmot (January 20, 1814 – March 16, 1868) was a U.S. political figure. He was a sponsor and eponym of the Wilmot Proviso which aimed to ban slavery in land gained from Mexico in the Mexican-American War of 1846–1848. Wilmot was a Democrat, a Free Soiler, and a Republican during his political career. His opposition to slavery did not include the abolitionist position of ending slavery in the entire country, and his views on race, by today’s standards, could be classified as racist.
David Wilmot was born in Bethany, Pennsylvania to Randall (1792–1896) and Mary Grant Wilmot (1792–1820). His father was a well to do merchant, and David’s early life was a comfortable one. He was educated at the local Beech Woods Academy and later at the Cayuga Lake Academy in Aurora, New York. Moving to Wilkes-Barre in 1832, he read law under George W. Woodward and was admitted to the bar in Bradford County, Pennsylvania in August 1834. In 1836 he married Anna Morgan and the couple had three children, none of whom survived childhood.
wn.com/David_Wilmot -
Franklin Pierce
Franklin Pierce (November 23, 1804 – October 8, 1869) was the 14th President of the United States (1853–1857) and is the only President from New Hampshire. Pierce was a Democrat and a "doughface" (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the U.S. House of Representatives and the Senate. Pierce took part in the Mexican-American War and became a brigadier general in the Army. His private law practice in his home state, New Hampshire, was so successful that he was offered several important positions, which he turned down. Later, he was nominated as the party's candidate for president on the 49th ballot at the 1852 Democratic National Convention. In the presidential election, Pierce and his running mate William R. King won by a landslide in the Electoral College. They defeated the Whig Party ticket of Winfield Scott and William A. Graham by a 50 percent to 44 percent margin in the popular vote and 254 to 42 in the electoral vote.
He made many friends, but he suffered tragedy in his personal life; all of his children died when young. As president, he made many divisive decisions which were widely criticized and earned him a reputation as one of the worst presidents in U.S. history. Pierce's popularity in the Northern states declined sharply after he supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which replaced the Missouri Compromise and renewed debate over the expansion of slavery in the American West. Pierce's credibility was further damaged when several of his diplomats issued the Ostend Manifesto. The historian David Potter concludes that the Ostend Manifesto and the Kansas-Nebraska Act were "the two great calamities of the Franklin Pierce administration.... Both brought down an avalanche of public criticism."[citation needed] More importantly, says Potter, they permanently discredited Manifest Destiny and "popular sovereignty" as political doctrines.
wn.com/Franklin_Pierce -
Gabriel Valencia
Gabriel Valencia (1799–1848) was a Mexican soldier in the early years of the Republic. From December 30, 1845 to January 2, 1846 he served as interim president of Mexico.
Valencia joined the Spanish colonial army before Mexican independence, but transferred his allegiance to the Mexican army in 1821. He made friends in the military and government, becoming a power in Mexican politics. He forged an uneasy alliance with Antonio López de Santa Anna, a powerful figure repeatedly in and out of the presidency during this period.
In 1840 and 1841 there were several related rebellions against Anastasio Bustamante, then in his third period as president of Mexico. Bustamante was an adherent of the centralist party. On July 15, 1840, soldiers led by rebellious General José Urrea and Valentín Gómez Farías took the presidential palace and captured President Bustamante, later releasing him. The chief of the general staff, General Gabriel Valencia, helped subdue the revolt.[1]
Shortly thereafter, Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga rose against Bustamante in Guadalajara, Juan N. Álvarez in the south, and López de Santa Anna in Perote, Veracruz. This time, on September 4, 1841, Valencia joined the rebellion by publishing the Plan de la Ciudadela.
wn.com/Gabriel_Valencia -
George Edmund Badger
George Edmund Badger (April 17, 1795 – May 11, 1866) was a Whig U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina.
Badger was born on April 17, 1795 in New Bern, North Carolina. Following a partial college education at Yale University, he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1814. Badger practiced law in North Carolina, was active in state politics, and served as a state superior court judge. A supporter of Andrew Jackson from the 1820s, he separated with him in the mid-1830s, became a leader of the Whig party and helped carry the Whigs to victory in the 1840 Presidential election.
Upon taking office, President William Henry Harrison appointed Badger as his Secretary of the Navy, and he continued in that post when John Tyler succeeded to the Presidency upon Harrison's death. Badger's brief term as Secretary was marked by efforts to strengthen the Navy in the face of tension with Great Britain, the establishment of the Home Squadron and continued interest in steamships.
Badger resigned in September 1841, during a general cabinet shakeup. He was elected to the Senate in 1846 to fill the unexpired term of William Henry Haywood, Jr. and remained a Senator until 1855. He was nominated by President Millard Fillmore as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court in 1853, but was not confirmed by the Senate. John Archibald Campbell instead got the position. He was a Unionist during the secession crisis but thereafter supported the Confederate war effort. Badger died in Raleigh, North Carolina on May 11, 1866.
wn.com/George_Edmund_Badger -
George Meade
George Gordon Meade (December 31, 1815 – November 6, 1872) was a career United States Army officer and civil engineer involved in coastal construction, including several lighthouses. He fought with distinction in the Second Seminole War and Mexican-American War. During the American Civil War he served as a Union general, rising from command of a brigade to the Army of the Potomac. He is best known for defeating Confederate General Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863.
Meade's Civil War combat experience started as a brigade commander in the Peninsula Campaign and the Seven Days Battles, including the Battle of Glendale, where he was wounded severely. As a division commander he had notable success at the Battle of South Mountain and assumed temporary corps command at the Battle of Antietam. His division was arguably the most successful during the assaults at the Battle of Fredericksburg. During the Gettysburg Campaign, he was appointed to command the Army of the Potomac just three days before the Battle of Gettysburg, but was able to organize his forces to fight a successful defensive battle against Robert E. Lee. This victory was marred by his ineffective pursuit during the Retreat from Gettysburg, by the inconclusive campaigns in the fall of 1863, and by intense political rivalries within the Army, notably with Daniel Sickles.
wn.com/George_Meade -
Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and "Yankee" love of practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.
wn.com/Henry_David_Thoreau -
James Longstreet
James Longstreet (January 8, 1821 – January 2, 1904) was one of the foremost Confederate generals of the American Civil War and the principal subordinate to General Robert E. Lee, who called him his "Old War Horse." He served under Lee as a corps commander for many of the famous battles fought by the Army of Northern Virginia in the Eastern Theater, but also with Gen. Braxton Bragg in the Army of Tennessee in the Western Theater. Biographer and historian Jeffry D. Wert wrote that "Longstreet ... was the finest corps commander in the Army of Northern Virginia; in fact, he was arguably the best corps commander in the conflict on either side."
Longstreet's talents as a general made significant contributions to the Confederate victories at Second Bull Run, Fredericksburg, and Chickamauga, in both offensive and defensive roles. He also performed strongly during the Seven Days Battles, the Battle of Antietam, and until he was seriously wounded, at the Battle of the Wilderness. His performance in semiautonomous command during the Knoxville Campaign resulted in a Confederate defeat. His most controversial service was at the Battle of Gettysburg, where he disagreed with General Lee on the tactics to be employed and reluctantly supervised the disastrous infantry assault known as Pickett's Charge.
wn.com/James_Longstreet -
James Murray Mason
James Murray Mason (November 3, 1798 – April 28, 1871) was a United States Representative and United States Senator from Virginia. He was a grandson of George Mason and represented the Confederate States of America as appointed commissioner of the Confederacy to the United Kingdom and France between 1861 and 1865 during the American Civil War.
He was born on Analostan Island (now Theodore Roosevelt Island) in the District of Columbia, and was a graduate of the University of Pennsylvania (1818), receiving a law degree from the College of William and Mary in 1820.
He practiced law in Virginia and was a delegate to the Virginia constitutional convention in 1829, and a member of the State house of delegates. A Jackson Democrat, he was elected to the Twenty-fifth United States Congress in 1836.
In 1847 he was elected to the Senate after the death of Isaac S. Pennybacker, and was reelected in 1850 and 1856. Mason famously read aloud the dying Senator John C. Calhoun's final speech to the Senate, on March 4, 1850, which warned of disunion and dire consequences if the North did not guarantee the South permanently equal representation in Congress. Complaining of personal liberty laws that "Although the loss of property is felt, the loss of honor is felt still more," Mason also drafted the (second) Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, enacted on September 18, 1850 as a part of the Compromise Measures of that year. Mason represented the majority view in leading the Senate committee which investigated the John Brown raid on Harper's Ferry of October 1859. (Thus the document published as the U.S. Congress, Senate Select Commission on the Harper's Ferry Invasion (June 15, 1860) is often referred to as the Mason Report.) Mason was President pro tempore of the Senate during the Thirty-fourth and Thirty-fifth Congresses but was expelled from the Senate in 1861 for support of the Confederacy.
wn.com/James_Murray_Mason -
Jefferson Davis
Jefferson Finis Davis (June 3, 1808 – December 6, 1889) was an American statesman and leader of the Confederacy during the American Civil War, serving as President of the Confederate States of America for its entire history. Davis was born in Kentucky to Samuel and Jane (Cook) Davis. After attending Transylvania University, Davis graduated from West Point and fought in the Mexican–American War as a colonel of a volunteer regiment. He served as the United States Secretary of War under Democratic President Franklin Pierce. Both before and after his time in the Pierce administration, he served as a Democratic U.S. Senator representing the State of Mississippi. As a senator, he argued against secession, but did agree that each state was sovereign and had an unquestionable right to secede from the Union.
wn.com/Jefferson_Davis -
Joaquín Rea
Joaquín Rea (? - 1850) Mexican general in the Mexican American War.
Geneal Rea led guerrilla forces of the Light Corps in harassing American convoys on the National Road between Vera Cruz and Puebla from May 1847. Due to this harassment by the guerrillas between Puebla and Vera Cruz, General Winfield Scott was forced to abandon his line of communications to make his attack on Mexico City.
Following the fall of Mexico City, General Rea and Genera Santa Anna attampted to besiege and capture Puebla cutting the American Army in Mexico City off from Vera Cruz in Septembe 1847. Rea and Santa Anna failed to take it before the approach of a relief column from Vera Cruz under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane prompted Santa Anna to leave the siege to stop him. Puebla was relieved by Gen. Lane October 12, 1847, following his defeat of Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla October 9, 1847. Lane pursued Rea and defeated him at the Skirmish at Atlixco or "Atlixco Affair," on October 18, 1847 and he was defeated again at the Battle of Izucar de Matamoros in November 1847 by forces under General Lane. Nevertheless, guerrilla raids on the supply route continued into 1848 until the end of the war.
wn.com/Joaquín_Rea -
John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adamsi/ˈkwɪnzi/ (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was the sixth President of the United States (1825–1829). He served as an American diplomat, Senator, and Congressional representative. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. Adams was the son of former President John Adams and Abigail Adams. As a diplomat, Adams played an important role in negotiating many international treaties, most notably the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812. As Secretary of State, he negotiated with the United Kingdom over America's northern border with Canada, negotiated with Spain the annexation of Florida, and authored the Monroe Doctrine. Historians agree he was one of the greatest diplomats and secretaries of state in American history.
As president, he sought to modernize the American economy and promoted education. Adams enacted a part of his agenda and paid off much of the national debt. He was stymied by a Congress controlled by his enemies, and his lack of patronage networks helped politicians eager to undercut him. He lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson. In doing so, he became the first President since his father to serve a single term.
wn.com/John_Quincy_Adams -
John Salazar
John Tony Salazar (born July 21, 1953) is the former Congressman for Colorado's 3rd congressional district, serving from 2005 until 2011. He is a member of the Democratic Party. Following his service in Congress, he was appointed as Commissioner of the Colorado Department of Agriculture in the Cabinet of Governor John Hickenlooper in 2011.
Salazar was born in Alamosa, Colorado.
Salazar served in the U.S. Army from 1973 to 1976, and is a farmer and rancher. His formal education includes a Bachelor of Science degree in business administration from Adams State College in 1981. Salazar was the owner of an internet company, Spudseed.com, which marketed potatoes, as well as serving as a director of Monte Vista Production Credit Union and Agro Engineering, Inc.
Salazar served on several Colorado public bodies including the Governor's Economic Development Advisory Board, the Rio Grande Water Conservation District and the Colorado Agricultural Leadership Forum. He also served on the Colorado Agricultural Commission from 1999 to 2002 before being elected to the Colorado House of Representatives from 2003 until 2004.
wn.com/John_Salazar -
John Slidell
John Slidell (1793 – July 9, 1871) was an American politician, lawyer and businessman. A native of New York, Slidell moved to Louisiana as a young man and became a staunch defender of southern rights as a U.S. Representative and Senator. He was the older brother of Alexander Slidell Mackenzie, a US naval officer.
He was born to the merchant John Slidell and the former Margery Mackenzie, a Scot. He graduated from Columbia University (then College) in 1810. In 1835, Slidell married the former Mathilde Deslonde, and they had three children, Alfred Slidell, Marie Rosine (later comtess de St. Roman), and Marguerite Mathilde (later baronness Frederic Emile d'Erlanger).
Slidell was in the mercantile business in New York before he relocated to New Orleans. He practiced law in New Orleans from 1819-1843. He was the district attorney in New Orleans from 1829-1833. He also served in the state's House of Representatives. Though he lost an election to the United States House in 1828, he was elected in 1842 and served a term and a half from 1843–1845, as a Democrat. He served as minister plenipotentiary to Mexico from 1845-1846.
wn.com/John_Slidell -
John Tyler
John Tyler (29 March 1790 – 18 January 1862) was the tenth President of the United States (1841–1845), after being the tenth Vice President of the United States (1841). A native of Virginia, Tyler served as a state legislator, governor, U.S. representative, and U.S. senator before being elected Vice President in 1840. He was the first to succeed to the office of President on the death of the incumbent. Tyler's opposition to nationalism and emphatic support of states' rights endeared him to his fellow Virginians but alienated him from most of the political allies that brought him to power in Washington. His presidency was crippled by opposition from both parties. Near the end of his life, he supported the secession movement in the southern states, and was elected to the Congress of the Confederate States of America.
Tyler was born to an aristocratic Virginia family of English descent and he came to national prominence at a time of political upheaval. In the 1820s, the nation's only political party, the Democratic-Republicans, split into factions, most of which did not share Tyler's strict constructionist ideals. Though initially a Democrat, his opposition to Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren led him to alliance with the Whig Party; he was elected Vice President In 1840 on the Whig ticket. Upon the death of President William Henry Harrison on 4 April 1841, only a month after his inauguration, a short Constitutional crisis arose over the succession process. Tyler immediately moved into the White House, took the oath of office, and assumed full presidential powers, a precedent that would govern future successions and eventually be codified in the Twenty-fifth Amendment.
wn.com/John_Tyler -
Jon Riley
Jon Patrick Riley (Irish: Seán Pádraic Ó Raghallaigh), also known as John Patrick O'Riley, (c. 1805 – August 1850), a United States Army private, was one of the several hundred immigrant Catholic Irishmen who defected from the US Army and formed the Saint Patrick's Battalion to fight for Mexico in the 1846-48 Mexican-American War. Riley led the battalion as a brevet major commissioned by Mexico.
Riley was born in Clifden, County Galway, Ireland about 1805; his name in the original Irish Gaelic is Seán O' Raghailligh. Riley served with the British Army before emigrating to Canada. Connemara and other rural regions suffered greatly during the Irish Potato Famine, and millions of people emigrated by ship from Ireland to Canada and the United States to survive.
Soon after his arrival in the United States in Michigan, Riley enlisted in the US Army. Many immigrants were recruited in the 1840s; some served just to earn some money, as they had usually fled famine and severe poverty in their home countries.
wn.com/Jon_Riley -
Joseph Lane
Joseph Lane (December 14, 1801 – April 19, 1881) was an American general during the Mexican-American War and Oregon Territory's first governor. Later, when Oregon became a state, he became one of her first United States Senators.
Lane was born in Buncombe County, North Carolina on December 14, 1801. He moved to Kentucky at a young age, and then moved to Indiana, where he was engaged in farming for a while. Lane and his wife, Polly Hart Lane, had ten children. While in Indiana, he served in the State House of Representatives and the Indiana Senate from 1822 to 1846.
At the outbreak of hostilities with Mexico, Lane was appointed colonel of the 2nd Indiana Volunteer Regiment and served along the border. The same year he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and commanded the Indiana Brigade at the Battle of Buena Vista. After the battle he was appointed major general of volunteers and led the relief force which lifted the Siege of Puebla defeating Antonio López de Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla along the way.
wn.com/Joseph_Lane -
Josiah Gregg
Josiah Gregg (19 July 1806 – 25 February 1850) was a merchant, explorer, naturalist, and author of the American Southwest and Northern Mexico regions. He is most famous for his book Commerce of the Prairies.
Josiah Gregg was born on 19 July 1806 in Overton County, Tennessee. When he was six years old, his family moved to Missouri. Gregg was educated in both law and medicine and practiced both with distinction before tuberculosis forced him to retire from urban life.
In 1831 he joined a caravan for Santa Fe, New Mexico, on a new trail beginning at Van Buren, Arkansas. Gregg then settled in New Mexico Territory, starting work as a bookkeeper. He made a tour of Indian Territories - Oklahoma Territory.
Josiah Gregg's book, "Commerce of the Prairies," which came out in two volumes in 1844 was an account of his time spent as a trader on the Santa Fe Trail from 1831 to 1840 . He describes the geography, botany, geology, and culture of New Mexico. Gregg wrote of some locals, such as Maria Gertrudis Barceló, a Santa-Fe saloon owner. The book established Gregg's literary reputation, and he was hired as a news correspondent and interpreter during the Mexican-American War. In this capacity, he traveled through Chihuahua.
wn.com/Josiah_Gregg -
José Castro
José Antonio Castro (1808 – February 1860) was acting governor of Alta California in 1835-1836, and Commandante General of the Mexican army in Alta California at the time of the 1846 Bear Flag Revolt and the Mexican-American War of 1846-1848.
Castro was born in Monterey, California, the son of Jose Tiburcio Castro, who was a soldier, member of the diputacion (legislature), administrator of secularized Mission San Juan Bautista, and grantee of Rancho Sausal. Jose Castro's first public office was as secretary to the Monterey ayuntamiento (town council).
In 1830, Castro was arrested for his opposition to the Mexican governor of Alta California. By 1835 he was the First Member (Vocal Primero) of the legislature and acting governor. Along with Juan Bautista Alvarado, he was a vocal opponent of Mexican governors and sought a semi-independent status for Alta California. He was a chief participant in the overthrow of Governor Nicolás Gutiérrez in 1836, becoming Commandante General and Governor, as president of the legislature.
wn.com/José_Castro -
José María Flores
General José María Flores (1818, New Spain – 1866) was an officer in the Mexican Army and was a member of la otra banda. He was appointed Governor and Comandante General pro tem of Alta California from 1846 to 1847.
The American occupation would have gone smoothly if Commodore Robert F. Stockton had accepted José Castro’s peaceful surrender during the Mexican-American War. However, Stockton did not trust the Californios and placed Archibald Gillespie in charge of Los Angeles. This decision would bring about a rebellion led by General José María Flores.
Captain José María Flores arrived in California in 1842. He was a secretary for Governor Manuel Micheltorena. He was a captain in Comandante General José Castro's military army. Castro sent Flores to deliver a message to Stockton stating that Castro was going to accede to the wishes of the United States. Stockton did not recognize Castro’s authority and rejected it. Castro, seeing no alternative, fled California. Governor Pío Pico followed shortly thereafter. Flores and other military officers were left behind in Los Angeles.
wn.com/José_María_Flores -
Ken Salazar
Kenneth Lee "Ken" Salazar (pronounced /ˈsæləzɑr/; born March 2, 1955) is the current United States Secretary of the Interior, in the administration of President Barack Obama. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as a United States Senator from Colorado from 2005 to 2009. He and Mel Martinez (R-Florida) were the first Hispanic U.S. Senators since 1977; they were joined by Bob Menendez (D-New Jersey) in January 2006. Prior to his election to the U.S. Senate, he served as Attorney General of Colorado from 1999 to 2005.
On December 17, 2008, President-elect Obama announced he would nominate Salazar as U.S. Secretary of the Interior. The environmentalist movement's reaction to this nomination was mixed. Previously, Salazar supported the nomination of Gale Norton to Secretary of the Interior, President George W. Bush's first appointee who preceded Salazar as Colorado Attorney General. On January 20, 2009, Salazar was confirmed by unanimous consent in the Senate.
Ken Salazar was born in Alamosa, Colorado, the son of Emma M. and Henry (Enrique) S. Salazar. He grew up near Manassa, in the community of Los Rincones in the San Luis Valley area of south-central Colorado. Salazar attended St. Francis Seminary and Centauri High School in La Jara, graduating in 1973. He later attended Colorado College, earning a Bachelor of Arts degree in political science in 1977, and received his Juris Doctor (J.D.) from the University of Michigan Law School in 1981. Later Salazar was awarded honorary degrees (Doctor of Laws) from Colorado College (1993) and the University of Denver (1999). After graduating, Salazar started private law practice.
wn.com/Ken_Salazar -
Kit Carson
Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson (December 24, 1809 – May 23, 1868) was an American frontiersman and Indian fighter. Carson left home in rural present-day Missouri at age 16 and became a mountain man and trapper in the West. Carson explored the west to California, and north through the Rocky Mountains. He lived among and married into the Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes. He was hired by John C. Fremont as a guide, and led 'the Pathfinder' through much of California, Oregon and the Great Basin area. He achieved national fame through Fremont's accounts of his expeditions. He became the hero of many dime novels.
Carson was a courier and scout during the Mexican-American war from 1846 to 1848, celebrated for his rescue mission after the Battle of San Pasqual and his coast-to-coast journey from California to deliver news of the war to the U.S. government in Washington, D.C.. In the 1850s, he was the Agent to the Ute and Jicarilla Apaches. In the Civil War he led a regiment of mostly Hispanic volunteers at the Battle of Valverde in 1862. He led armies to pacify the Navajo, Mescalero Apache, and the Kiowa and Comanche Indians. He is vilified for his conquest of the Navajo and their forced transfer to Bosque Redondo where many of them died. Breveted a general, he is probably the only American to reach such a high military rank without being able to read or write, although he could sign his name.
wn.com/Kit_Carson -
Korean War
The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.
wn.com/Korean_War -
Lebanese Civil War
The Lebanese Civil War (Arabic: الحرب الأهلية اللبنانية) was a multifaceted civil war in Lebanon. The war lasted from 1975 to 1990 and resulted in an estimated 150,000 to 230,000[citation needed] fatalities. Another one million people (a quarter of the population) were wounded,[citation needed] and today approximately 350,000 people remain displaced within Lebanon.[citation needed] There was also a mass exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon.
It has been argued that the antecedents of the war can be traced back to the conflicts and political compromises reached after the end of Lebanon's administration by the Ottoman Empire. The Cold War had a powerful disintegrative effect on Lebanon, which was closely linked to the polarization that preceded the 1958 political crisis. The establishment of the state of Israel and the displacement of a hundred thousand Palestinian refugees to Lebanon (around 10% of the total population of the country) changed the demographics of Lebanon and provided a foundation for the long-term involvement of Lebanon in regional conflicts. By 1975, the presence of a foreign armed force in the form of the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) guerrillas, who exercised a veto on Lebanese politics, had a serious effect on Lebanon. The militarization of the Palestinian refugee population, with the arrival of the PLO guerrilla forces, sparked an arms race amongst the different Lebanese political factions.
wn.com/Lebanese_Civil_War -
Lewis Cass
Lewis Cass (October 9, 1782 – June 17, 1866) was an American military officer and politician. During his long political career, Cass served as a governor of the Michigan Territory, an American ambassador, a U.S. Senator representing Michigan, and co-founder as well as first Masonic Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Michigan. He was the losing nominee of the Democratic Party for president in 1848. Cass was nationally famous as a leading spokesman for the controversial Doctrine of Popular Sovereignty, which would have allowed voters in the territories to determine whether to make slavery legal instead of having Congress decide.
Cass was born in Exeter, New Hampshire, where he attended Phillips Exeter Academy. His parents were Major Jonathan Cass and Molly Gilman. In 1800 he moved with his family to Marietta, Ohio. On May 26, 1806, he married the former Elizabeth Spencer. Interested in "passing knowledge forward" Cass joined the Freemasons on May 7, 1804 and was later elected as the third Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Ohio on January 4, 1808. Later he went on to co-found the Grand Lodge of Michigan being elected as its first Grand Master on July 21, 1826.
wn.com/Lewis_Cass -
Manuel Armijo
Manuel Armijo (c. 1793–1853) was a New Mexican soldier and statesman who served three times as governor of New Mexico. He was instrumental in putting down the Revolt of 1837, he led the force that captured the Texan Santa Fe Expedition and he surrendered to the United States (U.S.) in the Mexican-American War.
Manuel Armijo was born in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and apparently made himself wealthy and prominent. He may have been born in Casa de Armijo, which is now a restaurant in Old Town Albuquerque.
According to George Wilkins Kendall, he became wealthy by working for a sheep rancher and stealing and selling the sheep, often to his own employer; but Kendall was writing about his experience as Armijo's prisoner in 1841 and his biographical sketch of Armijo is scurrilous. The historian Marc Simmons ascribes the story of sheep theft to "tradition". Armijo became the alcalde (mayor) of Albuquerque and militia lieutenant in 1822 and 1824.
In 1827, he was appointed governor of New Mexico, but in 1828 he returned from Santa Fe to Albuquerque as a wealthy merchant in sheep and wool blankets, acting as alcalde again. Some have it that he left the governorship to avoid a Federal investigation.
wn.com/Manuel_Armijo -
Mariano Arista
Mariano Arista (26 July 1802 – 7 August 1855) was a noted veteran of many of Mexico's nineteenth-century wars who served as president of Mexico from 15 January 1851 to 6 January 1853.
He was born in the state of San Luis Potosí. Originally an officer in the Spanish Army, Arista later joined the revolutionary army of Agustín de Iturbide. Later, he served under Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexico's on-again/off-again dictator during the attempt to put down the 1836 Texas Revolution.
In 1846, Arista was given command of the Army of the North and sent to expel American troops from Mexican territory in Texas. The resulting engagement ignited the bloody Mexican-American War of 1846–1848. Arista was in command of Mexican forces during the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma.
Personally quite brave, Arista was a dedicated republican – a member of Mexico's liberal faction, and therefore the natural enemy of his largely conservative general staff. At both the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Arista was ill served by the political division among his staff.
wn.com/Mariano_Arista -
Mariano Paredes
Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga (c. 7 January 1797 – 7 September 1849) was a conservative Mexican general and president. He took power in a coup d'état in 1846. He was the president at the start of the Mexican-American War.
He entered the Spanish colonial army as an infantry cadet on 6 January 1812. He participated in 22 actions in the Mexican War of Independence on the Spanish side. He was arrested for criticizing King Ferdinand VII and sentenced to exile to Spain. However, he escaped imprisonment and remained in Mexico. He joined the Ejército Trigarante, where he participated in another 11 military actions. In June 1821, under the Mexican Empire, he was made a lieutenant colonel.
On 11 February 1823, when he was then in charge of the plaza of Puebla, he pronounced against the empire of Agustín de Iturbide (the Plan de Casa Mata). He rose in revolt again on 21 December 1829, this time from Guadalajara in support of Anastasio Bustamante's Plan de Jalapa in opposition to President Vicente Guerrero. Bustamante took power the following 1 January.
wn.com/Mariano_Paredes -
Mexican Drug War
The Mexican Drug War is an ongoing armed conflict between rival drug cartels fighting each other for regional control, and Mexican government forces. The government's principal goal has been to put down the drug-related violence that was raging between different drug cartels before any military intervention was made. In addition, the Mexican government has claimed that their primary focus is on dismantling the powerful drug cartels, rather than on drug trafficking prevention, which is left to U.S. functionaries.
Although Mexican drug cartels, or drug trafficking organizations, have existed for several decades, they have become more powerful since the demise of Colombia's Cali and Medellín cartels in the 1990s. Mexican drug cartels now dominate the wholesale illicit drug market by controlling 90% of the drugs that enter the United States. Arrests of key cartel leaders, particularly in the Tijuana and Gulf cartels, have led to increasing drug violence as cartels fight for control of the trafficking routes into the United States.
wn.com/Mexican_Drug_War -
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution (Spanish: Revolución mexicana) was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz, and lasted for the better part of a decade until around 1920. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multi-sided civil war. This armed conflict is often categorized as the most important sociopolitical event in Mexico and one of the greatest upheavals of the 20th century.
After prolonged struggles, its representatives produced the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The Revolution is generally considered to have lasted until 1920, although the country continued to have sporadic, but comparatively minor, outbreaks of warfare well into the 1920s. The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was the most significant relapse into bloodshed.
The Revolution led to the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario ("National Revolutionary Party") in 1929; it was renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party) (PRI) in 1946. Under a variety of leaders, the PRI held power until the general election of 2000.
wn.com/Mexican_Revolution -
Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore (January 7, 1800 – March 8, 1874) was the 13th President of the United States (1850–1853) and the last member of the Whig Party to hold the office of president. As Zachary Taylor's Vice President, he assumed the presidency after Taylor's death.
Fillmore opposed the proposal to keep slavery out of the territories annexed during the Mexican–American War in order to appease the South and so supported the Compromise of 1850, which he signed, including the Fugitive Slave Act ("Bloodhound Law") which was part of the compromise. On the foreign policy front, he furthered the rising trade with Japan and clashed with the French over Napoleon III's attempt to annex Hawaii and with the French and the British over the attempt of Narciso López to invade Cuba. After his presidency, he joined the Know-Nothing movement; throughout the Civil War, he opposed President Abraham Lincoln and during Reconstruction supported President Andrew Johnson. He is consistently included in the bottom 10 of historical rankings of Presidents of the United States.
wn.com/Millard_Fillmore -
Moses Austin
Moses Austin (October 4, 1761 – June 10, 1821) played a large part in the development of the American lead industry and is the father of Stephen F. Austin, a leading American settler of Texas. He was the first to be allowed to gather Anglo Americans for settlement in Spanish Texas. After receiving a land grant from the Mexican government, he became the first to establish an English American settlement in what was then a sovereign Mexico. His son, would continue the practice of reselling land at 12 cents per acre, and the U.S. born settlers, many of them slaveholders in a slave-free Mexico, demanded autonomy and won Independence from the Mexican ruler Santa Anna in 1837.
Austin was born in Durham, Connecticut to a family that can be traced back to Richard Austin, who arrived on the ship "Bevis" in Massachusetts colony in 1738, only a few years after the colony was founded.
In 1784, he moved to Philadelphia to enter the dry goods business with his brother, Stephen. He then moved to Richmond, Virginia to open a second dry goods store.
wn.com/Moses_Austin -
Nathan Clifford
Nathan Clifford (August 18, 1803 – July 25, 1881) was an American statesman, diplomat and jurist.
Clifford was born of old Yankee stock in Rumney, New Hampshire, to farmers, the only son of seven children (His great-great-grandmother, Ann Smith, wife of Israel Clifford, was the accuser of Goody Cole.) He attended the public schools of that town, then the Haverhill Academy in New Hampshire, and finally the New Hampton Literary Institute (now known as the New Hampton School). After teaching school for a time, he studied law in the offices of Josiah Quincy III and was admitted to the bar in Maine in 1827, establishing his first practice in Newfield, Maine.
He served in the Maine House of Representatives from 1830 to 1834 and served as Speaker of that house the last two years. He was then Maine Attorney General from 1834 until 1838, when he was elected as a Democrat to the 26th and 27th Congresses, serving March 4, 1839 through March 3, 1843, and representing the Second and then the Third District. He was not a candidate for re-election in 1842.
wn.com/Nathan_Clifford -
Nathaniel Currier
Nathaniel Currier (March 27, 1813 – November 20, 1888) was an American lithographer, who headed the company Currier & Ives with James Ives.
Currier was born in Roxbury, Massachusetts to Nathaniel and Hannah Currier. He attended public school until age fifteen, when he was apprenticed to the Boston printing firm of William and John Pendleton. The Pendletons were the first successful lithographers in the United States, lithography having only recently been invented in Europe, and Currier learned the process in their shop. He subsequently went to work for M. E. D. Brown in Philadelphia, in 1833. The following year, Currier moved to New York City, where he was to start a new business with John Pendleton. Pendleton backed out, and the new firm became Currier & Stodart, which lasted only one year. In addition to being a lithographer, he was also a volunteer fireman in the 1850s.
In 1835, Currier started his own lithographic business as an eponymous sole proprietorship. He initially engaged in standard lithographic business of printing sheet music, letterheads, handbills, etc. However, he soon took his work in a new direction, creating pictures of current events. In late 1835, he issued a print illustrating a recent fire in New York. Ruins of the Merchant's Exchange N.Y. after the Destructive Conflagration of Decbr 16 & 17, 1835 was published by the New York Sun, just four days after the fire, and was an early example of illustrated news. In 1840, Currier began to move away from job printing and into independent print publishing. In that year, the Sun published his print Awful Conflagration of the Steam Boat 'Lexington' in Long Island Sound on Monday Eveg Jany 13th 1840, by Which Melancholy Occurrence Over 100 Persons Perished, another documentation of a news event, three days after the disaster; the print sold thousands of copies.
wn.com/Nathaniel_Currier -
Navajo people
The Navajo (Navajo: Diné or Naabeehó) of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the Four Corners area of the United States. The Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, although most Navajo speak English as well.
Until they came into contact with the Spanish and Pueblos, the Navajo were hunters and gatherers. They adopted farming techniques and crops from the Pueblo people, growing mainly corn, beans, and squash. As a result of Spanish influence, they began herding sheep and goats, depending on them for food and trade. They spun and wove sheared wool into blankets and clothing which could be used for personal use or trading. They also depended on their flocks of sheep for meat. Their lives depended on sheep so much that, to the Navajo, sheep were a kind of currency and the size of the herd was a mark of social status.
wn.com/Navajo_people -
Nicholas Trist
Nicholas Philip Trist (June 2, 1800 - February 11, 1874) was an American diplomat.
Trist was born in Charlottesville, Virginia. He attended West Point and studied law under Thomas Jefferson, whose granddaughter (Virginia Jefferson Randolph, 1818–1875) he married. He was also private secretary to Andrew Jackson.
wn.com/Nicholas_Trist -
Nicolás Bravo
Nicolás Bravo (10 September 1786 – 22 April 1854) was a Mexican politician and soldier. He distinguished himself in both offices during the 1846–1848 U.S. invasion of Mexico.
During the War of Independence (1810–21), Bravo fought alongside Hermenegildo Galeana and after alongside José María Morelos in the campaign of the south. In 1811 with Hermenegildo Galeana, Bravo obtained the military command of the province of Veracruz. He was also involved in the defense of the Congress of Chilpancingo.
In 1817 the royalists took him prisoner and it was only in 1820 that he was able to recover his freedom. He allied himself with the Plan de Iguala and, on 27 September 1821, he entered Mexico City with the trimphant Ejército Trigarante (in the "Army of the Three Guarantees").
When independence was attained, he was named advisor of state by the constituent congress.
When Agustín de Iturbide was crowned emperor, he took up arms in opposition and formed a governing body in Oaxaca. Bravo created an army and marched on Mexico City, by way of Puebla. When Iturbide was overthrown, Bravo, Guadalupe Victoria and Pedro Celestino Negrete governed the country until in 1824 there was elections, Bravo lost the elections and held the position of vice-president of the republic under the presidency of Guadalupe Victoria (1824–29).
wn.com/Nicolás_Bravo -
Owen Thomas Edgar
Owen Thomas Edgar (June 17, 1831 – September 3, 1929) was, according to data from the United States Department of Veterans Affairs, the longest surviving U.S. veteran of the Mexican-American War.
He was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He enlisted in the United States Navy as a 2nd-class apprentice on February 10, 1846, and was discharged August 8, 1849. Edgar saw service on the frigates Potomac, Allegheny, Pennsylvania and Experience.
After the war, he worked at the Bureau of Engraving and Printing for 21 years, then worked at a bank for another 31 years. He spent his last 10 years living at the John Dickson Home in Washington, D.C. Edgar died September 3, 1929 at the age of 98 after suffering a fall from a chair that fractured his leg, and was buried in Washington's Congressional Cemetery.
wn.com/Owen_Thomas_Edgar -
Pedro de Ampudia
Pedro de Ampudia (1803–1868) was born in Havana, Cuba and served Mexico as a Northern army officer for most of his life. He was also governor of the state of Nuevo León in 1846 and from 1853 to 1854.
Ampudia began his career in the Spanish army, and emigrated to Mexico following the Mexican War of Independence. In 1836, Ampudia served with the Mexican artillery at the Siege of the Alamo and later saw heavy combat at the Battle of San Jacinto. During border skirmishes with Texas in the early 1840s, Ampudia commanded the 350 man garrison of Ciudad Mier which was attacked on December 26, 1842 by Texan militia. In a bloody two day battle over 600 Mexicans were killed but they eventually forced the enemy too surrender, earning the grudging respect of the Texans across the border.
Briefly appointed as commander-in-chief of the Mexican Army of the North in 1846, Ampudia was removed from command following the brutal public execution of a local guerrilla leader on his personal orders. As a conservador (a member of Mexico's conservative faction), Ampudia was quickly relegated to a staff position in favor of his liberal rival, General Mariano Arista. At the Battle of Palo Alto, Ampudia harshly criticized Arista for what he saw as "unacceptable tactical blunders" and continued his criticism at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma – a defeat for which Arista partially blamed him.
wn.com/Pedro_de_Ampudia -
Philip Kearny
Philip Kearny, Jr. (/ˈkɑrniː/; June 2, 1815 – September 1, 1862) was a United States Army officer, notable for his leadership in the Mexican-American War and American Civil War. He was killed in action in the 1862 Battle of Chantilly.
Kearny was born in New York City to a wealthy family. His father and mother were Philip Kearny, Sr., and Susan Watts. His maternal grandfather John Watts, the last Royal Recorder of New York City, was one of New York's wealthiest residents, who had vast holdings in ships, mills, factories, banks, and investment houses. Kearny's father was a Harvard-educated, New York City financier who owned his own brokerage firm and was also a founder of the New York Stock Exchange.
Early in life, Kearny desired a career in the military. His parents died when he was young, and he was consequently raised by his grandfather. Against the younger Kearny's wishes, his guardian insisted that Kearny pursue a law career. Kearny attended Columbia College, attaining a law degree in 1833. His cousin John Watts de Peyster, who had also attended Columbia, wrote the first authoritative biography on Kearny.
wn.com/Philip_Kearny -
Preston Brooks
Preston Smith Brooks (August 5, 1819 – January 27, 1857) was a Democratic Congressman from South Carolina during the period just prior to the US Civil War.
Brooks is primarily remembered for severely beating Senator Charles Sumner with a metal-tipped gutta-percha cane on the floor of the United States Senate. Brooks' attack, assisted by fellow Southerner Rep Laurence Keitt, was delivered as revenge (or "punishment", in Brooks' words) in response to a virulent abolitionist speech by Sumner in which he mocked Brooks' relative, South Carolina Senator Andrew Butler, and likened Southern slaveholders to pimps. Sumner, who was known for his scathing abolitionist speeches, was severely injured by the attack, suffering head trauma that would cause him chronic pain and symptoms consistent with what would now be called traumatic brain injury and post-traumatic stress disorder, and spent three years convalescing before returning to his Senate seat. Brooks and Keitt were not prosecuted or censured for the attack, and both were overwhelmingly re-elected by their South Carolina constituents.
wn.com/Preston_Brooks -
Pío Pico
Pío de Jesús Pico (May 5, 1801 – September 11, 1894) was the last Governor of Alta California (now the State of California) under Mexican rule.
Píco was a third-generation Californio. He was born at the Mission San Gabriel Arcángel to José María Pico and his wife María Eustaquia Gutiérrez, with the aid of midwife Eulalia Pérez de Guillén Mariné. His paternal grandmother, María Jacinta de la Bastida, was listed in the 1790 census as mulata, meaning mixed race with some African ancestry. His paternal grandfather, Santiago de la Cruz Pico, was described as a Mestizo (Native American-Spanish) in the same census. He was one of the soldiers who accompanied Juan Bautista de Anza on the expedition that left Tubac, Arizona for California in 1775 to explore the region and colonize it. Pio Pico was thus of Spanish, African and Native American ancestry.
After the death of his father in 1819, Pico settled in San Diego, California. He married María Ignacia Alvarado there on February 24, 1834.
In 1821 Pico set up a tanning hut and dram shop in Los Angeles, selling drinks for two Spanish bits (US 25 cents). His businesses soon became a significant source of his income.
wn.com/Pío_Pico -
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803 – April 27, 1882) was an American essayist, lecturer, and poet, who led the Transcendentalist movement of the mid-19th century. He was seen as a champion of individualism and a prescient critic of the countervailing pressures of society, and he disseminated his thoughts through dozens of published essays and more than 1,500 public lectures across the United States.
Emerson gradually moved away from the religious and social beliefs of his contemporaries, formulating and expressing the philosophy of Transcendentalism in his 1836 essay, Nature. Following this ground-breaking work, he gave a speech entitled The American Scholar in 1837, which Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. considered to be America's "Intellectual Declaration of Independence".
Emerson wrote most of his important essays as lectures first, then revised them for print. His first two collections of essays – Essays: First Series and Essays: Second Series, published respectively in 1841 and 1844 – represent the core of his thinking, and include such well-known essays as Self-Reliance, The Over-Soul, Circles, The Poet and Experience. Together with Nature, these essays made the decade from the mid-1830s to the mid-1840s Emerson's most fertile period.
wn.com/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson -
Ramón Eduardo Ruiz
Ramón Eduardo Ruiz (September 9, 1921 – July 6, 2010) was an American historian of Mexico and Latin America. He was the author of fifteen books on Mexican and Latin American history and in 1998 he was awarded the US National Humanities Medal.
Ruiz was born in San Diego, California as the son of a former member of the Mexican Navy who left that country during the Mexican revolution. He served as a Pacific B-29 pilot in the Army Air Forces during World War II. He earned his bachelor's degree from San Diego State University in 1947, his master's from Claremont Graduate University in 1948, and his doctorate from the University of California at Berkeley in 1954. Ruiz taught at the University of Oregon, Smith College, and the University of California at San Diego.
wn.com/Ramón_Eduardo_Ruiz -
Reform War
The Reform War (Spanish: Guerra de Reforma) in Mexico is one of the episodes of the long struggle between Liberal and Conservative forces that dominated the country’s history in the 19th century. The Liberals wanted a federalist government, limiting traditional Catholic Church and military influence in the country. The Conservatives wanted a centralist government, even a monarchy with the Church and military keeping their traditional roles and powers. This struggle erupted into a full civil war when the Liberals, then in control of the government after ousting Antonio López de Santa Anna, began to implement a series of laws designed to strip the Church and military, but especially the Church, of its rights, powers and property. Conservative resistance to this culminated in the Plan of Tacubaya, which destroyed the government of President Ignacio Comonfort and caused the remaining Liberals to move their government to the city of Veracruz. The Conservatives controlled Mexico City and much of central Mexico, but the rest of the states chose whether to side with the Conservative or Liberal government. Being less experienced militarily, the Liberals lost most of the early battles, but the tide turned when Conservatives twice failed to take Veracruz. Liberal victories accumulated thereafter until Conservative forces surrendered in December 1860. While the Conservative forces lost the war, guerrillas remained active in the countryside for years after, and Conservatives in Mexico would conspire with French forces to install Maximilian I as emperor during the following French Intervention in Mexico.
wn.com/Reform_War -
Richard Pakenham
Sir Richard Pakenham (19 May 1797 – 28 October 1868) was a British diplomat.
Pakenham, the fifth son of Admiral Sir Thomas Pakenham, by his wife, Louisa, daughter of the Right Hon. John Staples, was born at Pakenham Hall, Castlepollard, in County Westmeath.
He completed his education at Trinity College, Dublin, and, apparently without waiting to take a degree, entered the foreign office on 15 October 1817 as attaché to his uncle, the Earl of Clancarty, at the Hague. His next appointment was as secretary to the legation in Switzerland (26 January 1824). Promoted on 29 December 1826 to the same position in Mexico, he was made minister plenipotentiary to the United Mexican States on 12 March 1835. In this capacity he seems to have been popular and efficient.
Perhaps the most troublesome of his negotiations was for the abolition of the slave trade: the Mexican government objected to the right of search, and the negotiations dragged on for four years, but he obtained the treaty in 1841. He was in Mexico during the Pastry War between that kingdom and France, and in February 1839 was despatched to Veracruz, with the object of trying to effect a reconciliation between the two countries.
wn.com/Richard_Pakenham -
Robert Peel
Sir Robert Peel, 2nd Baronet (5 February 1788 – 2 July 1850) was a British Conservative statesman who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 10 December 1834 to 8 April 1835, and again from 30 August 1841 to 29 June 1846. While Home Secretary, Peel helped create the modern concept of the police force, leading to officers being known as "bobbies" (in England) and "Peelers" (in Northern Ireland). While Prime Minister after 1841, Peel repealed the Corn Laws and issued the Tamworth Manifesto (1834), leading to the formation of the Conservative Party out of the shattered Tory Party.
Peel was born in Bury, Lancashire, England, to the industrialist and Member of Parliament Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet. His father was one of the richest textile manufacturers of the early Industrial Revolution. Peel was educated first at Hipperholme Grammar School, then at Harrow School and finally Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a double first in classics and mathematics. He is also believed to have attended Bury Grammar School. While living in Tamworth, he is credited with the development of the Tamworth Pig by breeding Irish stock with some local Tamworth pigs.
wn.com/Robert_Peel -
Robert Toombs
Robert Augustus Toombs (July 2, 1810 – December 15, 1885) was an American and Confederate political leader, Whig Party Senator from Georgia, a founding father of the Confederacy, its first Secretary of State, and a minor Confederate general in the Civil War. He feuded bitterly with Confederate president Jefferson Davis. Clawson says he was "a bullish politician whose blend of acerbic wit, fiery demeanor, and political tact aroused the full spectrum of emotions from his constituents and colleagues....[he] could not balance his volatile personality with his otherwise keen political skill."
Born near Washington, Wilkes County, Georgia, Robert Augustus Toombs was the fifth child of Catherine Huling and Robert Toombs. He was of English descent. His father died when he was five, and he entered Franklin College at the University of Georgia in Athens when he was just fourteen. During his time at Franklin College he was a member of the Demosthenian Literary Society, which honors him as one of its most legendary alumni to this day. After the university chastised him for unbecoming conduct in a card-playing incident, Toombs continued his education at Union College, in Schenectady, New York, from which he graduated in 1828. Toombs went on to study law at the University of Virginia Law School in Charlottesville. Shortly after his admission to the Georgia bar, he married his childhood sweetheart, Julia A. Dubose, with whom he had three children.
wn.com/Robert_Toombs -
Sam Houston
Samuel "Sam" Houston (March 2, 1793–July 26, 1863), was a nineteenth-century American statesman, politician, and soldier. He was born in Timber Ridge in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, of Scots-Irish descent. Houston became a key figure in the history of Texas and was elected as the first and third President of the Republic of Texas, U.S. Senator for Texas after it joined the United States, and finally as a governor of the state. He refused to swear loyalty to the Confederacy when Texas seceded from the Union in 1861 with the outbreak of the American Civil War, and was removed from office. To avoid bloodshed, he refused an offer of a Union army to put down the Confederate rebellion. Instead, he retired to Huntsville, Texas, where he died before the end of the Civil War.
His earlier life included migration to Tennessee from Virginia, time spent with the Cherokee Nation (into which he later was adopted as a citizen and took a wife), military service in the War of 1812, and successful participation in Tennessee politics. Houston is the only person in U.S. history to have been the governor of two different states (although other men had served as governors of more than one American territory).
wn.com/Sam_Houston -
Somali Civil War
The Somali Civil War is an ongoing civil war taking place in Somalia. It began in 1991, when a coalition of clan-based armed opposition groups ousted the nation's long-standing military government.
Various factions began competing for influence in the power vacuum that followed, which precipitated an aborted UN peacekeeping attempt in the mid-1990s. A period of decentralization ensued, characterized by a return to customary and religious law in many areas as well as the establishment of autonomous regional governments in the northern part of the country. The early 2000s saw the creation of fledgling interim federal administrations, culminating in the establishment of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004. In 2006, the TFG, assisted by Ethiopian troops, assumed control of most of the nation's southern conflict zones from the newly formed Islamic Courts Union (ICU). The ICU subsequently splintered into more radical groups, notably Al-Shabaab, which have since been fighting the Transitional Federal Government and its AMISOM allies for control of the region. In 2011, a coordinated military operation between the Somali military and multinational forces began, which is believed to represent one of the final stages in the war's Islamist insurgency.
wn.com/Somali_Civil_War -
Stonewall Jackson
Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson (January 21, 1824 – May 10, 1863) was a Confederate general during the American Civil War, and one of the best-known Confederate commanders after General Robert E. Lee. His military career includes the Valley Campaign of 1862 and his service as a corps commander in the Army of Northern Virginia under Robert E. Lee. Confederate pickets accidentally shot him at the Battle of Chancellorsville on May 2, 1863; the general survived with the loss of an arm to amputation. However, he died of complications from pneumonia eight days later. His death was a severe setback for the Confederacy, affecting not only its military prospects, but also the morale of its army and of the general public.
Jackson in death became an icon of Southern heroism and commitment, joining Lee in the pantheon of the "Lost Cause".
Military historians consider Jackson to be one of the most gifted tactical commanders in U.S. history. His Valley Campaign and his envelopment of the Union Army right wing at Chancellorsville are studied worldwide even today as examples of innovative and bold leadership. He excelled as well in other battles: the First Battle of Bull Run (where he received his famous nickname "Stonewall"), Second Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg. Jackson was not universally successful as a commander, however, as displayed by his weak and confused efforts during the Seven Days Battles around Richmond in 1862.
wn.com/Stonewall_Jackson -
Thomas Childs
Thomas Childs was a U.S. soldier who served with distinction during the Mexican-American War.
Childs was born on March 16, 1796, in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, the son and grandson of Revolutionary War veterans. He graduated from West Point in 1814 and fought in the Niagara campaign during the War of 1812 as an officer of artillery.
He was later sent to Florida where he fought against Indians during the Seminole Wars. For his distinguished services there he received a brevet promotion of lieutenant colonel in 1841. Sent to Texas, he took command of an artillery battalion which he commanded at the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. He received a brevet to colonel for these two battles. At the battle of Monterrey, General William J. Worth placed Childs in charge of an attacking column composed of infantry and artillery. He successfully attacked the Bishop's Palace on the western end of the city. He transferred to Winfield Scott's army with the rest of the division and was Worth's chief-of-staff during the Siege of Veracruz. After the Battle of Cerro Gordo General Scott appointed Childs military governor of Jalapa and once Scott moved into the Valley of Mexico Childs was then appointed military governor of Puebla. He held this post during the battles for Mexico City. The day before Mexico City surrendered, Childs' garrison at Puebla came under siege. During the following siege of Puebla Childs repeatedly refused to surrender and was able to successfully repulse the Mexican attacks until a relief force under General Joseph Lane arrived and defeated the besiegers. For his defense of the city Childs was made brevetted to brigadier general.
wn.com/Thomas_Childs -
William Mervine
William Mervine (14 March 1791 – 15 September 1868) was a Rear Admiral in the United States Navy, whose career included service in the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War and the American Civil War.
Born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Mervine was appointed midshipman in January 1809. Serving on Lake Ontario during the War of 1812, he later cruised off Africa and South America, in the West Indies and in the Pacific.
While in command of the Savannah during the war with Mexico, 1846–47, he led a detachment of sailors and United States Marines against Monterey, California, and on 7 July 1846, took possession and hoisted the American flag over the city. On 7–9 October 1846, Mervine led 203 U.S. Marines, 147 American sailors, and volunteers in the invasion of Los Angeles where he lost the Battle of Dominguez Rancho. Fourteen Marines were killed. José Antonio Carrillo, a Californio rancher, led 50 Spanish Californio lancers in that defeat of Mervine and the American forces.
Serving also during the Civil War, he commanded the Gulf Blockading Squadron from 6 May 1861, until obliged by ill health to give up the command on 22 September 1861. He died at Utica, New York.
wn.com/William_Mervine -
Winfield Scott
Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786 – May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general, and unsuccessful presidential candidate of the Whig Party in 1852.
Known as "Old Fuss and Feathers" and the "Grand Old Man of the Army," he served on active duty as a general longer than any other man in American history, and many historians rate him the best American commander of his time. Over the course of his forty-seven-year career, he commanded forces in the War of 1812, the Mexican-American War, the Black Hawk War, the Second Seminole War, and, briefly, the American Civil War, conceiving the Union strategy known as the Anaconda Plan that would be used to defeat the Confederacy. He served as Commanding General of the United States Army for twenty years, longer than any other holder of the office.
A national hero after the Mexican-American War, he served as military governor of Mexico City. Such was his stature that, in 1852, the United States Whig Party passed over its own incumbent President of the United States, Millard Fillmore, to nominate Scott in the United States presidential election. Scott lost to Democrat Franklin Pierce in the general election, but remained a popular national figure, receiving a brevet promotion in 1856 to the rank of lieutenant general, becoming the first American since George Washington to hold that rank.
wn.com/Winfield_Scott -
World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
wn.com/World_War_I -
Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor (November 24, 1784 – July 9, 1850) was the 12th President of the United States (1849–1850) and an American military leader. Initially uninterested in politics, Taylor ran as a Whig in the 1848 presidential election, defeating Lewis Cass. He was a planter and slaveholder based in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Known as "Old Rough and Ready," Taylor had a 40-year military career in the United States Army, serving in the War of 1812, the Black Hawk War, and the Second Seminole War. He achieved fame leading American troops to victory in the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Monterrey during the Mexican–American War.
As president, Taylor angered many Southerners by taking a moderate stance on the issue of slavery. He urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850.
Taylor died July 9, 1850, 16 months after his inauguration; the third-shortest tenure of any President. He is thought to have died of gastroenteritis. President Taylor was succeeded by his Vice President, Millard Fillmore.
wn.com/Zachary_Taylor
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
The Mexican-American War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 88:53
- Updated: 06 Feb 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way.
http://wn.com/The_Mexican-American_War
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way.
Mexican American War - 1of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:22
- Updated: 06 Feb 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_1of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 29 Sep 2009
- views: 127505
- author: AllHistories
Mexican American War - Manifest Destiny Choose Your Own Adventure
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:57
- Updated: 17 Jan 2013
A brief overview of the Mexican-American War, the Mexican Cession, and a little more...we'll look at the California Gold Rush, missionaries, and Mormons and how it all relates to the concept of Manifest Destiny.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_Manifest_Destiny_Choose_Your_Own_Adventure
A brief overview of the Mexican-American War, the Mexican Cession, and a little more...we'll look at the California Gold Rush, missionaries, and Mormons and how it all relates to the concept of Manifest Destiny.
- published: 29 Jan 2012
- views: 4654
- author: Ryan Canton
The Mexican-American War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
Timeline of the Mexican-American War
http://wn.com/The_Mexican-American_War
Mexican American War - 2of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:48
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_2of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 29 Sep 2009
- views: 73500
- author: AllHistories
Mexican American War - 3of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:19
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_3of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 29 Sep 2009
- views: 58937
- author: AllHistories
Mexican American War - 4of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:37
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_4of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 29 Sep 2009
- views: 52141
- author: AllHistories
Mexican American War - 5of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_5of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 29 Sep 2009
- views: 46669
- author: AllHistories
Mexican American War - 6of6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:54
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
http://wn.com/Mexican_American_War_6of6
One of the most controversial conflicts in US history, the Mexican-American War erupted as President James K. Polk sought to extend the borders of the nation to the Pacific, taking by force whatever territory stood in the way. This History Channel special, hosted by Oscar de la Hoya, looks at the war from the perspective of both countries, and chronicles the fighting from its inception to its conclusion with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
- published: 30 Sep 2009
- views: 56857
- author: AllHistories
米墨戦争Mexican-American War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:56
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
アメリカの対外戦争はここから始まった！？ アメリカ独立から半世紀、アメリカとメキシコの間に戦争。 ちなみに「墨」とは、メキシコの漢字表記「墨西哥」の頭文字です。 Flash「信玄の野望」より (up 2006.8.17) www.geocities.co.jp Music「fragment」（Rainyさん提供） www.muzie.co.jp
http://wn.com/米墨戦争Mexican-American_War
アメリカの対外戦争はここから始まった！？ アメリカ独立から半世紀、アメリカとメキシコの間に戦争。 ちなみに「墨」とは、メキシコの漢字表記「墨西哥」の頭文字です。 Flash「信玄の野望」より (up 2006.8.17) www.geocities.co.jp Music「fragment」（Rainyさん提供） www.muzie.co.jp
- published: 17 Jan 2009
- views: 23280
- author: tokuoudouyo
The US War on Drug Cartels in Mexico is a Deadly Failure
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:15
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Mark Karlin: Approximately 50000 or more Mexicans have been killed since Mexican President Felipe Calderon launched a so-called war on drug cartels. more at therealnews.com
http://wn.com/The_US_War_on_Drug_Cartels_in_Mexico_is_a_Deadly_Failure
Mark Karlin: Approximately 50000 or more Mexicans have been killed since Mexican President Felipe Calderon launched a so-called war on drug cartels. more at therealnews.com
- published: 14 Sep 2012
- views: 4415
- author: TheRealNews
US feels impact of Mexico drug war "spillover" 31 Mar 09
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
US officials and politicians, particularly those in states that border Mexico have repeatedly warned of a "spillover" of violence from Mexico's drug violence. And both the Texan and Arizona governors have gone as far as calling for the deployment of the US national guard to the US-Mexico border. But others have disputed the concept of Mexican violence bleeding over the border. Al Jazeera's Monica Villamizar went to Phoenix, Arizona, to try and separate fact from fiction.
http://wn.com/US_feels_impact_of_Mexico_drug_war_spillover_31_Mar_09
US officials and politicians, particularly those in states that border Mexico have repeatedly warned of a "spillover" of violence from Mexico's drug violence. And both the Texan and Arizona governors have gone as far as calling for the deployment of the US national guard to the US-Mexico border. But others have disputed the concept of Mexican violence bleeding over the border. Al Jazeera's Monica Villamizar went to Phoenix, Arizona, to try and separate fact from fiction.
- published: 31 Mar 2009
- views: 83387
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Raiders of Old California (1957)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 71:53
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
It is California, 1847, the Mexican American war is over and a crooked American cavalry officer and his men seize land from Mexican residents. But the Marshall and a courageous settler come to their defense. CAST: Jim Davis: Captain Angus Clyde McKane Arleen Whelan: Julie Johnson Faron Young: Marshal Marty Robbins: Cpl. Timothy Boyle Lee Van Cleef: Sgt. Damon Pardee Louis Jean Heydt: Judge Ward Young Harry Lauter: Lt. Scott Johnson Bill Coontz: Opie Don Diamond: Pepe Director: Albert C. Gannaway Production Company: Republic Pictures Corporation Audio/Visual: sound, b&w;
http://wn.com/Raiders_of_Old_California_1957
It is California, 1847, the Mexican American war is over and a crooked American cavalry officer and his men seize land from Mexican residents. But the Marshall and a courageous settler come to their defense. CAST: Jim Davis: Captain Angus Clyde McKane Arleen Whelan: Julie Johnson Faron Young: Marshal Marty Robbins: Cpl. Timothy Boyle Lee Van Cleef: Sgt. Damon Pardee Louis Jean Heydt: Judge Ward Young Harry Lauter: Lt. Scott Johnson Bill Coontz: Opie Don Diamond: Pepe Director: Albert C. Gannaway Production Company: Republic Pictures Corporation Audio/Visual: sound, b&w;
- published: 29 May 2011
- views: 45719
- author: publicdomain101
Taking a Stand at Palo Alto
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 24 May 2012
A documentary on the Battle of Palo Alto, the first battle of the Mexican-American War in Brownsville, Texas. It was made by students from Greenlight Productions, a club at Homer Hanna High School with the help of the National Park Service and professional reenactors. It won the Region 7 History Fair and placed 3rd at the Texas History Fair in 2006. Created by Allen Tullos and Marcus Ayala.
http://wn.com/Taking_a_Stand_at_Palo_Alto
A documentary on the Battle of Palo Alto, the first battle of the Mexican-American War in Brownsville, Texas. It was made by students from Greenlight Productions, a club at Homer Hanna High School with the help of the National Park Service and professional reenactors. It won the Region 7 History Fair and placed 3rd at the Texas History Fair in 2006. Created by Allen Tullos and Marcus Ayala.
- published: 22 Oct 2007
- views: 6994
- author: Allen Tullos
The Mexican Drug War Hits America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:37
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
Mexico's drug war comes to the US as statistics show that kidnappings and drug cartel hits are on the rise. Casey Wian reports in this segment from CNN's Lou Dobbs Tonight.
http://wn.com/The_Mexican_Drug_War_Hits_America
Mexico's drug war comes to the US as statistics show that kidnappings and drug cartel hits are on the rise. Casey Wian reports in this segment from CNN's Lou Dobbs Tonight.
- published: 24 Sep 2008
- views: 14808
- author: AmericanDrugWar
DT Guest Lecture Series - Dr. Peter Dale Scott on the American War Machine
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:03
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
We speak to Dr. Peter Dale Scott on his latest book, "American War Machine." We discuss the politically correct atmosphere in education, CIA drug trafficking, assassination, deep politics and the drug war in Mexico. You can find Dr. Scott at: peterdalescott.net
http://wn.com/DT_Guest_Lecture_Series_Dr_Peter_Dale_Scott_on_the_American_War_Machine
We speak to Dr. Peter Dale Scott on his latest book, "American War Machine." We discuss the politically correct atmosphere in education, CIA drug trafficking, assassination, deep politics and the drug war in Mexico. You can find Dr. Scott at: peterdalescott.net
- published: 26 Mar 2012
- views: 1712
- author: 001HR
US Military Tribute
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:37
- Updated: 02 Feb 2013
From the American Revolution to the War on Terror. We thank you. *** The song is "I am Lincoln" by Steve Jablonsky. The clips came from a variety of sources: Movies: The Patriot (American Revolution) Gettysburg (American Civil War) Glory (American Civil War) Rough Riders (Spanish-American War) Sgt. York (World War I) Saving Private Ryan (World War II) Band of Brothers (World War II) We Were Soldiers (Vietnam War) Black Hawk Down (Operation Restore Hope - Somalia) Documentaries: First Invasion (War of 1812, History Channel) The Mexican-American War (History Channel) Actual Footage: Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima Korean War Operation Desert Storm War on Terror
http://wn.com/US_Military_Tribute
From the American Revolution to the War on Terror. We thank you. *** The song is "I am Lincoln" by Steve Jablonsky. The clips came from a variety of sources: Movies: The Patriot (American Revolution) Gettysburg (American Civil War) Glory (American Civil War) Rough Riders (Spanish-American War) Sgt. York (World War I) Saving Private Ryan (World War II) Band of Brothers (World War II) We Were Soldiers (Vietnam War) Black Hawk Down (Operation Restore Hope - Somalia) Documentaries: First Invasion (War of 1812, History Channel) The Mexican-American War (History Channel) Actual Footage: Mount Suribachi, Iwo Jima Korean War Operation Desert Storm War on Terror
- published: 29 Jun 2010
- views: 5089
- author: spiffalien
Noam Chomsky - US 'War on Drugs' in Latin America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:01
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
Professor Noam Chomsky PhD talks about the real purpose of the US 'war on drugs' in Latin America. Filmed by Paul Hubbard at Massachusetts Institute of Technology on 12-15-09
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky_US_'War_on_Drugs'_in_Latin_America
Professor Noam Chomsky PhD talks about the real purpose of the US 'war on drugs' in Latin America. Filmed by Paul Hubbard at Massachusetts Institute of Technology on 12-15-09
- published: 19 Dec 2009
- views: 21983
- author: PHubb
The new US-Mexico war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:28
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Mexican President Felipe Calderon has made it a top priority to rid his country of ruthless drug cartels. The response has been unprecedented violence across Mexico, with ruthless killings taking place in public squares and a Mexican police force scared to take to the streets, as they fear for their lives. A top level team of United States officials landed in Mexico today to collaborate on a plan to quell the violence and help Calderon take back his streets from the drug cartels. Sanho Tree, a fellow at the Institute for Policy Studies joins Alyona to discuss the significane of US officials in Mexico and whether the new plan is an adequate one.
http://wn.com/The_new_US-Mexico_war
Mexican President Felipe Calderon has made it a top priority to rid his country of ruthless drug cartels. The response has been unprecedented violence across Mexico, with ruthless killings taking place in public squares and a Mexican police force scared to take to the streets, as they fear for their lives. A top level team of United States officials landed in Mexico today to collaborate on a plan to quell the violence and help Calderon take back his streets from the drug cartels. Sanho Tree, a fellow at the Institute for Policy Studies joins Alyona to discuss the significane of US officials in Mexico and whether the new plan is an adequate one.
- published: 23 Mar 2010
- views: 5549
- author: TheAlyonaShow
Civil War on US Border.....Mexican Citizens Fed Up
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:04
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
Violence is escalating in many towns along the US - Mexico border. The people are sick of the government and the drug dealers...... .
http://wn.com/Civil_War_on_US_BorderMexican_Citizens_Fed_Up
Violence is escalating in many towns along the US - Mexico border. The people are sick of the government and the drug dealers...... .
- published: 23 Feb 2009
- views: 12431
- author: JExecutiveOrder11110
49 Headless Bodies - War On Drugs In Mexico Is A Failure
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:42
- Updated: 03 Feb 2013
Via The Raw Story: "Mexican police on Monday searched for perpetrators of a drug-war massacre in which 49 people were killed, decapitated, dismembered and left in plastic bags on the side of a highway. The mutilated corpses, whose hands had been cut off to prevent fingerprint identification, were discovered close to the northern city of Monterrey, 180 kilometers (110 miles) from the US border...".* Ana Kasparian and Cenk Uygur of The Young Turks blame the failed drug war imported from the United States. *Read more from Agence France-Presse: www.rawstory.com Subscribe to The Young Turks: bit.ly Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com The Largest Online New Show in the World. Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/49_Headless_Bodies_War_On_Drugs_In_Mexico_Is_A_Failure
Via The Raw Story: "Mexican police on Monday searched for perpetrators of a drug-war massacre in which 49 people were killed, decapitated, dismembered and left in plastic bags on the side of a highway. The mutilated corpses, whose hands had been cut off to prevent fingerprint identification, were discovered close to the northern city of Monterrey, 180 kilometers (110 miles) from the US border...".* Ana Kasparian and Cenk Uygur of The Young Turks blame the failed drug war imported from the United States. *Read more from Agence France-Presse: www.rawstory.com Subscribe to The Young Turks: bit.ly Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com The Largest Online New Show in the World. Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 15 May 2012
- views: 70006
- author: TheYoungTurks
7th Hour - Mexican-American War - Tina, Miranda, Kailee
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:03
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/7th_Hour_Mexican-American_War_Tina,_Miranda,_Kailee
4th Hour - Mexican American War Jared (C), Ryan (H), Max (H), Ethan (C)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:56
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/4th_Hour_Mexican_American_War_Jared_C,_Ryan_H,_Max_H,_Ethan_C
photo: US Army / Chief Warrant Officer 4 Daniel McClinton
06 Feb 2013
"The art of war is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin." Sun Tzu, "The Art of War," 4th Century BCE ... embassies and the ongoing drone wars, they instead attempted to trap Hagel with a statement made back in January of 2007 ... In the context of the U.S.-Iraqi War as a ill-fated conflict, then, American troops should have been withdrawn as quickly as possible....(size: 6.2Kb)
photo: AP / Jerome Delay
06 Feb 2013
GAO, Mali. French-led forces have killed hundreds of Islamists in fighting to reclaim northern Mali and with the rebels' last bastion secured, France said Tuesday it will begin withdrawing its troops from March ... The defence ministry said the Islamists died in French air strikes on vehicles transporting fighters and equipment, and in "direct combat in Konna and Gao", key central and northern towns ... "The combat isn't over ... - AFP. ....(size: 4.8Kb)
photo: AP / Vahid Salemi
05 Feb 2013
Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has arrived in Cairo, marking the first visit to Egypt by an Iranian president since Iran's 1979 Islamic revolution. Ahmadinejad flew into the capital, Cairo, to attend a summit of the Organisation of Islamic Co-operation (OIC), which begins on Wednesday ... "My wish is bigger than this ... Iran does not recognise Israel ... Agencies ... Bangladesh politician jailed for war crimes ... Bangladesh politician jailed for war crimes ... ....(size: 17.9Kb)
photo: AP / Rebecca Blackwell
06 Feb 2013
Nigeria and Ghana may meet in the Africa Cup of Nations final – but only if they can beat teams bidding for a first victory ... Photograph. Ian Walton/Getty Images. As the dust settles after the quarter-finals, the landscape looks strangely unfamiliar ... The atmosphere in Mali is unbelievable – people are much happier because we are getting close to the end of the war and because the national football team is in the semi-finals ... ....(size: 8.2Kb)
photo: US Navy / U.S. Army photo by Sgt. Michael Baltz
06 Feb 2013
As many as 54 countries have been complicit in CIA's extraordinary rendition operations in which terrorism suspects were held in secret prisons overseas or turned over to foreign governments for interrogation, a human rights organisation has said in a report ... The report by the Open Society Justice Initiative said its information was based on "credible public sources" and "reputable human rights organisations" ... Agencies ... ....(size: 18.7Kb)
Indianapolis Star
06 Feb 2013
It's a Mexican-American city. Go into a local barbershop with a Mexican-American clientele on the same day that Latino protesters march through U.S ... Many Mexican-Americans appreciate the contributions of immigrants, even those who came illegally ... And their children will unleash their fury on anyone who dares to say otherwise -- even, ironically, a Mexican-American congressman who is in their corner....(size: 4.4Kb)
CNN
06 Feb 2013
Mexican authorities are pursuing some strong leads in the case, the official said ... The victims -- Spanish nationals ranging in age from 20 to 34 -- are now under the protection of Mexican authorities ... A seventh woman, a Mexican, was spared because of her nationality, Guerrero state Attorney General Martha Garzon said in a radio interview ... Iraq war ... Star Wars spinoffs there will be....(size: 8.0Kb)
The Washington Times
06 Feb 2013
Bloomberg
06 Feb 2013
Bill Gross’s ability to drive up the value of Mexican bonds is showing no signs of fading. Yields on Mexican debt due in 2024 fell to an all-time low 5.07 percent after Gross, Pacific Investment Management Co.’s co-chief investment officer, said yesterday the peso was a “great currency” while praising the nation’s low debt level and interest-rate stability in a Twitter post....(size: 7.6Kb)
GQ Magazine
06 Feb 2013
The 34-year-old Mexican actor is slouched on a sofa in London's Athenaeum hotel, striped beanie tugged low over his ears, when GQ asks him about the subject of his new film No, Chilean dictator General Pinochet ... George Bush was a president who used democracy as an excuse for wars, for imposing free elections on another country ... Do you think there is a different importance for Mexican film makers?....(size: 7.6Kb)
The Daily Telegraph
06 Feb 2013
A nine-year-old Mexican girl has given birth to a girl of her own, according to local authorities and family members ... The Pan American Games ... 'I go shooting all the time' North Korea 'under martial law' North Korea to carry out third nuclear test 'aimed at US' Lego accused of racism with Star Wars set Justin Bieber fans urged to cut themselves to stop him from smoking weed....(size: 9.7Kb)
Houston Chronicle
06 Feb 2013
ACAPULCO, Mexico (AP) — Authorities have information they hope will lead them to the gang of armed, masked men who raped six Spanish tourists in the Mexican resort of Acapulco, the attorney general in the southern state of Guerrero said ... The beach home on an idyllic stretch of coastline had been rented by six Spanish men, six Spanish women and a Mexican woman ... The Mexican woman was not raped....(size: 18.1Kb)
The Times of India
06 Feb 2013
WASHINGTON. Bossy mothers may limit their children's creativity, possibly making the kids enjoy being with them less, according to a new study ... "It's often noted that European-American mothers are less directive generally than African-American and Mexican-American mothers, and that's also what we found," Ispa said. ....(size: 1.7Kb)
The Examiner
06 Feb 2013
Her first action came in Mexican waters on April 9, 1914 during the Tampico Incident and later made several sorties into the North Sea during World War l. When the US entered into World War ll, the Texas served as an escort ship to convoys crossing the Atlantic Ocean ... In 1948, the USS Texas was decommissioned, but not before earning 5 battle stars for service in World War II....(size: 6.4Kb)
U~T San Diego
06 Feb 2013
The Mexican Consulate there said that they were Mexican citizens ... The Mexican government has been working with families of those dead victims who were Mexican citizens to return their bodies to Mexico, said Carolina Zaragoza Flores, head of the Mexican Consulate in San Bernardino. At least four of the fatalities were Mexican citizens, she said Monday night ... and Mexican nationality, Zaragoza said in an interview ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
LA Daily News
06 Feb 2013
According to the mayor of Acapulco, five masked men burst into a house the Spaniards had rented on the outskirts of Acapulco, in a low-key area near the beach, and held a group of six Spanish men and one Mexican woman at gunpoint, while they raped the Spanish women before dawn on Monday ... The beach home on an idyllic stretch of coastline had been rented by six Spanish men, six Spanish women and a Mexican woman....(size: 2.8Kb)
Irish Times
06 Feb 2013
Six Spanish tourists were raped by a gang of armed, masked men in the Mexican resort of Acapulco, the latest chapter of violence that has tarnished the once-glamorous resort. The vicious, hours-long attack occurred before dawn on Monday at a house that six Spanish men, six Spanish women and a Mexican woman had rented on a quiet, idyllic stretch of beach on the outskirts of Acapulco ... The Mexican woman was not raped....(size: 3.5Kb)
The News Tribune
06 Feb 2013
"The Riptide Ultra-Glide" by Tim Dorsey; Morrow ($25.99). While a mystery's twists and turns will keep readers turning the pages until the wee hours of the night, the characters are what make readers return, novel after novel ... Series "hero" Serge A ... There's also a war erupting between the Kentucky mafia and Mexican drug lords ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)
|
|||||
| History of the United States | |
|---|---|
 This article is part of a series |
|
| Timeline | |
| Pre-Colonial period | |
| Colonial period | |
| 1776–1789 | |
| 1789–1849 | |
| 1849–1865 | |
| 1865–1918 | |
| 1918–1945 | |
| 1945–1964 | |
| 1964–1980 | |
| 1980–1991 | |
| 1991–present | |
| Topic | |
| Civil Rights (1896–1954) | |
| Civil Rights (1955–1968) | |
| Civil War | |
| Cultural history | |
| Demographic history | |
| Diplomatic history | |
| Economic history | |
| Historiography | |
| Military history | |
| Southern history | |
| Frontier and Western history | |
| Technological and industrial history | |
| Territorial evolution | |
| Women's history | |
|
United States Portal |
| History of Mexico | |
|---|---|
 This article is part of a series |
|
| Pre-Columbian Mexico | |
| Spanish conquest | |
| Colonial period | |
| War of Independence | |
| First Empire | |
| First Republic | |
| War with Texas | |
| Pastry War | |
| Mexican–American War | |
| Second Federal Republic | |
| The Reform | |
| Reform War | |
| French intervention | |
| Second Empire | |
| Restored Republic | |
| The Porfiriato | |
| Revolution | |
| La decena trágica | |
| Plan of Guadalupe | |
| Tampico Affair | |
| Occupation of Veracruz | |
| Cristero War | |
| The Maximato | |
| Petroleum nationalization | |
| Mexican miracle | |
| Students of 1968 | |
| La Década Perdida | |
| 1982 economic crisis | |
| Zapatista Insurgency | |
| 1994 economic crisis | |
| Downfall of the PRI | |
| Mexican Drug War | |
|
Mexico Portal |
The Mexican–American War, also known as the First American Intervention, the Mexican War, or the U.S.–Mexican War,[4][5] was an armed conflict between the United States of America and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution.
Combat operations lasted a year and a half, from spring 1846 to fall 1847. American forces quickly occupied New Mexico and California, then invaded parts of Northeastern Mexico and Northwest Mexico; meanwhile, the Pacific Squadron conducted a blockade, and took control of several garrisons on the Pacific coast further south in Baja California. After Mexico would still not agree to the cession of its northern territories, another American army captured Mexico City, and the war ended in victory of the U.S.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo specified the major consequence of the war: the forced Mexican Cession of the territories of Alta California and New Mexico to the U.S. in exchange for $18 million. In addition, the United States forgave debt owed by the Mexican government to U.S. citizens. Mexico accepted the Rio Grande as its national border, and the loss of Texas.
American territorial expansion to the Pacific coast had been the goal of President James K. Polk, the leader of the Democratic Party.[6] However, the war was highly controversial in the U.S., with the Whig Party and anti-slavery elements strongly opposed. Heavy American casualties and high monetary cost were also criticized. The political aftermath of the war raised the slavery issue in the U.S., leading to intense debates that pointed to civil war; the Compromise of 1850 provided a brief respite.
In Mexico, terminology for the war include (primera) intervención estadounidense en México (United States' (First) Intervention in Mexico), invasión estadounidense a México (The United States' Invasion of Mexico), and guerra del 47 (The War of 1847).
Contents
|
Background[link]
Having just attained Independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico was fraught with internal struggles that verged on civil war, however it was relatively united in refusing to recognize the independence of Texas. Mexico threatened war with the U.S. if it annexed Texas.[citation needed] Meanwhile, President Polk's spirit of Manifest Destiny was focusing U.S. interest on westward expansion.
Designs on California[link]
In 1842, the American minister in Mexico Waddy Thompson, Jr. suggested Mexico might be willing to cede California to settle debts, saying: "As to Texas I regard it as of very little value compared with California, the richest, the most beautiful and the healthiest country in the world ... with the acquisition of Upper California we should have the same ascendency on the Pacific ... France and England both have had their eyes upon it." President John Tyler's administration suggested a tripartite pact that would settle the Oregon boundary dispute and provide for the cession of the port of San Francisco; Lord Aberdeen declined to participate but said Britain had no objection to U.S. territorial acquisition there.[7]
For his part, the British minister in Mexico Richard Pakenham wrote in 1841 to Lord Palmerston urging "to establish an English population in the magnificent Territory of Upper California," saying that "no part of the World offering greater natural advantages for the establishment of an English colony ... by all means desirable ... that California, once ceasing to belong to Mexico, should not fall into the hands of any power but England ... daring and adventurous speculators in the United States have already turned their thoughts in this direction." But by the time the letter reached London, Sir Robert Peel's Tory government with a Little England policy had come to power and rejected the proposal as expensive and a potential source of conflict.[8][9]
Republic of Texas[link]
In 1810, Moses Austin, a banker from Missouri, was granted a large tract of land in Texas, but died before he could bring his plan of recruiting American settlers for the land to fruition. His son, Stephen F. Austin, succeeded and brought over 300 families into Texas, which started the steady trend of American migration into the Texas frontier. Austin's colony was the most successful of several colonies authorized by the Mexican government. The Mexican government intended the anglophone settlers to act as a buffer between the existing Mexican residents and the marauding Comanches, but the anglo colonists tended to settle where there was decent farmland and trade connections with American Louisiana, rather than eastward where they would have been an effective buffer. In 1829, as a result of the large influx of American immigrants, the Americans outnumbered Mexicans in the Texas territory. The Mexican government decided to reinstate the property tax, increase tariffs on U.S. shipped goods, and prohibit slavery. The settlers and many Mexican businessmen in the region rejected the demands, which led to Mexico closing Texas to additional immigration. However, Americans continued to flow into the Texas territory.
In 1834, General Antonio López de Santa Anna became the centralist dictator of Mexico, abandoning the federal system. He decided to quash the semi-independence of Texas, having succeeded in doing so in Coahuila (in 1824, Mexico had merged Texas and Coahuila into the massive state of Coahuila y Tejas). Finally, Stephen F. Austin called Texans to arms; they declared independence from Mexico in 1836, and after Santa Anna defeated the Texans at the Alamo, he was defeated by the Texan Army commanded by General Sam Houston and captured at the Battle of San Jacinto and signed a treaty recognizing Texas independence. Texas consolidated its status as an independent republic and received official recognition from Britain, France, and the U.S., which all advised Mexico not to try to reconquer the new nation. Most Texans wanted to join the U.S. but annexation of Texas was contentious in the U.S. Congress, where Whigs were largely opposed. In 1845 Texas agreed to the offer of annexation by the U.S. Congress. Texas became the 28th state on December 29, 1845.[10]
Origins of the war[link]
The Mexican government had long warned the United States that annexation of Texas would mean war. Because the Mexican Congress had refused to recognize Texan independence, Mexico saw Texas as a rebellious territory that would be retaken. Britain and France, which recognized the independence of Texas, repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war. When Texas joined the U.S. as a state in 1845, the Mexican government broke diplomatic relations with the U.S.
The border of Texas as an independent state had never been settled. The Republic of Texas claimed land up to the Rio Grande based on the Treaties of Velasco, but Mexico refused to accept these as valid, claiming the border as the Nueces River. Reference to the Rio Grande boundary of Texas was omitted from the U.S. Congress' annexation resolution to help secure passage after the annexation treaty failed in the Senate. President Polk claimed the Rio Grande boundary, and this provoked a dispute with Mexico. In June 1845, Polk sent General Zachary Taylor to Texas, and by October 3,500 Americans were on the Nueces River, prepared to defend Texas from a Mexican invasion. Polk wanted to protect the border and also coveted the continent clear to the Pacific Ocean. Polk had instructed the Pacific Squadron to seize the California ports if Mexico declared war while staying on good terms with the inhabitants. At the same time he wrote to Thomas Larkin, the American consul in Alta California, disclaiming American ambitions in California but offering to support independence from Mexico or voluntary accession to the U.S., and warning that a British or French takeover would be opposed.[11]
To end another war-scare (Fifty-Four Forty or Fight) with Britain over Oregon Country, Polk signed the Oregon Treaty dividing the territory, angering northern Democrats who felt he was prioritizing Southern expansion over Northern expansion.
In the winter of 1845–46, the federally commissioned explorer John C. Frémont and a group of armed men appeared in California. After telling the Mexican governor and Larkin he was merely buying supplies on the way to Oregon, he instead entered the populated area of California and visited Santa Cruz and the Salinas Valley, explaining he had been looking for a seaside home for his mother.[12] The Mexican authorities became alarmed and ordered him to leave. Fremont responded by building a fort on Gavilan Peak and raising the American flag. Larkin sent word that his actions were counterproductive. Fremont left California in March but returned to California and assisted the Bear Flag Revolt in Sonoma, where many American immigrants stated that they were playing “the Texas game” and declared California’s independence from Mexico.
On November 10, 1845,[13] Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with an offer of $25 million ($671,538,462 today) for the Rio Grande border in Texas and Mexico’s provinces of Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México. U.S. expansionists wanted California to thwart British ambitions in the area and to gain a port on the Pacific Ocean. Polk authorized Slidell to forgive the $3 million ($81 million today) owed to U.S. citizens for damages caused by the Mexican War of Independence[14] and pay another $25 to $30 million ($672 million to $806 million today) in exchange for the two territories.[15]
Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate. In 1846 alone, the presidency changed hands four times, the war ministry six times, and the finance ministry sixteen times.[16] However, Mexican public opinion and all political factions agreed that selling the territories to the United States would tarnish the national honor.[17] Mexicans who opposed direct conflict with the United States, including President José Joaquín de Herrera, were viewed as traitors.[18] Military opponents of de Herrera, supported by populist newspapers, considered Slidell's presence in Mexico City an insult. When de Herrera considered receiving Slidell to settle the problem of Texas annexation peacefully, he was accused of treason and deposed. After a more nationalistic government under General Mariano Paredes y Arrillaga came to power, it publicly reaffirmed Mexico's claim to Texas;[18] Slidell, convinced that Mexico should be "chastised", returned to the U.S.[19]
Conflict over the Nueces Strip[link]
President James K. Polk ordered General Taylor and his forces south to the Rio Grande, entering the territory that Mexicans disputed. Mexico laid claim to the Nueces River—about 150 mi (240 km) north of the Rio Grande—as its border with Texas; the U.S. claimed it was the Rio Grande, citing the 1836 Treaties of Velasco. Mexico, however, under the leadership of General Lorenzo Chlamon,[20] rejected the treaties and refused to negotiate; it claimed all of Texas. Taylor ignored Mexican demands to withdraw to the Nueces. He constructed a makeshift fort (later known as Fort Brown/Fort Texas) on the banks of the Rio Grande opposite the city of Matamoros, Tamaulipas. Mexican forces under General Mariano Arista prepared for war. On April 25, 1846, a 2,000-strong Mexican cavalry detachment attacked a 70-man U.S. patrol that had been sent into the contested territory north of the Rio Grande and south of the Nueces River. The Mexican cavalry routed the patrol, killing 16 U.S. soldiers in what later became known as the Thornton Affair, after Captain Thornton, who was in command.[21]
Declaration of war[link]
|
|
|||||
Polk received word of the Thornton Affair, which, added to the Mexican government's rejection of Slidell, Polk believed, constituted a casus belli (case for war).[22] His message to Congress on May 11, 1846 stated that "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon American soil."[23][24] Congress approved the declaration of war on May 13, with southern Democrats in strong support. Sixty-seven Whigs voted against the war on a key slavery amendment,[25] but on the final passage only 14 Whigs voted no,[25] including Rep. John Quincy Adams. Congress declared war on Mexico on May 13, 1846 after only having a few hours to debate. Although President Paredes's issuance of a manifesto on May 23 is sometimes considered the declaration of war, Mexico officially declared war by Congress on July 7.
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna[link]
Once the U.S. declared war on Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna wrote to Mexico City saying he no longer had aspirations to the presidency, but would eagerly use his military experience to fight off the foreign invasion of Mexico as he had before. President Valentín Gómez Farías was desperate enough to accept the offer and allowed Santa Anna to return. Meanwhile, Santa Anna had secretly been dealing with representatives of the U.S., pledging that if he were allowed back in Mexico through the U.S. naval blockades, he would work to sell all contested territory to the United States at a reasonable price.[26] Once back in Mexico at the head of an army, Santa Anna reneged on both agreements. Santa Anna declared himself president again and unsuccessfully tried to fight off the U.S. invasion.
Opposition to the war[link]
|
In the U.S., increasingly divided by sectional rivalry, the war was a partisan issue and an essential element in the origins of the American Civil War. Most Whigs in the North and South opposed it;[27] most Democrats supported it.[28] Southern Democrats, animated by a popular belief in Manifest Destiny, supported it in hope of adding slave-owning territory to the South and avoiding being outnumbered by the faster-growing North. John O'Sullivan, the editor of the "Democratic Review", coined this phrase in its context, stating that it must be "Our manifest destiny to overspread the continent allotted by Providence for the free development of our yearly multiplying millions."[29] Northern anti-slavery elements feared the rise of a Slave Power; Whigs generally wanted to strengthen the economy with industrialization, not expand it with more land. Democrats wanted more land; northern Democrats were attracted by the possibilities in the far northwest. Joshua Giddings led a group of dissenters in Washington D.C. He called the war with Mexico "an aggressive, unholy, and unjust war," and voted against supplying soldiers and weapons. He said:
In the murder of Mexicans upon their own soil, or in robbing them of their country, I can take no part either now or here-after. The guilt of these crimes must rest on others. I will not participate in them.[30]
Fellow Whig Abraham Lincoln contested the causes for the war and demanded to know exactly where Thornton had been attacked and American blood shed. "Show me the spot," he demanded. Whig leader Robert Toombs of Georgia declared:
This war is nondescript .... We charge the President with usurping the war-making power ... with seizing a country ... which had been for centuries, and was then in the possession of the Mexicans .... Let us put a check upon this lust of dominion. We had territory enough, Heaven knew.[31]
Northern abolitionists attacked the war as an attempt by slave-owners to strengthen the grip of slavery and thus ensure their continued influence in the federal government. Acting on his convictions, Henry David Thoreau was jailed for his refusal to pay taxes to support the war, and penned his famous essay, Civil Disobedience.
Former President John Quincy Adams also expressed his belief that the war was primarily an effort to expand slavery in a speech he gave before the House on May 25, 1836.[32] In response to such concerns, Democratic Congressman David Wilmot introduced the Wilmot Proviso, which aimed to prohibit slavery in new territory acquired from Mexico. Wilmot's proposal did not pass Congress, but it spurred further hostility between the factions.
Defense of the war[link]
Besides alleging that the actions of Mexican military forces within the disputed boundary lands north of the Rio Grande constituted an attack on American soil, the war's advocates viewed the territories of New Mexico and California as only nominally Mexican possessions with very tenuous ties to Mexico, and as actually unsettled, ungoverned, and unprotected frontier lands, whose non-aboriginal population, where there was any at all, comprised a substantial—in places even a majority—American component, and which were feared to be under imminent threat of acquisition by America's rival on the continent, the British.
President Polk reprised these arguments in his Third Annual Message to Congress on December 7, 1847,[33] in which he scrupulously detailed his administration's position on the origins of the conflict, the measures the U.S. had taken to avoid hostilities, and the justification for declaring war. He also elaborated upon the many outstanding financial claims by American citizens against Mexico and argued that, in view of the country's insolvency, the cession of some large portion of its northern territories was the only indemnity realistically available as compensation. This helped to rally Congressional Democrats to his side, ensuring passage of his war measures and bolstering support for the war in the U.S.
Opening hostilities[link]
The Siege of Fort Texas began on May 3. Mexican artillery at Matamoros opened fire on Fort Texas, which replied with its own guns. The bombardment continued for 160 hours[34] and expanded as Mexican forces gradually surrounded the fort. Thirteen U.S. soldiers were injured during the bombardment, and two were killed.[34] Among the dead was Jacob Brown, after whom the fort was later named.[35]
On May 8, Zachary Taylor and 2,400 troops arrived to relieve the fort.[36] However, Arista rushed north and intercepted him with a force of 3,400 at Palo Alto. The Americans employed "flying artillery", the American term for horse artillery, a type of mobile light artillery that was mounted on horse carriages with the entire crew riding horses into battle. It had a devastating effect on the Mexican army. The Mexicans replied with cavalry skirmishes and their own artillery. The U.S. flying artillery somewhat demoralized the Mexican side, and seeking terrain more to their advantage, the Mexicans retreated to the far side of a dry riverbed (resaca) during the night. It provided a natural fortification, but during the retreat, Mexican troops were scattered, making communication difficult. During the Battle of Resaca de la Palma the next day, the two sides engaged in fierce hand to hand combat. The U.S. cavalry managed to capture the Mexican artillery, causing the Mexican side to retreat—a retreat that turned into a rout.[34] Fighting on unfamiliar terrain, his troops fleeing in retreat, Arista found it impossible to rally his forces. Mexican casualties were heavy, and the Mexicans were forced to abandon their artillery and baggage. Fort Brown inflicted additional casualties as the withdrawing troops passed by the fort. Many Mexican soldiers drowned trying to swim across the Rio Grande.
Conduct of the war[link]
See also: Mexican–American War campaigns
After the declaration of war, U.S. forces invaded Mexican territory on two main fronts. The U.S. War Department sent a U.S. cavalry force under Stephen W. Kearny to invade western Mexico from Jefferson Barracks and Fort Leavenworth, reinforced by a Pacific fleet under John D. Sloat. This was done primarily because of concerns that Britain might also try to seize the area. Two more forces, one under John E. Wool and the other under Taylor, were ordered to occupy Mexico as far south as the city of Monterrey.
California campaign[link]
|
|||||
|
|
|||||
Although the U.S. declared war against Mexico on May 13, 1846, it took over a month (until the middle of June 1846) for definite word of war to get to California. American consul Thomas O. Larkin, stationed in Monterey, on hearing rumors of war tried to maintain the peace between the States and the small Mexican military garrison commanded by José Castro. U.S. Army captain John C. Frémont, with about 60 well-armed men, had entered California in December, 1845, and was slowly marching to Oregon when he received word that war between Mexico and the U.S. was imminent. So began his chapter of the war, the "Bear Flag Revolt."[37]
On June 15, 1846, some thirty settlers, mostly American citizens, staged a revolt and seized the small Mexican garrison in Sonoma. They raised the "Bear Flag" of the California Republic over Sonoma. The republic was in existence scarcely more than a week before the U.S. Army, led by Frémont, took over on June 23. The California state flag today is based on this original Bear Flag and still contains the words, "California Republic".
Commodore John Drake Sloat, upon hearing of imminent war and the revolt in Sonoma, ordered his naval and marine forces to occupy Monterey, the capital, on July 7 and raise the flag of the U.S.; San Francisco, then called Yerba Buena, was occupied on July 9. On July 15, Sloat transferred his command to Commodore Robert F. Stockton, a much more aggressive leader, who put Frémont's forces under his orders. On July 19, Frémont's "California Battalion" swelled to about 160 additional men from newly arrived settlers near Sacramento, and he entered Monterey in a joint operation with some of Stockton's sailors and marines. The word had been received: war was official. The U.S. forces easily took over the north of California; within days they controlled San Francisco, Sonoma, and the privately owned Sutter's Fort in Sacramento.
From Alta California (the present-day American state of California), Mexican General José Castro and Governor Pío Pico fled southward. When Stockton's forces, sailing southward to San Diego, stopped in San Pedro, he sent 50 U.S. Marines ashore; this force entered Los Angeles unresisted on August 13, 1846. With the success of this so-called "Siege of Los Angeles", the nearly bloodless conquest of California seemed complete.
Stockton, however, left too small a force in Los Angeles, and the Californios, acting on their own, and without help from Mexico, led by José María Flores, forced the American garrison to retreat, late in September. The rancho vaqueros who had banded together to defend their land fought as Californio lancers; they were a force the Americans had not anticipated. More than three hundred American reinforcements, sent by Stockton and led by Captain William Mervine, U.S.N., were repulsed in the Battle of Dominguez Rancho, fought from October 7 through 9, 1846, near San Pedro. Fourteen American Marines were killed.
Meanwhile, General Stephen W. Kearny, with a squadron of 139 dragoons that he had led on a grueling march across New Mexico, Arizona, and the Sonoran Desert, finally reached California on December 6, 1846, and fought in a small battle with Californio lancers at the Battle of San Pasqual near San Diego, California, where 22 of Kearny's troops were killed.
Kearny's command was bloodied and in poor condition but pushed on until they had to establish a defensive position on "Mule" Hill near present-day Escondido. The Californios besieged the dragoons for four days until Commodore Stockton's relief force arrived. The resupplied, combined American force marched north from San Diego on December 29 and entered the Los Angeles area on January 8, 1847,[38] linking up with Frémont's men there. American forces totaling 607 soldiers and marines fought and defeated a Californio force of about 300 men under the command of Captain-general Flores in the decisive Battle of Rio San Gabriel.[39] The next day, January 9, 1847, the Americans fought and won the Battle of La Mesa. On January 12, the last significant body of Californios surrendered to U.S. forces. That marked the end of armed resistance in California, and the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed the next day, on January 13, 1847.
Pacific Coast campaign[link]
USS Independence assisted in the blockade of the Mexican Pacific coast, capturing the Mexican ship Correo and a launch on 16 May 1847. She supported the capture of Guaymas, Mexico, on 19 October 1847 and landed bluejackets and Marines to occupy Mazatlán, Mexico on 11 November 1847. After upper California was secure most of the Pacific Squadron proceeded down the California coast capturing all major Baja California cities and capturing or destroying nearly all Mexican vessels in the Gulf of California. Other ports, not on the peninsula, were taken as well. The objective of the Pacific Coast Campaign was to capture Mazatlan, a major supply base for Mexican forces. Numerous Mexican ships were also captured by this squadron with the USS Cyane given credit for 18 captures and numerous destroyed ships.[40] Entering the Gulf of California, Independence, Congress and Cyane seized La Paz captured and burned the small Mexican fleet at Guaymas. Within a month, they cleared the Gulf of hostile ships, destroying or capturing 30 vessels. Later on their sailors and marines captured the town of Mazatlan, Mexico, on 11 November 1847. A Mexican campaign under Manuel Pineda to retake the various captured ports resulted in several small clashes (Battle of Mulege, Battle of La Paz, Battle of San José del Cabo) and two sieges (Siege of La Paz, Siege of San José del Cabo) in which the Pacific Squadron ships provided artillery support. U.S. garrisons remained in control of the ports and following reinforcement, Lt. Col. Henry S. Burton marched out, rescued captured Americans, captured Pineda and on March 31, defeated and dispersed remaining Mexican forces at the Skirmish of Todos Santos, unaware the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had been signed in February 1848. When the American garrisons were evacuated following the treaty, many Mexicans that had been supporting the American cause and had thought Lower California would also be annexed like Upper California, were evacuated with them to Monterey.
Northeastern Mexico[link]
The defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma caused political turmoil in Mexico, turmoil which Antonio López de Santa Anna used to revive his political career and return from self-imposed exile in Cuba in mid-August 1846.[41] He promised the U.S. that if allowed to pass through the blockade, he would negotiate a peaceful conclusion to the war and sell the New Mexico and Alta California territories to the U.S.[42] Once Santa Anna arrived in Mexico City, however, he reneged and offered his services to the Mexican government. Then, after being appointed commanding general, he reneged again and seized the presidency.
Led by Taylor, 2,300 U.S. troops crossed the Rio Grande (Rio Bravo) after some initial difficulties in obtaining river transport. His soldiers occupied the city of Matamoros, then Camargo (where the soldiery suffered the first of many problems with disease) and then proceeded south and besieged the city of Monterrey. The hard-fought Battle of Monterrey resulted in serious losses on both sides. The American light artillery was ineffective against the stone fortifications of the city. The Mexican forces were under General Pedro de Ampudia and repulsed Taylor's best infantry division at Fort Teneria. American soldiers, including many West Pointers, had never engaged in urban warfare before and they marched straight down the open streets, where they were annihilated by Mexican defenders well-hidden in Monterrey's thick adobe homes.[43] Two days later, they changed their urban warfare tactics. Texan soldiers had fought in a Mexican city before and advised Taylor's generals that the Americans needed to "mouse hole" through the city's homes. In other words, they needed to punch holes in the side or roofs of the homes and fight hand to hand inside the structures. This method proved successful and Ampudia eventually surrendered.[44]
Eventually, these actions drove and trapped Ampudia's men into the city's central plaza, where howitzer shelling forced Ampudia to negotiate. Taylor agreed to allow the Mexican Army to evacuate and to an eight-week armistice in return for the surrender of the city. Under pressure from Washington, Taylor broke the armistice and occupied the city of Saltillo, southwest of Monterrey. Santa Anna blamed the loss of Monterrey and Saltillo on Ampudia and demoted him to command a small artillery battalion. On February 22, 1847, Santa Anna personally marched north to fight Taylor with 20,000 men. Taylor, with 4,600 men, had entrenched at a mountain pass called Buena Vista. Santa Anna suffered desertions on the way north and arrived with 15,000 men in a tired state. He demanded and was refused surrender of the U.S. Army; he attacked the next morning. Santa Anna flanked the U.S. positions by sending his cavalry and some of his infantry up the steep terrain that made up one side of the pass, while a division of infantry attacked frontally along the road leading to Buena Vista. Furious fighting ensued, during which the U.S troops were nearly routed, but managed to cling to their entrenched position. The Mexicans had inflicted considerable losses but Santa Anna had gotten word of upheaval in Mexico City, so he withdrew that night, leaving Taylor in control of part of Northern Mexico. Polk distrusted Taylor, whom he felt had shown incompetence in the Battle of Monterrey by agreeing to the armistice, and may have considered him a political rival for the White House. Taylor later used the Battle of Buena Vista as the centerpiece of his successful 1848 presidential campaign.
Northwestern Mexico[link]
On March 1, 1847, Alexander W. Doniphan occupied Chihuahua City. He found the inhabitants much less willing to accept the American conquest than the New Mexicans. The British consul John Potts did not want to let Doniphan search Governor Trias's mansion, and unsuccessfully asserted it was under British protection. American merchants in Chihuahua wanted the American force to stay in order to protect their business. Gilpin advocated a march on Mexico City and convinced a majority of officers, but Doniphan subverted this plan, then in late April Taylor ordered the First Missouri Mounted Volunteers to leave Chihuahua and join him at Saltillo. The American merchants either followed or returned to Santa Fe. Along the way, the townspeople of Parras enlisted Doniphan's aid against an Indian raiding party that had taken children, horses, mules, and money.[45]
The civilian population of northern Mexico offered little resistance to the American invasion possibly because the country had already been devastated by Comanche and Apache Indian raids. Josiah Gregg, who was with the American army in northern Mexico, said that “the whole country from New Mexico to the borders of Durango is almost entirely depopulated. The haciendas and ranchos have been mostly abandoned, and the people chiefly confined to the towns and cities.”[46]
U.S. press and popular war enthusiasm[link]
During the war inventions such as the telegraph created new means of communication that updated people with the latest news from the reporters, who were usually on the scene. With more than a decade’s experience reporting urban crime, the “penny press” realized the voracious need of the public to get the astounding war news. This was the first time in the American history when the accounts by journalists, instead of the opinions of politicians, caused great influence in shaping people’s minds and attitudes toward a war. News about the war always caused extraordinary popular excitement.
By getting constant reports from the battlefield, Americans became emotionally united as a community. In the spring of 1846, news about Zachary Taylor's victory at Palo Alto brought up a large crowd that met in a cotton textile town of Lowell, Massachusetts. At Veracruz and Buena Vista, New York celebrated their twin victories in May 1847. Among fireworks and illuminations, they had a “grand procession” of about 400,000 people. Generals Taylor and Scott became heroes for their people and later became presidential candidates.
Desertion[link]
The desertion rate was a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most of the soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family, but not to the generals who conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, never well paid, under-equipped and only partially trained, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.[47]
The desertion rate in the U.S. army was 8.3% (9,200 out of 111,000), compared to 12.7% during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8% per year.[48] Many men deserted to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. While some deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp, it has been suggested that others used the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the gold rush.[49] This, however, is unlikely as gold was only discovered in California on January 24, 1848, less than two weeks before the war concluded. By the time word reached the eastern U.S. that gold had been discovered, word also reached it that the war was over.
Several hundred deserters went over to the Mexican side; nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the U.S., the most famous group being Saint Patrick's Battalion, about half of whom were Catholics from Ireland. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land bounties, and officers' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked being executed, if captured by U.S. forces. About 50 of the San Patricios were tried and hanged following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847.[50]
Scott's Mexico City campaign[link]
|
|||||
[edit] Landings and Siege of Veracruz
Rather than reinforce Taylor's army for a continued advance, President Polk sent a second army under General Winfield Scott, which was transported to the port of Veracruz by sea, to begin an invasion of the Mexican heartland. On March 9, 1847, Scott performed the first major amphibious landing in U.S. history in preparation for the Siege of Veracruz. A group of 12,000 volunteer and regular soldiers successfully offloaded supplies, weapons, and horses near the walled city using specially designed landing craft. Included in the invading force were Robert E. Lee, George Meade, Ulysses S. Grant, James Longstreet, and Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson. The city was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Mortars and naval guns under Commodore Matthew C. Perry were used to reduce the city walls and harass defenders. The city replied the best it could with its own artillery. The effect of the extended barrage destroyed the will of the Mexican side to fight against a numerically superior force, and they surrendered the city after 12 days under siege. U.S. troops suffered 80 casualties, while the Mexican side had around 180 killed and wounded, about half of whom were civilian. During the siege, the U.S. side began to fall victim to yellow fever.
Advance on Puebla[link]
Scott then marched westward toward Mexico City with 8,500 healthy troops, while Santa Anna set up a defensive position in a canyon around the main road at the halfway mark to Mexico City, near the hamlet of Cerro Gordo. Santa Anna had entrenched with 12,000 troops and artillery that were trained on the road, along which he expected Scott to appear. However, Scott had sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead, and the Mexican artillery prematurely fired on them and revealed their positions. Instead of taking the main road, Scott's troops trekked through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on the high ground and quietly flanking the Mexicans. Although by then aware of the positions of U.S. troops, Santa Anna and his troops were unprepared for the onslaught that followed. The Mexican army was routed. The U.S. Army suffered 400 casualties, while the Mexicans suffered over 1,000 casualties and 3,000 were taken prisoner. In August 1847, Captain Kirby Smith, of Scott's 3rd Infantry, reflected on the resistance of the Mexican army:
They can do nothing and their continued defeats should convince them of it. They have lost six great battles; we have captured six hundred and eight cannon, nearly one hundred thousand stands of arms, made twenty thousand prisoners, have the greatest portion of their country and are fast advancing on their Capital which must be ours,—yet they refuse to treat [i.e., negotiate terms]![51]
Pause at Puebla[link]
In May, Scott pushed on to Puebla, the second largest city in Mexico. Because of the citizens' hostility to Santa Anna, the city capitulated without resistance on May 1. During the following months Scott gathered supplies and reinforcements at Puebla and sent back units whose enlistments had expired. Scott also made strong efforts to keep his troops disciplined and treat the Mexican people under occupation justly, so as to prevent a popular rising against his army.
Advance on Mexico City and its capture[link]
With guerrillas harassing his line of communications back to Vera Cruz, Scott decided not to weaken his army to defend it but, leaving only a garrison at Puebla to protect the sick and injured recovering there, advanced on Mexico City on August 7, with his remaining force. The capital was laid open in a series of battles around the right flank of the city defenses, culminating in the Battle of Chapultepec. With the subsequent storming of the city gates, the capital was occupied. Winfield Scott became an American national hero after his victories in this campaign of the Mexican–American War, and later became military governor of occupied Mexico City.
Santa Anna's last campaign[link]
In late September 1847, Santa Anna made one last attempt to defeat the Americans, by cutting them off from the coast. General Joaquín Rea began the Siege of Puebla, soon joined by Santa Anna, but they failed to take it before the approach of a relief column from Vera Cruz under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane prompted Santa Anna to stop him. Puebla was relieved by Gen. Lane October 12, 1847, following his defeat of Santa Anna at the Battle of Huamantla October 9, 1847. The battle was Santa Anna's last. Following the defeat, the new Mexican government led by Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked Santa Anna to turn over command of the army to General José Joaquín de Herrera.
Anti guerrilla campaign[link]
Following his capture and securing of the capital, General Scott sent about a quarter of his strength to secure his line of communications to Vera Cruz from the Light Corps and other Mexican guerilla forces that had been harassing it since May. He strengthened the garrison of Puebla, and by November established 750 man posts at Perote, Puente Nacional, Rio Frio, and San Juan along the National Road and detailed an antiguerrilla brigade under Brig. Gen. Joseph Lane to carry the war to the Light Corps and other guerillas. He also ordered that convoys would travel with at least 1,300-man escorts. Despite some victories over General Joaquín Rea at Atlixco (18 October 1847) and Izucar de Matamoros (in November) by General Lane, guerrilla raids on the supply route continued into 1848 until the end of the war.[52]
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo[link]
Main article: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
File:Wpdms mexican cession.png
The Mexican Cession, shown in red, and the later Gadsden Purchase, shown in yellow.
Outnumbered militarily and with many of its large cities occupied, Mexico could not defend itself and was also faced with many internal divisions. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed on February 2, 1848, by American diplomat Nicholas Trist and Mexican plenipotentiary representatives Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto, and Miguel Atristain, ended the war and gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, established the U.S.-Mexican border of the Rio Grande River, and ceded to the United States the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, most of Arizona and Colorado, and parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Wyoming. In return, Mexico received US $18,250,000[53] ($490,223,077 today)—less than half the amount the U.S. had attempted to offer Mexico for the land before the opening of hostilities[54]—and the U.S. agreed to assume $3.25-million ($87,300,000 today) in debts that the Mexican government owed to U.S. citizens.[14]
The acquisition was a source of controversy then, especially among U.S. politicians who had opposed the war from the start. A leading antiwar U.S. newspaper, the Whig Intelligencer sardonically concluded that "We take nothing by conquest .... Thank God."[55][56]
Jefferson Davis introduced an amendment giving the U.S. most of northeastern Mexico, which failed 44–11. It was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia, and Ambrose Hundley Sevier, were opposed.[57] An amendment by Whig Senator George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35–15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories.
The acquired lands west of the Rio Grande are traditionally called the Mexican Cession in the U.S., as opposed to the Texas Annexation two years earlier, though division of New Mexico down the middle at the Rio Grande never had any basis either in control or Mexican boundaries. Mexico never recognized the independence of Texas[58] prior to the war, and did not cede its claim to territory north of the Rio Grande or Gila River until this treaty.
Prior to ratifying the treaty, the U.S. Senate made two modifications, changing the wording of Article IX (which guaranteed Mexicans living in the purchased territories the right to become U.S. citizens), and striking out Article X (which conceded the legitimacy of land grants made by the Mexican government). On May 26, 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further agreed to a three-article protocol (known as the Protocol of Querétaro) to explain the amendments. The first article claimed that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants under Mexican law.[59] The protocol was signed in the city of Querétaro by A. H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford, and Luis de la Rosa.[59]
Article XI offered a potential benefit to Mexico in that the US pledged to suppress the Comanche and Apache raids that had ravaged northern Mexico and pay restitutions to the victims of raids it could not prevent.[60] However, the Indian raids did not cease for several decades after the treaty, although a cholera epidemic reduced the numbers of the Comanche in 1849.[61] Robert Letcher, US Minister to Mexico in 1850, was certain "that miserable 11th article" would lead to the financial ruin of the US if they could not be released from its obligations.[62] The US was released from all obligations of Article XI five years later by Article II of the Gadsden Purchase Treaty of December 30, 1853.[63]
Results[link]
Mexican territory, prior to the secession of Texas, comprised almost 1,700,000 sq mi (4,400,000 km2), which was reduced to just under 800,000 by 1848. Another 32,000 were sold to the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, for a total reduction of more than 55%, or 900,000 square miles.[64] The annexed territories, comparable in size to Western Europe, were essentially unsettled, containing about 1,000 Mexican families in Alta California and 7,000 in Nuevo México,[citation needed] as well as large Native American nations such as the Navajo, Hopi, and dozens of others. A few relocated further south in Mexico; the great majority remained in the U.S. Descendants of these Mexican families have risen to prominence in American life, such as United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar, and his brother, U.S. Rep. John Salazar, both from Colorado.
A month before the end of the war, Polk was criticized in a United States House of Representatives amendment to a bill praising Major General Zachary Taylor for "a war unnecessarily and unconstitutionally begun by the President of the United States." This criticism, in which Congressman Abraham Lincoln played an important role with his Spot Resolutions, followed congressional scrutiny of the war's beginnings, including factual challenges to claims made by President Polk.[65][66] The vote followed party lines, with all Whigs supporting the amendment. Lincoln's attack won luke-warm support from fellow Whigs in Illinois but was harshly counter-attacked by Democrats, who rallied pro-war sentiments in Illinois; Lincoln's Spot resolutions haunted his future campaigns in the heavily Democratic state of Illinois, and was cited by enemies well into his presidency.[67]
In much of the U.S., victory and the acquisition of new land brought a surge of patriotism. Victory seemed to fulfill Democrats' belief in their country's Manifest Destiny. While Whig Ralph Waldo Emerson rejected war "as a means of achieving America's destiny," he accepted that "most of the great results of history are brought about by discreditable means."[68] Although the Whigs had opposed the war, they made Zachary Taylor their presidential candidate in the election of 1848, praising his military performance while muting their criticism of the war.
Many of the military leaders on both sides of the American Civil War had fought as junior officers in Mexico, including Ulysses S. Grant, George B. McClellan, Ambrose Burnside, Stonewall Jackson, James Longstreet, George Meade, Robert E. Lee, and the future Confederate President Jefferson Davis.
In Mexico City's Chapultepec Park, the Monument to the Heroic Cadets commemorates the heroic sacrifice of six teenaged military cadets who fought to their deaths rather than surrender to American troops during the Battle of Chapultepec Castle on September 13, 1847. The monument is an important patriotic site in Mexico. On March 5, 1947, nearly one hundred years after the battle, U.S. President Harry S. Truman placed a wreath at the monument and stood for a moment of silence.
Grant's views on the war[link]
President Ulysses S. Grant, who as a young army lieutenant had served in Mexico under General Taylor, recalled in his Memoirs, published in 1885, that:
Generally, the officers of the army were indifferent whether the annexation was consummated or not; but not so all of them. For myself, I was bitterly opposed to the measure, and to this day regard the war, which resulted, as one of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker nation. It was an instance of a republic following the bad example of European monarchies, in not considering justice in their desire to acquire additional territory.[69]
Grant also expressed the view that the war against Mexico had brought punishment on the United States in the form of the American Civil War:
The Southern rebellion was largely the outgrowth of the Mexican war. Nations, like individuals, are punished for their transgressions. We got our punishment in the most sanguinary and expensive war of modern times.[70]
Combatants[link]
On the American side, the war was fought by regiments of regulars and various regiments, battalions, and companies of volunteers from the different states of the union and the Americans and some of the Mexicans in the territory of California and New Mexico. On the West Coast, the U.S. Navy fielded a battalion in an attempt to recapture Los Angeles.[71]
United States[link]
At the beginning of the war, the U.S. Army had eight regiments of infantry (three battalions), four artillery regiments and three mounted regiments (two dragoons, one of mounted rifles). These regiments were supplemented by 10 new regiments (nine of infantry and one of cavalry) raised for one year's service (new regiments raised for one year according to act of Congress Feb. 11, 1847).[72]
State Volunteers were raised in various sized units and for various periods of time, mostly for one year. Later some were raised for the duration of the war as it became clear it was going to last longer than a year.[73]
U.S. soldiers' memoirs describe cases of looting and murder of Mexican civilians, mostly by State Volunteers. One officer's diary records:
We reached Burrita about 5 pm, many of the Louisiana volunteers were there, a lawless drunken rabble. They had driven away the inhabitants, taken possession of their houses, and were emulating each other in making beasts of themselves.[74]
John L. O'Sullivan, a vocal proponent of Manifest Destiny, later recollected:
The regulars regarded the volunteers with importance and contempt ... [The volunteers] robbed Mexicans of their cattle and corn, stole their fences for firewood, got drunk, and killed several inoffensive inhabitants of the town in the streets.
Many of the volunteers were unwanted and considered poor soldiers. The expression "Just like Gaines's army" came to refer to something useless, the phrase having originated when a group of untrained and unwilling Louisiana troops were rejected and sent back by Gen. Taylor at the beginning of the war.
The last surviving U.S. veteran of the conflict, Owen Thomas Edgar, died on September 3, 1929, at age 98.
1,563 U.S. soldiers are buried in the Mexico City National Cemetery, which is maintained by the American Battle Monuments Commission.
Mexico[link]
At the beginning of the war, Mexican forces were divided between the permanent forces (permanentes) and the active militiamen (activos). The permanent forces consisted of 12 regiments of infantry (of two battalions each), three brigades of artillery, eight regiments of cavalry, one separate squadron and a brigade of dragoons. The militia amounted to nine infantry and six cavalry regiments. In the northern territories of Mexico, presidial companies (presidiales) protected the scattered settlements there.[75]
One of the contributing factors to loss of the war by Mexico was the inferiority of their weapons. The Mexican army was using British muskets (e.g. Brown Bess) from the Napoleonic Wars. In contrast to the aging Mexican standard-issue infantry weapon, some U.S. troops had the latest U.S.-manufactured breech-loading Hall rifles and Model 1841 percussion rifles. In the later stages of the war, U.S. cavalry and officers were issued Colt Walker revolvers, of which the U.S. Army had ordered 1,000 in 1846. Throughout the war, the superiority of the U.S. artillery often carried the day.
Political divisions inside Mexico were another factor in the U.S. victory. Inside Mexico, the centralistas and republicans vied for power, and at times these two factions inside Mexico's military fought each other rather than the invading American army. Another faction called the monarchists, whose members wanted to install a monarch (some even advocated rejoining Spain), further complicated matters. This third faction would rise to predominance in the period of the French intervention in Mexico. The ease of the American landing at Vera Cruz was in large part due to civil warfare in Mexico City, which made any real defense of the port city impossible. As Gen. Santa Anna said, "However shameful it may be to admit this, we have brought this disgraceful tragedy upon ourselves through our interminable in-fighting."
Saint Patrick's Battalion (San Patricios) was a group of several hundred immigrant soldiers, the majority Irish, who deserted the U.S. Army because of ill-treatment or sympathetic leanings to fellow Mexican Catholics. They joined the Mexican army. Most were killed in the Battle of Churubusco; about 100 were captured by the U.S. and roughly ½ were hanged as deserters. The leader, Jon Riley, was merely branded since he had deserted prior to the start of the war.
Impact of the war in the U.S.[link]
Despite initial objections from the Whigs and abolitionists, the war would nevertheless unite the U.S. in a common cause and was fought almost entirely by volunteers. The army swelled from just over 6,000 to more than 115,000. Of these, approximately 1.5% were killed in the fighting and nearly 10% died of disease; another 12% were wounded or discharged because of disease, or both.
For years afterward, veterans continued to suffer from the debilitating diseases contracted during the campaigns. The casualty rate was thus easily over 25% for the 17 months of the war; the total casualties may have reached 35–40% if later injury- and disease-related deaths are added.[citation needed] In this respect, the war was proportionately the most deadly in American military history.
During the war, political quarrels in the U.S. arose regarding the disposition of conquered Mexico. A brief "All-Mexico" movement urged annexation of the entire territory. Veterans of the war who had seen Mexico at first hand were unenthusiastic. Anti-slavery elements opposed that position and fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the U.S.[76] In 1847 the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated.
The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was the result of Nicholas Trist's unauthorized negotiations. It was approved by the U.S. Senate on March 10, 1848, and ratified by the Mexican Congress on May 25. Mexico's cession of Alta California and Nuevo México and its recognition of U.S. sovereignty over all of Texas north of the Rio Grande formalized the addition of 1.2 million square miles (3.1 million km2) of territory to the United States. In return the U.S. agreed to pay $15 million and assumed the claims of its citizens against Mexico. A final territorial adjustment between Mexico and the U.S. was made by the Gadsden Purchase in 1853.
As late as 1880, the "Republican Campaign Textbook" by the Republican Congressional Committee[77] described the war as "Feculent, reeking Corruption" and "one of the darkest scenes in our history—a war forced upon our and the Mexican people by the high-handed usurpations of Pres't Polk in pursuit of territorial aggrandizement of the slave oligarchy."
The war was one of the most decisive events for the U.S. in the first half of the 19th century. While it marked a significant waypoint for the nation as a growing military power, it also served as a milestone especially within the U.S. narrative of Manifest Destiny. The resultant territorial gains set in motion many of the defining trends in American 19th-century history, particularly for the American West. The war did not resolve the issue of slavery in the U.S. but rather in many ways inflamed it, as potential westward expansion of the institution took an increasingly central and heated theme in national debates preceding the American Civil War. Furthermore, in doing much to extend the nation from coast to coast, the Mexican–American War was one step in the massive migrations to the West of Americans, which culminated in transcontinental railroads and the Indian wars later in the same century.
See also[link]
- Battles of the Mexican–American War
- Christopher Werner, maker of the "Iron Palmetto" commemorating the loss of South Carolinians in the War
- History of Mexico
- Reconquista (Mexico)
- List of conflicts in the United States
- List of wars involving Mexico
- Republic of Texas – United States relations
- Mexico-United States relations
Notes[link]
- ^ The American Army in the Mexican War: An Overview, PBS, 14 Mar 2006, http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/war/american_army.html, retrieved 13 May 2012
- ^ The U.S.-Mexican War: Some Statistics, Descendants of Mexican War Veterans, 07 Aug 2004, http://www.dmwv.org/mexwar/mwstats.htm, retrieved 13 May 2012
- ^ The Organization of the Mexican Army, PBS, 14 Mar 2006, http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/war/mexican_army.html, retrieved 13 May 2012
- ^ Christensen and Christensen, The U.S.–Mexican War, Bay Books, San Francisco, 1998
- ^ Brian DeLay (2008). War of a thousand deserts: Indian raids and the U.S.–Mexican War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11932-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mot8hkMa0nkC&dq=%22U.S.-Mexican+War%22.
- ^ See Rives, The United States and Mexico, vol. 2, p. 658
- ^ Rives, ''The United States and Mexico'' vol. 2, pp 45–46. Books.google.com. 2007-09-28. http://books.google.com/books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA45. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Rives, pp. 48–49
- ^ http://www.jstor.org/pss/25139106 Proposals for the colonization of California by England, California Historical Society Quarterly, 1939
- ^ See "Republic of Texas"
- ^ Rives, vol. 2, pp. 165–168
- ^ Rives, vol. 2, pp. 172–173
- ^ Smith (1919) p. xi.
- ^ a b Jay (1853) p. 117.
- ^ Jay (1853) p. 119.
- ^ Donald Fithian Stevens, Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico (1991) p. 11.
- ^ Miguel E. Soto, "The Monarchist Conspiracy and the Mexican War" in Essays on the Mexican War ed by Wayne Cutler; Texas A&M University Press. 1986. pp. 66–67.
- ^ a b Brooks (1849) pp. 61–62.
- ^ Mexican War from Global Security.com.
- ^ Gilbert, Joseph. The Mexico Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press Books, 2002, p. 652
- ^ James M. McCaffrey, Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846–1848 (1994) p 7
- ^ Smith (1919) p. 279.
- ^ Faragher, John Mack, et al., eds. Out Of Many: A History of the American People. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, 2006.
- ^ "Message of President Polk, May 11, 1846". http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/messages/polk01.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-20. "Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war."
- ^ a b Bauer (1992) p. 68.
- ^ see A. Brook Caruso: The Mexican Spy Company. 1991, p. 62-79
- ^ Jay (1853) pp. 165–166.
- ^ Jay (1853) p. 165.
- ^ See O'Sullivan's 1845 article, "Annexation," [1] United States Magazine and Democratic Review
- ^ Giddings,Joshua Reed, Speeches in Congress [1841–1852], J.P. Jewett and Company, 1853, p.17
- ^ Beveridge 1:417.
- ^ Speech of the Hon. John Quincy Adams, in the House of Representatives, on the state of the nation: delivered May 25, 1836, Internet Archive, http://www.archive.org/details/speechofhonjohnq00adam, retrieved 13 May 2012
- ^ "James K. Polk: Third Annual Message – December 7, 1847". Presidency.ucsb.edu. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=29488. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ a b c Brooks (1849) p. 122.
- ^ Brooks (1849) pp. 91, 117.
- ^ Brooks (1849) p. 121.
- ^ See Captain John Charles Fremont and the Bear Flag Revolt.
- ^ Brooks (1849) p. 257.
- ^ Bauer (1992) pp. 190–191.
- ^ Silversteen, p42
- ^ Bauer (1992) p. 201.
- ^ Rives, George Lockhart, The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848: a history of the relations between the two countries from the independence of Mexico to the close of the war with the United States, Volume 2, C. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1913, p.233. Books.google.com. 2007-09-28. http://books.google.com/books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ&pg=233. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ "Urban Warfare". Battle of Monterrey.com. http://www.battleofmonterrey.com/urbanwarfare.html. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Dishman, Christopher, A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico," University of Oklahoma Press, 2010 ISBN 0-8061-4140-9
- ^ Roger D. Launius (1997). Alexander William Doniphan: portrait of a Missouri moderate. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1132-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=xhneotO7Xg8C&pg=PA162&lpg=PA162.
- ^ Hamalainen, Pekka, The Comanche Empire New Haven: Yale U Press, p.232
- ^ Douglas Meed, The Mexican War, 1846–1848 (Routledge, 2003), p. 67.
- ^ McAllister, Brian. "see Coffman, ''Old Army'' (1988) p. 193". Amazon.com. http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0195045556?v=search-inside&keywords=desertion. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Paul Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair (2002) pp. 25, 103–6.
- ^ Foos, A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair (2002) pp. 105–7.
- ^ Eisenhower, John S. D. (1989). So Far from God: The U.S. War With Mexico, 1846–1848. New York: Random House. p. 295. ISBN 0-8061-3279-5.
- ^ Stephen A. Carney, U.S. Army Campaigns of the Mexican War: The Occupation of Mexico, May 1846-July 1848 (CMH Pub 73-3), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 2005; pp.30-38
- ^ Smith (1919) p. 241.
- ^ Bronwyn Mills U.S.-Mexican war p. 23 ISBN 0-8160-4932-7.
- ^ Kenneth C. Davis, “Don’t Know Much About History” (Avon Books, New York 1995) p. 143.
- ^ Howard Zinn, “A People’s History of the United States” (HarperCollins Publishers, New York 2003) p. 169.
- ^ George Lockhart Rives (1913). The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848. C. Scribner's Sons. pp. 634–636. http://books.google.com/books?id=vfhAAAAAIAAJ.
- ^ PBS, "US-Mexican War" paragraph 3, line 2 http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/prelude/md_boundary_disputes.html
- ^ a b Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Full text (including Protocol) from academic.udayton.edu. Retrieved October 25, 2007.
- ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/guadhida.asp#art11
- ^ "Treaty with Mexico (Feb 2, 1848) http://www.mexica.net/guadhida.php; Hamalainen, 293-341
- ^ DeLay, Brian. War of a thousand deserts: Indian raids and the U.S.-Mexican War. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.) p. 302
- ^ http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/mx1853.asp
- ^ "Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo". www.ourdocuments.gov. http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&doc=26. Retrieved 27 June 2007.
- ^ "Congressional Globe, 30th Session (1848) pp. 93–95". Memory.loc.gov. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=020/llcg020.db&recNum=102. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ "House Journal, 30th Session (1848) pp. 183–184/". Memory.loc.gov. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(hj04321)). Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. (1995), pp. 124, 128, 133.
- ^ Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1860). The Conduct of Life. p. 110. ISBN 1-4191-5736-1.
- ^ "Ulysses S Grant Quotes on the Military Academy and the Mexican War". Fadedgiant.net. http://www.fadedgiant.net/html/grant_ulysses_s_quotes_west_po.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Personal Memoirs of General U. S. Grant — Complete by Ulysses S. Grant.
- ^ "William Hugh Robarts, "Mexican War veterans : a complete roster of the regular and volunteer troops in the war between the United States and Mexico, from 1846 to 1848 ; the volunteers are arranged by states, alphabetically", BRENTANO'S (A. S. WITHERBEE & CO, Proprietors); WASHINGTON, D. C., 1887". Archive.org. 2001-03-10. http://www.archive.org/details/mexicanwarvetera00roba. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Robarts, "Mexican War veterans" pp.1–24
- ^ Robarts, "Mexican War veterans" pp.39–79
- ^ Bronwyn Mills U.S.-Mexican war ISBN 0-8160-4932-7.
- ^ René Chartrand, ''Santa Anna's Mexican Army 1821–48'', Illustrated by Bill Younghusband, Osprey Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-84176-667-4, ISBN 978-1-84176-667-6. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=YImnue0ORwAC&source=gbs_navlinks_s. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ John Douglas Pitts Fuller, ''The Movement for the Acquisition of All Mexico, 1846–1848'' (1936). Books.google.com. 2008-06-12. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y0JnAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
- ^ Mexican–American War description from the Republican Campaign Textbook.
References[link]
Bibliography[link]
Reference works[link]
- Crawford, Mark; Jeanne T. Heidler; David Stephen Heidler (eds.) (1999). Encyclopedia of the Mexican War. ISBN 1-57607-059-X.
- Frazier, Donald S. ed. The U.S. and Mexico at War, (1998), 584; an encyclopedia with 600 articles by 200 scholars
Surveys[link]
- Bauer, Karl Jack (1992). The Mexican War: 1846–1848. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-6107-1.
- De Voto, Bernard, Year of Decision 1846 (1942), well written popular history
- Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States (2008)
- Meed, Douglas. The Mexican War, 1846–1848 (2003). A short survey.
- Merry Robert W. A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, the Mexican War and the Conquest of the American Continent (2009)
- Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico, Vol 1. (2 vol 1919), full text online.
- The War with Mexico, Vol 2. (1919). full text online.
Military[link]
- Bauer K. Jack. Zachary Taylor: Soldier, Planter, Statesman of the Old Southwest. Louisiana State University Press, 1985.
- Dishman, Christopher, A Perfect Gibraltar: The Battle for Monterrey, Mexico," University of Oklahoma Press, 2010 ISBN 0-8061-4140-9.
- Eisenhower, John. So Far From God: The U.S. War with Mexico, Random House (1989).
- Eubank, Damon R., Response of Kentucky to the Mexican War, 1846–1848. (Edwin Mellen Press, 2004), ISBN 978-0-7734-6495-7.
- Foos, Paul. A Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict during the Mexican-War (2002).
- Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2007) 527pp; a major scholarly study
- Frazier, Donald S. The U.S. and Mexico at War, Macmillan (1998).
- Hamilton, Holman, Zachary Taylor: Soldier of the Republic, (1941).
- Huston, James A. The Sinews of War: Army Logistics, 1775-1953 (1966), U.S. Army; 755pp online pp 125-58
- Lewis, Lloyd. Captain Sam Grant (1950).
- Johnson, Timothy D. Winfield Scott: The Quest for Military Glory (1998)
- McCaffrey, James M. Army of Manifest Destiny: The American Soldier in the Mexican War, 1846–1848 (1994)excerpt and text search
- Smith, Justin H. "American Rule in Mexico," The American Historical Review Vol. 23, No. 2 (Jan., 1918), pp. 287–302 in JSTOR
- Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico. 2 vol (1919). Pulitzer Prize winner. full text online.
- Winders, Richard Price. Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War (1997)
Political and diplomatic[link]
- Beveridge; Albert J. Abraham Lincoln, 1809–1858. Volume: 1. 1928.
- Brack, Gene M. Mexico Views Manifest Destiny, 1821–1846: An Essay on the Origins of the Mexican War (1975).
- Fowler, Will. Tornel and Santa Anna: The Writer and the Caudillo, Mexico, 1795–1853 (2000).
- Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico (2007) 527pp; the major scholarly study excerpt and text search
- Gleijeses, Piero. "A Brush with Mexico" Diplomatic History 2005 29(2): 223–254. Issn: 0145-2096 debates in Washington before war.
- Graebner, Norman A. Empire on the Pacific: A Study in American Continental Expansion. (1955).
- Graebner, Norman A. "Lessons of the Mexican War." Pacific Historical Review 47 (1978): 325–42. in JSTOR.
- Graebner, Norman A. "The Mexican War: A Study in Causation." Pacific Historical Review 49 (1980): 405–26. in JSTOR.
- Henderson, Timothy J. A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States (2007), survey
- Krauze, Enrique. Mexico: Biography of Power, (1997), textbook.
- Mayers, David; Fernández Bravo, Sergio A., "La Guerra Con Mexico Y Los Disidentes Estadunidenses, 1846–1848" [The War with Mexico and US Dissenters, 1846–48]. Secuencia [Mexico] 2004 (59): 32–70. Issn: 0186-0348.
- Pinheiro, John C. Manifest Ambition: James K. Polk and Civil-Military Relations during the Mexican War (2007).
- Pletcher David M. The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War. University of Missouri Press, 1973.
- Price, Glenn W. Origins of the War with Mexico: The Polk-Stockton Intrigue. University of Texas Press, 1967.
- Reeves, Jesse S. "The Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo," American Historical Review, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Jan., 1905), pp. 309–324 in JSTOR.
- Rives, George Lockhart. The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848: a history of the relations between the two countries from the independence of Mexico to the close of the war with the United States (1913) full text online
- Rodríguez Díaz, María Del Rosario. "Mexico's Vision of Manifest Destiny During the 1847 War" Journal of Popular Culture 2001 35(2): 41–50. Issn: 0022-3840.
- Ruiz, Ramon Eduardo. Triumph and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People, Norton 1992, textbook
- Schroeder John H. Mr. Polk's War: American Opposition and Dissent, 1846–1848. University of Wisconsin Press, 1973.
- Sellers Charles G. James K. Polk: Continentalist, 1843–1846 (1966), the standard biography vol 1 and 2 are online at ACLS e-books
- Smith, Justin Harvey. The War with Mexico. 2 vol (1919). Pulitzer Prize winner. full text online.
- Stephenson, Nathaniel Wright. Texas and the Mexican War: A Chronicle of Winning the Southwest. Yale University Press (1921).
- Weinberg Albert K. Manifest Destiny: A Study of Nationalist Expansionism in American History Johns Hopkins University Press, 1935.
- Yanez, Agustin. Santa Anna: Espectro de una sociedad (1996).
Memory and historiography[link]
- Faulk, Odie B., and Stout, Joseph A., Jr., eds. The Mexican War: Changing Interpretations (1974)
- Rodriguez, Jaime Javier. The Literatures of the U.S.-Mexican War: Narrative, Time, and Identity (University of Texas Press; 2010) 306 pages. Covers works by Anglo, Mexican, and Mexican-American writers.
- Benjamin, Thomas. "Recent Historiography of the Origins of the Mexican War," New Mexico Historical Review, Summer 1979, Vol. 54 Issue 3, pp 169–181
- Vázquez, Josefina Zoraida. "La Historiografia Sobre la Guerra entre Mexico y los Estados Unidos," ["The historiography of the war between Mexico and the United States"] Histórica (02528894), 1999, Vol. 23 Issue 2, pp 475–485
Primary sources[link]
- Calhoun, John C. The Papers of John C. Calhoun. Vol. 23: 1846, ed. by Clyde N. Wilson and Shirley Bright Cook. (1996). 598 pp
- Calhoun, John C. The Papers of John C. Calhoun. Vol. 24: December 7, 1846 – December 5, 1847 ed. by Clyde N. Wilson and Shirley Bright Cook, (1998). 727 pp.
- Conway, Christopher, ed. The U.S.-Mexican War: A Binational Reader (2010)
- Grant, Ulysses S. (1885). Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant. New York: Charles L. Webster & Co. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/4367/4367-h/4367-h.htm.
- Kendall, George Wilkins (1999). Lawrence Dilbert Cress. ed. Dispatches from the Mexican War. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press.
- Polk, James, K. (1910). Milo Milton Quaife. ed. The Diary of James K. Polk: During his Presidency, 1845–1849. Chicago: A. C. McClurg & Co. http://books.google.com/books?id=FxgOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=inauthor:james+inauthor:knox+inauthor:polk&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0.
- Robinson, Cecil, The View From Chapultepec: Mexican Writers on the Mexican War, University of Arizona Press (Tucson, 1989).
- Smith, Franklin (1991). Joseph E. Chance. ed. The Mexican War Journal of Captain Franklin Smith. Jackson, Mississippi: University Press of Mississippi.
- George Winston and Charles Judah, ed. (1968). Chronicles of the Gringos: The U.S. Army in the Mexican War, 1846–1848, Accounts of Eyewitnesses and Combatants. Albuquerque, New Mexico: The University of New Mexico Press.
- Webster, Daniel (1984). Charles M. Wiltse. ed. The Papers of Daniel Webster, Correspondence. 6. Hanover, New Hampshire: The University Press of New England.
- "Treaty of Guadalope Hidalgo". Internet Sourcebook Project. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1848hidalgo.html. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- "28th Congress, 2nd session". United States House Journal. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(hj040T000)):. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- "29th Congress, 1st session". United States House Journal. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(hj041T000)):. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- "28th Congress, 2nd session". United States Senate Journal. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj036T000)):. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- "29th Congress, 1st session". United States Senate Journal. http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj037T000)):. Retrieved 26 November 2008.
- William Hugh Robarts, "Mexican War veterans: a complete roster of the regular and volunteer troops in the war between the United States and Mexico, from 1846 to 1848; the volunteers are arranged by states, alphabetically", BRENTANO'S (A. S. WITHERBEE & CO, Proprietors); WASHINGTON, D. C., 1887.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Mexican-American War |
Guides, bibliographies and collections[link]
- Library of Congress Guide to the Mexican War
- The Handbook of Texas Online: Mexican War
- Reading List compiled by the United States Army Center of Military History
- Mexican War Resources
- The Mexican–American War, Illinois Historical Digitization Projects at Northern Illinois University Libraries
Media and primary sources[link]
- Robert E. Lee Mexican War Maps in the VMI Archives
- The Mexican War and the Media, 1845–1848
- Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and related resources at the U.S. Library of Congress
- Letters of Winfield Scott including official reports from the front sent to the Secretary of War
- Franklin Pierce's Journal on the March from Vera Cruz
- Mexican–American War Time line
- Animated History of the Mexican–American War
Other[link]
- PBS site of US-Mexican war program
- Battle of Monterrey Web Site – Complete Info on the battle
- A Continent Divided: The U.S. - Mexico War
- Manifest Destiny and the U.S.-Mexican War: Then and Now
- The Mexican War
- Smithsonian teaching aids for "Establishing Borders: The Expansion of the United States, 1846–48"
- A History by the Descendants of Mexican War Veterans
- Mexican–American War
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mexican–American_War
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Guerra messicano-statunitense
http://cs.wn.com/Mexicko-americká válka
http://id.wn.com/Perang Meksiko-Amerika
http://es.wn.com/Intervención estadounidense en México
http://ru.wn.com/Американо-мексиканская война
http://nl.wn.com/Mexicaans-Amerikaanse Oorlog
http://pt.wn.com/Guerra Mexicano-Americana
http://pl.wn.com/Wojna amerykańsko-meksykańska
http://fr.wn.com/Guerre américano-mexicaine
http://de.wn.com/Mexikanisch-Amerikanischer Krieg
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican–American_War
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
 |
This article uses bare URLs for citations. Please consider adding full citations so that the article remains verifiable. Several templates and the Reflinks tool are available to assist in formatting. (Reflinks documentation) (April 2012) |
| 300px 1st row: Bill Richardson • Salma Hayek • Roy Benavidez • Hilda Solis 2nd row: Rosa Gumataotao Rios• Carlos Santana Jessica Alba • César Chávez |
| Total population |
|---|
| Mexican Americans 31,689,000 10.3% of the U.S. population.[1] |
| Regions with significant populations |
| Southwest, West Coast, Upper Midwest. There are also emerging populations in the South and Northeast. |
| Languages |
|
Spanish, American English, Spanglish, and a minority of Indigenous Mexican languages. |
| Religion |
|
Predominantly Roman Catholic; large minority of Protestants and small percentage Jehovah's Witnesses and Mormon |
Mexican Americans are Americans of Mexican descent. As of July 2009, Mexican Americans make up 10.3% of the United States' population with over 31,689,000 Americans listed as of Mexican ancestry. Mexican Americans comprise 66% of all Hispanics and Latinos in the United States.[2] The United States is home to the second largest Mexican community in the world second only to Mexico itself comprising nearly 22% of the entire Mexican origin population of the world. Canada is a distant third with a Mexican origin population of 37,000 as of 2001 although increasing to 61,505 as of 2006.[3][4] In addition, as of 2008 there were approximately 7,000,000 undocumented Mexicans living in the United States which if included in the count would increase the US share to over 28% of the world's Mexican origin population (Note that some of the undocumented would be captured in the US Census count depending on their willingness to provide information).[5] Over 60% of all Mexican Americans reside in the states of California and Texas.[6] Most Mexican Americans are the descendants of the Indigenous peoples of Mexico and/or Europeans, especially Spaniards.[7][8]
Contents
|
History of Mexican Americans[link]
Main article: History of Mexican Americans
Mexican American history is wide-ranging, spanning more than 400 years and varying from region to region within the United States. In 1900, there were slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics living in New Mexico, California and Texas.[9] Most were Mexican Americans of indigenous Mexican, Spanish, and other hispanicized European settlers who arrived in the Southwest during Spanish colonial times. Approximately ten percent of the current Mexican American population can trace their lineage back to these early colonial settlers.[10]
As early as 1813 some of the Tejanos who colonized Texas in the Spanish Colonial Period established a government in Texas that looked forward to independence from Mexico. In those days, there was no concept of what a Mexican was. Many Mexicans were more loyal to their states/provinces than to their country as a whole. This was particularly true in frontier regions such as Zacatecas, Texas, Yucatan, Oaxaca, New Mexico, etc.[11] As revealed by the writings of colonial Tejano Texians such as Antonio Menchaca, the Texas Revolution was initially a colonial Tejano cause. By 1831, Anglo settlers outnumbered Tejanos ten to one in Texas.[12] The Mexican government became concerned by their increasing numbers and restricted the number of new Anglo-American settlers allowed to enter Texas. The Mexican government also banned slavery within the state, which angered slave owners.[13] The American settlers along with many of the Tejanos rebelled against the centralized authority of Mexico City and the Santa Anna regime, while others remained loyal to Mexico, and still others were neutral.[14][15]
Author John P. Schmal wrote of the effect Texas independence had on the Tejano community:[16]
"A native of San Antonio, Juan Seguín is probably the most famous Tejano to be involved in the War of Texas Independence. His story is complex because he joined the Anglo rebels and helped defeat the Mexican forces of Santa Anna. But later on, as Mayor of San Antonio, he and other Tejanos felt the hostile encroachments of the growing Anglo power against them. After receiving a series of death threats, Seguín relocated his family in Mexico, where he was coerced into military service and fought against the US in 1846–1848 Mexican-American War. Although the events of 1836 led to independence for the people of Texas, the Hispanic population of the state was very quickly disenfranchised to the extent that their political representation in the Texas State Legislature disappeared entirely for several decades."
Californios were Spanish speaking residents of modern day California who were the original Hispanics (Mexicans (regardless of race) and local Hispanicized Indians) in the region (Alta California) before the United States acquired it as a territory. Relations between Californios and Anglo settlers were relatively good until military officer John C. Fremont arrived in Alta California with a force of 60 men on an exploratory expedition in 1846. Fremont made an agreement with Comandante Castro that he would only stay in the San Joaquin Valley for the winter, then move north to Oregon. However, Fremont remained in the Santa Clara Valley then headed towards Monterey. When Castro demanded that Fremont leave Alta California, Fremont rode to Gavilan Peak, raised a US flag and vowed to fight to the last man to defend it. After three days of tension, Fremont retreated to Oregon without a shot being fired. With relations between Californios and Anglos quickly souring, Fremont rode back into Alta California and encouraged a group of American settlers to seize a group of Castro's soldiers and their horses. Another group, seized the Presidio of Sonoma and captured Mariano Vallejo. William B. Ide was chosen Commander in Chief and on July 5, he proclaimed the creation of the Bear Flag Republic. On July 9, US forces reached Sonoma and lowered the Bear Flag Republic's flag then replaced it with a US flag. Californios organized an army to defend themselves from invading American forces after the Mexican army retreated from Alta California to defend other parts of the country. The Californios defeated an American force in Los Angeles on September 30, 1846, but were defeated after the Americans reinforced their forces in what is now southern California. The arrival of tens of thousands of people during the California Gold Rush meant the end of the Californio's ranching lifestyle. Many Anglo 49ers turned to farming and moved, often illegally, onto the land granted to Californios by the old Mexican government.[17]
The United States first came into conflict with Mexico in the 1830s, as the westward spread of Anglo settlements and of slavery brought significant numbers of new settlers into the region known as Tejas (modern-day Texas), then part of Mexico. The Mexican-American War, followed by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo in 1848 and the Gadsden Purchase in 1853, extended U.S. control over a wide range of territory once held by Mexico, including the present day borders of Texas and the states of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and California.
Although the treaty promised that the landowners in this newly acquired territory would enjoy full enjoyment and protection of their property as if they were citizens of the United States, many former citizens of Mexico lost their land in lawsuits before state and federal courts or as a result of legislation passed after the treaty.[18] Even those statutes intended to protect the owners of property at the time of the extension of the United States' borders, such as the 1851 California Land Act, had the effect of dispossessing Californio owners ruined by the cost of maintaining litigation over land titles for years.
While Mexican Americans were once concentrated in the Southwest – California, Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado and Texas – they began creating communities in St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and other steel producing regions when they obtained employment during World War I. More recently, Mexican illegal immigrants have increasingly become a large part of the workforce in industries such as meat packing throughout the Midwest, in agriculture in the southeastern United States, and in the construction, landscaping, restaurant, hotel and other service industries throughout the country.
Mexican-American workers formed unions of their own and joined integrated unions. The most significant union struggle involving Mexican-Americans was the United Farm Workers' long strike and boycott aimed at grape growers in the San Joaquin and Coachella Valleys in the late 1960s. Its struggle propelled César Chávez and Dolores Huerta into national prominence changing from a workers' rights organization that helped workers get unemployment insurance to that of a union of farmworkers almost overnight.
Mexican American identity has also changed markedly throughout these years. Over the past hundred years Mexican Americans have campaigned for voting rights, stood against educational and employment discrimination and stood for economic and social advancement. At the same time many Mexican Americans have struggled with defining and maintaining their community's identity. In the 1960s and 1970s, some Latino/Hispanic student groups flirted with nationalism and differences over the proper name for members of the community—Chicano/Chicana, Latino/Latina, Mexican Americans, or Hispanics became tied up with deeper disagreements over whether to integrate into or remain separate from mainstream American society, as well as divisions between those Mexican Americans whose families had lived in the United States for two or more generations and more recent immigrants. During this time rights groups such as the National Mexican-American Anti-Defamation Committee were founded. The states with the largest percentages and populations of Mexican-Americans are California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Colorado, Nevada, and Utah. There has also been very high increasing populations in Oklahoma. Pennsylvania and Illinois.[19]
Race and ethnicity[link]
Main article: Mexicans
The Mexican population is mainly conformed by Mestizos, individuals with a genetic background consisting of Amerindian, European and African contributions. Genetic heterogeneity in Mexicans results from a complex demographic history that started with the peopling of North and Central America about 15,000 yrs ago, including the settlement of at least 60 different indigenous groups in Mexico. Source
File:Admixturehispanicswest.jpg
Admixture graphic of the Hispanic population.
Per the 2000 U.S. Census, a plurality of 47.3% of Mexican Americans self identify as being of White race, closely followed by Mexican Americans who self identify as "Some other race", usually Mestizo (Native American/European) with 45.5%.<.[20] Respondents who claim two or more races accounted for 5.1%, Blacks for 0.7%, and all other races for 1.4%. Mexican Americans are predominantly of Native American and European descent. Mexicans are the product of the mixture of 35 ethnic groups. According to the Mexican Genome Project, the overall gene pool of the Mexican population was calculated to be 65 percent indigenous and 35 percent non-indigenous (European, African, Asian). According to the last Mexican census to record race (which was in 1921), 10 percent of the Mexican populace identified itself as white, 59 percent as Mestizo (Native American-European mixture), 29 percent as Native American, and 2 percent as "other", foreigner (regardless of race), or did not specify a race.[21] Before the United States' borders expanded westward in the 19th century, New World regions colonized by the Spanish Empire since the 16th century held to a complex caste system (casta) that classified persons by their fractional racial makeup and geographic origin.[22][23]
As the United States' borders expanded, the United States Census Bureau changed its racial classification methods for Mexican Americans under United States jurisdiction. The Bureau's classification system has evolved significantly from its inception:
- From 1790 to 1850, there was no distinct racial classification of Mexican Americans in the U.S. census. The only racial categories recognized by the Census Bureau were White and Black. The Census Bureau estimates that during this period the number of persons that could not be categorized as white or black did not exceed 0.25% of the total population based on 1860 census data.[24]
- From 1850 through 1920 the Census Bureau expanded its racial categories to include all different races including Mestizos, Mulattos, Amerindians and Asians, and classified Mexicans and Mexican Americans as "White"[24] All Mexicans were legally (though not normally socially, ecomically or politically) considered "White" either because they were considered to be of full Spanish heritage, or because of treaty obligations to Spaniards and Mexicans that conferred citizenship status at a time when whiteness was a prerequisite for U.S. citizenship.
- The 1930 U.S. census revoked generic "white" status for Mexican Americans due to protests from Anglo Americans nativists. The new form asked for "color or race" and census workers were instructed to "write ‘W’ for White; ’Mex’ for Mexican."[25]
- In the 1940 census, Mexican Americans were re-classified as White, due to widespread protests by the Mexican American community. Instructions for enumerators were "Mexicans – Report 'White' (W) for Mexicans unless they are definitely of indigenous or other non-white race." During the same census, however, the bureau began to track the White population of Spanish mother tongue. This practice continued through the 1960 census.[24] The 1960 census also used the title "Spanish-surnamed American" in their reporting data of Mexican Americans, which included Cuban Americans, Puerto Ricans and others under the same category.
- From 1970 to 1980, there was a dramatic population increase of Other Race in the census, reflecting the addition of a question on Hispanic origin to the 100-percent questionnaire, an increased propensity for Hispanics to NOT identify themselves as White, and a change in editing procedures to accept reports of "Other race" for respondents who wrote in Hispanic entries such as Mexican, Cuban, or Puerto Rican. In 1970, such responses in the Other race category were reclassified and tabulated as White. During this census, the bureau attempted to identify all Hispanics by use of the following criteria in sampled sets:[24]
-
- Spanish speakers and persons belonging to a household where the head of household was a Spanish speaker
- Persons with Spanish heritage by birth location or surname
- Persons who self-identified Spanish origin or descent
- From 1980 on, the Census Bureau has collected data on Hispanic origin on a 100-percent basis. The bureau has noted an increasing number of respondents who mark themselves as Hispanic origin but not of the White race.[24]
For certain purposes, respondents who wrote in "Chicano" or "Mexican" (or indeed, almost all Hispanic origin groups) in the "Some other race" category were automatically re-classified into the "White race" group.[26]
Politics and debate of racial classification[link]
| Part of a series on |
| Chicanos and Mexican Americans |
|---|
| Chicano · La Raza · Latino Mexican American · Hispanic |
| Pre-Chicano Movement |
| Mexican-American History Mexican-American War Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo Mutualista · San Elizario Salt War Sleepy Lagoon trial · Zoot Suit Riots |
| Chicano Movement |
| Chicanismo · Aztlán Plan Espiritual de Aztlán Plan de Santa Bárbara Land grant struggle Chicano Blowouts Chicano Moratorium Farm worker rights campaign Católicos por La Raza |
| Supreme Court cases |
| Hernandez v. Texas Plyler v. Doe Mendez v. Westminster |
| Organizations |
| MEChA · United Farm Workers Brown Berets Comisión Femenil Mexicana Nacional American GI Forum National Council of La Raza |
| Language |
| Chicano Spanish Chicano Spanish words / phrases Chicano English New Mexican Spanish Spanish in the United States |
| Music |
| Chicano rap · Chicano rock Tejano music |
| Culture |
| Chicano literature Estrada Courts murals Cholo · Pachuco Lowrider · Zoot suit Teatro Campesino · Chicano Park Tex-Mex cuisine Dia de los muertos Cinco de Mayo |
| Lists |
| Notable Chicanos / Hispanics |
Since the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which granted citizenship rights to Mexican people in the newly conquered US territory of the South West, Mexican Americans have been legally considered "White." Since legal citizenship in the United States required "white" racial status, new Mexican "Americans" had to be classified as White, whether or not they were considered white in "reality". Thus Mexican Americans were white by law, but not usually classified as such socially (depending on class and whether an individual had any degree of perceived indigenous ancestry). According to legal scholars, "Anglos rarely distinguished between Mexicans and Mexican Americans and painted a picture of 'Mexicans' as an economic and cultural threat to America. In [the early 1900s], Mexican Americans increasingly were denied many of the rights of citizens. Like the African American population, many were placed in segregated schools with inferior educational resources, barred from restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and public swimming pools, and denied the possibility of living in white neighborhoods," in addition to being barred from serving on juries in most of the Southwest; yet none of this segregation was formally encoded in law. Thus while for legal purposes, Mexican Americans were counted as White, in everyday reality most Mexican Americans were not considered "white," did not enjoy "white" status or privileges, and were in fact typically subjected to systematic discrimination and "Jim Crow" style racial segregation. The legal designation of white racial status actually worked against Mexican American civil rights in law suits claiming racial discrimination. Such suits were typically denied on the basis that Mexican Americans were not subject to racial discrimination, despite all evidence to the contrary, because they were legally white.[27]
In times and places where Mexicans were allotted white status, they were permitted to intermarry with what today are termed "non-Hispanic whites", though social customs typically only approved of such marriages if the Mexican partner was not of any discernable indigenous heritage.[28] Legally, Mexican Americans could vote and hold elected office, though they were also constrained from voting in most places by literacy tests and poll taxes. While Mexicans of Spanish descent ran the state politics and constituted most of the elite of New Mexico since colonial times, property requirements and English literacy requirements were imposed in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico, and Texas in order to prevent Mexican Americans from voting. Some eligible voters were intimidated with the threat of violence if they attempted to exercise their right to vote.[29]
Mexicans were also allowed to serve in all-white units during World War II. However, many Mexican American war veterans were discriminated against and even denied medical services by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs when they arrived home.[30]
In the past, Mexicans were legally considered "White" because either they were considered to be of full Spanish heritage, or because of early treaty obligations to Spaniards and Mexicans that conferred citizenship status to Mexican peoples at a time when whiteness was a prerequisite for U.S. citizenship.[31][32] Although Mexican Americans were legally classified as "White" in terms of official federal policy, many organizations, businesses, and homeowners associations and local legal systems had official policies to exclude Mexican Americans. Throughout the southwest discrimination in wages were institutionalized in "white wages" versus lower "Mexican wages" for the same job classifications.[30][33][34][35]
Mexican Americans legally classified as "White", following anti-miscegenation laws in most western states until the 1960s, could not legally marry African or Asian Americans (See Perez v. Sharp). However, most were not socially considered white, and therefore, accoding to Historian Neil Foley in the book The White Scourge Mexicans and Mexican Americans did marry non-whites typically without reprisal.
Economic and social issues[link]
Immigration issues[link]
See also: 2006 United States immigration reform protests and Illegal immigration to the United States
Since the 1960s, Mexican immigrants have met a significant portion of the demand for cheap labor in the United States.[36] Fear of deportation makes them highly vulnerable to exploitation by employers. Many employers, however, have developed a "don't ask, don't tell" attitude toward hiring undocumented Mexican nationals. In May 2006, hundreds of thousands of undocumented immigrants, Mexicans and other nationalities, walked out of their jobs across the country in protest to support immigration reform (many in hopes of a path to citizenship similar to the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, which granted citizenship to Mexican nationals living and working without documentation in the US).
In the United States, in states where Mexican Americans make up a large percentage of the population, such as California and Texas, undocumented as well as legal immigrants from Mexico and Central America in addition to Mexican Americans combined often make up a large majority of workers in many blue-collar occupations: the majority of the employed men are restaurant workers, janitors, truck drivers, gardeners, construction laborers, material moving workers, or perform other types of manual or other blue collar labor (Source, U.S. Census Bureau, American community survey data.). Many women also work in low wage service and retail occupations. In many of these places with large Latino populations, many types of blue-collar workers are often assumed to be Mexican American or Mexican or other Latino immigrants (Although a large minority are actually not. -Source, U.S. Census Bureau, American community survey data.) because of their frequent dominance in those occupations and stereotyping. Occasionally, tensions have risen between Mexican immigrants and other ethnic groups because of increasing concerns over the availability of working-class jobs to Americans and immigrants from other ethnic groups. However, tensions have also risen among Hispanic American laborers who have been displaced because of both cheap Mexican labor and ethnic profiling. African American workers in lower-wage jobs have been displaced by undocumented Mexican laborers and their neighborhoods have been transformed from majority black to majority Latino, which has caused some racial tensions between African Americans and Mexicans in the Southwest US. Even legal immigrants to the United States, both from Mexico and elsewhere, have spoken out against illegal immigration. However, according to a survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in June 2007, 63% of Americans would support an immigration policy that would put illegal immigrants on a path to citizenship if they "pass background checks, pay fines and have jobs, learn English", while 30% would oppose such a plan. The survey also found that if this program was instead labeled "amnesty", 54% would support it, while 39% would oppose.[37]
Alan Greenspan, former Chairman of the Federal Reserve, has said that the growth of the working-age population is a large factor in keeping the economy growing and that immigration can be used to grow that population. According to Greenspan, by 2030, the growth of the US workforce will slow from 1 percent to 1/2 percent, while the percentage of the population over 65 years will rise from 13 percent to perhaps 20 percent.[38] Greenspan has also stated that the current immigration problem could be solved with a "stroke of the pen", referring to the 2007 immigration reform bill which would have strengthened border security, created a guest worker program, and put illegal immigrants currently residing in the US on a path to citizenship if they met certain conditions.[39]
Discrimination and stereotypes[link]
Main articles: Anti-Mexican sentiment and Hispanophobia
Throughout U.S. history, Mexican Americans have and continue to endure various types of negative stereotypes which have long circulated in media and popular culture.[40][41] Mexican Americans have also faced discrimination based on ethnicity, race, culture, poverty, and use of the Spanish language.[42]
Since the majority of illegal immigrants in the U.S. have traditionally been from Latin America, the Mexican American community has been the subject of widespread immigration raids. During The Great Depression, the United States government sponsored a Mexican Repatriation program which was intended to encourage people to voluntarily move to Mexico, but thousands were deported against their will. More than 500,000 individuals were deported, approximately 60 percent of which were actually United States citizens.[43][44] In the post-war McCarthy era, the Justice Department launched Operation Wetback.[44]
During World War II, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans served in the US armed forces.[18] Mexican Americans were generally integrated into regular military units, however, many Mexican American war veterans were discriminated against and even denied medical services by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs when they arrived home.[30] In 1948, war veteran Dr Hector P. Garcia founded the American GI Forum to address the concerns of Mexican American veterans who were being discriminated against. The AGIF's first campaign was on the behalf of Felix Longoria, a Mexican American private who was killed in the Philippines while in the line of duty. Upon the return of his body to his hometown of Three Rivers, Texas, he was denied funeral services because of his race.
In the 1948 case of Perez v. Sharp, Andrea Perez—a Mexican-American woman listed as White—and Sylvester Davis—an African American man—the Supreme Court of California recognized that interracial bans on marriage violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the Federal Constitution.
In 2006, Time magazine reported that the number of hate groups in the United States increased by 33% since 2000, primarily due to anti-illegal immigrant and anti-Mexican sentiment.[45] According to the annual Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hate Crimes Statistics Report,[46] in 2007, Hispanics comprised 61.7 percent of victims of crimes motivated by a bias toward the victims’ ethnicity or national origin. Since 2003 the number of both victims of anti-Hispanic crimes and incidents increased by nearly 40 percent. In 2004, the comparable figure was 51.5 percent. In California, the state with the largest Mexican American population, the number of hate crimes committed against Latinos has almost doubled.[47][48]
Social status and assimilation[link]
Barrow (2005) finds increases in average personal and household incomes for Mexican Americans in the 21st century. U.S. born Mexican Americans earn more and are represented more in the middle and upper-class segments more than most recently arriving Mexican immigrants.
Most immigrants from Mexico, as elsewhere, come from the lower classes and from families generationally employed in lower skilled jobs. They also are most likely from rural areas. Thus, many new Mexican immigrants are not skilled in white collar professions. Recently, some professionals from Mexico have been migrating, but to make the transition from one country to another involves re-training and re-adjusting to conform to US laws —i.e. professional licensing is required.[citation needed]
According to James P. Smith of the Research and Development Corporation, the children and grandchildren of Latino immigrants tend to lessen educational and income gaps with native whites. Immigrant Latino men make about half of what native whites do, while second generation US-born Latinos make about 78 percent of the salaries of their native white counterparts and by the third generation US-born Latinos make on average identical wages to their US-born white counterparts.[50]
Huntington (2005) argues that the sheer number, concentration, linguistic homogeneity, and other characteristics of Latin American immigrants will erode the dominance of English as a nationally unifying language, weaken the country's dominant cultural values, and promote ethnic allegiances over a primary identification as an American. Testing these hypotheses with data from the U.S. Census and national and Los Angeles opinion surveys, Citrin et al. (2007) show that Hispanics generally acquire English and lose Spanish rapidly beginning with the second generation, and appear to be no more or less religious or committed to the work ethic than native-born non-Mexican American whites. However, the children and grandchildren of Mexican immigrants were able to make close ties with their extended families in Mexico, since United States shares a 2,000 mile border with Mexico. Many had the opportunity to visit Mexico on a relatively frequent basis. As a result, many Mexicans were able to maintain a strong Mexican culture, language, and relationship with others.[51]
South et al. (2005) examine Hispanic spatial assimilation and inter-neighborhood geographic mobility. Their longitudinal analysis of seven hundred Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban immigrants followed from 1990 to 1995 finds broad support for hypotheses derived from the classical account of assimilation into American society. High income, English-language use, and embeddedness in American social contexts increased Latin American immigrants' geographic mobility into multi-ethnic neighborhoods. US citizenship and years spent in the United States were positively associated with geographic mobility into different neighborhoods, and coethnic contact was inversely associated with this form of mobility, but these associations operated largely through other predictors. Prior experiences of ethnic discrimination increased and therefore decreased the likelihood that Latino immigrants would move from their original neighborhoods, while residing in metropolitan areas with large Latino populations led to geographic moves into "less Anglo" census tracts.[52]
Segregation issues[link]
In 2000, over nine million Mexicans Americans lived in areas considered highly segregated socially.[53]
Segregated neighborhoods[link]
Neighborhoods with a high percentage of individuals who claim Latino ancestry are commonly referred to as "barrios" or "colonias." When translated from Spanish to English, barrio signifies "district" or "quarter" while colonia is the corresponding Mexican Spanish word.
A barrio has been defined as "a place where Latino immigrants can express communal culture and language within the larger American culture."[53] In other words, the barrio is a sort of sanctuary for Spanish-speaking immigrants who may not yet be fully adjusted to the United States. In the barrio, they can converse in their native language, allowing one to communicate, find a job, and seek help with less pressure of speaking a second language. It is a place where Latino culture thrives and a source of comfort to a recent immigrant, as it would offer him or her a place to work and live while perfecting fluency of the English language.
However, some argue that the barrio also represents the inequality faced by many Mexican Americans in the United States.[53] Barrios usually offer a lower quality of education, provide poorer jobs than other neighborhoods, and generally receive less government attention than wealthier more integrated Hispanic neighborhoods.
Housing market practices[link]
| Part of a series of articles on |
|---|
| National origin groups |
| Argentine Americans Brazilian Americans Bolivian Americans Chilean Americans Colombian Americans Costa Rican Americans Cuban Americans Dominican Americans Ecuadorian Americans Guatemalan Americans Honduran Americans Mexican Americans Nicaraguan Americans Panamanian Americans Paraguayan Americans Peruvian Americans Puerto Ricans (stateside) Salvadoran Americans Spanish Americans Uruguayan Americans Venezuelan Americans |
| History |
| History of Hispanic and Latino Americans History of Mexican-Americans |
| Colonial Casta System |
| Caboclo · Castizo · Cholo · Mestizo · Pardo · Zambo |
| Political movements |
| Hispanic and Latino American politics Chicano Movement |
| Organizations |
| National Hispanic Institute NALEO · RNHA Congressional Hispanic Caucus Congressional Hispanic Conference LULAC · MALDEF · NALFO · SHPE National Council of La Raza Association of Hispanic Arts · MEChA · UFW |
| Culture |
| Hispanic culture Literature · Music · Religion · Studies · |
| Languages |
| English · Spanish in the United States Spanish · Spanglish |
| Ethnic Groups |
| Afro-Brazilian · Afro-Cuban · Afro-Dominican · Cubans · Dominican · Garifuna · Puerto Rican |
| Lists |
| Communities with Hispanic majority Puerto Rico-related topics Notable Hispanics Related topics |
| Portals |
| Hispanic and Latino Portal |
|
|
Studies have shown that the segregation among Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants seems to be declining. One study found that Mexican American applicants were offered the same housing terms and conditions as Anglo Americans. They were asked to provide the same information (regarding employment, income, credit checks, etc.) and asked to meet the same general qualifications of their Anglo peers.[54]
However, in this same study, it was found that Mexican Americans were more likely than Anglo Americans to be asked to pay a security deposit or application fee.[54] Another interesting aspect of this study is that the Mexican American applicants were more likely to be placed onto a waiting list than the Anglo Americans applicants.[54]
Latino segregation versus Black segregation[link]
Historically, African Americans have faced much harsher treatment concerning segregation than any other racial, ethnic, or ancestral group. However, throughout the Southwest during the first fifty years of the 20th century, Mexican Americans faced segregation, despite being legally classified as "white" (The legal classification of all mexicans as white was a convention orginially enacted to enforce the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo that ended the Mexican American war in 1848. According to the Treaty Mexicans remaining in the new US territory would have the right of citizens, which at that time was only granted to "white" people.) According to legal scholar Claire Sheridan, referring to the legal, social and political status of Mexican Americans in the early 20th century: "Anglos rarely distinguished between Mexicans and Mexican Americans and painted a picture of "Mexicans" as an economic and cultural threat to America. In this period, Mexican Americans increasingly were denied many of the rights of citizens. Like the African American population, many were placed in segregated schools with inferior educational resources, barred from restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and public swimming pools, and denied the possibility of living in white neighborhoods. Yet none of this segregation was formally encoded in law. For legal purposes, Mexican Americans were white. They were counted as white in the census and, unlike non-whites (other than those from Africa), were able to naturalize.7 However, law clashed with perceptions of racial "reality," creating a citizenship status for Mexican Americans that many considered to be legal fiction. This gap between their legal and social standing was reflected in local interpretations of the law and in the regulation of their political participation through mechanisms such as poll taxes, literacy tests, and blue ribbon jury commissions. This unequal treatment continued through the war years and into the 1950s. Mexican Americans' unequal status was especially evident in their representation on juries. While not prohibited by law from serving, they were almost universally excluded on the grounds that they were not qualified to serve."
When comparing the contemporary segregation of Mexican Americans to that of Black Americans, some scholars claim that "Latino segregation is less severe and fundamentally different than Black residential segregation."[53] Some studies suggest that contemporary segregation of Latinos is more likely to be due to factors such as lower socioeconomic status and immigration while the segregation of African Americans is more likely to be due to larger issues of the history of racism in the US.
Segregated schools[link]
During certain periods, Mexican American children sometimes were forced to register at "Mexican schools", where classroom conditions were poor, the school year was shorter, and the quality of education was substandard.[55]
Various reasons for the inferiority of the education given to Mexican American students have been listed by James A. Ferg-Cadima including: inadequate resources, poor equipment, unfit building construction, shortened school year (see below), failure to prevent drop out, limited access to high school, a watered down curriculum, poor instruction, disproportionate suspension, expulsion, harassment and non-enforced attendance rules.
In 1923, the Texas Education Survey Commission found that the school year for some non-white groups was 1.6 months shorter than the average school year.[55] This may be connected to the fact that minority labor was needed during this time. As the agricultural field required the cheap labor provided by exploited minorities, it has been suggested that the minority school year was shortened to allow for these students to work instead of receive the extra 1.6 months of education.
Some have interpreted the shortened school year as a "means of social control"[55] implementing policies to ensure that Mexican Americans would maintain the unskilled labor force required for a strong economy. A lesser education would serve to confine Mexican Americans to the bottom rung of the social ladder. By limiting the number of days that Mexican Americans could attend school and allotting time for these same students to work, in mainly agricultural and seasonal jobs, the prospects for higher education and upward mobility were slim.
Immigration and segregation[link]
Immigration hubs are popular destinations for Latino immigrants. They are increasing in size and continue to be highly segregated. The largest immigration hubs include Los Angeles, New York, and Chicago. The highly segregated areas of these cities have historically served the purpose of allowing immigrants to become comfortable in the United States, accumulate wealth, and eventually leave.[56] The historical view of immigration hubs sees these cities as temporary starting points for immigrants. They are not expected to live their entire lives within the United States inside segregated areas. Rather, they are expected to accumulate enough wealth to start a life within the larger society.
This model of immigration and residential segregation, explained above, is the model which has historically been accurate in describing the experiences of Latino immigrants. However, the patterns of immigration seen today no longer follows this model. This old model is termed the standard spatial assimilation model. More contemporary models are the polarization model and the diffusion model[clarification needed].
The spatial assimilation model posits that as immigrants would live within this country's borders, they would simultaneously become more comfortable in their new surroundings, their socioeconomic status would rise, and their ability to speak English would increase. The combination of these changes would allow for the immigrant to move out of the barrio and into the dominant society. This type of assimilation reflects the experiences of immigrants of the early twentieth century.[53] Recent, more contemporary, models of residential segregation are the polarization model and the diffusion model are described below.
Polarization model suggests that the immigration of non-Black minorities into the United States further separates Blacks and Whites, as though the new immigrants are a buffer between them. This creates a hierarchy in which Blacks are at the bottom, Whites are at the top, and other groups fill the middle.[56] In other words, the polarization model posits that Asians and Amerindians are less segregated than their African American peers because White American society would rather live closer to Asians or Amerindians than Blacks.
The diffusion model has also been suggested as a way of describing the immigrant's experience within the United States. This model is rooted in the belief that as time passes, more and more immigrants enter the country. This model suggests that as the United States becomes more populated with a more diverse set of peoples, stereotypes and discriminatory practices will decrease, as awareness and acceptness increase. The diffusion model predicts that new immigrants will break down old patterns of discrimination and prejudice, as one becomes more and more comfortable with the more diverse neighborhoods that are created through the influx of immigrants.[56] Applying this model to the experiences of Mexican Americans forces one to see Mexican American immigrants as positive additions to the "American melting pot," in which as more additions are made to the pot, the more equal and accepting society will become.
Overcrowding[link]
The issue of overcrowding is closely related to the issue of segregation and immigration.[citation needed] As immigrants enter the country, they are likely to settle in areas where their friends, family, or simply other who share their culture, have settled. It is not uncommon for many members of families, extended families, or friends, to live in what is considered "overcrowded" conditions.
A large aspect of the segregation of Latinos within the United States is overcrowding. Rates of overcrowding among Latinos, especially in American suburbs, are high. The U.S. Census Bureau considers a residence to be overcrowded if there is more than one person per room[57]
There are various explanations for overcrowding. One widely held belief about overcrowding is based on a stereotype of living in close proximity simply to cultural preference. To expand on that point, it is widely believed that immigrant Hispanic families live in dense households because of their desire to remain in close proximity with extended family. However, this view does not paint the entire picture. Some families may live under one roof by choice and it is possible that Hispanic people may have different cultural standards than other population groups, thus allowing them to be more comfortable living with extended family underneath the same roof. However, one cannot reduce all problems of Hispanic overcrowding to cultural preference, as this offers an incomplete understanding of the issue at hand.[57]
Hispanic people may live in overcrowded conditions out of economic necessity and simply because they choose to live differently than others. Lack of affordable housing and a poor selection of well-paying occupations may combine to create the necessity of many living close together.[57] Because one certain family may find very few opportunities for sufficient housing or find themselves without adequate funds for a house of their own, they may be forced to live in crowded conditions.
The Chicano movement and the Chicano Moratorium[link]
In the heady days of the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano movement conducted actions such as the mass walkouts by high school students in Denver and East Los Angeles in 1968 and the Chicano Moratorium in Los Angeles in 1970. The movement was particularly strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, an organization that seeks to promote Chicano unity and empowerment through education and political action, but also espouses revanchist ideals centered around "taking back" the American southwest for Mexicans. The Chicano Moratorium, formally known as the National Chicano Moratorium Committee, was a movement of Chicano anti-war activists that built a broad-based but fragile coalition of Mexican-American groups to organize opposition to the Vietnam War. The committee was led by activists from local colleges and members of the "Brown Berets", a group with roots in the high school student movement that staged walkouts in 1968, known as the East L.A. walkouts, also called "blowouts". The best known historical fact of the Moratorium was the death of Rubén Salazar, known for his reporting on civil rights and police brutality. The official story is that Salazar was killed by a tear gas canister fired by a member of the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department into the Silver Dollar Café at the conclusion of the August 29 rally.
Mexican-American communities[link]
Main article: List of Mexican-American communities
 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011) |
There are large Mexican American populations, by size or percentage, in the cities of:
- Los Angeles, California – the city proper home to over 1 million of Mexican ancestry, another 2 million throughout Los Angeles County, and a total of six million in the five-county Greater Los Angeles Area. Largest Mexican ancestry populated city in the United States.
(according to the 2010 census, L.A. is now under 20% are of Mexican descent now with equally numerous Central American national groups and the rest-10% other Latino).
-
- East Los Angeles, California – Unincorporated community totally (99%) Latino, about 66% are foreign-born with Mexican immigrants in the lead and 33% of Mexican descent.
- Culver City, California – Also the site of the infamous Zoot Suit Riots in 1943.
- Long Beach, California – Third largest city in Southern California, One of many cities in the region with a large Mexican/Hispanic population.
- Pomona, California[[2]] – over 70% of the city population is Mexican or Mexican American.
- La Puente, California – about two-thirds are of Mexican ancestry or Hispanic, one of the largest Hispanic (in percentage, the most Mexican-American community) populations in California. [58]
- Inland Empire, California (Riverside/ San Bernardino Counties- and the cities of that namesake) – About a third of the population are of Mexican descent.
- Riverside, California [59] and San Bernardino, California [60]
- Indio, California [61] and Coachella, California (primarily Mexican-American). [62]
- Southern California is the highest densely populated Mexican-American region, but by areas of percentage it is South Texas.
- Las Vegas, Nevada – 31% of the population of the city is Hispanic in which 25% of that is of Mexican descent.
- Chicago, Illinois – 1.4 million of Mexican ancestry in the Chicago metropolitan area[63] and the third largest Mexican community in the USA.[citation needed]
- Houston, Texas – second largest Mexican ancestry community in the United States.
- Phoenix, Arizona – fourth largest Mexican-American population.
- Tucson, Arizona – 30% of the almost 1 million people in the metro area.[64]
- Dallas/Fort Worth Area – fifth largest Mexican-American population and over 1.5 million Mexicans in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex (3rd largest foreign born Mexican population in the US per MSA).
- San Antonio, Texas – over half of the population in the city proper (52%, 685,000)[65]
- San Diego, California – slightly more than one-fourth of the city's population is Hispanic, primarily Mexican American; however, this percentage is the lowest of any significant border city.
- El Paso, Texas – largest Mexican-American community bordering a state of Mexico.
- South Texas – Heavily populated by Mexican-Americans, who are the ethnic majority, in a region spanning from Laredo to Corpus Christi to Brownsville.
- San Francisco Bay Area – also with over one million Hispanics, many of whom are Mexican Americans, both U.S. born and foreign-born (see also Oakland about 10–20% Hispanic and San Francisco – the Mission District section- the city is 10–20% Latino).
- Oakland – California's third largest Mexican-American city by percentage (over 25%) after Long Beach (about 30%).
- San Jose, California – Nearly one-third of the city's population is Mexican-American or of Hispanic origin; San Jose has the largest Mexican-American population within the Bay Area.
- Central Valley of California both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys have majority Mexican American communities.
- Denver, Colorado – Colorado has the eighth largest population of Hispanics, seventh high percentage of Hispanics, fourth largest population of Mexican-Americans, and sixth highest percentage of Mexican-Americans in the United States. According to the 2010 census, there are over 1 million Mexican-Americans in Colorado.[66] Over one-third of the city's population is Mexican-American or Hispanic/Latino, as well as approximately one-fourth of the entire Denver Metropolitan area. About 17% of the cities population is foreign born, mostly from Latin America.[67]
- Greeley, Colorado – Over one-third of the cities population is Latino, mostly Mexican-American.[68]
- Garden City is Latino majority, and Evans has a very large Latino population as well.[69][70]
- Southern Colorado is home to many communities of Hispanics descended from Mexican settlers who arrived during Spanish colonial times. Roughly half of Pueblo's population is Latino, mostly Mexican-American.[71] Many other towns in southern Colorado have high proportions of Mexican-Americans. La Junta, Rocky Ford, Las Animas, Lamar, Walsenburg, and Trinidad all have large Mexican American communities.
- San Luis Valley – The San Luis Valley has many towns with large Mexican-American populations. Antonito, Blanca, Center, Del Norte, Fort Garland, Monte Vista, and Romeo are all Latino majority.[72]
- The Yakima Valley and Tri-Cities, Washington – This region of Washington contains many communities of Mexican-American majority thanks to high demand for agricultural labor.
A dynamic community[link]
|
|
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2009) |
In the 1990s and 2000s, the Midwestern United States became a major destination for Mexican immigrants. But Mexican-Americans were already present in the Midwest's industrial cities and urban areas. Esp. Mexicans/Latinos came into states like Illinois (mostly in Chicagoland), Indiana esp. the Northern section, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan (i.e. the Detroit metropolitan area), Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska and Wisconsin due to needs of the region's industrial manufacturing base.
Another destination of Mexican and Latin American immigration was the Northeastern United States, in places such as the Monongahela Valley, Pennsylvania; Mahoning Valley, Ohio; throughout Massachusetts and the state of Rhode Island; New Haven, Connecticut along with other Latin American nationalities; Washington, D.C. with Maryland and Northern Virginia included; the Hudson Valley and Long Island of New York state; the Jersey Shore region and the Delaware Valley, New Jersey.
Communities that consist mostly of recent-arrived immigrants from Mexico, are also present in other parts of the rural Southeastern United States, in states such as Georgia, Maryland, Tennessee, Alabama, Arkansas and Oklahoma. A growing Mexican-American population is also present in urban areas such as Orlando, Florida with the Central Florida region included; the Atlanta metro area; Charlotte, North Carolina- with a majority Hispanic enclave of Eastland; New Orleans which increased after Hurricane Katrina in Sep. 2005; the Hampton Roads, Virginia area; the states of Maine, New Hampshire and Delaware; and Pennsylvania esp. in the Philadelphia metropolitan area – the area's largest Mexican community.
List of states by Mexican-American population[link]
| State/Territory | Mexican-Americans Population (2010 Census)[73] |
Percentage | |
|---|---|---|---|
 Alabama |
122,911 | 2.6 | |
 Alaska |
122,911 | 3.0 | |
 Arizona |
1,657,668 | 25.9 | |
 Arkansas |
138,194 | 4.7 | |
 California |
11,423,146 | 30.7 | |
 Colorado |
757,181 | 15.1 | |
 Connecticut |
50,658 | 1.4 | |
 Delaware |
30,283 | 3.0 | |
 District of Columbia |
8,507 | 1.4 | |
 Florida |
629,718 | 3.3 | |
 Georgia |
519,502 | 5.4 | |
 Hawaii |
35,415 | 2.6 | |
 Idaho |
148,923 | 9.5 | |
 Illinois |
1,602,403 | 12.5 | |
 Indiana |
295,373 | 4.6 | |
 Iowa |
117,090 | 3.8 | |
 Kansas |
247,297 | 8.7 | |
 Kentucky |
82,110 | 1.9 | |
 Louisiana |
78,643 | 1.7 | |
 Maine |
5,134 | 0.4 | |
 Maryland |
88,004 | 1.5 | |
 Massachusetts |
38,379 | 0.6 | |
 Michigan |
317,903 | 3.2 | |
 Minnesota |
176,007 | 3.3 | |
 Mississippi |
52,459 | 1.8 | |
 Missouri |
147,254 | 2.5 | |
 Montana |
20,048 | 2.0 | |
 Nebraska |
128,060 | 7.0 | |
 Nevada |
540,978 | 20.0 | |
 New Hampshire |
7,822 | 0.6 | |
 New Jersey |
217,715 | 2.5 | |
 New Mexico |
590,890 | 28.7 | |
 New York |
457,288 | 2.4 | |
 North Carolina |
486,960 | 5.1 | |
 North Dakota |
9,223 | 1.4 | |
 Ohio |
172,029 | 1.5 | |
 Oklahoma |
267,016 | 7.1 | |
 Oregon |
369,817 | 9.7 | |
 Pennsylvania |
129,568 | 1.0 | |
 Rhode Island |
9,090 | 0.9 | |
 South Carolina |
138,35 | 3.0 | |
 South Dakota |
13,839 | 1.7 | |
 Tennessee |
186,615 | 2.9 | |
 Texas |
7,951,193 | 31.6 | |
 Utah |
258,905 | 9.4 | |
 Vermont |
2,534 | 0.4 | |
 Virginia |
155,067 | 1.9 | |
 Washington |
601,768 | 8.9 | |
 West Virginia |
9,704 | 0.5 | |
 Wisconsin |
244,248 | 4.3 | |
 Wyoming |
37,719 | 6.7 | |
| USA | 31,798,258 | 10.3 |
US communities with high percentages of Mexican ancestry[link]
The top 25 US communities with various Mexican American populations are:[74]
|
|
U.S. communities with the highest proportion of residents born in Mexico[link]
Top 25 U.S. communities with the highest proportion of residents born in Mexico are:[75]
|
|
|
See also[link]
- Mexican people
- Chicanismo
- Chicano
- Chicano literature
- Chicano poetry
- Hyphenated American
- List of Mexican American writers
- List of Mexican Americans
- Mexicans abroad
- List of Mexican people
Notes[link]
- ^ US Census Bureau: Hispanic or Latino by Type: 2010 retrieved January 22, 2012
- ^ US Census Bureau 2009 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN
- ^ Statistics Canada: 2001 Census: Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada
- ^ Statistics Canada 2006: "Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories"
- ^ Pew Hispanic Center: "A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants to the United States" April 11, 2009
- ^ "Table 4. Top Five States for Detailed Hispanic or Latino Origin Groups With a Population Size of One Million or More in the United States: 2010". The Hispanic Population 2010. U.S. Census Bureau. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-04.pdf. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "Mexico – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379167/Mexico#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&title=Mexico%20--%20Britannica%20Online20Encyclopedia.
- ^ http://historiamexicana.colmex.mx/pdf/13/art_13_1938_16335.pdf
- ^ Latinos and the Changing Face of America – Population Reference Bureau
- ^ "Mexican Americans – MSN Encarta". Mexican Americans – MSN Encarta. Archived from the original on November 1, 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5kx7M1c1J.
- ^ [1]
- ^ American Experience | Remember the Alamo | Timeline | PBS
- ^ (DV) Felux: Remember the Alamo?
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=ENPUSvf4Z3EC&pg=PA41&dq=%22tejano+community%27s%22+%22texas+independence%22&sig=sgeYJ9hGcg2Fg2WPZc4AoeTREZE#PPA21,M1
- ^ http://bexargenealogy.com/Tejanos.html[dead link]
- ^ The Hispanic Experience – Tejanos in the Texas Revolution
- ^ American Experience | The Gold Rush | People & Events | PBS
- ^ a b World Book Encyclopedia | Atlas | Homework Help
- ^ Census Bureau Home Page
- ^ Tafoya, Sonya (December 6, 2004). "Shades of Belonging" (PDF). Pew Hispanic Center. http://pewhispanic.org/files/reports/35.pdf. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
- ^ Bertoni et al., Admixture in Hispanics: Distribution of Ancestral Population Contributions in the United States, Human Biology – Volume 75, Number 1, February 2003, pp. 1–11
- ^ "Racial Classifications in Latin America". http://www.zonalatina.com/Zldata55.htm. Retrieved December 25, 2006.
- ^ "A History of Mexican Americans in California: Introduction". http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/5views/5views5.htm.
- ^ a b c d e Gibson, Campbell; Jung, Kay (September 2002). "Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals By Race, 1790 to 1990, and By Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, For The United States, Regions, Divisions, and States". Working Paper Series No. 56. http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0056.html. Retrieved December 7, 2006.
- ^ "US Population in the 1930 Census by Race". 2002. http://www.genealogybranches.com/1930census.html. Retrieved December 7, 2006.
- ^ Surveillance Epidemology and End Results. Race and Nationality Descriptions from the 2000 US Census and Bureau of Vital Statistics. 2007. May 21, 2007.
- ^ Sheridan, Clare. "Another White Race:" Mexican Americans and the Paradox of Whiteness in Jury Selection. Law and History Review. http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/21.1/forum_sheridan.html.
- ^ De Genova, Nicholas (2006). Racial Transformations: Latinos And Asians. Duke University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-8223-3716-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=EypC4KRNR9oC&pg=PA95&lpg=PA95&dq=anti+miscegenation+mexican&source=web&ots=WSGVELWSM0&sig=JrAVv7bWJotQboswzLKUAgWp-JA#PPP1,M1.
- ^ History of Voting Rights in America » Cobb-LaMarche 2004 – Ballot Recount
- ^ a b c press3b
- ^ Haney-Lopez, Ian F. (1996). "3 Prerequisite cases". White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York University. p. 61.
- ^ Haney-Lopez, Ian F. (1996). "Appendix "A"". White by Law: The Legal Construction of Race. New York University.
- ^ RACE – History – Post-War Economic Boom and Racial Discrimination
- ^ JS Online: Filmmaker explores practice of redlining in documentary[dead link]
- ^ Pulido, Laura. Black, Brown, Yellow, and Left: Radical Activism in Los Angeles. University of California Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-520-24520-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=CzarnBhJiZUC&pg=PA53&lpg=PA53&dq=history+residential+discrimination+%22mexican+americans%22&source=web&ots=E5sWzrye-1&sig=ASrRu7iGdrLIFEc6cNirTozixiU#PPA53,M1.
- ^ Scruggs, O. (1984). Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954. Labor History, 25(1), 135–137. Retrieved from America: History & Life database.
- ^ Summary of Findings: Mixed Views on Immigration Bill
- ^ FRB: Testimony, Greenspan-Aging population-February 27, 2003
- ^ "Immigration curbs hurting U.S., Greenspan says". USA Today. May 17, 2007. http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/2007-05-17-greenspan-immigration_N.htm. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- ^ Flores Niemann Yolanda, et al. ‘’Black-Brown Relations and Stereotypes’’ (2003); Charles Ramírez Berg, ’’Latino Images in Film: Stereotypes, Subversion, & Resistance’’ (2002); Chad Richardson, ‘’Batos, Bolillos, Pochos, and Pelados: Class & Culture on the South Texas Border’’ (1999)
- ^ Life on the Texas-Mexico Border: Myth and reality as represented in Mainstream and Independent Western Cinema
- ^ Steven H. Wilson | Brown over "Other White": Mexican Americans' Legal Arguments and Litigation Strategy in School Desegregation Lawsuits | Law and History Review, 21.1 | The History Cooperative
- ^ 1930s Mexican Deportation: Educator brings attention to historic period and its effect on her family
- ^ a b Counseling Kevin: The Economy[dead link]
- ^ Ressner, Jeffrey (May 29, 2006). "How Immigration is Rousing the Zealots". Time. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1198895,00.html. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- ^ Hate Crime Statistics, 2007
- ^ Democracy Now! | FBI Statistics Show Anti-Latino Hate Crimes on the Rise
- ^ http://ccsre.stanford.edu/reports/exec_summary5.pdf
- ^ Southern California Quarterly "Cinco de Mayo's First Seventy-Five Years in Alta California: From Spontaneous Behavior to Sedimented Memory, 1862 to 1937" Spring 2007 (see American observation of Cinco de Mayo started in California) accessed Oct 30, 2007
- ^ Cowen, Tyler (June 18, 2006). "Assimilation of immigrants is not a problem in the U.S". Deseret News (Salt Lake City). http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4188/is_20060618/ai_n16490113.
- ^ LeeAnne, Gelletly. Mexican Immigration. Philadelphia: Mason Crest.
- ^ South, Scott J.; Crowder, Kyle; and Chavez, Erick. "Geographic Mobility and Spatial Assimilation among U.S. Latino Immigrants." International Migration Review 2005 39(3): 577–607. Issn: 0197-9183
- ^ a b c d e Martin, Michael E. Residential Segregation Patterns of Latinos in the United States, 1991–2000. New York: Routledge, 2007.
- ^ a b c James, Franklin J., and Eileen A. Tynan. Minorities in the Sunbelt. New Jersey: The State University of New Jersey, 1984.
- ^ a b c Ferg-Cadima, James A. Black, White and Brown:. Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund. Apr. 28, 2008 <http://www.maldef.org/publications/pdf/LatinoDesegregationPaper2004.pdf>
- ^ a b c White, Michael J., Catherine Bueker, and Jennifer E. Glick. The Impact of Immigration on Residential Segregation Revisited. <http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Sociology/faculty/mwhite/documents/impact_of_immigration_on_residential_segregation_revisited.pdf>
- ^ a b c Roth, Benjamin J. The Latino Community in Suburban Chicago: an Analysis of Overcrowding. Latinos United. <http://www.latinopolicyforum.org/drupal55/files/Overcrowding_Report.pdf>
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/La-Puente-California.html
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP6&prodType=table
- ^ http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_DP5YR5&-ds_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_&-tree_id=5309&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=31000US16980&-format=&-_lang=en
- ^ http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_DP5YR5&-ds_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_&-tree_id=5309&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=31000US46060&-format=&-_lang=en
- ^ http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ADPTable?_bm=y&-context=adp&-qr_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_DP5YR5&-ds_name=ACS_2009_5YR_G00_&-tree_id=5309&-redoLog=false&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=16000US4865000&-format=&-_lang=en
- ^ http://dola.colorado.gov/dlg/demog/2010data/race%20and%20hispanic%20origin%20muni.pdf
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/Denver-Colorado.html
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/Greeley-Colorado.html
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/Garden-City-Colorado.html
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/Evans-Colorado.html
- ^ http://www.city-data.com/city/Pueblo-Colorado.html
- ^ http://scseed.org/wb/media/SLV%20Statistical%20Profile%2012-03-07.pdf
- ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=DEC_10_SF1_QTP10&prodType=table US Census Bureau: Table QT-P10 Hispanic or Latino by Type: 2010] retrieved January 22, 2012 - select state from drop-down menu
- ^ "Ancestry Map of Mexican Communities". Epodunk.com. http://www.epodunk.com/ancestry/Mexican.html. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
- ^ "Top 101 cities with the most residents born in Mexico (population 500+)". city-data.com. http://www.city-data.com/top2/h141.html. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
References[link]
- Barrow, Lisa and Rouse, Cecilia Elena. "Do Returns to Schooling Differ by Race and Ethnicity?" American Economic Review 2005 95(2): 83–87. Issn: 0002-8282 Fulltext: in Ingenta and Ebsco
- Jack Citrin, Amy Lerman, Michael Murakami and Kathryn Pearson, "Testing Huntington: Is Hispanic Immigration a Threat to American Identity?" Perspectives on Politics, Volume 5, Issue 01, February 2007, pp 31–48
- De La Garza, Rodolfo O., Martha Menchaca, Louis DeSipio. Barrio Ballots: Latino Politics in the 1990 Elections (1994)
- De la Garza, Rodolfo O. Awash in the Mainstream: Latino Politics in the 1996 Elections (1999) * De la Garza, Rodolfo O., and Louis Desipio. Ethnic Ironies: Latino Politics in the 1992 Elections (1996)
- De la Garza, Rodolfo O. Et al. Latino Voices: Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban Perspectives on American Politics (1992)
- Arnoldo De León, Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History, 2nd ed. (1999)
- Erlinda Gonzales-Berry, David R. Maciel, editors, The Contested Homeland: A Chicano History of New Mexico 2000, ISBN 0-8263-2199-
- Nancie L. González; The Spanish-Americans of New Mexico: A Heritage of Pride (1969)
- Hero, Rodney E. Latinos and the U.S. Political System: Two-Tiered Pluralism. (1992)
- Garcia, F. Chris. Latinos and the Political System. (1988)
- Samuel P. Huntington. Who Are We: The Challenges to America's National Identity (2005)
- Kenski, Kate and Tisinger, Russell. "Hispanic Voters in the 2000 and 2004 Presidential General Elections." Presidential Studies Quarterly 2006 36(2): 189–202. Issn: 0360-4918 Fulltext: in Swetswise and Ingenta
- David Montejano, Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836–1986 (1987)
- Pachon, Harry and Louis Desipio. New Americans by Choice: Political Perspectives of Latino Immigrants. (1994)
- Rosales, Francisco A., Chicano!: The history of the Mexican American civil rights movement. (1997). ISBN 978-1-55885-201-3
- Smith, Robert Courtney. Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants (2005), links with old village, based on interviews
- South, Scott J.; Crowder, Kyle; and Chavez, Erick. "Geographic Mobility and Spatial Assimilation among U.S. Latino Immigrants." International Migration Review 2005 39(3): 577–607. Issn: 0197-9183
- Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo M. And Mariela M. Páez. Latinos: Remaking America. (2002)
- Villarreal, Roberto E., and Norma G. Hernandez. Latinos and Political Coalitions: Political Empowerment for the 1990s (1991)
Further reading[link]
- Martha Menchaca (2002). Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans. University of Texas Press. pp. 19–21. ISBN 978-0-292-75254-2.
- William A. Nericcio (2007). "Tex(t)-Mex: Seductive Hallucination of the 'Mexican' in America"; utpress book; book galleryblog
- John R. Chavez (1984). "The Lost Land: A Chicano Image of the American Southwest", New Mexico University Publications[clarification needed].
External links[link]
- California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – In the Chicano/Latino Collections
- California Ethnic and Multicultural Archives – Digital Chicano Art
- Calisphere > California Cultures > Hispanic Americans
- ImaginArte – Interpreting and Re-imaging Chican@Art
- Manifest Destinies: The Making of the Mexican American Race (book)
- Mexican-American.org – Network of the Mexican American Community
- Mexican Americans MSN Encarta (Archived 2009-11-01)
- Think Mexican – News, Culture, and Information on the Mexican Community
|
|
|||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mexican_American
Related pages:
http://nl.wn.com/Mexicaanse Amerikanen
http://de.wn.com/Mexican American
http://it.wn.com/Messicano-statunitensi
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_American
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
The Mexican Drug War is an ongoing armed conflict between rival drug cartels fighting each other for regional control, and Mexican government forces. The government's principal goal has been to put down the drug-related violence that was raging between different drug cartels before any military intervention was made.[26] In addition, the Mexican government has claimed that their primary focus is on dismantling the powerful drug cartels, rather than on drug trafficking prevention, which is left to U.S. functionaries.[27][28][29]
Although Mexican drug cartels, or drug trafficking organizations, have existed for several decades, they have become more powerful since the demise of Colombia's Cali and Medellín cartels in the 1990s. Mexican drug cartels now dominate the wholesale illicit drug market by controlling 90% of the drugs that enter the United States.[30][31] Arrests of key cartel leaders, particularly in the Tijuana and Gulf cartels, have led to increasing drug violence as cartels fight for control of the trafficking routes into the United States.[32][33][34]
Analysts estimate that wholesale earnings from illicit drug sales range from $13.6 billion[30] to $49.4 billion annually.[30][35][36]
Contents |
History[link]
See also: Timeline of the Mexican Drug War
Given its geographic location, Mexico has long been used as a staging and transshipment point for narcotics, illegal immigrants and contraband destined for U.S. markets from Mexico itself, South America and elsewhere. Mexico supplied alcohol to the United States throughout the duration of the prohibition of alcohol,[31] and the onset of illegal drug trade with the U.S. began when the prohibition came to an end in 1933.[31] Towards the end of the 1960s, the Mexican narcotic smugglers started to smuggle drugs on a major scale.[31] During the 1980s and early 1990s, Colombia’s Pablo Escobar was the main exporter of cocaine and dealt with organized criminal networks all over the world. When enforcement efforts intensified in South Florida and the Caribbean, the Colombian organizations formed partnerships with the Mexico-based traffickers to transport cocaine through Mexico into the United States.[37]
This was easily accomplished because Mexico had long been a major source of heroin and cannabis, and drug traffickers from Mexico had already established an infrastructure that stood ready to serve the Colombia-based traffickers. By the mid-1980s, the organizations from Mexico were well-established and reliable transporters of Colombian cocaine. At first, the Mexican gangs were paid in cash for their transportation services, but in the late 1980s, the Mexican transport organizations and the Colombian drug traffickers settled on a payment-in-product arrangement. Transporters from Mexico usually were given 35% to 50% of each cocaine shipment. This arrangement meant that organizations from Mexico became involved in the distribution, as well as the transportation of cocaine, and became formidable traffickers in their own right. Currently, the Sinaloa Cartel and the Gulf cartel have taken over trafficking cocaine from Colombia to the worldwide markets.[38]
Over time, the balance of power between the various Mexican cartels shifts as new ones emerge and older ones weaken and collapse. A disruption in the system, such as the arrests or deaths of cartel leaders, generates bloodshed as rivals move in to exploit the power vacuum.[39] Leadership vacuums are sometimes created by law enforcement successes against a particular cartel, thus cartels often will attempt to use law enforcement against one another, either by bribing Mexican officials to take action against a rival or by leaking intelligence about a rival's operations to the Mexican government or the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration.[39] While many factors have contributed to the escalating violence, security analysts in Mexico City trace the origins of the rising scourge to the unraveling of a longtime implicit arrangement between narcotics traffickers and governments controlled by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), which lost its grip on political power starting in the late 1980s.[40]
The fighting between rival drug cartels began in earnest after the 1989 arrest of Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo who ran the cocaine business in Mexico.[41] There was a lull in the fighting during the late 1990s but the violence has steadily worsened since 2000.
Presidency of Vicente Fox[link]
Violence increased from 2000 when President Vicente Fox sent troops to Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas to fight the cartels. It is estimated that about 110 people died in Nuevo Laredo alone during the January–August 2005 period as a result of the fighting between the Gulf and Sinaloa cartels.[42] In 2005 there was a surge in violence as La Familia Michoacana drug cartel established itself in Michoacán.
Presidency of Felipe Calderón[link]
Although violence between drug cartels had been occurring long before the war began, the government held a generally passive stance regarding cartel violence in the 1990s and early 2000s. That changed on December 11, 2006, when newly elected President Felipe Calderón sent 6,500 federal troops to the state of Michoacán to end drug violence there (Operation Michoacan). This action is regarded as the first major operation against organized crime, and is generally viewed as the starting point of the war between the government and the drug cartels.[1] As time progressed, Calderón continued to escalate his anti-drug campaign, in which there are now about 45,000 troops involved in addition to state and federal police forces. In 2010 Calderón said that the cartels seek "to replace the government" and "are trying to impose a monopoly by force of arms, and are even trying to impose their own laws."[43]
As of 2011, Mexico’s military captured 11,544 people who were believed to have been involved with the cartels and organized crime.[44] In the year prior, 28,000 individuals were arrested on drug-related charges. The decrease in eradication and drug seizures, as shown in statistics calculated by federal authorities, poorly reflects Calderón’s security agenda. Since the war began, over forty thousand people have been killed as a result of cartel violence. During Calderón’s presidential term, the murder rate of Mexico has increased dramatically.[45] Although Calderón set out to end the violent warfare between rival cartel leaders, many argue that he has inadvertently made the problem worse. The methods that Calderón adopted involved confronting the cartels directly. These aggressive methods have resulted in public killings and torture from both the cartels and the country’s own government forces, which aids in perpetuating the fear and apprehension that the citizens of Mexico have regarding the war on drugs and its negative stigma. As cartel leaders are being removed from their positions, either in the form of arrest or death, power struggles for leadership in the cartels have become more intense, resulting in enhanced violence within the cartels themselves.[46] Naturally, Calderón’s forces concentrate on taking down cartel members that have a high ranking in the cartel in an attempt to take down the whole organization. But the resulting struggle to fill the recently-vacated position is one that threatens the existence of many lives in the cartel. Typically, many junior-level cartel members then fight amongst one another, creating more and more chaos. The drug cartels are more aggressive and forceful now than they ever were in the past and at this point, the cartels hold much of the power in Mexico. Calderón relies heavily on his military to defend and fight against cartel activity. Unfortunately, Calderón’s military forces have yet to yield significant results in dealing with the violent cartels due in part to the fact that many of the law enforcement officials working for the Mexican government are suspected of being corrupt. There is suspicion that cartels have corrupted and infiltrated the military at a high level, influencing many high-ranking generals and officers. Mexico’s National Human Rights Commission has received nearly 5,800 complaints regarding military abuse since the beginning of the drug war in 2006. Additionally, the National Human Rights Commission has completed nearly 90 in-depth reports since 2007, addressing the many human rights violations towards civilians that have occurred while the military officers were actively participating in law enforcement activities.[47] Violence in May of 2012 in which nearly 50 bodies were found on a local highway between the US-Mexican border and Monterrey has lead to the arrests of 4 high-ranking Mexican military officials.[48] These officials were suspected of being on the cartel payrolls and alerting the cartels in advance of military action against them. Such actions demonstrate that Calderón’s significant military offensive will continue to reveal mixed results until the military itself is rid of the corrupting influences of the cartels whom they supposedly aim to persecute.
Escalation[link]
In April 2008, General Sergio Aponte, the man in charge of the anti-drug campaign in the state of Baja California, made a number of allegations of corruption against the police forces in the region. Among his allegations, Aponte stated that he believed Baja California's anti-kidnapping squad was actually a kidnapping team working in conjunction with organized crime, and that bribed police units were being used as bodyguards for drug traffickers.[3] These accusations sent shock waves through state government. Many of the more than 50 accused officials quit or fled. The progress against drug cartels in Mexico has been hindered by bribery, intimidation, and corruption; four months later the General was relieved of his command. [49]
On April 26, 2008, a major battle took place between members of the Tijuana and Sinaloa cartels in the city of Tijuana, Baja California, that left 17 people dead.[50]
In March 2009, President Calderón called in an additional 5,000 Mexican Army troops to Ciudad Juárez. The United States Department of Homeland Security has also said that it is considering using the National Guard to counter the threat of drug violence in Mexico from spilling over the border into the US. The governors of Arizona and Texas have asked the federal government to send additional National Guard troops to help those already there supporting local law enforcement efforts against drug trafficking.[51]
According to the National Drug Intelligence Center, Mexican cartels are the predominant smugglers and wholesale distributors of South American cocaine and Mexico-produced cannabis, methamphetamine and heroin. Mexico's cartels have existed for some time, but have become increasingly powerful in recent years with the demise of the Medellín and Cali cartels in Colombia. The Mexican cartels are expanding their control over the distribution of these drugs in areas controlled by Colombian and Dominican criminal groups, and it is now believed they control most of the illegal drugs coming into the U.S.A.[52]
No longer constrained to being mere intermediaries for Colombian producers, Mexican cartels are now powerful organized-crime syndicates that dominate the drug trade in the Americas.
Mexican cartels control large swaths of Mexican territory and dozens of municipalities, and they exercise increasing influence in Mexican electoral politics.[53] The cartels are waging violent turf battles over control of key smuggling corridors from Matamoros to San Diego. Mexican cartels employ hitmen and groups of enforcers, known as sicarios. The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration reports that the Mexican drug cartels operating today along the border are far more sophisticated and dangerous than any other organized criminal group in U.S. law enforcement history.[52] The cartels use grenade launchers, automatic weapons, body armor, and sometimes Kevlar helmets.[54][55][56] Some groups have also been known to use improvised explosive devices (IEDs).[57]
Casualty numbers have escalated significantly over time. According to a Stratfor report, the number of drug-related deaths in 2006 and 2007 (2,119 and 2,275) more than doubled to 5,207 in 2008. The number further increased substantially over the next two years, from 6,598 in 2009 to over 11,000 in 2010.[57]
Drug sources and use[link]
Use[link]
With the increased role of Mexico in the trafficking and production of illicit drugs, the availability of drugs has increased locally since the 1980s.[58] In the decades before this period, consumption was not generalized – reportedly occurring mainly among persons of high socioeconomic status, intellectuals and artists.[58]
Often drug shipments are delayed in Mexican border towns before delivery to the U.S., which has likely contributed to the high rates of local drug consumption.[58] Following the terrorist events of September 11, 2001, coupled with stricter border control measures, less cocaine is exported to the U.S.[58] This has led to an over-supply of cocaine which has resulted in decreased prices as dealers attempt to unload extra drug along trafficking routes, especially in Mexican border areas. With increased cocaine use, there has been a parallel rise in demand for drug user treatment in Mexico.[58] The prevalence of illicit drug use in Mexico is still comparatively low as compared to Canada and U.S.A.[58]
Sources[link]
Mexico, a major drug producing and transit country, is the main foreign supplier of cannabis and a major supplier of methamphetamine to the United States.[30] Almost half the cartels revenue come from cannabis.[59] Although Mexico accounts for only a small share of worldwide heroin production, it supplies a large share of the heroin distributed in the United States.[30][60] Drug cartels in Mexico control approximately 70% of the foreign narcotics that flow into the United States.[61] The US State Department estimates that 90% of cocaine entering the United States transits through Mexico, with Colombia being the main cocaine producer,[62] followed by Bolivia and Peru.[63] Reports indicate that Venezuela has clearly become a major transshipment point for illegal drugs leaving Colombia.[64][65][66][67][68] Mexican drug traffickers increasingly smuggle money back into Mexico inside cars and trucks, likely due to the effectiveness of U.S. efforts at monitoring electronic money transfers.[69]
Mexican cartels[link]
Origin[link]
The birth of all Mexican drug cartels is traced to former Mexican Judicial Federal Police agent Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo ('The Godfather'), who founded the Guadalajara Cartel in 1980 and controlled all illegal drug trade in Mexico and the trafficking corridors across the Mexico-USA border throughout the 1980s.[70] He started off by smuggling marijuana and opium into the U.S.A., and was the first Mexican drug chief to link up with Colombia's cocaine cartels in the 1980s. Through his connections, Félix Gallardo became the point man for the Medellin cartel, which was run by Pablo Escobar.[71] This was easily accomplished because Félix Gallardo had already established an infrastructure that stood ready to serve the Colombia-based traffickers.
There were no cartels at that time in Mexico. Félix Gallardo was the lord of Mexican drug lords. He oversaw all operations; there was just him, his cronies, and the politicians who sold him protection.[72] However, the Guadalajara Cartel suffered a major blow in 1985 when the group's co-founder Rafael Caro Quintero was captured, and later convicted, for the murder of DEA agent Enrique Camarena.[73][74] Félix Gallardo afterwards kept a low profile and in 1987 he moved with his family to Guadalajara city. According to Peter Dale Scott, the Guadalajara Cartel prospered largely because it enjoyed the protection of the DFS, under its chief Miguel Nazar Haro, a CIA asset.[75]
"The Godfather" then decided to divide up the trade he controlled as it would be more efficient and less likely to be brought down in one law enforcement swoop.[76] In a way, he was privatizing the Mexican drug business while sending it back underground, to be run by bosses who were less well known or not yet known by the DEA. Félix Gallardo "The Godfather" convened the nation's top drug traffickers at a house in the resort of Acapulco where he designated the plazas or territories.[76] The Tijuana route would go to the Arellano Felix brothers. The Ciudad Juárez route would go to the Carrillo Fuentes family. Miguel Caro Quintero would run the Sonora corridor. The control of the Matamoros, Tamaulipas corridor — then becoming the Gulf Cartel — would be left undisturbed to its founder Juan García Abrego. Meanwhile, Joaquín Guzmán Loera and Ismael Zambada García would take over Pacific coast operations, becoming the Sinaloa Cartel. Guzmán and Zambada brought veteran Héctor Luis Palma Salazar back into the fold. Félix Gallardo still planned to oversee national operations, as he maintained important connections, but he would no longer control all details of the business.[76]
Félix Gallardo was arrested on 8 April 1989.[77]
Current cartels[link]
Alliances or agreements between drug cartels have been shown to be fragile, tense and temporary. Mexican drug cartels have increased their co-operation with U.S. street and prison gangs to expand their distribution networks within the U.S.[36]
Beltrán Leyva Cartel[link]
Main article: Beltrán Leyva Cartel
The Beltrán-Leyva Cartel was a Mexican drug cartel and organized crime syndicate founded by the four Beltrán Leyva brothers: Marcos Arturo, Carlos, Alfredo and Héctor.[80][81][82][83] In 2004 and 2005, Arturo Beltrán Leyva led powerful groups of assassins to fight for trade routes in northeastern Mexico for the Sinaloa Cartel. Through the use of corruption or intimidation, the Beltrán Leyva Cartel was able to infiltrate Mexico's political,[84] judicial[85] and police institutions to feed classified information about anti-drug operations,[86][87] and even infiltrated the Interpol office in Mexico.[88]
The Mexican Federal Police considers the cartel has been disbanded,[89][90] and the last cartel leader, Héctor Beltrán Leyva, apparently has been inactive and remains a fugitive; the U.S.A. is offering a USD $5 million bounty for information leading to his arrest,[91] while the Mexican government is offering a USD $2.1 million bounty.[92][93]
La Familia Cartel[link]
Main article: La Familia Michoacana
La Familia Michoacana is based in Michoacán. It was formerly allied to the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas, but split off and become an independent organization.[94] In February 2010, La Familia forged an alliance with the Gulf Cartel against Los Zetas and Beltrán Leyva Cartel.[95]
The Attorney General in Mexico (PGR) stated that La Familia Cartel was "exterminated" by mid-2011,[97] but in the process, a splinter group, the Knights Templar Cartel was formed.[98][99]
Gulf Cartel[link]
Main article: Gulf Cartel
The Gulf Cartel, based in Matamoros, Tamaulipas, has been one of Mexico's two dominant cartels in recent years. In the late 1990s, it hired a private mercenary army (an enforcer group now called the Los Zetas), which in 2006 stepped up as a partner but, in February 2010, their partnership was dissolved and both groups engaged in widespread violence across several border cities of Tamaulipas state,[95][100] turning several border towns into "ghost towns".[101]
The Gulf cartel (CDG) was strong at the beginning of 2011, holding off several Zetas incursions into its territory. However, as the year progressed, internal divisions led to intra-cartel battles in Matamoros and Reynosa, Tamaulipas state. The infighting resulted in several deaths and arrests in Mexico and in the United States. The CDG has since broken apart, and it appears that one faction, known as Los Metros, has overpowered its rival Los Rojos faction and is now asserting its control over CDG operations. The infighting has weakened the CDG, but the group seems to have maintained control of its primary plazas, or smuggling corridors, into the United States.[102]
Juárez Cartel[link]
Main article: Juárez Cartel
The Juárez Cartel controls one of the primary transportation routes for billions of dollars worth of illegal drug shipments annually entering the United States from Mexico.[103] Since 2007, the Juárez Cartel has been locked in a vicious battle with its former partner, the Sinaloa Cartel, for control of Ciudad Juárez. La Línea is a group of Mexican drug traffickers and corrupt Juárez and Chihuahua state police officers who work as the armed wing of the Juárez Cartel.[104] Vicente Carrillo Fuentes heads the Juárez Cartel.
In 2011, the Juárez Cartel continues to weaken,[105][106] however, still controls the three main points of entry into El Paso, Texas. The Juárez Cartel is only a shadow of the organization it was a decade ago, and its weakness and inability to effectively fight against Sinaloa's advances in Juarez contributed to the lower death toll in Juarez in 2011.[107]
Knights Templar[link]
Main article: Knights Templar (gang)
The Knights Templar drug cartel (Spanish: Caballeros Templarios) was created in Michoacán in March 2011 after the death of the charismatic leader of La Familia Michoacana cartel, Nazario Moreno González.[108] The Cartel is headed by Enrique Plancarte Solís and Servando Gómez Martínez who formed the Knights Templar due to differences with José de Jesús Méndez Vargas, who had assumed leadership of La Familia Michoacana.[109]
After the emergence of the Knight Templars, sizable battles flared up during the spring and summer months between the Knights Templar and La Familia. The organization has grown from a splinter group to a dominant force over La Familia, and it appears to be taking over the bulk of their original operations in Mexico. At present, the Knights Templar appear to have aligned with the Sinaloa Federation in an effort to root out the remnants of La Familia and to prevent Los Zetas from gaining a more substantial foothold in the region.[110][111]
Sinaloa Cartel[link]
Main article: Sinaloa Cartel
The Sinaloa Cartel began to contest the Gulf Cartel’s domination of the coveted southwest Texas corridor following the arrest of Gulf Cartel leader Osiel Cárdenas in March 2003. The "Federation" was the result of a 2006 accord between several groups located in the Pacific state of Sinaloa. The cartel is led by Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán, Mexico's most-wanted drug trafficker and whose estimated net worth of US$1 billion makes him the 1140th richest man in the world and the 55th most powerful according to his Forbes Magazine profile.[112] In February 2010, new alliances were formed against Los Zetas and Beltran Leyva Cartel.[95] As of May 2010, numerous reports by Mexican and US media claimed that Sinaloa had infiltrated the Mexican federal government and military, and colluded with it to destroy the other cartels.[113][114] The Colima Cartel, Sonora Cartel and Milenio Cartel are now branches of the Sinaloa Cartel.[115]
Tijuana Cartel[link]
Main article: Tijuana Cartel
The Tijuana Cartel, also known as the Arellano Felix Organization, was once among Mexico's most powerful.[116] It is based in Tijuana, one of the most strategically important border towns in Mexico,[117] and continues to export drugs even after being weakened by an internal war in 2009. Due to infighting, arrests and the deaths of some of its top members, the Tijuana Cartel is a fraction of what it was in the 1990s and early 2000s, when it was considered one of the most potent and violent criminal organizations in Mexico by the police. After the arrest or assassination of various members of the Arellano Felix clan, the cartel is currently headed by Luis Fernando Sánchez Arellano, a nephew of the Arellano Felix brothers.
Los Zetas[link]
Main article: Los Zetas Cartel
In 1999, Gulf Cartel leader Osiel Cardenas Guillen, hired a group of 31 corrupt former elite military soldiers now known as Los Zetas, who deserted from the Airmobile Special Forces Group (GAFE) and the Amphibian Group of Special Forces (GANFE) of the Mexican Army, and began operating as a private army for the Gulf Cartel. The Zetas have been instrumental in the Gulf Cartel's domination of the drug trade in much of Mexico and have fought to maintain the cartel's influence in northern cities following the arrest of Osiel Cardenas.
After the arrest and extradition of Gulf Cartel leader, Osiel Cardenas Guillen, the Zetas seized the opportunity to strike out on their own. Under the leadership of Heriberto Lazcano, the Zetas, numbering approximately 300, set up its own independent drug, arms and human-trafficking networks.[118] In 2010, Los Zetas made a deal with ex-Sinaloa cartel commanders, the Beltrán-Leyva brothers and since then, became rivals of their former employer/partner, the Gulf Cartel.[95]
Cartel Propaganda[link]
Main article: Propaganda in the Mexican Drug War
Cartels have been engaged in propaganda and psychological campaigns to influence their rivals and those within their area of influence. They use banners or "narcomantas" to threaten their rivals. Some cartels hand out pamphlets and leaflets to conduct public relation campaigns. Many cartels have been able to control the information environment by threatening journalists, bloggers, and others who speak out against them. They have elaborate recruitment strategies targeting young adults to join their cartel groups. They have successfully branded the word "narco", and the word has become part of Mexican culture. There is music, television shows, literature, beverages, food, and architecture that all have been branded "narco".[120]
Smuggling of firearms[link]
Main article: Smuggling of firearms into Mexico
See also: Gun politics in Mexico
Mexicans have a constitutional right to own firearms, [121] but legal purchase from the single Mexican gun shop in Mexico City is extremely difficult.[122] A significant number of firearms that make their way to Mexico come from U.S. gunshops. These are then smuggled into Mexico across the US-Mexico border. [123][124] Most grenades and rocket-launchers are smuggled through Guatemalan borders [125] or stolen from the Mexican police or military. [126] The vast majority of the handguns and many of the assault rifles used by the cartels enter Mexico from the United States.[125] Consequently, black market firearms are widely available. The most common smuggled firearms include AR-15 and AK-47 type rifles, and FN 5.7 caliber semi-automatic pistols. In 2009, Mexico seized more than 4,400 firearms of the AK-47 and AR-15 types. [127] Grenade launchers are known to have been used against Mexican security forces, and M4 Carbines with M203 grenade launchers have been confiscated.[128] It is believed that some of these high powered weapons and related accessories may have been stolen from U.S. military bases.[129][130]
Gun origins[link]
Research has asserted that most weapons and arms trafficked into Mexico are from gun dealers in the United States.[131] In response to a 2009 GAO report that claimed 87% of Mexican crime guns traced to U.S. origins, the DHS pointed out that "DHS officials believe that the 87 percent statistic is misleading. (i.e: out of approximately 30,000 weapons seized in Mexico, approximately 4,000 could be traced and 87 percent of those - 3,480 - originated in the United States.[132]
In an effort to control smuggling of firearms, the U.S. government is assisting Mexico with technology, equipment and training.[133] Project Gunrunner was one such efforts between the U.S. and Mexico to collaborate in tracing Mexican guns which were manufactured in or imported legally to the U.S.A.[134]
On February 2008, William Hoover, Assistant Director for Field Operations of ATF, testified before the U.S. Congress that over 90% of the firearms that have either been recovered in, or interdicted in transport to Mexico originated from various sources within the United States.[135] The U.S. Department of Homeland Security and others have disagreed with these figures, pointing that the Mexican sample submitted for ATF tracing is the fraction of weapons seized that appear to have been made in the U.S. or imported into the U.S.[132][136] While the United States is not the only source of firearms and munitions used by the cartels, ATF says that it has been established that a 'significant' percentage of their firearms originate from gun stores and other sources in the U.S.[137]
Gun-rights groups in the U.S. use lower firearm tracing figures that advance their goals [138] while U.S. gun control advocates use higher figures to call for re-enactment of the expired Federal Assault Weapons Ban of 1994-2004.[139]
Project Gunrunner[link]
Main article: ATF gunwalking scandal
ATF Project Gunrunner has a stated official objective to stop the sale and export of guns from the United States into Mexico in order to deny Mexican drug cartels the firearms considered "tools of the trade".[140] However, in February 2008 it brought about a scandal when the project was accused of accomplishing the opposite by ATF permitting and facilitating 'straw purchase' firearm sales to traffickers, and allowing the guns to 'walk' and be transported to Mexico. Several of the guns sold under the Project Gunrunner were recovered from crime scenes in Arizona,[141] and at crime scenes throughout Mexico,[142] resulting in considerable controversy.[143][144][145]
Effects in Mexico[link]
Violence[link]
The Mexican attorney general's office has claimed that 9 of 10 victims of the Mexican Drug War are members of organized-crime groups,[146] although this figure has been questioned by other sources.[147] Deaths among military and police personnel are an estimated 7% of the total.[148] The states that suffer from the conflict most are Baja California, Guerrero, Chihuahua, Michoacán, Tamaulipas, Nuevo León and Sinaloa. President Calderón's government is currently fighting the traffickers, especially in his home state of Michoacán, but there are more operations taking place in the states of Jalisco and Guerrero, and in 2009 drug-related violence increased considerably in Sonora.
By January 2007, these various operations had extended to the states of Guerrero as well as the so-called "Golden Triangle States" of Chihuahua, Durango, and Sinaloa. In the following February the states of Nuevo León and Tamaulipas were included as well.
Seizures and arrests have jumped since Calderón took office in December 2006, and Mexico has extradited more than 100 people wanted in the U.S.[citation needed]
On July 10, 2008, the Mexican government announced plans to nearly double the size of its Federal Police force to reduce the role of the military in combating drug trafficking.[149] The plan, known as the Comprehensive Strategy Against Drug Trafficking, also involves purging local police forces of corrupt officers. Elements of the plan have already been set in motion, including a massive police recruiting and training effort intended to reduce the country's dependence in the drug war on the military.[citation needed]
On July 16, 2008, the Mexican Navy intercepted a 10-meter long narco submarine travelling about 200 kilometers off the southwest of Oaxaca; in a raid, Special Forces rappelled from a helicopter onto the deck of the submarine and arrested four smugglers before they could scuttle their vessel. The vessel was found to be loaded with 5.8 tons of cocaine and was towed to Huatulco, Oaxaca, by a Mexican Navy patrol boat.[150][151][152][153][154]
One escalation[according to whom?] in this conflict is the traffickers' use of new means to claim their territory and spread fear. Cartel members have broadcast executions on YouTube[155] and on other video sharing sites or shock sites, since the footage is sometimes so graphic that YouTube will not host the video. The cartels have also tossed body parts into crowded nightclubs and often hung banners on streets stating their demands and/or warnings.[156] The 2008 Morelia grenade attacks took place on September 15, 2008, when two hand grenades were thrown onto a crowded plaza, killing ten people and injuring more than 100.[157] Some see these efforts as intended to sap the morale of government agents assigned to crack down on the cartels; others see them as an effort to let citizens know who is winning the war. At least one dozen Mexican norteño musicians have been murdered. Most of the victims performed what are known as narcocorridos, popular folk songs that tell the stories of the Mexican drug trade—and celebrate its leaders as folk heroes.[158]
The extreme violence is jeopardizing foreign investment in Mexico, and the Finance Minister, Agustín Carstens, said that the deteriorating security alone is reducing gross domestic product annually by 1% in Mexico, Latin America's second-largest economy.[159]
Teachers in the Acapulco region were "extorted, kidnapped and intimidated" by cartels, including death threats demanding money. They went on strike in 2011.[160]
Government corruption[link]
Mexican cartels advance their operations, in part, by corrupting or intimidating law enforcement officials.[3][161][162] Oftentimes, the Mexican municipal, state, and federal government officials, along with the police forces, work together with the cartels in an organized network of corruption.[31] A Pax Mafioso, is a specific example of corruption which guarantees a politician votes and a following in exchange for turning a 'blind eye' towards a particular cartel.[31] The International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) reports that although the central government of Mexico has made concerted efforts to reduce corruption in recent years, it remains a serious problem.[163][164] Some agents of the Federal Investigations Agency (AFI) are believed to work as enforcers for various cartels, and the Attorney General (PGR) reported in December 2005 that nearly 1,500 of AFI's 7,000 agents were under investigation for suspected criminal activity and 457 were facing charges.[161]
In recent years, the federal government conducted purges and prosecution of police forces in Nuevo Laredo, Michoacán, Baja California and Mexico City.[161] The anti-cartel operations begun by President Calderón in December 2006 includes ballistic checks of police weapons in places where there is concern that police are also working for the cartels. In June 2007, President Calderón purged 284 federal police commanders from all 31 states and the Federal District.[161]
Under the 'Cleanup Operation' performed in 2008, several agents and high ranking officials have been arrested and charged with selling information or protection to drug cartels;[165][166] some high profile arrests were: Victor Gerardo Garay Cadena,[167] (chief of the Federal Police), Noé Ramírez Mandujano (ex-chief of the Organized Crime Division (SIEDO)), José Luis Santiago Vasconcelos (ex-chief of the Organized Crime Division (SIEDO)), and Ricardo Gutiérrez Vargas who is the ex-director of Mexico's Interpol office. In January 2009, Rodolfo de la Guardia García, ex-director of Mexico's Interpol office, was arrested.[168] Julio César Godoy Toscano, who was just elected July 5, 2009 to the lower house of Congress, is charged with being a top-ranking member of La Familia Michoacana drug cartel and of protecting this cartel.[169] He is now a fugitive.
In May 2010 an NPR report collected allegations from dozens of sources, including US and Mexican media, Mexican police officials, politicians, academics, and others, that Sinaloa Cartel had infiltrated and corrupted the Mexican federal government and the Mexican military by bribery and other means. The reports also alleged that Sinaloa was colluding with the government to destroy other cartels and protect itself and its leader, 'Chapo'. Mexican officials denied any corruption in the government's treatment of drug cartels.[113][114] Cartels had previously been reported as difficult to prosecute "because members of the cartels have infiltrated and corrupted the law enforcement organizations that are supposed to prosecute them, such as the Office of the Attorney General."[170]
Impact on human rights[link]
The US drug control policies in Mexico that have been adopted to prevent drug trafficking via Mexico and to eliminate the power of the drug cartels that bring about corruption, terror and violence have adversely affected the human rights situation in Mexico. These policies have given the responsibilities for civilian drug control to the military, which has the power to not only carry out anti-drug and public security operations but also enact policy. According to the United States Department of State, the police and the military in Mexico were accused of committing serious human rights violations as they carried out government efforts to combat drug cartels.[171] Immense power in the executive branch and corruption in the legislative and judiciary branches also contribute to the worsening of Mexico’s human rights situation, leading to such problems as police forces violating basic human rights through torture and threats, the autonomy of the military and its consequences and the ineffectiveness of the judiciary in upholding and preserving basic human rights. Some of the forms of human rights violations in recent years presented by human rights organizations include illegal arrests, secret and prolonged detention, torture, rape, extrajudicial execution, and fabrication of evidence.[172][173][174] The US Drug Policy fails to target high-level traffickers. In the 1970s, as part of Operation Condor, the Mexican government sent 10,000 soldiers and police to a poverty-stricken region in northern Mexico plagued by drug production and leftist insurgency. Hundreds of peasants were arrested, tortured, and jailed, but not a single big drug trafficker was captured.[175]
The emergence of internal federal agencies that are often unregulated and unaccountable also contributes to the occurrence of human rights violations.[according to whom?] It has been found[by whom?] that the Federal Investigations Agency (Agencia Federal de Investigación-AFI) of Mexico had been involved with numerous human rights violation cases involving torture and corruption. One well-known case[dubious – discuss] is the death of a detainee, Guillermo Velez Mendoza while in the custody of AFI agents. The AFI agent implicated in his death was arrested but he escaped after being released on bail.[176] Similarly, nearly all AFI agents evaded punishment and arrest due to the corrupt executive and judiciary system and the supremacy of these agencies.[citation needed] The Attorney General's Office reported in December 2005 that one-fifth of its officers were under investigation for criminal activity, and that nearly 1,500 of AFI's 7,000 agents were under investigation for suspected criminal activity and 457 were facing charges.[177][178] The AFI was finally declared a failure and was disbanded in 2009.[179]
Ethnic prejudices have also emerged in the drug war, and poor and helpless indigenous communities have been targeted by the police, military, drug traffickers and the justice system. According to the National Human Rights Commission (Mexico) (Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos-CNDH), nearly one-third of the indigenous prisoners in Mexico in 2001 were in prison for federal crimes, which are mostly drug related.[180]
Another major concern is the lack of implementation of the Leahy Law in U.S. and the consequences of that in worsening the human rights situation in Mexico. Under this U.S. law, no member or unit of a foreign security force that is credibly alleged to have committed a human rights violation may receive U.S. security training. It is alleged[by whom?] that the U.S., by training the military and police force in Mexico, is in violation of the Leahy Law. In this case, the U.S. embassy officials in Mexico in charge of human rights and drug control programs are blamed with aiding and abetting these violations. In December 1997, a group of heavily armed Mexican special forces soldiers kidnapped twenty young men in Ocotlan, Jalisco, brutally torturing them and killing one. Six of the implicated officers had received U.S. training as part of the Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales (GAFE) training program.[181]
Journalists and the media[link]
Main article: List of journalists killed in the Mexican Drug War
In the first years of the 21st century, Mexico was considered the most dangerous country in the world to practice journalism, according to groups like the National Human Rights Commission, Reporters Without Borders, and the Committee to Protect Journalists. Between 2000 and 2012, several dozen journalists were murdered there for covering narco-related news.[182][183][184]
Offices of Televisa and of local newspapers have been bombed.[185] The cartels have also threatened to kill news reporters in the U.S. who have done coverage on the drug violence.[186] Some media networks simply stopped reporting on drug crimes, while others have been infiltrated and corrupted by drug cartels.[187][188] In 2011, Notiver journalist Miguel Angel Lopez Velasco and his wife and son were murdered in their home.[189]
About 74 percent of the journalists killed since 1992 in Mexico have been reporters for print newspapers, followed in number by Internet media and radio at about 11 percent each. Television journalism only includes 4 percent of the deaths.[190] These numbers are not proportional to the audience size of the different mediums; most Mexican households have a television, a large majority have a radio, but only a small number have the internet, and the circulation numbers for Mexican newspapers are relatively low.[191][192][193] There is no clear explanation of why a medium that reaches a much smaller portion of the population is statistically much more dangerous.[citation needed]
Since harassment neutralized many of the traditional media outlets, anonymous blogs like Blog del Narco took on the role of reporting on events related to the drug war.[194] The drug cartels responded by murdering bloggers and social media users. Twitter users have been tortured and killed for posting and denouncing information of the drug cartels activities.[195] In September 2011, user NenaDLaredo of the website Nuevo Laredo Envivo was murdered allegedly by the Zetas.[196]
In May 2012 several journalist murders occurred in Veracruz. Regina Martinez of Proceso was murdered in Xalapa. A few days later, three Veracruz photojournalists were tortured and killed and their dismembered bodies were dumped in a canal. They had worked for various news outlets, including Notiver, Diario AZ, and TV Azteca. Human rights groups condemned the murders and demanded the authorities investigate the crimes.[184][197][198]
Murders of politicians[link]
A total of 28 mayors have been assassinated all across the country since the start of the drug war;[199] over 120 mayors have been threatened, too.[200] In addition, a candidate for governor of Tamaulipas[201] and 1 congressman have also been killed.[202]
Exploitation of migrants[link]
The cartels engage in kidnapping, ransom, murder, robbery, and extortion of migrants traveling from Central and South America through Mexico on their way to El Norte. Sometimes the cartels force the migrants to join their organization and work for them. Mass graves have been also discovered in Mexico containing bodies of migrants.[203] In a case in San Fernando, Mexico, most of the dead had "died of blunt force trauma to the head."[204] The cartels have also infiltrated the Mexican government's immigration agencies, and attacked and threatened immigration officers.[205] The National Human Rights Commission of Mexico (Comisión Nacional de los Derechos Humanos, CNDH) said that 11,000 migrants had been kidnapped in 6 months in 2010 by drug cartels.[206]
Effects internationally[link]
Europe[link]
Improved cooperation of Mexico with the U.S. led to the recent arrests of 755 Sinaloa cartel suspects in U.S. cities and towns, but the U.S. market is being eclipsed by booming demand for cocaine in Europe, where users now pay twice the going U.S. rate.[32] U.S. Attorney General announced September 17, 2008 that an international drug interdiction operation, Project Reckoning, involving law enforcement in the United States, Italy, Canada, Mexico and Guatemala had netted more than 500 organized crime members involved in the cocaine trade. The announcement highlighted the Italian-Mexican cocaine connection.[38]
In December 2010 the government of Spain remarked that Mexican cartels have multiplied their operations in that country, becoming the main entry point of cocaine into Europe.[207]
Guatemala[link]
The Mexican Army crackdown has driven some cartels to seek a safer location for their operations across the border in Guatemala, attracted by corruption, weak policing and its position on the overland smuggling route.[208][209] The smugglers pick up drugs from small planes that land at private airstrips hidden in the Guatemalan jungle. The cargo is then moved up through Mexico to the U.S. border. Guatemala has also arrested dozens of drug suspects and torched huge cannabis and poppy fields, but is struggling. The U.S. government has sent speedboats and night-vision goggles under a regional drug aid package, but much more is needed. In February 2009, Los Zetas threatened to kill the President of Guatemala, Álvaro Colom.[210] On March 1, 2010, Guatemala's chief of national police and the country's top anti-drugs official have been arrested over alleged links to drug trafficking.[209] A report from the Brookings Institution[211] warns that, without proactive, timely efforts, the violence will spread throughout the Central American region.[212]
According to the United States government, Los Zetas control 75% of Guatemala through violence, political corruption and infiltration in the country's institutions.[213] Sources mentioned that Los Zetas gained ground in Guatemala after they killed several high-profile members and the supreme leader of Los Leones, an organized crime group from Guatemala.[214]
West Africa[link]
At least nine Mexican and Colombian drug cartels have established bases in 11 West African nations.[215] They are reportedly working closely with local criminal gangs to carve out a staging area for access to the lucrative European market. The Colombian and Mexican cartels have discovered that it is much easier to smuggle large loads into West Africa and then break that up into smaller shipments to Europe - mostly Spain, the United Kingdom and France.[215] Higher demand for cocaine in Western Europe in addition to North American interdiction campaigns has led to dramatically increased trafficking in the region: nearly 50% of all non-U.S. bound cocaine, or about 13% of all global flows, is now smuggled through West Africa.[216]
Canada[link]
The Mexican Army has severely curtailed the ability of the Mexican drug cartels to move cocaine inside the U.S. and Canada, prompting an upsurge in gang violence in Vancouver, where the cocaine price has increased from $23,300 to almost $39,000 per kilo as both the U.S. and Canadian drug markets are experiencing prolonged shortages of cocaine.[32] As evidence of this pressure, the U.S. government says the amount of cocaine seized on U.S. soil dropped by 41 percent between early 2007 and mid-2008.[32] Since 2009 Vancouver, British Columbia became the main Mexican drug cartels' center of operations in Canada.[217]
United States[link]
See also: Mérida Initiative
The U.S. Justice Department considers the Mexican drug cartels the greatest organized crime threat to the United States.[218] During the first 18 months of Calderón's presidency, the Mexican government has spent about $7 billion USD in the war against drugs.[219] In seeking partnership from the United States, Mexican officials point out that the illicit drug trade is a shared problem in need of a shared solution, and remark that most of the financing for the Mexican traffickers comes from American drug consumers.[220] On March 25, 2009, U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated that "[America's] insatiable demand for illegal drugs fuels the drug trade", and that "the United States bears shared responsibility for the drug-fueled violence sweeping Mexico."[221] U.S. State Department officials are aware that Mexican president Felipe Calderón’s willingness to work with the United States is unprecedented on issues of security, crime and drugs, so the U.S. Congress passed legislation in late June 2008 to provide Mexico and Central American countries with $1.6 billion USD for the Mérida Initiative, a three-year international assistance plan. The Mérida Initiative provides Mexico and Central American countries with law enforcement training and equipment, as well as technical advice to strengthen the national justice systems. The Mérida Initiative does not include cash or weapons. In January 2009, a U.S. military assessment expressed some concern that if the war is extended 25 years, it could cause a collapse of the Mexican government due to the military strength of organized crime, and that the conflict could possibly spread to border states.[222][223] Currently, the Mexican drug cartels already have a presence in most major U.S. cities.[224] In 2009, the Justice Department has reported that Mexican drug cartels have infiltrated nearly 200 cities across the United States,[225] including Los Angeles, Chicago and Atlanta.[226]
Multiple researchers propose focusing on prevention, treatment and education programs to curb demand rather than the continued support of combating the supply of drugs. Studies show that military interdiction efforts fail because they ignore the root cause of the problem: U.S. demand. During the early to mid-1990s, the Clinton administration ordered and funded a major cocaine policy study by the Rand Drug Policy Research Center; the study concluded that $3 billion USD should be switched from federal and local law enforcement to treatment. The report said that treatment is the cheapest and most effective way to cut drug use. President Clinton's drug czar's office rejected slashing law enforcement spending.[227] The Bush administration proposed cutting spending on drug treatment and prevention programs by $73 million, or 1.5%, in the 2009 budget.[159]
U.S. death toll and national security[link]
U.S. authorities are reporting a spike in killings, kidnappings and home invasions connected to Mexico's cartels, and at least 19 Americans were killed in 2008.[228][229] Another 92 Americans were killed between June 2009 and June 2010.[230]
For the U.S. Joint Forces Command, in terms of worst-case scenarios, Mexico bears some consideration for sudden collapse in the next two decades as the government, its politicians, police, and judicial infrastructure are all under sustained assault and pressure by criminal gangs and drug cartels.[222] The Joint Forces Command are concerned that this internal conflict will have a major impact on the stability of the Mexican state over the next several years, and therefore would demand an American response based on the implications for homeland security alone.[222] In March 2009, the United States Department of Homeland Security said that it is considering using the National Guard to counter the threat of drug violence in Mexico from spreading to the US. The governors of Arizona and Texas have asked the federal government to send additional National Guard troops to help those already there supporting local law enforcement efforts against drug trafficking.[51] The call for National Guard on the border greatly increased after the 2010 murder of Arizona rancher Robert Krentz, possibly at the hands of Mexican drug smugglers.[231][232]
In March 2009, the Obama administration outlined plans to redeploy more than 500 federal agents to border posts and redirect $200 million to combat smuggling of illegal drugs, money and weapons.[233] On May 25, 2010 President Obama authorized deployment of 1,200 National Guard troops to the U.S. border with Mexico to assist with border protection and enforcement activities, as well as help train additional Customs and Border Protection agents.[234]
Controversies[link]
Policy failure[link]
According to former Presidents Fernando Henrique Cardoso of Brazil, Ernesto Zedillo of Mexico and César Gaviria of Colombia, the United States-led drug war is pushing Latin America into a downward spiral; Mr. Cardoso said in a conference that "the available evidence indicates that the war on drugs is a failed war".[235] The panel of the Latin American Commission on Drugs and Democracy commission, headed by Cardoso, stated that the countries involved in this war should remove the "taboos" and re-examine the anti-drug programs. Latin American governments have followed the advice of the U.S. to combat the drug war, but the policies had little effect. The commission made some recommendations to President Barack Obama to consider new policies, such as decriminalization of cannabis (marijuana) and to treat drug use as a public health problem and not as a security problem.[236] The Council on Hemispheric Affairs states it is time to seriously consider drug decriminalization and legalization,[237] a policy initiative that would be in direct opposition to the interests of criminal gangs.
Money laundering[link]
Despite the fact that Mexican drug cartels and their Colombian suppliers generate, launder and remove $18 billion to $39 billion from the United States each year,[238] the U.S. and Mexican governments have been criticized for their unwillingness or slow response to confront the various cartels' financial operations, including money laundering.[238][239][240]
The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) has identified the need to increase financial investigations relating to the movement of illegal drug funds to Mexico.[241] The DEA states that attacking the financial infrastructure of drug cartels has to play a key role in any viable drug enforcement strategy.[241][242] However, the U.S. DEA has noted that the U.S. and Mexican financial services industry continues to be a facilitator for drug money movement.[159][241] Following suit, in August 2010 President Felipe Calderón proposed sweeping new measures to crack down on the cash smuggling and money laundering. Calderón proposes a ban on cash purchases of real estate and of certain luxury goods that cost more than 100,000 pesos (about USD $8,104.) His package would also require more businesses to report large transactions, such as real estate, jewelry and purchases of armor plating.[240] In June 2010, Calderón "announced strict limits on the amount in U.S. dollars that can be deposited or exchanged in banks",[240] but the proposed restrictions to financial institutions are facing tough opposition in the Mexican legislature.[238][240]
In 2011 the Observer reported that Wachovia, at one time a major US bank, was implicated in laundering money for Mexican drug lords, through its lax laundering controls (a violation of the Bank Secrecy Act).[243]
Demand[link]
RAND studies released in the mid-1990s found that using drug user treatment to reduce drug consumption in the United States is seven times more cost effective than law enforcement efforts alone, and it could potentially cut consumption by a third.[244]
In FY2011, the Obama Administration requests approximately $5.6 billion to support demand reduction. This includes a 13% increase for prevention and a nearly 4% increase for treatment. The overall FY 2011 counter-drug request for supply reduction and domestic law enforcement is $15.5 billion with $521.1 million in new funding.[245]
See also[link]
- 2011–2012 in the Mexican Drug War
- 2011 Mexican protests
- Blog del Narco
- Crime in Mexico
- Mérida Initiative
- Mexican Naval operations in the Mexican Drug War
- Narcoterrorism
- Timeline of the Mexican Drug War
References[link]
- ^ a b Grillo, Ioan (December 11, 2006). "Mexico cracks down on violence". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Associated Press. http://www.seattlepi.com/national/295578_mexico12.html. Retrieved November 29, 2006.
- ^ "El narco se expande en México". New America Media. http://news.newamericamedia.org/news/view_article.html?article_id=937be705b8bb9a53102ce6df63c36ec1. Retrieved 7 October 2011.
- ^ a b c "Mexican general makes explosive accusations". Los Angeles Times. April 23, 2008. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/laplaza/2008/04/mexican-general.html. Retrieved May 12, 2010.
- ^ "Four Gunmen Die in Clash with Mexican Troops". Latin American Herald Tribune. March 4, 2010. http://www.laht.com/article.asp?ArticleId=352959&CategoryId=14091. Retrieved 2010-03-05.
- ^ "Mexico sees hope among drug violence". CNN News. 9 nFebruary 2011. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/americas/02/09/mexico.violence/index.html?hpt=C2. Retrieved 2011-02-09.
- ^ EXCLUSIVE: 100,000 foot soldiers in Mexican cartels
- ^ Mexico Federal Troops and police rush into Juarez to try and retake the city
- ^ U.S. Says Threat of Mexican Drug Cartels Approaching 'Crisis Proportions'
- ^ Gonzales, Maria de la Luz (2009-03-25). "Suman 10 mil 475 ejecuciones en esta administracion: PGR" (in Spanish). El Universal. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/166613.html. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- ^ a b c "Con 'La Teniente', Marina tendra su serie de TV". El Universal. agosto 19 de 2011. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/787223.html. Retrieved 2011-08-20.
- ^ "Alarmante, situación de periodistas en México" (in Spanish). El Universal. January 10, 2010. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/columnas/81750.html. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ "INFANCIA Y CONFLICTO ARMADO EN MÉXICO" (PDF). INFORME ALTERNATIVO SOBRE EL PROTOCOLO FACULTATIVO DE LA CONVENCIÓN SOBRE LOS DERECHOS DEL NIÑO. Red por los Derechos de la Infancia en México. January 2011. p. 25. http://www.derechosinfancia.org.mx/iaespanol.pdf
- ^ "En menos de 5 años han muerto más de mil niños a manos del narco" (in Spanish). Excelsior. 19 March 2011. http://www.excelsior.com.mx/index.php?m=nota&id_nota=723220. Retrieved 2011-03-20.
- ^ "Oficial: más de 22 mil 700 muertos por violencia" (in Spanish). El Universal. April 13, 2010. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/672485.html. Retrieved 2010-04-14.
- ^ "Guerra al narco asfixia penales" (in Spanish). El Universal. 10 January 2011. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/736097.html. Retrieved 2011-01-10.
- ^ a b c d El Universal Oficial: más de 22 mil 700 muertos por violencia
- ^ "La lucha anticrimen deja 34 mil muertes en 4 años" (in Spanish). El Universal. 13 January 2011. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/183027.html. Retrieved 2011-01-13.
- ^ "Mexico's Drug War: Number of dead passes 30,000". BBC (The BBC). December 16, 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12012425. Retrieved December 16, 2010.
- ^ "Mexico Total Dead (2011)". WM Consulting. http://sites.google.com/site/policereform/. Retrieved 2012-01-17.
- ^ "2011 drug violence kills nearly 13,000 in Mexico, new figures show". CNN News. January 11, 2011. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/11/world/americas/mexico-death-toll/index.html?hpt=hp_t2. Retrieved 2012-01-11.
- ^ "In Mexico, 12,000 killed in drug violence in 2011". Washington Post. 2 January 2012. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/in-mexico-12000-killed-in-drug-violence-in-2011/2012/01/02/gIQAcGUdWP_story.html. Retrieved 2012-01-03.
- ^ "El narco asesina a tres mil 810 en lo que va del año" (in Spanish). Excelsior. 5 May 2012. http://www.excelsior.com.mx/index.php?m=nota&seccion=seccion-nacional&cat=1&id_nota=831842. Retrieved 2012-05-05.
- ^ (Spanish) Mendoza Hernández, Enrique (28 May 2012). "Sexenio de Calderón: 71 mil ejecuciones". Zeta. http://www.zetatijuana.com/2012/05/28/sexenio-de-calderon-71-mil-ejecuciones/. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ "El gobierno mexicano niega cometer crímenes por su estrategia de seguridad". CNN Mexico. October 12, 2011. http://mexico.cnn.com/nacional/2011/10/12/la-cancilleria-mexicana-responde-ante-una-posible-demanda-contra-calderon.
- ^ "Desplazados, tragedia silenciosa en México". El Economista. 7 January 2012. http://eleconomista.com.mx/seguridad-publica/2012/01/07/desplazados-tragedia-silenciosa-mexico. Retrieved 9 January 2012.
- ^ "ANUNCIO SOBRE LA OPERACIÓN CONJUNTA MICHOACÁN". Presidencia de la Republica, Mexico. 11 dic 2006. http://www.presidencia.gob.mx/2006/12/anuncio-sobre-la-operacion-conjunta-michoacan/.
- ^ "Calderón: Estamos luchando en contra de los criminales". TeleSur TV. Aug 30, 2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cqohiZCVwv0&feature=feedwll&list=WL.
- ^ "Poiré defiende estrategia del Gobierno Federal en lucha antinarco; entrevista AlJazeera". AlJazeera News. Aug 18, 2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T9WgqD04niE.
- ^ "Sugiere Sarukhán que Calderón no busca reducir tráfico de drogas". SDP Noticias. 2011-05-17. http://sdpnoticias.com/nota/71635/Sugiere_Sarukhan_que_Calderon_no_busca_reducir_trafico_de_drogas.
- ^ a b c d e Cook, Colleen W., ed. (October 16, 2007). "Mexico's Drug Cartels" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. p. 7. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
- ^ a b c d e f Vulliamy, Ed. Amexica: War Along the Borderline. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010. Print.
- ^ a b c d "Progress in Mexico drug war is drenched in blood". Associated Press. INSI. November 3, 2009. http://www.newssafety.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=12194:progress-in-mexico-drug-war-is-drenched-in-blood&catid=345:mexico-security&Itemid=100298. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
- ^ "High U.S. cocaine cost shows drug war working: Mexico". Reuters. September 14, 2007. http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1422771920070914. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
- ^ Sullivan, Mark P., ed. (December 18, 2008). "CRS Report for Congress" (PDF). Mexico - U.S. Relations: Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service. pp. 2, 13, 14. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL32724.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-01.
- ^ "The Mexico drug war: Bodies for billions". CNN News. January 20, 2012. http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/15/world/mexico-drug-war-essay/index.html. Retrieved 2012-03-05.
- ^ a b "Mexican drug gangs 'spread to every region of US'". BBC NEws. 26 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8588509.stm. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
- ^ "History of DEA Operations". DEA History. U.S. DEA. http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/history/history_part2.pdf. Retrieved 2008-09-21.
- ^ a b "Mexico, U.S., Italy: The Cocaine Connection". Stratfor Intelligence. September 18, 2008. http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/20080918_mexico_u_s_italy_cocaine_connection. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
- ^ a b Burton, Fred (May 2, 2007). "Mexico: The Price of Peace in the Cartel Wars". The Stratfor Global Intelligence. http://www.stratfor.com/mexico_price_peace_cartel_wars. Retrieved 2009-08-16.
- ^ Bussey, Jana (September 15, 2008). "Drug lords rose to power when Mexicans ousted old government". McClatchy Newspapers.
- ^ "Analysis: Mexico's drug wars continue". BBC News. 2002-03-12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1867842.stm.
- ^ Marshall, Claire (2005-08-14). "Gang wars plague Mexican drugs hub". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4144686.stm.
- ^ "Mexican cartels move beyond drugs, seek domination". Associated Press. MSNBC News. August 4, 2010. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/38565051/ns/world_news-americas/. Retrieved 2010-10-05.
- ^ "4 De Diciembre De 2011 - Lomas De Sotelo, D.F.". SEDENA Mexican National Defense Department. http://www.sedena.gob.mx/index.php/sala-de-prensa/comunicados-de-prensa/8123-4-de-diciembre-de-2011-lomas-de-sotelo-df. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ Corcoran, Patrick. "Release of Mexico Murder Stats Reveals Shifting Landscape". InSight. http://www.insightcrime.org/insight-latest-news/item/1744-release-of-mexico-government-info-reveals-shifting-landscape. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ Lee, Roger. "The Mexican Drug War (2006-Present)". The History Guy. http://www.historyguy.com/mexico_drug_war.htm. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "World Report 2012: Mexico | Human Rights Watch". Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2012/mexico. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ Wilkinson, Tracy (13 May 2012). "Dozens of Bodies, Many Mutilated, Dumped in Mexico.". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2012/may/13/world/la-fg-mexico-bodies-20120514. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ : Anti-drug general ousted
- ^ "Seventeen killed in Mexico drug battle". Reuters. 2008-26-4. http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2639514820080427.
- ^ a b "Americas | US plans to combat Mexico drugs". BBC News. 2009-03-13. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7941043.stm. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ a b "Mexican Drug Cartels Forming Alliances with American Street Gangs". The Right Side News. June 15, 2008. Archived from the original on July 31, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080731101537/http://www.rightsidenews.com/200806161201/homeland-security/mexican-drug-cartels-forming-alliances-with-american-street-gangs.html. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
- ^ The United States is undermining its own security | Statesman.com | October 25, 2008
- ^ "Mexican Cartels and the Fallout From Phoenix". Stratfor. http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/mexican_cartels_and_fallout_phoenix/?utm_source=TWeekly&utm_campaign=none&utm_medium=email. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Mexican Drug cartels terror reaches Alabama". Californiachronicle.com. http://www.californiachronicle.com/articles/view/72312. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Los Zetas: the Ruthless Army Spawned by a Mexican Drug Cartel". Fpri.org. http://www.fpri.org/enotes/200805.grayson.loszetas.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ a b "Mexico and the Cartel Wars in 2010". Stratfor. http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20101215-mexico-and-cartel-wars-2010?utm_source=SWeekly&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=101216&utm_content=readmore&elq=b1b5d866b6a74b31a7b5ad7de5742eaf. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ a b c d e f Brouwer, Kimberly C.; Patricia Case, Rebeca Ramos, Carlos Magis-Rodríguez, Jesus Bucardo, Thomas L. Patterson, and Steffanie A. Strathdee. (5 October 2009). "http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2757051/". NIH - PubMed Central 41 (5): 707–727. DOI:10.1080/10826080500411478. PMC 2757051. PMID 16603456. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2757051/. Retrieved 2012-03-06.
- ^ "Cash From Marijuana Fuels Mexico's Drug War". NPR. 2010-05-19. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=126978142. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ Cook, Colleen W., ed. (October 16, 2007). "Mexico's Drug Cartels" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. p. 2. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
- ^ Creechan, James. "An overview of drug cartels in Mexico" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology (ASC), Los Angeles Convention Center, Los Angeles, CA, Nov 01, 2006 <Not Available>. 2009-05-24 [1]
- ^ "US anti-drug campaign 'failing'". BBC News. 2004-08-06. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3540686.stm.
- ^ "A Look at Major Drug-Producing Countries". Associated Press. Newsvine. 29 February 2008. http://www.newsvine.com/_news/2008/02/29/1335526-a-look-at-major-drug-producing-countries. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ "Hugo Chavez's narcotics connection". Renew America. 17 July 2008. http://www.renewamerica.com/columns/kouri/080717. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ "Mexico's Fox Ties Hugo Chávez to Drug Cartels". Honduras Weekly. 8 February 2011. http://www.hondurasweekly.com/international/3383-mexicos-fox-ties-hugo-chavez-to-drug-cartels. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ "Hugo Chavez's Venezuela 'supplies half of Britain's cocaine'". The Telegraph (London). 1 June 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/venezuela/2205687/Hugo-Chavezs-Venezuela-supplies-half-of-Britains-cocaine.html. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ "Hugo Chavez's comrades behind drugs seized in Mexico". V crisis. 16 April 2006. http://vcrisis.com/index.php?content=letters/200604140802. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ "Hugo Chavez's Inner Circle has Drug Ties, Venezuelan Drug Kingpin Claims". Associated Press. Fox News Latino. 4 April 2011. http://latino.foxnews.com/latino/news/2011/04/04/hugo-chavezs-inner-circle-drug-ties-venezuelan-drug-kingpin-claims/. Retrieved 2011-06-01.
- ^ Cook, Colleen W., ed. (October 16, 2007). "Mexico's Drug Cartels" (PDF). CRS Report for Congress. Congressional Research Service. p. 9. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
- ^ "The Border Monsters". Time Magazine. 2001. http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101010611/fbrothers.html. Retrieved 2010-02-08. [dead link]
- ^ Beith, Malcolm (2010). The Last Narco. New York, New York: Grove Press. pp. 40–55. ISBN 978-0-8021-1952-0.
- ^ Beith, Malcolm (2010). The Last Narco. New York, New York: Grove Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-8021-1952-0.
- ^ Drug Lord Convicted in Camarena's 1985 Murder : Narcotics: He draws a prison term of 40 years. A Mexican judge sentences his "enforcer" and 23 others in the U.S. drug agent's killing. – Los Angeles Times. Articles.latimes.com (2003-06-27). Retrieved on 2012-03-31.
- ^ Nash, Jay Robert (1993). World Encyclopedia of Organized Crime. De Capo Press. p. 167. ISBN 0-306-80535-9.
- ^ Peter Dale Scott (2000), Washington and the politics of drugs, Variant, 2(11)
- ^ a b c Beith, Malcolm (2010). The Last Narco. New York, New York: Grove Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8021-1952-0.
- ^ "In Mexico, Drug Roots Run Deep". The New York Times. April 16, 1989. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/04/16/world/in-mexico-drug-roots-run-deep.html?pagewanted=1. Retrieved 2012-03-31.
- ^ http://www.wickenburg-az.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Smuggling_1-4.jpg
- ^ "Free Article for Non-Members". Stratfor. 2010-05-17. http://www.stratfor.com/memberships/162432/analysis/20100514_mexican_drug_cartels_update. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Beltran Leyva Organization (BLO)". Insight Crime. http://insightcrime.org/criminal-groups/mexico/beltran-leyva-org/item/81-beltran-leyva-organization. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
- ^ "President Bush Designates Beltran Leyva and his Organization Under Kingpin Act". Embassy of the U.S. in Mexico. May 30, 2008. http://www.usembassy-mexico.gov/eng/releases/ep080530kingpin.html. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Old cartels with new names. Excelsior Author: Jorge Fernández Menéndez. (April 12, 2010)
- ^ "A Touch of Luck and Awareness". US Embassy Diplomatic Cables from WikiLeaks. http://dazzlepod.com/cable/10MEXICO79/. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
- ^ Mauricio Fernández Garza y su pacto con los Beltrán Leyva
- ^ "DEA: Bribes taint late Mexican drug czar Story". The Houston Chronicle. May 13, 2009. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/metropolitan/6423131.html. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Stevenson, Mark (January 25, 2009). "Mexican top cops linked to cartel". The Herald. http://www.svherald.com/articles/2009/01/25/news/doc497c1f81de468388606275.txt. Retrieved 2009-08-03. [dead link]
- ^ "Politicians For Sale". StrategyWorld. July 7, 2009. http://www.newser.com/story/63917/mexican-army-slammed-for-drug-war-torture.html?utm_source=syn&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=hom. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Goddard, Jacqui (October 28, 2008). "Interpol agent passed information to Beltrán-Leyva cartel in Mexico". London: Times. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article5026787.ece. Retrieved 2009-08-03.
- ^ Matan a jefe de plaza de los Beltran Leyva Diario de Morelos (December 23, 2011)
- ^ Cae “El Marranero”, jefe de los Beltrán Leyva en Guerrero Proceso (16 October 2011)
- ^ "Narcotics Rewards Program: Hector Beltran-Leyva". U.S. Department of State. 2009. http://www.state.gov/p/inl/narc/rewards/133311.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-12.
- ^ "Mexico’s 24 most wanted traffickers". Los Angeles Times. Associated Press. March 23, 2009. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-mexico-reward24-full-list,0,6265402,full.story. Retrieved 2009-12-19.
- ^ Mexico offers $2 million for top drug lords
- ^ "Mexico offers $2m for drug lords". BBC News. 2009-03-24. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/7960198.stm. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ a b c d "Drug Wars in Tamaulipas: Cartels vs. Zetas vs. the Military". Center for Latin American and Border Studies (MexiData). March 1, 2010. http://www.mexidata.info/id2570.html. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
- ^ "Narcotics Rewards Program: Juan Jose Esparragoza-Moreno". U.S. State Department.
- ^ Vega, Aurora (7 August 2011). "Surgen cuatro grupos del narco en 2011; El Chapo es el capo más poderoso" (in Spanish). Excelsior. http://www.excelsior.com.mx/index.php?m=nota&id_nota=759098. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "Mexico police raid 'La Familia drug cartel', killing 11". BBC News. 28 May 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-13586444. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
- ^ Heffernan-Tabor, Kelly (29 May 2011). "Mexican Authorities Arrest 46 Suspected Drug Gang Members". WFMY News 2. http://www.digtriad.com/news/article/177210/175/Mexican-Authorities-Arrest-46-Suspected-Drug-Gang-Members. Retrieved 2011-05-30.
- ^ "EU: alarma guerra "Zetas"-El Golfo" (in Spanish). El Universal. March 4, 2010. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/176052.html. Retrieved 2010-03-04.
- ^ Video: Narco deja pueblos fantasma en Tamaulipas (March 4, 2010).
- ^ "Geopolitical intelligence, economic, political, and military strategic forecasting". Stratfor. 2012-01-24. http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/polarization-and-sustained-violence-mexicos-cartel-war. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "Billions in 'Blood Money' Fuel Bloodshed In Juarez, Mexico - ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. 2009-04-10. http://abcnews.go.com/Nightline/story?id=7288573&page=1#.TybIZFyXSHd. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "Mexican officials warn Americans to stay away : LA IMC". La.indymedia.org. http://la.indymedia.org/news/2008/05/217822.php. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ CNN source
- ^ "Borderland Beat - The Late Drug Lord "Amado Carrillo Fuentes", alias "The Lord of Skies" Nephew "Francisco Vicente Castillo Carrillo" Killed! (Pictures)". Borderland-beat.924382.n3.nabble.com. http://borderland-beat.924382.n3.nabble.com/The-Late-Drug-Lord-quot-Amado-Carrillo-Fuentes-quot-alias-quot-The-Lord-of-Skies-quot-Nephew-quot-Fr-td3362765.html. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ Stratfor an authority on strategic and tactical intelligence issues.
- ^ "Criminales del Medievo; hallan túnicas de Caballeros Templarios" (in Spanish). El Universal. 20 July 2011. http://www.excelsior.com.mx/index.php?m=nota&id_nota=754520&photo=12. Retrieved 2011-07-20.
- ^ "Mexican cartel renames itself 'Knights Templar'". The Monitor. 11 July 2011. http://www.themonitor.com/articles/cartel-47932-mexican-drug.html. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
- ^ Mexico Drug War: Knights Templar Gang Usurps La Familia - TIME
- ^ New Cartel Announces Takeover from Familia Michoacana
- ^ "Mexican drug lord makes Forbes' billionaire list". CNN. 2009-03-13. http://us.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/03/13/mexico.forbes.list/index.html. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^ a b Mexico's Drug War: A Rigged Fight?, John Burnett and Marisa Peñaloza, npr.org, 2010 5 18, with Bruce Livesey. Also with Robert Benincasa and Stephanie d'Otreppe. accessed 2010 5 18
- ^ a b Mexico Seems To Favor Sinaloa Cartel In Drug War, John Burnett , Marisa Peñaloza and Robert Benincasa, May 19, 2010, accessed 2010 May 27
- ^ "Mexico and the Drug Cartels". Foreign Policy Research Institute. August 2007. http://www.fpri.org/enotes/200708.grayson.mexicodrugcartels.html. Retrieved 2010-09-19.
- ^ "Benjamin Arellano Felix, Mexican Drug Cartel Kingpin, Pleads Guilty In U.S. Federal Court". Huffington Post. 2012-01-04. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/01/04/benjamin-arellano-felix-guilty-plea_n_1184470.html.
- ^ "InSide: Who Controls Tijuana?". Insightcrime.org. 2011-05-03. http://insightcrime.org/investigations/insight-exclusives/item/839-investigation-who-controls-tijuana. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "Dos carteles dominan la guerra de las drogas en México :: El Informador". Informador.com.mx. 2011-10-07. http://www.informador.com.mx/mexico/2011/327768/6/dos-carteles-dominan-la-guerra-de-las-drogas-en-mexico.htm. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ Stone, Hannah. “Mexico Media Pact Marks PR Battle in Drug War.” Insightcrime.org, March 29, 2011. http://insightcrime.org/insight-latest-news/item/720-mexico-media-pact-marks-pr-battle-in-drug-war.
- ^ "Mexico Security Memo: Mitigating the Threat of Affiliate Groups". Stratfor. 8 February 2012. http://www.stratfor.com/sample/analysis/mexico-security-memo-mitigating-threat-affiliate-groups. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
- ^ Thompson, Barnard (2010-05-21). "An Inside Look at Mexican Guns and Arms Trafficking". Mexidata.info. http://mexidata.info/id2684.html. Retrieved 2010-12-11. "The inhabitants of the United Mexican States have the right to have arms in their domicile for their protection and legitimate defense"
- ^ "At Mexico's Lone Gun Shop, Army Oversees Sales". NPR. 2009-06-24. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=105848207. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "American citizen in Mexican custody on arms-trafficking". CNN. 2011-09-06. http://articles.cnn.com/2011-09-06/justice/mexico.u.s..citizen.detained_1_mexican-attorney-grenade-mexican-federal-police. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
- ^ "American citizen in Mexican custody". BorderlandBeat. 2011-09-06. http://www.borderlandbeat.com/2011/09/american-citizen-in-mexican-custody-on.html. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
- ^ a b "Mexican Cartels Get Heavy Weapons from Central America, U.S. Cables Say", Latin American Herald Tribune, La Jornada, and Wikileaks.
- ^ "State Police Arsenal Raided in Chihuahua City". Borderland Beat. 2010-09-28. http://www.borderlandbeat.com/2010/09/state-police-arsenal-raided-in.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Castillo, Eduardo; Michelle Roberts (May 7, 2009). "Mexico's weapons cache stymies tracing". The San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2009/05/06/international/i111117D34.DTL&hw=gun&sn=014&sc=1000. Retrieved 2009-05-09. [dead link]
- ^ Grillo, Ioan (2008-06-28). "Civilian Victims in Mexico's Drug War". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1818125,00.html?cnn=yes. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ La Jornada (2008-01-23). "Armas robadas en EU, en poder de narcos". Jornada.unam.mx. http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2008/01/23/index.php?section=politica&article=006n1pol. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "The US Arms Both Sides of Mexico's Drug War". Fas.org. http://www.fas.org/asmp/library/publications/us-mexico.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ UNODC 2010 Transnational Crime Report (page 8)
- ^ a b United States Government Accountability Office, Report to Congressional Requesters, Firearms Trafficking, June 2009, Appendix III: Comments from the Department of Homeland Security.
- ^ "U.S. Firearms Trafficking to Mexico: New Data and Insights Illuminate Key Trends and Challenges" (PDF). Working Paper Series on U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation. USA: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. September 2010. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/news/docs/U.S.%20Firearms%20Trafficking%20to%20Mexico-%20Goodman%20Final.pdf
- ^ "OIG Review of ATF’s Project Gunrunner" (PDF). Review by the Office Inspector General (OIG) of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives' (ATF) implementation of Project Gunrunner. U.S.A.: U.S. Department of Justice. November. p. 1. http://www.justice.gov/oig/reports/ATF/e1101.pdf
- ^ Hoover, William (February 7). "STATEMENT AT THE UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS SUBCOMMITTEE ON THE WESTERN HEMISPHERE". ‘’Statement by William Hoover, Assistant Director for Field Operations, Bureau of ATF’’. Washington, D.C.: UNITED STATES HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES - COMMITTEE ON FOREIGN AFFAIRS. http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/110/hoo020708.htm. Retrieved 2009-03-21.
- ^ "Mexico's Gun Supply and the 90 Percent Myth". Stratfor Global Intelligence. February 10, 2011. http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20110209-mexicos-gun-supply-and-90-percent-myth. Retrieved 2011-02-19.
- ^ "Project Gunrunner" (PDF). A Cartel Focused Strategy. U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF). September. http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/Cartel_Strategy.pdf
- ^ Study: U.S. lacks strategy to fight arms smuggling into Mexico. CNN News. June 18, 2009. Retrieved 2010-11-07
- ^ "U.S. Guns Are Fueling Mexican Drug Violence" Brady Campaign.
- ^ "Project Gunrunner". BATFE (BATFE). 2011-02-17. http://www.atf.gov/firearms/programs/project-gunrunner/. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
- ^ Gliha, Lori (2011-07-01). "Weapons linked to controversial ATF strategy found in Valley crimes". KNXV-TV, ABC15.com (KNXV-TV, ABC15.com). http://www.abc15.com/dpp/news/local_news/investigations/weapons-linked-to-controversial-atf-strategy-found-in-valley-crimes. Retrieved 2011-07-01.
- ^ "Fast and Furious Investigation". BATFE (U.S. Department of Justice). 2011. http://www.justice.gov/usao/az/press_releases/2011/Fast_Furious_Map_ATF.pdf. Retrieved 2011-02-14.
- ^ Sharyl, Attkisson (2011-02-23). "Gunrunning scandal uncovered at the ATF". CBS News (CBS News). http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/02/23/eveningnews/main20035609.shtml?tag=channelMore;pop. Retrieved 2011-02-25.
- ^ "CCRKBA to Holder on ATF Scandal: 'Investigate and Fire, or Resign'". PR Newswire. 24 February 2011. http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/ccrkba-to-holder-on-atf-scandal-investigate-and-fire-or-resign-116840913.html. Retrieved 2011-02-26.
- ^ Attkisson, Sharyl (2011-03-08). "Documents point to ATF "gun running" since 2008". CBS News (CBS News). http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2011/03/08/eveningnews/main20040803.shtml?tag=contentMain;contentAux. Retrieved 2011-03-09.
- ^ "Briefing: How Mexico is waging war on drug cartels". The Christian Science Monitor. August 16, 2009. http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Americas/2009/0819/p10s01-woam.html/(page)/2. Retrieved 2009-08-20.
- ^ Ovemex (February 10, 2012). "The Drug War’s Invisible Victims". Borderland Beat. http://www.borderlandbeat.com/2012/02/drug-wars-invisible-victims.html. Retrieved 2012-02-14.
- ^ "Five myths about Mexico's drug war". The Washington Post. March 28, 2010. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/26/AR2010032602226.html. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
- ^ Roig-Franzia, Manuel (2008-07-11). "Mexico Plan Adds Police To Take On Drug Cartels". Washingtonpost.com. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/10/AR2008071002800.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Secretaría de Marina - Noticias 18 de julio del 2008". Semar.gob.mx. 2010-07-27. http://www.semar.gob.mx/sitio/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=813&Itemid=288. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Reuters -Mexico captures submarine loaded with drugs". Canada.com. 2008-07-17. http://www.canada.com/topics/news/world/story.html?id=ccfedb0f-bd89-453c-bfe4-8f10b5c221c5. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ The Narco Submarine
- ^ "Mexican navy seizes cocaine sub". BBC News. 2008-07-18. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7515056.stm. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Drug cartels using submarines to smuggle cocaine". Ctv.ca. 2008-07-19. http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080719/sub_drugs_080719/20080719?hub=SciTech. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Roig-Franzia, Manuel (April 9, 2007). "Mexican Drug Cartels Leave a Bloody Trail on YouTube". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/08/AR2007040801005_2.html. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
- ^ Ellingwood, Ken (June 11, 2008). "Macabre drug cartel messages in Mexico". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-me-haven3,0,1312148.story. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
- ^ Lacey, Mark (September 24, 2008). "Grenade Attack in Mexico Breaks From Deadly Script". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/25/world/americas/25mexico.html?_r=1&ref=americas&oref=slogin. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
- ^ "Mexico: Trouble in Culiacán". Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting. 2009. http://www.pulitzercenter.org/showproject.cfm?id=86. Retrieved 2009-04-23.
- ^ a b c Gould, Jens E. (October 20, 2008). "Mexico's Drug War Veers Toward Terrorism Amid Anger Over U.S". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=akDCw.fUKYOc&refer=home. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
- ^ Education Is Latest Casualty In Mexico's Drug War, 2011 9 28 by JASON BEAUBIEN , NPR
- ^ a b c d Cook, Colleen W., ed. (October 16, 2007). "CSR Report for Congress" (PDF). Mexico's Drug Cartels. USA: Congressional Research Service. http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
- ^ "Mexico's corruption inquiry expands to ex-police official". CNN. Associated Press. November 7, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/americas/11/07/mexico.violence.ap/index.html. Retrieved 2008-11-08. [dead link]
- ^ Goddard, Jacqui (October 28, 2008). "Interpol agent passed information to Beltrán-Leyva cartel in Mexico". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article5026787.ece. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
- ^ Lacey, Marc (November 1, 2008). "In Mexico, Sorting Out Good Guys From Bad". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/02/world/americas/02mexico.html?ref=americas. Retrieved 2008-11-02.
- ^ Lawson, Guy (March 4, 2009). "The Making of a Narco State". The Rolling Stone. http://guylawson.com/pdf/rollingstone/NarcoState.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- ^ Video-report on high-profile arrests. January 15, 2009. Spanish.
- ^ "Encarcelan al ex comisionado de PFP Gerardo Garay Cadena" (in Spanish). La Cronica de Hoy. 11 de Dic., 2008. http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?id_nota=403216. Retrieved 2010-03-01.
- ^ "Ordenan arrestar a ex mandos de Interpol" (in Spanish). El Universal. January 16, 2009. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/165134.html. Retrieved 2009-01-16.
- ^ "2 Mexican politicians sought; drug cartel link alleged". C News. July 15, 2009. http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/americas/07/15/mexico.violence/. Retrieved 2009-08-14.
- ^ Zamora Jimenez, A. (2003). "Criminal justice and the law in Mexico". Crime, Law and Social Change 40 (1): 33–36.
- ^ U.S. State Department, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, “Mexico,” Country Reports on Human rights Practices-2002, 31 March 2003.
- ^ Larie Freeman, Troubling Patterns: The Mexican Military and the War on Drugs (Washington, D.C.: Latin America Working Group, September 2002).
- ^ Human Rights Watch, Military Injustice: Mexico’s Failure to Punish Army Abuses (New York: Human Rights Watch, December 2001).
- ^ Reuters, “Peasants in Rural Mexico Claim Army Brutality,” 17 November 2003.
- ^ Luis Astorga, Drug Trafficking in Mexico: A First General Assessment, Management of Social Transformations (MOST) Discussion Paper 36 (Paris:UNESCO,1999).
- ^ Government of Mexico, Recomendación 12/2002 a la Procuraduria General de la Republica sobre el caso del homicidio del señor Guillermo Velez Mendoza (Mexico City: National Human Rights Commission, 14 May 2002).
- ^ Cook, Colleen W., ed. (October 16, 2007). "CSR Report for Congress" (PDF). Mexico's Drug Cartels. USA: Congressional Research Service. http://ftp.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL34215.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-02
- ^ "Crime-torn Mexican 'FBI' Investigates 1,500 Agents," Reuters, December 4, 2005; Tim Gaynor and Monica Medel, "Drug Gangs Corrupt Mexico's Elite 'FBI,'" Reuters, December 6, 2005; and, Laurie Freeman, State of Siege: Drug-Related Violence and Corruption in Mexico, Washington Office on Latin America, June 2006.
- ^ "Surge la Policía Federal Ministerial (May 30, 2009)". Eluniversal.com.mx. 2009-05-30. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/168545.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Government of Mexico, Estadisticas judiciales en Materia Penal, Cuaderno No. 10 (Mexico City: Instituto nacional de Estadistica, Geografia, e Informatica, 2003), Chart 2.6.2, p. 478.
- ^ La Jornada, “Admite el Pentagono que Adiestro a 6 Militares Mexicanos Violadores de Derechos Humanos,” 28 June 1998.
- ^ "Periodista asesinada en Tamaulipas denunciaba anónimamente al narcotráfico". CNN Mexico. 27 de septiembre de 2011. http://mexico.cnn.com/nacional/2011/09/27/periodista-asesinada-en-tamaulipas-denunciaba-anonimamente-al-narcotrafico.
- ^ "México es considerado como el país más peligroso para los periodistas". TeleSUR. 3 de Mayo de 2011. http://www.diariocolatino.com/es/20110503/internacionales/92037/M%C3%A9xico-es-considerado-como-el-pa%C3%ADs-m%C3%A1s-peligroso-para-los-periodistas.htm.
- ^ a b Mexico journalists tortured and killed by drug cartels, Jo Tuckman, guardian.co.uk, Friday 4 May 2012
- ^ ""Narcos" atacan estación de Televisa". BBC Mundo. 7 de enero de 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_7815000/7815395.stm.
- ^ "Mexican Drug Cartel Threatens to Kill Texas News Reporters". CNN News. July 16, 2007. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Z9K-UbN3Ms.
- ^ "Periodistas mexicanos trabajan para el narco, acusa diario de EU". La Policiaca. http://www.lapoliciaca.com/nota-roja/periodistas-mexicanos-trabajan-para-el-narco-acusa-diario-de-eu-2/. Retrieved 27 September 2011.
- ^ "Violence in Mexico Takes Rising Toll on Press". The Wall Street Journal. August 20, 2010. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703824304575435623953338224.html?KEYWORDS=Violence+in+Mexico+Takes+Rising+Toll+on+Press. Retrieved 2010-08-21.
- ^ Journalist, 2 family members murdered in Mexico, EFE from foxnews.com
- ^ "Journalists Killed in Mexico - Committee to Protect Journalists". Cpj.org. http://www.cpj.org/killed/americas/mexico/. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "Mexico Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers - television, circulation, stations, papers, number, print, freedom, online". Pressreference.com. http://www.pressreference.com/Ma-No/Mexico.html. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "ACCESS ABC: eCirc for US Newspapers". Abcas3.accessabc.com. http://abcas3.accessabc.com/ecirc/newstitlesearchus.asp. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ "Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía". INEGI. http://www.inegi.org.mx/. Retrieved 2012-05-27.
- ^ Tuckman, Jo. "Mexico’s drug war — told in tweets and whispers." Dawn. Tuesday September 28, 2010. Retrieved on February 15, 2010.
- ^ "Bodies hanging from bridge in Mexico are warning to social media users". CNN. September 14, 2011. http://articles.cnn.com/2011-09-14/world/mexico.violence_1_zetas-cartel-social-media-users-nuevo-laredo?_s=PM:WORLD.
- ^ Woman murdered over social media anti-drug lord advocacy September 27, 2011 by Sylvie Barak, TG Daily (Velum Media / DD&M Inc)
- ^ Three Photographers Found Dead in Mexico May 3, 2011 by Karla Zabludovsky, New York Times
- ^ Mexican Crime Reporters Risk Becoming The Story, by John Burnett, NPR, May 9, 2012
- ^ "28 Alcaldes ejecutados en lo que va del sexenio". El Universal. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ym_qw1Da27E&feature=feedu. Retrieved 3 November 2011.
- ^ "26 Alcaldes ejecutados del 2008-2011; más de 120 Alcaldes amenazados por el crimen organizado". TV Milenio. Sep 21, 2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2x2hXcbSM8A&feature=feedu.
- ^ Mayors Are New Targets In Mexico's Deadly Drug War by Jason Beaubien, 2010 10 11 via npr.org on 2010 10 11
- ^ "Asesinan a diputado mexicano reportado desaparecido". Diario Co Latino. 19 de Septiembre de 2011. http://www.diariocolatino.com/es/20110919/internacionales/96710/Asesinan-a-diputado-mexicano-reportado-desaparecido.htm.
- ^ "Body count from mass graves in Mexico rises to 145". Los Angeles Times. April 15, 2011. http://articles.latimes.com/2011/apr/15/world/la-fg-mexico-bodies-20110416. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
- ^ "Mass graves in Mexico reveal new levels of savagery". The Washington Post. 24 April 2011. http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/mass-graves-in-mexico-reveal-new-levels-of-savagery/2011/04/23/AFPoasbE_story.html. Retrieved 2011-08-18.
- ^ Crossing Continents: Murder, migration and Mexico, Linda Pressly BBC, August 2011
- ^ More than 11,000 migrants abducted in Mexico, BBC, 23 February 2011
- ^ "Crece en España mafia mexicana" (in Spanish). El Universal. 30 December 2010. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/primera/36105.html. Retrieved 2010-12-30.
- ^ "Mexican drug gang menace spreads in Guatemala". Uk.reuters.com. 2009-02-18. http://uk.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUKN18280587. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ a b "Guatemala police chief arrested over 'cocaine link'". BBC News. 2 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/8546590.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
- ^ McDermott, Jeremy (2009-03-02). "Mexican cartel threatens Guatemala President". London: Telegraph.co.uk. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/guatemala/4928428/Mexican-cartel-threatens-Guatemala-President.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "'Guatemalastan': How to Prevent a Failed State in our Midst". The Brookings Institution. http://www.brookings.edu/opinions/2009/0522_guatemala_casaszamora.aspx. Retrieved 2009-05-26.
- ^ "Guatemala on the brink?". Homeland Security Insight nd Analysis. May 25, 2009. http://www.hstoday.us/content/view/8634/149/. Retrieved 2009-05-26. [dead link]
- ^ "El cártel mexicano de Los Zetas controla el 75% de Guatemala". Infobae. 2010-12-24. http://america.infobae.com/notas/16232-El-cartel-mexicano-de-Los-Zetas-controla-el-75-de-Guatemala.
- ^ "Los Zetas controlan seis regiones en Guatemala". El Salvador Noticias. 25 December 2010. http://www.elsalvador.com/mwedh/nota/nota_completa.asp?idCat=6358&idArt=5433354.
- ^ a b Brice, Arthur (2009-09-21). "Latin American drug cartels find home in West Africa". CNN News. http://www.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/africa/09/21/africa.drug.cartels/index.html. Retrieved 2009-09-21.
- ^ Felbab-Brown, Vanda. "The West African Drug Trade in the Context of the Region's Illicit Economies and Poor Governance", The Brookings Institution, 14 October 2010.
- ^ "Carteles Mexicanos se Disputan Canada" (in Spanish). El Universal. 6 May 2012. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/notas/845459.html. Retrieved 2012-05-06.
- ^ "Testimony of Secretary Janet Napolitano before Senate (March 25, 2009)". Dhs.gov. 2009-03-25. http://www.dhs.gov/ynews/testimony/testimony_1237993537881.shtm. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Merida Initiative Will Help Battle Drug Trafficking". Newsblaze.com. 2008-07-01. http://newsblaze.com/story/20080701063119tsop.nb/topstory.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Americans finance Mexican traffickers". Worldblog.msnbc.msn.com. http://worldblog.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/06/25/1166487.aspx. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Drugs, Guns and a Reality Check The Washington Post.. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
- ^ a b c "The Joint Operating Environment - December 2008" (PDF). Challenges and implications for the future Joint Force. Norfolk, VA: The Joint Operating Environment - December 2008. December. pp. 38, 40. http://www.jfcom.mil/newslink/storyarchive/2008/JOE2008.pdf. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
- ^ Blair, David (2009-01-16). "Mexico in danger of collapse". London: Telegraph.co.uk. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/centralamericaandthecaribbean/mexico/4271720/Mexico-in-danger-of-collapse-says-US-army.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Mexican Cartels: Drug organizations extending reach farthen into U.S". Associated Press. 2009. http://hosted.ap.org/specials/interactives/_international/mexican_cartels/index.html?SITE=AP. Retrieved 2009-08-31.
- ^ "Border violence threatens Americans". The Washington Times. April 1, 2010.
- ^ "Mexican cartels plague Atlanta". USATODAY.com. March 9, 2009
- ^ Rydell, C. Peter; Susan S. Everingham (1994). "Controlling Cocaine: Supply Versus Demand Programs". Rand Drug Policy Research Center. http://www.fathom.com/media/PDF/2184_cocainess.pdf.
*Cauchon, Dennis (June 14 1994). "White House balks at study urging more drug treatment". USA Today: 2A. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/73026.html.
*Stokes, Doug; Noam Chomsky (Introduction) (2005). America's Other War: Terrorizing Colombia. Zed Books. ISBN 1-84277-547-2. OCLC 156752200. http://www.chomsky.info/articles/200412--.htm. p. xii, 87
*Donnelly, John (April 1 2000). "Narcotics Bill Reopens Drug War Debate Colombia Measure Spurs New Look At Us Policy". The Boston Globe. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/73026.html#2.
*Cochran, John; Peter Jennings (September 22 1999). "A Closer Look". ABC News. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/73026.html#2.
*Douglas, William (June 14 1994). "Best Weapon In Drug War Is Treatment". Newsday: A15. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/73026.html#5.
*Douglas, William (June 14 1994). "U.S. Should Boost Therapy Of Coke Addicts, Study Urges". The Times Union. http://bailey83221.livejournal.com/73026.html#6. - ^ "American Death toll". Americanchronicle.com. http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/84945. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Mexican Drug Violence Spills Over Into US". Huffingtonpost.com. 2009-02-09. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/02/09/mexican-drug-violence-spi_n_165422.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Officials: 92 Americans killed by homicide in Mexico in last year | killed, hartley, shot - Island Breeze". 26.11184;-97.168126: spislandbreeze.com. 2010-11-02. http://www.spislandbreeze.com/articles/killed-11646-hartley-shot.html. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ "Lawmakers Demand Administration Deploy National Guard, Border Patrol After Killing". Fox News. March 30, 2010. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2010/03/30/lawmakers-demand-administration-deploy-national-guard-border-patrol-killing/. Retrieved April 30, 2010.
- ^ Derek Jordan (May 4, 2010). "Dever says nothing new in investigation". Sierra Vista Herald. http://www.svherald.com/content/news/2010/05/04/dever-says-nothing-new-investigation. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
- ^ "Obama Mexico border plan not enough-US senator". Reuters. 2009-03-25. http://www.reuters.com/article/vcCandidateFeed1/idUSN25352630. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Obama Authorizes Deployment of More National Guard Troops Along Border. ABC News. May 25, 2010.
- ^ De Cordoba, Jose (February 12, 2009). "Latin American Panel Calls U.S. Drug War a Failure". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123439889394275215.html?mod=googlenews_wsj.
- ^ Goodman, Joshua (2009-02-11). "Cardoso, Gaviria, Zedillo Urge Obama to Decriminalize Marijuana". Bloomberg.com. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601086&sid=ao_Yr_Is1T6E&refer=latin_america. Retrieved 2011-03-28.
- ^ Birns, Larry; Michael Ramirez (April 1, 2009). "Time to Debate a Change in Washington's Failed Latin American Drug Policies". The Council on Hemispheric Affairs. http://www.coha.org/2009/04/time-to-debate-a-change-in-washington%E2%80%99s-international-drug-policies/. Retrieved 2009-04-13.
- ^ a b c "Mexico targets money laundering with plan to limit cash transactions". The Washington Post. August 26, 2010. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/08/26/AR2010082605355.html. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
- ^ "Los dilemas con el narcotráfico" (in Spanish). El Universal. October 26, 2010. http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/181459.html. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
- ^ a b c d "Calderon proposes steps against money laundering". Los Angeles Times. August 26, 2010. http://articles.latimes.com/2010/aug/26/world/la-fg-mexico-money-laundering-20100827. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
- ^ a b c "DEA - Money Laundering". The U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. 2010. http://www.justice.gov/dea/programs/money.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
- ^ "United States-Mexico Partnership: Anti-Arms Trafficking and Anti-Money Laundering". U.S. Department of State. March 23, 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2010/03/138924.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-26.
- ^ How a big US bank laundered billions from Mexico's murderous drug gangs Ed Vulliamy, The Observer, Sunday 3 April 20, 2011, guardian.co.uk
- ^ Miller, Stephanie (April 7, 2009). "A Regional Strategy for Drug Wars in the Americas". Center for American Progress. http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/ideas/2009/04/040709.html. Retrieved 2009-04-13.
- ^ "US Demand Reduction Efforts". Consulate General of the United States. March 2010. http://guadalajara.usconsulate.gov/about-us/secretary-clinton-visit-to-mexico/us-demand-reduction-efforts.html. Retrieved 2010-03-29.
Bibliography[link]
- Vulliamy, Ed, Amexica: War Along the Borderline, Bodley Head, 2010. ISBN 978-1-84792-128-4
- Grillo, Ioan, El Narco: Inside Mexico's Criminal Insurgency, Bloomsburry Publishing, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60819-211-3
External links[link]
- Map of Mexican Drug War violence
- Statistics of Crime in Mexico
- Bowers, Charles. "The Mexican Kidnapping Industry" An academic paper examining both the emergence of kidnapping as a drug war spillover, and statewide variance in Mexico's kidnapping statutes.
- AP interactive map: Mexican Drug Cartels
- Map: Areas of cartels' influences
- The Mexican Zetas and Other Private Armies - written by the Strategic Studies Institute.
- Mexico page on InSight Crime. Ongoing reporting on Mexico's drug war and involved cartels.
- Mexico's Lone Gunshop.
- The Last Narco, book about the current phase of the drug war by journalist Malcolm Beith.
- [2] El Narco: Inside Mexico's Criminal Insurgency, A report on the history and inner workings of drug cartels; by journalist Ioan Grillo.
- BBC documentary (2010): Mexico's Drug War
- Los Angeles Times Feature on Mexico's Drug War
- The Atlantic: Mexico's Drug War
- Council on Foreign Relations
- Human Rights Watch
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Mexican_Drug_War
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Guerra messicana della droga
http://id.wn.com/Perang Narkoba Meksiko
http://es.wn.com/Guerra contra el narcotráfico en México
http://ru.wn.com/Нарковойна в Мексике
http://nl.wn.com/Mexicaanse drugsoorlog
http://fr.wn.com/Lutte contre les narcotrafiquants au Mexique
http://de.wn.com/Drogenkrieg in Mexiko
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_Drug_War
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Peter Scott, see Peter Scott (disambiguation).
 |
This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (March 2008) |
 |
Peter Dale Scott (born 11 January 1929[1]) is a Canadian born, former English professor at the University of California, Berkeley, a former diplomat and a poet.
A son of the Canadian poet and constitutional lawyer F. R. Scott and painter Marian Dale Scott, he has been critical of American foreign policy since the era of the Vietnam War. Scott was a signatory in 1968 of the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, in which participants vowed to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.[2] He spent four years (1957–1961) with the Canadian diplomatic service. He retired from the UC Berkeley faculty in 1994.
Contents |
Literary works[link]
In terms of poetry, he is best known for his book-length poem Coming to Jakarta (subtitled "a poem about terror"), which describes in measured, prosodically regular verse the 1965 crisis in Indonesia that resulted in the Indonesian Civil War and the deaths of as many as half a million people, in which he believed the CIA to have played a role.[citation needed]
Scott is far from a stridently political poet, working always to connect the polemical to the personal. In Coming to Jakarta he writes:
- To have learnt from terror
to see oneself
as part of the enemy - can be a reassurance
In the context of this emotional and psychological side of conflict, Scott alternates between descriptions of his own life—"dressed up in polished / gaiters with a buttonhook"—and the massive violence of his principal subject. Somewhere between confessional and scholarly, his poems often contain citations in the margins.
Scott has described his poem Minding the Darkness as his most important, though he concedes that "Like other long poems by older men. . . it toys dangerously with abstract didactic principles."[3] The poem is intended as the culmination of a major poetic project of which Coming to Jakarta was the inception.
Contemporary politics[link]
Scott has written about the role of the "deep state" (as opposed to the "public state"). Rejecting the label of "conspiracy theory", he has used the phrase "deep politics" to describe his political concerns. His interest in contemporary history has spilled over into his works of poetry, some of which must contain marginal notes to explain to readers which documents or real-world news events are being referred to. His book, The Road to 9/11 (2007), deals with geopolitical context of events leading to 9/11, and describes "how U.S. foreign policy since the 1960s has led to partial or total cover-ups of past domestic criminal acts, including, perhaps, the catastrophe of 9/11."[4] The Road to 9/11 is the only one of Peter Dale Scott's book available in French under the title La Route vers le Nouveau Désordre Mondial.[5] The latter was reviewed in March 2011 by Bernard Norlain, a retired French five-star General of the Air Force.[6]
Of Scott's book, American War Machine: Deep Politics, the CIA Global Drug Connection, and the Road to Afghanistan (2010) Daniel Ellsberg commented: "I said of Scott's last brilliant take on this subject, Drugs, Oil and War, that 'It makes most academic and journalistic explanations of our past and current interventions read like government propaganda written for children.' Now Scott has written an even better book [...]"[7]
An aspect of Scott's work that combines both his investigating interests and his poetry is illustrated by The Global Drug Meta-Group: Drugs, Managed Violence, and the Russian 9/11.[8]
Bibliography[link]
Political[link]
- The War Conspiracy (1972, out of print)
- The Assassinations: Dallas and Beyond (in collaboration, 1976, ISBN 0-394-40107-7)
- Crime and Cover-Up: The CIA, the Mafia, and the Dallas-Watergate Connection (1977, ISBN 0-87867-066-1)
- Introduction to Henrik Kruger's The Great Heroin Coup: Drugs, Intelligence, & International Fascism (1980, ISBN 0-89608-031-5)
- The Iran-Contra Connection (in collaboration, 1987, ISBN 0-89608-291-1)
- Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America (in collaboration, 1991, 1998, ISBN 0-520-21449-8)
- Deep Politics and the Death of JFK (1993, 1996, ISBN 0-520-20519-7)
- Deep Politics Two: Essays on Oswald, Mexico, and Cuba (1995, 2007, ISBN 0-9790099-4-4)
- Drugs Oil and War (2003, ISBN 0-7425-2522-8)
- The Road to 9/11: Wealth, Empire and the Future of America (September 2007, ISBN 0-520-23773-0)
- The War Conspiracy: JFK, 911, and the Deep Politics of War (2008 reissue and expansion of 1972 edition) (July 2008, ISBN 978-0-9801213-6-0)
- American War Machine: Deep Politics, the CIA Global Drug Connection, and the Road to Afghanistan (November 2010 - ISBN 978-0-7425-5594-5)
Poetry[link]
- Coming to Jakarta: A Poem About Terror (1989, ISBN 0-8112-1095-2)
- Listening to the Candle: A Poem on Impulse (1992, ISBN 0-8112-1214-9)
- Crossing Borders: Selected Shorter Poems (1994, ISBN 0-8112-1284-X)
- Minding the Darkness: A Poem for the Year 2000 (2000, ISBN 0-8112-1454-0)
- Mosaic Orpheus (2009, ISBN 978-0-7735-3506-0)
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ W. H. New, ed. Encyclopedia of Literature in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002: 1028.
- ^ “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest”, New York Post, January 30, 1968
- ^ Introductory matter to excerpts from Minding the Darkness, <http://www.flashpointmag.com/scott1.htm>.
- ^ University of California Press. "Peter Date Scott (2007), The Road to 9/11". http://www.ucpress.edu/books/pages/9959.php. Retrieved April 30, 2009.
- ^ http://www.editionsdemilune.com/la-route-vers-le-nouveau-desordre-mondial-p-36.html] La Route vers le Nouveau Désordre Mondial, Editions Demi-Lune official website
- ^ [1] Review of La Route vers le Nouveau Désordre Mondial (The Road to 9/11) by French Air Force general Bernard Norlain
- ^ [2] Daniel Ellsberg about American War Machine
- ^ The Global Drug Meta-Group: Drugs, Managed Violence, and the Russian 9/11, <http://lobster-magazine.co.uk/articles/global-drug.htm>
External links[link]
Deep politics discussion forum and video channel:
- http://www.deeppoliticsforum.com
- JFK and 9/11 - Insights Gained From Studying Both at Google Videos (Adobe Flash video) - In his wide-ranging talk, Peter Dale Scott points out similarities that arise when you look at the assassination of JFK and the all events of 9/11. (COPA meeting in Dallas, Texas, November 18, 2006)
- Richard Cheney, Continuity of Government, and 9/11 - VIDEO: A talk by Scott given at the 9/11 Accountability Conference, Chandler, Arizona, February 25, 2007.
- Interview: University of Berkeley about his book: The Road to 911 Video
- Five poems at Jacket Magazine
- Interview from Words Without Borders
- Interview from Electric Politics.
|
||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Scott, Peter Dale |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Canadian poet and academic |
| Date of birth | 11 January 1929 |
| Place of birth | Canada |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Peter_Dale_Scott
Related pages:
http://fr.wn.com/Peter Dale Scott
http://de.wn.com/Peter Dale Scott
http://es.wn.com/Peter Dale Scott
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Dale_Scott
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Dale Allan Scott (born August 14, 1959 in Eugene, Oregon) is an umpire in Major League Baseball. He worked in the American League from 1986 to 1999, and has officiated in both leagues since 2000, becoming a crew chief in 2001. He has worn uniform number 5 throughout his career, and kept the number when the AL and NL umpiring staffs merged in 2000.
Scott began umpiring at age 15, and entered the minor leagues in 1981, eventually working his way up to the American Association. He umpired in the World Series in 1998, 2001 and 2004, in the All-Star Game in 1993, 2001, and 2011, calling balls and strikes. He has also worked in five League Championship Series (1996, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2009 ) and in nine Division Series (1995, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2011).
Among the more unusual games he has umpired was that of July 1, 1990, when he was the home plate umpire as Andy Hawkins of the New York Yankees pitched eight hitless innings in a road game against the Chicago White Sox, yet lost; it was only the second game in history in which a pitcher lost a complete game no-hitter.
When the AL introduced red shirts in 1996, Scott frequently was the only umpire to wear the color, rather than the usual navy blue. He almost always wore the red shirt when working home plate, including Game 3 of the 1998 World Series at Qualcomm Stadium.
Dale Scott has one of the most distinctive called strike threes in the majors. The call involves stepping back from the plate turning to his left and a delivering a quick punch-out.
Scott worked as a radio personality at KBDF, a Top 40 station in Eugene, Oregon, in the late 1970s. He is an avid Oregon Ducks football fan, and often attends games at Autzen Stadium when given the opportunity.
Scott's 2011 crew included C.B. Bucknor, Jerry Meals and Dan Iassogna. He worked his 3,000th career, regular season MLB game in St. Louis on his 50th birthday, August 14, 2009.
On April 15, 2012, Dale Scott was behind the plate for a game between the San Diego Padres and Los Angeles Dodgers. With two men on and no one out, Jesús Guzmán of the Padres attempted to lay down a bunt. It hit the end of the bat and the ball appeared to land in front of home plate. Then, Dodgers catcher A.J. Ellis picked up the ball and threw it to third, where it was thrown to second, and finally to first for a triple play. Padres manager Bud Black was ejected by Scott.[1]
References[link]
External links[link]
.jpg){kind=small}
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Scott, Dale |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | August 14, 1959 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Dale_Scott
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Scott
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
