The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization officially commenced on January 1, 1995 under the Marrakech Agreement, replacing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which commenced in 1948. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements which are signed by representatives of member governments[5]:fol.9-10 and ratified by their parliaments.[6] Most of the issues that the WTO focuses on derive from previous trade negotiations, especially from the Uruguay Round (1986–1994).
The organization is attempting to complete negotiations on the Doha Development Round, which was launched in 2001 with an explicit focus on addressing the needs of developing countries. According to a European Union statement, "The 2008 Ministerial meeting broke down over a disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' to protect farmers from surges in imports."[7] The position of the European Commission is that "The successful conclusion of the Doha negotiations would confirm the central role of multilateral liberalisation and rule-making. It would confirm the WTO as a powerful shield against protectionist backsliding."[8] An impasse remains. As of May 2012[update], the future of the Doha Round remains uncertain.
Harry White (l) and
John Maynard Keynes at the Bretton Woods Conference — Both economists had been strong advocates of a liberal international trade environment, and recommended the establishment of three institutions: the IMF (fiscal and monetary issues), the World Bank (financial and structural issues), and the ITO (international economic cooperation).
[9]
The WTO's predecessor, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), was established after World War II in the wake of other new multilateral institutions dedicated to international economic cooperation — notably the Bretton Woods institutions known as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. A comparable international institution for trade, named the International Trade Organization was successfully negotiated. The ITO was to be a United Nations specialized agency and would address not only trade barriers but other issues indirectly related to trade, including employment, investment, restrictive business practices, and commodity agreements. But the ITO treaty was not approved by the U.S. and a few other signatories and never went into effect.[10][11][12]
In the absence of an international organization for trade, the GATT would over the years "transform itself" into a de facto international organization.[13]
The GATT was the only multilateral instrument governing international trade from 1946 until the WTO was established on January 1, 1995.[14] Despite attempts in the mid 1950s and 1960s to create some form of institutional mechanism for international trade, the GATT continued to operate for almost half a century as a semi-institutionalized multilateral treaty regime on a provisional basis.[15]
Seven rounds of negotiations occurred under GATT. The first real GATT trade rounds concentrated on further reducing tariffs. Then, the Kennedy Round in the mid-sixties brought about a GATT anti-dumping Agreement and a section on development. The Tokyo Round during the seventies was the first major attempt to tackle trade barriers that do not take the form of tariffs, and to improve the system, adopting a series of agreements on non-tariff barriers, which in some cases interpreted existing GATT rules, and in others broke entirely new ground. Because these plurilateral agreements were not accepted by the full GATT membership, they were often informally called "codes". Several of these codes were amended in the Uruguay Round, and turned into multilateral commitments accepted by all WTO members. Only four remained plurilateral (those on government procurement, bovine meat, civil aircraft and dairy products), but in 1997 WTO members agreed to terminate the bovine meat and dairy agreements, leaving only two.[14]
Main article:
Uruguay RoundWell before GATT's 40th anniversary, its members concluded that the GATT system was straining to adapt to a new globalizing world economy.[18][19] In response to the problems identified in the 1982 Ministerial Declaration (structural deficiencies, spill-over impacts of certain countries' policies on world trade GATT could not manage etc.), the eighth GATT round — known as the Uruguay Round — was launched in September 1986, in Punta del Este, Uruguay.[18]
It was the biggest negotiating mandate on trade ever agreed: the talks were going to extend the trading system into several new areas, notably trade in services and intellectual property, and to reform trade in the sensitive sectors of agriculture and textiles; all the original GATT articles were up for review.[19] The Final Act concluding the Uruguay Round and officially establishing the WTO regime was signed April 15, 1994, during the ministerial meeting at Marrakesh, Morocco, and hence is known as the Marrakesh Agreement.[20]
The GATT still exists as the WTO's umbrella treaty for trade in goods, updated as a result of the Uruguay Round negotiations (a distinction is made between GATT 1994, the updated parts of GATT, and GATT 1947, the original agreement which is still the heart of GATT 1994).[18] GATT 1994 is not however the only legally binding agreement included via the Final Act at Marrakesh; a long list of about 60 agreements, annexes, decisions and understandings was adopted. The agreements fall into a structure with six main parts:
The topmost decision-making body of the WTO is the Ministerial Conference, which usually meets every two years. It brings together all members of the WTO, all of which are countries or customs unions. The Ministerial Conference can take decisions on all matters under any of the multilateral trade agreements. The inaugural ministerial conference was held in Singapore in 1996. Disagreements between largely developed and developing economies emerged during this conference over four issues initiated by this conference, which led to them being collectively referred to as the "Singapore issues". The second ministerial conference was held in Geneva in Switzerland. The third conference in Seattle, Washington ended in failure, with massive demonstrations and police and National Guard crowd control efforts drawing worldwide attention. The fourth ministerial conference was held in Doha in the Persian Gulf nation of Qatar. The Doha Development Round was launched at the conference. The conference also approved the joining of China, which became the 143rd member to join. The fifth ministerial conference was held in Cancún, Mexico, aiming at forging agreement on the Doha round. An alliance of 22 southern states, the G20 developing nations (led by India, China,[22] Brazil, ASEAN led by the Philippines), resisted demands from the North for agreements on the so-called "Singapore issues" and called for an end to agricultural subsidies within the EU and the US. The talks broke down without progress.
The sixth WTO ministerial conference was held in Hong Kong from 13–18 December 2005. It was considered vital if the four-year-old Doha Development Round negotiations were to move forward sufficiently to conclude the round in 2006. In this meeting, countries agreed to phase out all their agricultural export subsidies by the end of 2013, and terminate any cotton export subsidies by the end of 2006. Further concessions to developing countries included an agreement to introduce duty free, tariff free access for goods from the Least Developed Countries, following the Everything but Arms initiative of the European Union — but with up to 3% of tariff lines exempted. Other major issues were left for further negotiation to be completed by the end of 2010. The WTO General Council, on 26 May 2009, agreed to hold a seventh WTO ministerial conference session in Geneva from 30 November-3 December 2009. A statement by chairman Amb. Mario Matus acknowledged that the prime purpose was to remedy a breach of protocol requiring two-yearly "regular" meetings, which had lapsed with the Doha Round failure in 2005, and that the "scaled-down" meeting would not be a negotiating session, but "emphasis will be on transparency and open discussion rather than on small group processes and informal negotiating structures". The general theme for discussion was "The WTO, the Multilateral Trading System and the Current Global Economic Environment"[23]
The WTO launched the current round of negotiations, the Doha Development Round, at the fourth ministerial conference in Doha, Qatar in November 2001. This was to be an ambitious effort to make globalization more inclusive and help the world's poor, particularly by slashing barriers and subsidies in farming.[24] The initial agenda comprised both further trade liberalization and new rule-making, underpinned by commitments to strengthen substantial assistance to developing countries.[8]
The negotiations have been highly contentious. Disagreements still continue over several key areas including agriculture subsidies, which emerged as critical in July 2006.[25] As of April 2012[update], agreement has not been reached, despite intense negotiations at several ministerial conferences and at other sessions.
| v · d · eGATT and WTO trade rounds[26] |
| Name |
Start |
Duration |
Countries |
Subjects covered |
Achievements |
| Geneva |
April 1946 |
7 months |
23 |
Tariffs |
Signing of GATT, 45,000 tariff concessions affecting $10 billion of trade |
| Annecy |
April 1949 |
5 months |
13 |
Tariffs |
Countries exchanged some 5,000 tariff concessions |
| Torquay |
September 1950 |
8 months |
38 |
Tariffs |
Countries exchanged some 8,700 tariff concessions, cutting the 1948 tariff levels by 25% |
| Geneva II |
January 1956 |
5 months |
26 |
Tariffs, admission of Japan |
$2.5 billion in tariff reductions |
| Dillon |
September 1960 |
11 months |
26 |
Tariffs |
Tariff concessions worth $4.9 billion of world trade |
| Kennedy |
May 1964 |
37 months |
62 |
Tariffs, Anti-dumping |
Tariff concessions worth $40 billion of world trade |
| Tokyo |
September 1973 |
74 months |
102 |
Tariffs, non-tariff measures, "framework" agreements |
Tariff reductions worth more than $300 billion dollars achieved |
| Uruguay |
September 1986 |
87 months |
123 |
Tariffs, non-tariff measures, rules, services, intellectual property, dispute settlement, textiles, agriculture, creation of WTO, etc |
The round led to the creation of WTO, and extended the range of trade negotiations, leading to major reductions in tariffs (about 40%) and agricultural subsidies, an agreement to allow full access for textiles and clothing from developing countries, and an extension of intellectual property rights. |
| Doha |
November 2001 |
? |
141 |
Tariffs, non-tariff measures, agriculture, labor standards, environment, competition, investment, transparency, patents etc |
The round is not yet concluded. |
Among the various functions of the WTO, these are regarded by analysts as the most important:
- It oversees the implementation, administration and operation of the covered agreements.[27][28]
- It provides a forum for negotiations and for settling disputes.[29][30]
Additionally, it is the WTO's duty to review and propagate the national trade policies, and to ensure the coherence and transparency of trade policies through surveillance in global economic policy-making.[28][30] Another priority of the WTO is the assistance of developing, least-developed and low-income countries in transition to adjust to WTO rules and disciplines through technical cooperation and training.[31]
The WTO is also a center of economic research and analysis: regular assessments of the global trade picture in its annual publications and research reports on specific topics are produced by the organization.[32] Finally, the WTO cooperates closely with the two other components of the Bretton Woods system, the IMF and the World Bank.[29]
The WTO establishes a framework for trade policies; it does not define or specify outcomes. That is, it is concerned with setting the rules of the trade policy games.[33] Five principles are of particular importance in understanding both the pre-1994 GATT and the WTO:
- Non-discrimination. It has two major components: the most favoured nation (MFN) rule, and the national treatment policy. Both are embedded in the main WTO rules on goods, services, and intellectual property, but their precise scope and nature differ across these areas. The MFN rule requires that a WTO member must apply the same conditions on all trade with other WTO members, i.e. a WTO member has to grant the most favorable conditions under which it allows trade in a certain product type to all other WTO members.[33] "Grant someone a special favour and you have to do the same for all other WTO members."[34] National treatment means that imported goods should be treated no less favorably than domestically produced goods (at least after the foreign goods have entered the market) and was introduced to tackle non-tariff barriers to trade (e.g. technical standards, security standards et al. discriminating against imported goods).[33]
- Reciprocity. It reflects both a desire to limit the scope of free-riding that may arise because of the MFN rule, and a desire to obtain better access to foreign markets. A related point is that for a nation to negotiate, it is necessary that the gain from doing so be greater than the gain available from unilateral liberalization; reciprocal concessions intend to ensure that such gains will materialise.[35]
- Binding and enforceable commitments. The tariff commitments made by WTO members in a multilateral trade negotiation and on accession are enumerated in a schedule (list) of concessions. These schedules establish "ceiling bindings": a country can change its bindings, but only after negotiating with its trading partners, which could mean compensating them for loss of trade. If satisfaction is not obtained, the complaining country may invoke the WTO dispute settlement procedures.[34][35]
- Transparency. The WTO members are required to publish their trade regulations, to maintain institutions allowing for the review of administrative decisions affecting trade, to respond to requests for information by other members, and to notify changes in trade policies to the WTO. These internal transparency requirements are supplemented and facilitated by periodic country-specific reports (trade policy reviews) through the Trade Policy Review Mechanism (TPRM).[36] The WTO system tries also to improve predictability and stability, discouraging the use of quotas and other measures used to set limits on quantities of imports.[34]
- Safety valves. In specific circumstances, governments are able to restrict trade. There are three types of provision in this direction:
-
-
-
- articles allowing for the use of trade measures to attain non-economic objectives;
- articles aimed at ensuring "fair competition"; and
- provisions permitting intervention in trade for economic reasons.[36]
- Exceptions to the MFN principle also allow for preferential treatment of developing countries, regional free trade areas and customs unions.[5]:fol.93
The General Council has the following subsidiary bodies which oversee committees in different areas:
- Council for Trade in Goods
- There are 11 committees under the jurisdiction of the Goods Council each with a specific task. All members of the WTO participate in the committees. The Textiles Monitoring Body is separate from the other committees but still under the jurisdiction of Goods Council. The body has its own chairman and only 10 members. The body also has several groups relating to textiles.[37]
- Council for Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights
- Information on intellectual property in the WTO, news and official records of the activities of the TRIPS Council, and details of the WTO's work with other international organizations in the field.[38]
- Council for Trade in Services
- The Council for Trade in Services operates under the guidance of the General Council and is responsible for overseeing the functioning of the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is open to all WTO members, and can create subsidiary bodies as required.[39]
- Trade Negotiations Committee
- The Trade Negotiations Committee (TNC) is the committee that deals with the current trade talks round. The chair is WTO's director-general. As of April 2012[update] the committee was tasked with the Doha Development Round.[40]
The Service Council has three subsidiary bodies: financial services, domestic regulations, GATS rules and specific commitments.[37] The General council has several different committees, working groups, and working parties.[41] There are committees on the following: Trade and Environment; Trade and Development (Subcommittee on Least-Developed Countries); Regional Trade Agreements; Balance of Payments Restrictions; and Budget, Finance and Administration. There are working parties on the following: Accession. There are working groups on the following: Trade, debt and finance; and Trade and technology transfer.
The WTO describes itself as "a rules-based, member-driven organization — all decisions are made by the member governments, and the rules are the outcome of negotiations among members".[42] The WTO Agreement foresees votes where consensus cannot be reached, but the practice of consensus dominates the process of decision-making.[43]
Richard Harold Steinberg (2002) argues that although the WTO's consensus governance model provides law-based initial bargaining, trading rounds close through power-based bargaining favouring Europe and the U.S., and may not lead to Pareto improvement.[44]
In 1994, the WTO members agreed on the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes (DSU) annexed to the "Final Act" signed in Marrakesh in 1994.[45] Dispute settlement is regarded by the WTO as the central pillar of the multilateral trading system, and as a "unique contribution to the stability of the global economy".[46] WTO members have agreed that, if they believe fellow-members are violating trade rules, they will use the multilateral system of settling disputes instead of taking action unilaterally.[47]
The operation of the WTO dispute settlement process involves the DSB panels, the Appellate Body, the WTO Secretariat, arbitrators, independent experts and several specialized institutions.[48] Bodies involved in the dispute settlement process, World Trade Organization.
The process of becoming a WTO member is unique to each applicant country, and the terms of accession are dependent upon the country's stage of economic development and current trade regime.[49] The process takes about five years, on average, but it can last more if the country is less than fully committed to the process or if political issues interfere. The shortest accession negotiation was that of the Kyrgyz Republic, while the longest was that of the People's Republic of China (P. Farah, Five Years of China's WTO Membership, 263–304). Russia, having first applied to join GATT in 1993, was approved for membership in December 2011.[50] An offer of accession is only given once consensus is reached among interested parties.[51]
WTO accession progress. (As of May 2012
[update], including imminent membership of the Russian Federation.):
Members (including dual-representation with the European Union)
Draft Working Party Report or Factual Summary adopted
Goods and/or Services offers submitted
Memorandum on Foreign Trade Regime (FTR) submitted
Observer, negotiations to start later or no Memorandum on FTR submitted
Frozen procedures or no negotiations in the last 3 years
No official interaction with the WTO
A country wishing to accede to the WTO submits an application to the General Council, and has to describe all aspects of its trade and economic policies that have a bearing on WTO agreements.[52] The application is submitted to the WTO in a memorandum which is examined by a working party open to all interested WTO Members.[51]
After all necessary background information has been acquired, the working party focuses on issues of discrepancy between the WTO rules and the applicant's international and domestic trade policies and laws. The working party determines the terms and conditions of entry into the WTO for the applicant nation, and may consider transitional periods to allow countries some leeway in complying with the WTO rules.[49]
The final phase of accession involves bilateral negotiations between the applicant nation and other working party members regarding the concessions and commitments on tariff levels and market access for goods and services. The new member's commitments are to apply equally to all WTO members under normal non-discrimination rules, even though they are negotiated bilaterally.[52]
When the bilateral talks conclude, the working party sends to the general council or ministerial conference an accession package, which includes a summary of all the working party meetings, the Protocol of Accession (a draft membership treaty), and lists ("schedules") of the member-to-be's commitments. Once the general council or ministerial conference approves of the terms of accession, the applicant's parliament must ratify the Protocol of Accession before it can become a member.[53]
The WTO has 155 members (to become 156 on the pending accession of Russia) and 29 observer governments (including the Russian Federation).[54] In addition to states, the European Union is a member. WTO members do not have to be full sovereign nation-members. Instead, they must be a customs territory with full autonomy in the conduct of their external commercial relations. Thus Hong Kong (as "Hong Kong, China" since 1997) became a GATT contracting party, and the Republic of China (Taiwan) acceded to the WTO in 2002 as "Separate Customs Territory of Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu" (Chinese Taipei) despite its disputed status.[55] The WTO Secretariat omits the official titles (such as Counselor, First Secretary, Second Secretary and Third Secretary) of the members of Chinese Taipei's Permanent Mission to the WTO, except for the titles of the Permanent Representative and the Deputy Permanent Representative.[56]
Iran is the biggest economy outside the WTO.[57] With the exception of the Holy See, observers must start accession negotiations within five years of becoming observers. A number of international intergovernmental organizations have also been granted observer status to WTO bodies.[58] 14 states and two territories so far have no official interaction with the WTO.
Main article:
Uruguay RoundThe WTO oversees about 60 different agreements which have the status of international legal texts. Member countries must sign and ratify all WTO agreements on accession.[59] A discussion of some of the most important agreements follows. The Agreement on Agriculture came into effect with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. The AoA has three central concepts, or "pillars": domestic support, market access and export subsidies. The General Agreement on Trade in Services was created to extend the multilateral trading system to service sector, in the same way as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) provided such a system for merchandise trade. The agreement entered into force in January 1995. The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights sets down minimum standards for many forms of intellectual property (IP) regulation. It was negotiated at the end of the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1994.
The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—also known as the SPS Agreement—was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of GATT, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the beginning of 1995. Under the SPS agreement, the WTO sets constraints on members' policies relating to food safety (bacterial contaminants, pesticides, inspection and labelling) as well as animal and plant health (imported pests and diseases). The Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade is an international treaty of the World Trade Organization. It was negotiated during the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade, and entered into force with the establishment of the WTO at the end of 1994. The object ensures that technical negotiations and standards, as well as testing and certification procedures, do not create unnecessary obstacles to trade".[60] The Agreement on Customs Valuation, formally known as the Agreement on Implementation of Article VII of GATT, prescribes methods of customs valuation that Members are to follow. Chiefly, it adopts the "transaction value" approach.
The Directors-General of the WTO have been:[61]
The Directors-General of the precursor organization, GATT, were:
- ^ To become 156 on the pending accession of Russia. See Members and Observers at WTO official website
- ^ Languages, Documentation and Information Management Division at WTO official site
- ^ "WTO Secretariat budget for 2011". WTO official site. http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/secre_e/budget_e.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-25.
- ^ Overview of the WTO Secretariat (2011) at WTO official site. All WTO staff are based in Geneva.
- ^ a b Understanding the WTO Handbook at WTO official website. (Note that the document's printed folio numbers do not match the pdf page numbers.)
- ^ Malanczuk, P. (1999). "World Trade Organization". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 442. pp. 305. Bibcode 1999ESASP.442..305M.
- ^ WTO trade negotiations: Doha Development Agenda Europa press release, 31 October 2011
- ^ a b European Commission The Doha Round
- ^ A.E. Eckes Jr., US Trade History, 73
* A. Smithies, Reflections on the Work of Keynes, 578–601
* N. Warren, Internet and Globalization, 193
- ^ P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 80
- ^ Palmeter-Mavroidis, Dispute Settlement, 2
- ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (9 May 2007). "The World Trade Organization: Background and Issues" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. p. 4. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/98-928.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-15.
- ^ It was contemplated that the GATT would be applied for several years until the ITO came into force. However, since the ITO was never brought into being, the GATT gradually became the focus for international governmental cooperation on trade matters with economist Nicholas Halford overseeing the implementation of GATT in members policies. (P. van den Bossche, The Law and Policy of the World Trade Organization, 81; J.H. Jackson, Managing the Trading System, 134).
- ^ a b The GATT Years: from Havana to Marrakesh, WTO official site
- ^ Footer, M. E. Analysis of the World Trade Organization, 17
- ^ B.S. Klapper, With a "Short Window"
- ^ Lula, Time to Get Serious about Agricultural Subsidies
- ^ a b c P. Gallagher, The First Ten Years of the WTO, 4
- ^ a b The Uruguay Round, WTO official site
- ^ "Legal texts – Marrakesh agreement". WTO. http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/04-wto_e.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ Overview: a Navigational Guide, WTO official site. For the complete list of "The Uruguay Round Agreements", see WTO legal texts, WTO official site, and Uruguay Round Agreements, Understandings, Decisions and Declarations, WorldTradeLaw.net
- ^ "Five Years of China WTO Membership. EU and US Perspectives about China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". Papers.ssrn.com. http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=916768. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ WTO to hold 7th Ministerial Conference on 30 November-2 December 2009 WTO official website
- ^ "In the twilight of Doha". The Economist (The Economist): 65. July 27, 2006. http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7218551
- ^ Fergusson, Ian F. (2008-01-18). "World Trade Organization Negotiations: The Doha Development Agenda" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. http://www.nationalaglawcenter.org/assets/crs/RL32060.pdf. Retrieved 2012-04-13. Page 9 (folio CRS-6)
- ^ a)The GATT years: from Havana to Marrakesh, World Trade Organization
b)Timeline: World Trade Organization – A chronology of key events, BBC News
c)Brakman-Garretsen-Marrewijk-Witteloostuijn, Nations and Firms in the Global Economy, Chapter 10: Trade and Capital Restriction
- ^ Functions of the WTO, IISD
- ^ a b Main Functions, WTO official site
- ^ a b A Bredimas, International Economic Law, II, 17
- ^ a b C. Deere, Decision-making in the WTO: Medieval or Up-to-Date?
- ^ WTO Assistance for Developing Countries[dead link], WTO official site
- ^ Economic research and analysis, WTO official site
- ^ a b c B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 42
- ^ a b c Principles of the Trading System, WTO official site
- ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 43
- ^ a b B. Hoekman, The WTO: Functions and Basic Principles, 44
- ^ a b "Fourth level: down to the nitty-gritty". WTO official site. http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org1_e.htm#fourth. Retrieved 2008-08-18.
- ^ "Intellectual property – overview of TRIPS Agreement". Wto.org. 1994-04-15. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/trips_e/intel2_e.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ "The Services Council, its Committees and other subsidiary bodies". WTO official site. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/serv_e/s_coun_e.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
- ^ "The Trade Negotiations Committee". WTO official site. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dda_e/tnc_e.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
- ^ "WTO organization chart". WTO official site. http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/tif_e/org2_e.htm. Retrieved 2008-08-14.
- ^ Decision-making at WTO official site
- ^ Decision-Making in the World Trade Organization Abstract from Journal of International Economic Law at Oxford Journals
- ^ Steinberg, Richard H. "In the Shadow of Law or Power? Consensus-based Bargaining and Outcomes in the GATT/WTO." International Organization. Spring 2002. pp. 339–374.
- ^ Stewart-Dawyer, The WTO Dispute Settlement System, 7
- ^ S. Panitchpakdi, The WTO at ten, 8.
- ^ Settling Disputes:a Unique Contribution, WTO official site
- ^ "Disputes - Dispute Settlement CBT - WTO Bodies involved in the dispute settlement process - The Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) - Page 1". WTO. 1996-07-25. http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/disp_settlement_cbt_e/c3s1p1_e.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
- ^ a b Accessions Summary, Center for International Development
- ^ Ministerial Conference approves Russia's WTO membership WTO News Item, 16 December 2011
- ^ a b C. Michalopoulos, WTO Accession, 64
- ^ a b Membership, Alliances and Bureaucracy, WTO official site
- ^ How to Become a Member of the WTO, WTO official site
- ^ For a list of WTO members and observers (which may not be up to date), see Members and Observers, World Trade Organization. Wikipedia has its own regularly updated list.
- ^ Jackson, J. H. Sovereignty, 109
- ^ ROC Government Publication
- ^ [dead link]"Letter of Demand". Iran Trade Law. 2005-05-26. http://www.irantradelaw.com/?page_id=5. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ International intergovernmental organizations granted observer status to WTO bodies at WTO official website
- ^ "Legal texts – the WTO agreements". WTO. http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/legal_e.htm. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ "A Summary of the Final Act of the Uruguay Round". Wto.org. http://www.wto.org/english/docs_e/legal_e/ursum_e.htm#dAgreement. Retrieved 2010-05-30.
- ^ "Previous GATT and WTO Directors-General". WTO. http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/dg_e/exdgs_e.htm. Retrieved 2011-05-21.
- Official pages
- Government pages on the WTO
- Media pages on the WTO
- Non-governmental organization pages on the WTO
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