Centralisation, or centralization (see spelling differences), is the process by which the activities of an organisation, particularly those regarding planning and decision-making, become concentrated within a particular location and/or group.

In political science, centralisation refers to the concentration of a government's power - both geographically and politically - into a centralised government.

In neuroscience, centralisation refers to the evolutionary trend of the nervous system to be partitioned into a central nervous system and peripheral nervous system.

In business studies, centralisation and decentralisation refer to where decisions are made in the chain of command.

See also

Centralized system

Centralization (phonetics)

Chess terminology

Decentralization

Democratic centralism

Nationalism

Nation-state

Totalitarianism

Nueva Planta decrees

Category:Business terms

bs:Centralizacija cs:Centralismus de:Zentralisation (Wirtschaftswissenschaften) es:Centralización del capital eo:Centralizismo fa:تمرکز fr:Centralisme hr:Centralizacija it:centralizzazione nl:Centralisme ja:中央集権 no:Sentralisering pl:Centralizacja ru:Централизация simple:Centralist sl:Centralizem sh:Centralizacija sv:Centralisering zh:中央集权

Coordinates	37°46′45.48″N122°25′9.12″N
Name	Dr. Marvin Harris
Birth date	August 18, 1927
Birth place	Brooklyn, New York
Death date	October 25, 2001
Death place	Gainsville, Florida
Field	Anthropology
Work institutions	University of Florida
Alma mater	Columbia University
Known for	Anthropologist who was a proponent of cultural materialism
Prizes	}}

Marvin Harris (August 18, 1927 – October 25, 2001) was an American anthropologist. He was born in Brooklyn, New York. A prolific writer, he was highly influential in the development of cultural materialism. In his work he combined Karl Marx's emphasis on the forces of production with Malthus's insights on the impact of demographic factors on other parts of the sociocultural system. Labeling demographic and production factors as infrastructure, Harris posited these factors as key in determining a society's social structure and culture. After the publication of ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory'' in 1968, Harris helped focus the interest of anthropologists in cultural-ecological relationships for the rest of his career. Many of his publications gained wide circulation among lay readers.

Over the course of his professional life, Harris drew both a loyal following and a considerable amount of criticism. He became a regular fixture at the annual meetings of the American Anthropological Association where he would subject scholars to intense questioning from the floor, podium, or bar. He is considered a generalist, who had an interest in the global processes that account for human origins and the evolution of human cultures.

In his final book, ''Theories of Culture in Postmodern Times,'' Harris argued that the political consequences of postmodern theory were harmful, a critique similar to those later developed by philosopher Richard Wolin and others.

Early career

Being born just before the Great Depression, Harris was poor during his childhood in Brooklyn. He entered the U.S. Army toward the end of the Second World War and used funding from the G.I. Bill to enter Columbia University along with a new generation of post-war American anthropologists. Harris was an avid reader who loved to spend hours at the race track and he eventually developed a complex mathematical betting system that was successful enough to provide support for his wife, Madelyn, and him during his years of graduate school.

Harris' early work was with his mentor, Charles Wagley, and his dissertation research in Brazil produced an unremarkable village study that carried on the Boasian descriptive tradition in anthropology—a tradition he would later denounce.

After graduation, Harris was given an assistant professorship at Columbia and, while undertaking fieldwork in Mozambique in 1957, Harris underwent a series of profound transformations that altered his theoretical and political orientations.

Theoretical contributions

Harris' earliest work began in the Boasian tradition of descriptive anthropological fieldwork, but his fieldwork experiences in Mozambique in the late 1950s caused him to shift his focus from ideological features of culture, toward behavioral aspects. His 1968 history of anthropological thought, ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory'' critically examined hundreds of years of social thought with the intent of constructing a viable nomothetic understanding of human culture that Harris came to call cultural materialism. Cultural materialism incorporated and refined Marx's categories of superstructure and base; Harris modified and amplified such core Marxist concepts as means of production and exploitation, but Harris rejected two key aspects of Marxist thought: the dialectic, which Harris attributed to an intellectual vogue of Marx’s time; and, unity of theory and practice, which Harris regarded as an inappropriate and damaging stance for social scientists. Harris’ inclusion of demographic dynamics as determinant factors in sociocultural evolution also contrasted with Marx’s rejection of population as a causal element.

Throughout his career, Harris grappled with the issue of the epistemological status of informants' statements. He labeled his solution as the distinction between emic and etic distinction, which he refined considerably since its exposition in ''The Rise of Anthropological Theory''. The terms “emic” and “etic” originated in the work of linguist Kenneth Pike, despite the latter’s conceptual differences with Harris’ constructs. As used by Marvin Harris, emic meant those descriptions and explanations that are right and meaningful to an informant or subject, whereas etic descriptions and explanations are those used by the scientific community to generate and strengthen theories of sociocultural life. That is, emic is the participant's perspective, whereas etic is the observer's. Harris had asserted that both are in fact necessary for an explanation of human thought and behavior.

Marvin Harris’ early contributions to major theoretical issues include his revision of economic surplus theory in state formation. He also became well known for formulating a materialist explanation for the treatment of “Cattle in religions” in Indian culture. Along with Michael Harner, Harris is one of the scholars most associated with the suggestion that Aztec cannibalism occurred, and was the result of protein deficiency in the Aztec diet. An explanation appears in Harris' book ''Cannibals and Kings''. Harris also invoked the human quest for animal protein to explain Yanomamo warfare, contradicting ethnographer Napoleon Chagnon’s sociobiological explanation involving innate male human aggressiveness.

Several other publications by Harris examine the cultural and material roots of dietary traditions in many cultures, including ''Cows, Pigs, Wars, and Witches: The Riddles of Culture'' (1975); ''Good to Eat: Riddles of Food and Culture'' (1998 - originally titled ''The Sacred Cow and the Abominable Pig'') and his co-edited volume, ''Food and Evolution: Toward a Theory of Human Food Habits'' (1987).

Harris’ ''Why Nothing Works: The Anthropology of Daily Life'' (1981 - Originally titled ''America Now: the Anthropology of a Changing Culture'') applies concepts from cultural materialism to the explanation of such social developments in late twentieth century United States as inflation, the entry of large numbers of women into the paid labor force, marital instability, and shoddy products.

His ''Our Kind: Who We Are, Where We Came From, Where We Are Going'' (1990) surveys the broad sweep of human physical and cultural evolution, offering provocative explanations of such subjects as human gender and sexuality and the origins of inequality. Finally, Harris’ 1979 work, ''Cultural Materialism: The Struggle for a Science of Culture'', updated and re-released in 2001, offers perhaps the most comprehensive statement of cultural materialism. A separate article lists the many and diverse publications of Marvin Harris.

Criticisms and controversies

While Harris' contributions to anthropology are widely respected, they do not represent the only views within that field. It has been said that "Other anthropologists and observers had almost as many opinions about Dr. Harris as he had about why people behave as they do. ''Smithsonian magazine'' called him 'one of the most controversial anthropologists alive.' ''The Washington Post'' described him as 'a storm center in his field', and the ''Los Angeles Times'' accused him of 'overgeneralized assumptions'." Other fields, such as feminist anthropology, have much to say about topics such as gender and the role of women in society. That field itself covers a range of perspectives, including some who agree with various points made by Harris.

Academic career

Harris received both his M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from Columbia University, the former in 1949 and the latter in 1953. He performed fieldwork in Brazil and Portuguese-speaking Africa before joining the faculty at Columbia. He eventually became chairman of the anthropology department at Columbia. During the Columbia student campus occupation of 1968, Harris was among the few faculty leaders who sided with the students when they were threatened and beaten by the police. During the 1960s and 1970s, he was a resident of Leonia, New Jersey.

Harris next joined the University of Florida anthropology department in 1981 and retired in 2000, becoming the Anthropology Graduate Research Professor Emeritus. Harris also served as the Chair of the General Anthropology Division of the American Anthropological Association.

Harris became the author of seventeen books. Two of his college textbooks, ''Culture, People, Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology'' and ''Cultural Anthropology'', were published in seven editions. His research spanned the topics of race, evolution, and culture. He often focused on Latin America and Brazil, including the Islas de la Bahia, Ecuador, Mozambique, India, and East Harlem.

Works cited

Harris left a large body of scholarly work. See List of Marvin Harris works for a complete list.

Writings for the general public include: Reissued in 1991 by Vintage, New York. (Previously titled ''America Now: The Anthropology of a Changing Culture'') (Previously published 1985 by Simon & Schuster. Previously titled ''The Sacred Cow and the Abominable Pig'')

More academically oriented works include Paperback ISBN 0-7591-0135-3

References

External links

Marvin Harris

Marvin Harris's Cultural Materialism

Cultural Materialism

Category:1927 births Category:2001 deaths Category:University of Florida faculty Category:American anthropologists Category:Columbia University alumni Category:People from Leonia, New Jersey

an:Marvin Harris ast:Marvin Harris da:Marvin Harris de:Marvin Harris es:Marvin Harris eu:Marvin Harris fr:Marvin Harris fur:Marvin Harris gl:Marvin Harris ko:마빈 해리스 it:Marvin Harris he:מרווין האריס ja:マーヴィン・ハリス no:Marvin Harris pl:Marvin Harris pt:Marvin Harris fi:Marvin Harris zh:马文·哈里斯

Coordinates	37°46′45.48″N122°25′9.12″N
name	Otto von Habsburg
title	Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia
spouse	Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen
issue	Andrea von HabsburgMonika von HabsburgMichaela von HabsburgGabriela von HabsburgWalburga von HabsburgKarl von HabsburgGeorg von Habsburg
issue-link	#Family
issue-pipe	Detail
full name	Franz Joseph Otto Robert Maria Anton Karl Max Heinrich Sixtus Xavier Felix Renatus Ludwig Gaetan Pius Ignatius von Habsburg
house	House of Habsburg-Lorraine
father	Charles I of Austria
mother	Zita of Bourbon-Parma
birth date	November 20, 1912
birth place	Reichenau an der Rax, Austria-Hungary
death date	July 04, 2011
death place	Pöcking, Germany
burial date	16 July 2011 (body); 17 July 2011 (heart)
burial place	Imperial Crypt (body); Pannonhalma Archabbey (heart)
signature	Otto von Habsburg Signature.svg
religion	Roman Catholic

Otto von Habsburg (20 November 1912 4 July 2011), also known by his royal name as Archduke Otto of Austria, was the last Crown Prince of Austria-Hungary from 1916 until the dissolution of the empire in 1918, a realm which comprised modern-day Austria, Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and parts of Italy, Montenegro, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Ukraine. He remained the Crown Prince of Hungary until 1921. He was the head of the House of Habsburg and the Sovereign of the Order of the Golden Fleece between 1922 and 2007, and at the same time, the Habsburg pretender to the former thrones.

The eldest son of Charles I, the last Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary, and his wife, Zita of Bourbon-Parma, Otto was born as third in line to the thrones, as ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' Archduke and Prince Imperial Otto of Austria, Prince Royal of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia. With his father's accession to the thrones in 1916, he was himself likely to become the Emperor. As his father never abdicated, Otto was considered by himself, his family and Austro-Hungarian legitimists to be the rightful Emperor-King from 1922. Had the dual monarchy still existed, he might have had an 89-year reign.

Otto was active on the Austrian and European political stage from the 1930s, both by promoting the cause of Habsburg restoration and as an early proponent of European integration—being thoroughly disgusted with nationalism—and a fierce opponent of Nazism and communism. He has been described as one of the leaders of the Austrian anti-Nazi resistance. After the 1938 ''Anschluss'', monarchists were severely persecuted in Austria, and—sentenced to death by the Nazis—Otto fled to the United States, with a visa issued by Aristides de Sousa Mendes.

Otto von Habsburg was Vice President (1957–1973) and President (1973–2004) of the International Paneuropean Union, and served as a Member of the European Parliament for the Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU) 1979–1999. In 1961, Francisco Franco offered him the crown of Spain, but he declined on account of the Habsburg dynasty's long absence from the Spanish throne, and recommended Juan Carlos. As a newly elected Member of the European Parliament in 1979, Otto had an empty chair set up for the countries on the other side of the Iron Curtain in the European Parliament, and took a strong interest in the countries behind the Iron Curtain during his tenure. Otto von Habsburg played a central role in the revolutions of 1989, as a co-initiator of the Pan-European Picnic. Later he would be a strong supporter of the EU membership of central and eastern European countries. A noted intellectual, he has published several books on historical and political affairs. Otto has been described as one of the "architects of the European idea and of European integration" together with Robert Schuman, Konrad Adenauer, and Alcide De Gasperi.

Otto was exiled in 1918 and grew up mostly in Spain. His devout Catholic mother raised him according to the old curriculum of Austria-Hungary, preparing him to become a Catholic monarch. During his life in exile, he lived in Switzerland, Madeira, Spain, Belgium, France, the United States, and from 1954 until his death, finally in Bavaria (Germany), in the residence ''Villa Austria''. At the time of his death, he was a citizen of Germany, Austria, Hungary and Croatia, having earlier been stateless ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' and possessed passports of Monaco, the Order of Malta, and Spain.

His funeral took place at St. Stephen's Cathedral in Vienna on 16 July 2011; he was entombed in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna and his heart buried in Pannonhalma Archabbey in Hungary.

Early life

Otto was born at Villa Wartholz in Reichenau an der Rax, Austria-Hungary. He was baptised ''Franz Joseph Otto Robert Maria Anton Karl Max Heinrich Sixtus Xavier Felix Renatus Ludwig Gaetan Pius Ignatius'' on 25 November 1912 at Villa Wartholz by the Prince-Archbishop of Vienna, Cardinal Franz Xaver Nagl. His godfather was the Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria (represented by Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria); his godmother was his grandmother Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal.

In November 1916, Otto became Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary and Bohemia when his father, Archduke Charles, acceded to the throne. However, in 1918, at the end of the First World War, the monarchies were abolished, the Republics of Austria and Hungary founded instead, and the family was forced into exile. Hungary did become a kingdom again, but Charles was never to regain the throne. Instead, Miklós Horthy ruled as regent until 1944, in a kingdom without a king.

He spoke German, Hungarian, Croatian, English, Spanish, French and Latin fluently. In later life, he would write books in German, Hungarian, French and Spanish. His mother made him learn many languages because she believed he one day might rule over many lands.

Years in exile

Otto's family spent the subsequent years in Switzerland, and on the Portuguese island of Madeira, where Charles died prematurely in 1922, leaving the 9-year-old Otto pretender to the throne. On his father's deathbed, his mother, then-Empress Dowager Zita, told the 9-year old, "your father is now sleeping the eternal sleep—you are now Emperor and King". The family eventually relocated to the Basque town of Lekeitio, where 40 Spanish grandees bought them a villa. Meanwhile, the Austrian parliament had officially expelled the Habsburg dynasty and confiscated all the official property (Habsburg Law of 3 April 1919).

In 1935, he graduated with a PhD degree in Political and Social Sciences from the University of Louvain in Belgium. From his father's death throughout the remainder of his time in exile, Otto considered himself the rightful emperor of Austria and stated this on many occasions. In 1937 he wrote,

“I know very well that the overwhelming majority of the Austrian population would like me to assume the heritage of the peace emperor, my beloved father, rather earlier than later. (...) The [Austrian] people have never cast a vote in favor of the republic. They have remained silent as long as they were exhausted from the long fight, and taken by surprise by the audacity of the revolutionaries of 1918 and 1919. They shook off their resignation when they realized that the revolution had raped their right to life and freedom. (...) Such trust places a heavy burden on me. I accept it readily. God willing, the hour of reunion between the Duke and the people will arrive soon.”

He continued to enjoy considerable public support in Austria; from 1931 to 1938, 1,603 Austrian municipalities named Otto an honorary citizen.

World War II

Otto strongly opposed the Anschluss of Austria to Nazi Germany. In 1938 he requested Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg to resist the Nazis and supported an international intervention, and offered to return from exile to take over the reins of government in order to repel Hitler. According to Gerald Warner, "Austrian Jews were among the strongest supporters of a Habsburg restoration, since they believed the dynasty would give the nation sufficient resolve to stand up to the Third Reich".

Following the German annexation of Austria, Otto was sentenced to death by the Nazis. As ordered by Adolf Hitler, his personal property and that of the House of Habsburg were confiscated and not given back after the war. The so-called "Habsburg Law", which had previously been repealed, was reintroduced by the fiercely republican and anti-monarchist Nazis. The leaders of the Austrian legitimist movement, i.e. supporters of Otto, were arrested by the Nazis and largely executed (Stefan Zweig's novella ''The Royal Game'' is based on these events). Otto's cousins Max, Duke of Hohenberg, and Prince Ernst of Hohenberg were arrested in Vienna by the Gestapo and sent to Dachau concentration camp where they remained throughout the Nazi rule. Otto was involved in helping around 15,000 Austrians, including thousands of Austrian Jews, flee the country at the beginning of the Second World War.

Rudolf Hess ordered that Otto was to be executed immediately if caught. After the German invasion of France the family left the French capital and fled to Portugal with a visa issued by Aristides de Sousa Mendes, the Portuguese consul in Bordeaux. For his own safety, he left the European continent and lived from 1940 to 1944 in Washington, D.C. In his war-time exile in the United States, he worked to stop or limit the bombing campaign against Austria. In the United States, he initiated the Austrian Day and was able to get Austria included in a postage stamp series on "Occupied Nations". He obtained the support of Winston Churchill for a conservative "Danube Federation", in effect a restoration of Austria-Hungary, but Joseph Stalin put an end to these plans. He lobbied for the recognition of an Austrian government-in-exile, for the rights of the German-speaking population of South Tyrol, against the deportation of the German-speaking inhabitants of Bohemia and eastern Europe, and against letting Stalin rule Eastern Europe.

In 1941, Adolf Hitler personally revoked the citizenship of Otto, his mother, and his siblings, and the imperial-royal family found themselves stateless.

After World War II

At the end of the war, Otto returned to Europe and lived for some years in France and Spain.

In 1949, he ennobled several people, granting them Austrian noble titles, although not recognized by the Austrian republic. As he did not possess a passport and was effectively stateless, he was given a passport of the Principality of Monaco, thanks to the intervention of Charles de Gaulle in 1946. As a Knight of Malta, the Order also issued him a diplomatic passport. Later, he was also given a Spanish diplomatic passport.

In 1956, Otto was recognized as an Austrian citizen by the Lower Austrian state government and was given an Austrian passport that was "valid in all countries ''except Austria''".

On multiple occasions, and as late as the 1960s, the Austrian police would be looking for Otto, suspecting that the "enemy of the republic" had entered the country.

Political career

In a declaration dated 31 May 1961, Otto renounced all claims to the Austrian throne and proclaimed himself "a loyal citizen of the republic", a move that he made only after much hesitation and certainly "for purely practical reasons". In a 2007 interview on the occasion of his approaching 95th birthday, Otto stated: :"This was such an infamy, I'd rather never have signed it. They demanded that I abstain from politics. I would not have dreamed of complying. Once you have tasted the opium of politics, you never get rid of it."

The Habsburg Law of 1918 stated that Charles' descendants could only return to Austria if they renounced their royal claims and accepted the status of private citizens. The Austrian administrative court found on 24 May 1963 that Otto's statement was sufficient to meet this requirement. However, several elements in the country, particularly the Socialists, were ill-disposed to welcoming back the heir of the deposed dynasty. This touched off political infighting and civil unrest that almost precipitated a crisis of state, and later became known as the "Habsburg Crisis." It was only on 1 June 1966, after the People's Party won an outright majority in the national election, that Otto was issued an Austrian passport, and was finally able to visit his home country again on 31 October 1966 for the first time in 48 years.

An early advocate of a unified Europe, Otto was president of the International Paneuropean Union from 1973 to 2004. He served from 1979 until 1999 as a Member of the European Parliament for the conservative Christian Social Union of Bavaria (CSU) party, eventually becoming the senior member of the European Parliament. He was also a member of the Mont Pelerin Society. He was a major supporter of the expansion of the European Union from the beginning and especially of the acceptance of Hungary, Slovenia and Croatia. During his time in the European Parliament, he was involved in a fracas initiated by fellow MEP Ian Paisley. In 1988, Pope John Paul II had just begun a speech to the Parliament, and Protestant Paisley shouted at the Pope, "I denounce you as the Antichrist!", holding a poster reading "Pope John Paul II Antichrist". Otto snatched Paisley's banner and, along with other MEPs, helped eject him from the chamber.

He was one of the men instrumental in organising the so called Pan-European Picnic at the Hungary-Austria border on 19 August 1989. This event is considered a milestone in the collapse of Communist dictatorships in Europe.

He was reportedly a patron of the Three Faiths Forum, a group which aims to encourage friendship, goodwill and understanding amongst people of the three monotheistic faiths of Christianity, Judaism and Islam in the United Kingdom and elsewhere.

In December 2006, he observed that, "The catastrophe of 11 September 2001 struck the United States more profoundly than any of us, whence a certain mutual incomprehension. Until then, the United States felt itself secure, persuaded of its power to bombard any enemy, without anyone being able to strike back. That sentiment vanished in an instant. Americans understand viscerally for the first time the risks they face."

On 5 July 2007, Otto von Habsburg received the Freedom of the City of London from the hands of Sir Gavyn Arthur, a former Lord Mayor of London.

He was known as a supporter of the rights of refugees and displaced people in Europe, notably of the ethnic Germans displaced from Bohemia where he was once the Crown Prince. He was a jury member of the Franz Werfel Human Rights Award. He also held Francisco Franco in a high regard and praised him for helping refugees, stating that he was "a dictator of the south American type, not totalitarian like Hitler or Stalin".

In 2002, he was named the first ever honorary member of the European People's Party group.

Death and funeral

After the death of his wife, Regina in 2010, Otto stopped appearing in public. He died at the age of 98 on Monday, 4 July 2011, at his home in Pöcking, Germany. His spokeswoman reported that he died "peacefully and without pain in his sleep". He was survived by his younger brother, Felix, as well as 7 children, 22 grandchildren and 2 great-grandchildren.

On 5 July, his body was laid in repose in the Church of St. Ulrich near his home in Pöcking, Bavaria, and a massive 13-day period of mourning started in several countries formerly part of Austria-Hungary. Otto's coffin has been draped with the Habsburg flag decorated with the imperial–royal coats of arms of Austria and Hungary in addition to the Habsburg family coat of arms.

In line with the Habsburg family tradition, Otto von Habsburg was buried in the family's crypt in Vienna, while his heart will be buried in a monastery in Pannonhalma, Hungary.

Family

He was married to Princess Regina of Saxe-Meiningen from 1951 until her death in 2010. They had seven children, 23 grandchildren and 2 great-grandchildren (as of 2011):

Andrea von Habsburg (born 1953). Married Hereditary Count Karl Eugen von Neipperg. They have three sons, two daughters and two grandchildren.

Monika von Habsburg (born 1954). Married Luis María Gonzaga Gonzaga de Casanova-Cárdenas y Barón, Duke of Santangelo, Marquess of Elche, Count of Lodosa and Grandee of Spain, who is a descendant of Infanta Luisa Teresa of Spain, Duchess of Sessa and sister of Francis, King-Consort of Spain.

Michaela von Habsburg, born on September 13, 1954. Monika's twin sister. Married firstly Eric Alba Teran d'Antin, and secondly Count Hubertus of Kageneck. She has two sons and a daughter from her first marriage. Twice divorced. Gabriela von Habsburg, born on October 14, 1956Married Christian Meister in 1978, divorced in 1997. Walburga von Habsburg, born on October 05, 1958Married Count Archibald Douglas Karl von Habsburg, born on January 11, 1961 - Married Baroness Francesca Thyssen-Bornemisza, born on June 07, 1958 Georg von Habsburg, born on December 16, 1964Married Duchess Eilika of Oldenburg, born on August 22, 1972

Otto lived in retirement at the ''Villa Austria'' in Pöcking bei Starnberg, Starnberg, near the lake Starnberger See, Upper Bavaria, Bavaria, Germany.

Titles and styles

20 November 1912 – 21 November 1916: ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' Archduke and Prince Imperial Otto of Austria, Prince Royal of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia

21 November 1916 – 12 November 1918: ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' The Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia

12 November 1918 – 4 July 2011: ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' Crown Prince Otto of Austria, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia

Titles of pretence from 1 April 1922 By the Grace of God Emperor of Austria; King of Hungary and Bohemia, Dalmatia, Croatia, Slavonia, Galicia and Lodomeria; King of Jerusalem etc.; Archduke of Austria; Grand Duke of Tuscany and Cracow; Duke of Lorraine, Salzburg, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Bukowina; Grand Prince of Transylvania, Margrave of Moravia; Duke of Silesia, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Guastalla, Auschwitz and Zator, Teschen, Friuli, Dubrovnik and Zadar; Princely Count of Habsburg and Tyrol, of Kyburg, Gorizia and Gradisca; Prince of Trent and Brixen; Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia and Istria; Count of Hohenems, Feldkirch, Bregenz, Sonnenburg etc.; Lord of Trieste, Kotor and the Windic March, Grand Voivod of the Voivodeship of Serbia etc. etc.

Official in Austria

20 November 1912 – 21 November 1916: ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' Archduke and Prince Imperial Otto of Austria, Prince Royal of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia

21 November 1916 – 12 November 1918: ''His Imperial and Royal Highness'' The Crown Prince of Austria, Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia

12 November 1918–1919: Otto Kaiserlicher Prinz, Erzherzog von Österreich, Königlicher Prinz von Ungarn

1919–1941 (citizenship revoked by Adolf Hitler in 1941): ''Herr'' Otto Habsburg-Lothringen

(1941–1965 Otto did not have citizenship in any country, but he had a passport of Monaco from 1946 as ''His Imperial and Royal Highness Otto von Habsburg'', plus a passport of the Order of Malta and a diplomatic passport of Spain under the same name)

1965–4 July 2011: ''Doktor'' Otto Habsburg-Lothringen

Official in Germany

12 November 1918 – 4 July 2011: Otto Kaiserlicher Prinz Erzherzog von Österreich Königlicher Prinz von Ungarn

Ancestry

{{ahnentafel-compact5 |style=font-size: 90%; line-height: 110%; |border=1 |boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0; |boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc; |boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9; |boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc; |boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc; |boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe; |1= 1. Otto von Habsburg |2= 2. Charles I of Austria |3= 3. Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma |4= 4. Archduke Otto of Austria |5= 5. Princess Maria Josepha of Saxony |6= 6. Robert I, Duke of Parma |7= 7. Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal |8= 8. Archduke Karl Ludwig of Austria |9= 9. Princess Maria Annunciata of Bourbon-Two Sicilies |10= 10. George of Saxony |11= 11. Infanta Maria Anna of Portugal |12= 12. Charles III, Duke of Parma |13= 13. Princess Louise Marie Thérèse of France |14= 14. Michael of Portugal |15= 15. Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg |16= 16. Archduke Franz Karl of Austria |17= 17. Princess Sophie of Bavaria |18= 18. Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies |19= 19. Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria |20= 20. John of Saxony |21= 21. Princess Amelia of Bavaria |22= 22. Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFerdinand II of Portugal |23= 23. Maria II of Portugal |24= 24. Charles II, Duke of Parma |25= 25. Princess Maria Teresa of Savoy |26= 26. Charles Ferdinand, Duke of Berry |27= 27. Princess Caroline of Naples and Sicily |28= 28. John VI of Portugal |29= 29. Infanta Carlota of Spain |30= 30. Constantine, Hereditary Prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg |31= 31. Princess Agnes of Hohenlohe-Langenburg }}

Honours and awards

Habsburg/Austrian orders and awards

Order of the Golden Fleece (Austrian Branch)

*Sovereign (1922–2000)

*Knight (1916)

Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian Order of Saint Stephen

Grand Cross of the Imperial Austrian Order of Leopold

Badge of the Tyrolean Nobility Register

Other dynastic orders

House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Januarius House of Braganza: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa House of Savoy: Knight of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation House of Wittelsbach: Grand Cross of the Order of Saint Hubert

Governmental orders and awards

: Bearer of the Bavarian Order of Merit (1978) : Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir (1996) : 1st Class of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (1996) : Companion of the Order of Liberation : Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (2009) : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (1987) : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Gregory the Great (1980) : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Sylvester : Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of Hungary (1999) : Golden Medal of Liberty : Commander of the Order of Three Stars : Commander of the Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas : Knight of the Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau : Order of Merit : Commander with Star of the Order of Hilal Quaid Azam (1993) : Grand-Commander of the Legion of Honour : Grand Cross of the Order of St. Agatha (2002) : Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta (1959) : Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (1951) : Grand Cross of the Order of Africa : Recipient of the Grand Order of Merit

Non-governmental awards

Teutonic Knights: Honorary Knight of the Teutonic Order : Cross of Honour in Gold of the Chapter of Lilienfeld Paneuropean Union: Special Rank of the European Medal of the Paneuropean Union Germany Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft: European Charles Price of the Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft

Academic awards

Medal of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques, Institut de France, Paris, France

Medal of the Academia Mejicana de Derecho Internacional, Mexico

Medal of the Royal Moroccan Academy, Morocco

Medal of the Academia da Cultura Portuguesa, Lisbon, Portugal

Medal of the Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas, Madrid, Spain

Honorary Professor of the University of Bogota, Colombia

Honorary Fellow of the University of Jerusalem, Israel

Honorary Member of the Instituto de Estudios da Marinha, Portugal

Honorary Senator of the University of Maribor, Slovenia

Honorary Doctor of the University of Osijek, Croatia

Honorary Doctor of the University of Nancy, Lorraine, France

Honorary Doctor of the University of Turku, Finland)

Honorary Doctor of the University of Budapest, Hungary

Honorary Doctor of the University of Pécs, Hungary

Honorary Doctor of the University of Veszprém, Hungary

Honorary Doctor of the University of Jerusalem, Israel

Honorary Doctor of the University of Ferrara, Italy

Honorary Doctor of the University of Skopje, Macedonia

Honorary Doctor of the University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA

Honorary Doctor of the University of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA

Honorary Doctor of the University of Tampa, Tampa, Florida, USA

Honorary Doctor of the University of Czernowitz, Ukrainian

Honorary Master in Law and Economics of the IMADEC University, Vienna, Austria

Footnotes

Bibliography

Gordon Brook-Shepherd, ''Uncrowned Emperor – The Life and Times of Otto von Habsburg'', Hambledon Continuum, London 2003. ISBN 1852855495.

Flavia Foradini, "Otto d'Asburgo. L'ultimo atto di una dinastia", mgs press, Trieste, 2004. ISBN 88-89219-04-1

External links

Erzherzog Dr. Otto von Habsburg (Autorisierte Ehrenseite)

An essay on Republicanism vs Monarchism by Otto

Video interview of Otto von Habsbourg (French) European Navigator

The Black & Yellow Alliance

The Mises I Knew Audio of Otto von Habsburg's English-language talk at Ludwig von Mises Institute's "Manifesto of Liberty" Summit, February 1999.

Uncrowned emperor: the life and times of Otto von Habsburg By Gordon Brook-Shepherd

Archduke Otto Von Habsburg and American Hungarian Emigres during and after World War II, by Steven Bela Vardy

Archduchess Regina von Habsburg – Daily Telegraph obituary

http://genealogics.org/getperson.php?personID=I00014657&tree;=LEO

Obituary of Archduke Otto von Habsburg, The Daily Telegraph, 4 July 2011

Official website covering the death and funeral of Otto von Habsburg

{{s-tul| title = Emperor of Austria | years = 1 April 1922 – 4 July 2011|reason=Austro-Hungarian Empire abolished in 1918 }} {{s-tul| title = King of Hungary, Croatia and Bohemia | years = 1 April 1922 – 4 July 2011|reason=Austro-Hungarian Empire abolished in 1918, the Habsburgs deposed in Hungary in 1921}}

Category:1912 births Category:2011 deaths Category:20th-century Austrian people Otto Category:Austrian anti-communists Category:Pretenders to the Austrian throne Category:Pretenders to the Hungarian throne Otto Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded Category:Austrian Roman Catholics Category:German Roman Catholics Category:Alumni of the Catholic University of Leuven before 1968 Category:Christian Social Union of Bavaria politicians Otto Otto Otto Category:Mont Pelerin Society members Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece Category:Knights of Malta Otto Otto Category:Grand Masters of the Order of the Golden Fleece Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Charles III Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Gregory the Great Category:Knights of the Order of Saint Hubert Category:Grand Order of King Dmitar Zvonimir recipients Category:Knights of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana, 1st Class Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit (Hungary) Category:Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur Category:Recipients of the Order of the Three Stars Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Category:Members of the Bavarian Order of Merit Category:Old Pannonhalmians Category:Christian Social Union of Bavaria MEPs Category:MEPs for Germany 1979–1984 Category:MEPs for Germany 1984–1989 Category:MEPs for Germany 1989–1994 Category:MEPs for Germany 1994–1999 Category:People from Neunkirchen District Category:Knights of St. Sylvester

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Coordinates	37°46′45.48″N122°25′9.12″N
name	Hans-Hermann Hoppe
birth date	September 02, 1949
birth place	Peine, Germany
residence	United States
nationality	German
field	Austrian Economics
influences	Murray RothbardLudwig von MisesJürgen HabermasEugen von Böhm-BawerkBertrand de JouvenelGustave de MolinariErik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn
Influenced	Stephan Kinsella
work institution	University of Nevada, Las Vegas
doctoral advisor	Jürgen Habermas
prizes	The Gary G. Schlarbaum Prize (2006), The Frank T. and Harriet Kurzweg Award (2004)
footnotes	website: hanshoppe.com

Hans-Hermann Hoppe (born September 2, 1949) is an Austrian School economist of the anarcho-capitalist tradition, and a Professor Emeritus of economics at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas.

Academic career

Born in Peine, West Germany, he attended the Universität des Saarlandes in Saarbrücken, and the Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main, studying philosophy, sociology, history, and economics. His doctoral studies began with Marxist thought, under Jürgen Habermas as his Ph.D advisor. However he quickly became disillusioned in this pursuit. He earned his Ph.D. in Philosophy from the Goethe-Universität in 1974. He was then a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor from 1976 to 1978. He earned his ''Habilitation'' in Foundations of Sociology and Economics from the Goethe-Universität in 1981. He taught at several German universities as well as at the Johns Hopkins University Bologna Center for Advanced International Studies, Bologna, Italy. In 1986, he moved from Germany to the United States, to study under Murray Rothbard. He remained a close associate until Rothbard's death in January 1995. Hoppe was then Professor of Economics at University of Nevada, Las Vegas until retirement in 2008.

According to a blog posting by Hoppe, he gave a series of speeches at conferences that were organized by Lew Rockwell, Burt Blumert, and Murray Rothbard for the purpose of creating what came to be known as paleo-libertarianism.

Hoppe is a Distinguished Fellow with the Ludwig von Mises Institute, and, until December, 2004, the editor of the ''Journal of Libertarian Studies''. The author of several widely-discussed books and articles, he has put forth an "argumentation ethics" defense of libertarian rights, based in part on the discourse ethics theories of German philosophers Jürgen Habermas (Hoppe's PhD advisor) and Karl-Otto Apel. In 2005, he founded the Property and Freedom Society.

Theory

Following in the tradition of Murray Rothbard, Hoppe has analyzed the behavior of government using the tools of Austrian economic theory. Defining a government as "a territorial monopolist of jurisdiction and taxation" and assuming no more than self-interest on the part of government officials, he predicts that these government officials will use their monopoly privileges to maximize their own wealth and power. Hoppe argues that there is a high degree of correlation between these theoretical predictions and historical data.

In ''Democracy: The God That Failed'', Hoppe compares dynastical monarchies with democratic republics. In his view, a dynastical monarch (king) is like the "owner" of a country, because it is passed on from generation to generation, whereas an elected president is like a "temporary caretaker" or "renter". Both the king and the president have an incentive to exploit the current use of the country for their own benefit. However, the king also has a counterbalancing interest in maintaining the long-term capital value of the nation, just as the owner of a house has an interest in maintaining its capital value (unlike a renter). Being temporary, democratically elected officials have every incentive to plunder the wealth of productive citizens as fast as possible.

According to Rothbard's theory , which Hoppe makes his own, a monopoly has nothing to do with market share, but is an institutional privilege barring "free entry" into the business of producing a particular good or service. As a consequence, such monopolies cannot arise on the free market. Rather, they must always be the result of government policy. Coercive monopolies are bad from the standpoint of consumers because the price will tend to be higher and the quality will be lower than they would be in markets completely free from coordinated coercion. Like Rothbard, Hoppe has conjectured that, in a free market for governmental services, competing private insurance and defense agencies would provide a better quality of protection and dispute resolution than that which currently exists under monopolistic government control.

Academic freedom controversy

Austrian theory includes the concept of time preference, or the degree to which a person prefers current consumption over future consumption. During a lecture in his Money & Banking course, Hoppe hypothesized that, because they tend not to have offspring, thus heirs, children, old people and homosexuals tend to focus less on saving for the future. One of Hoppe's students characterized this statement as derogatory and a matter of opinion rather than fact. According to the ''Chronicle of Higher Education'':

In his lectures, Mr. Hoppe said that certain groups of people -- including small children, very old people, and homosexuals -- tend to prefer present-day consumption to long-term investment. Because homosexuals generally do not have children, Mr. Hoppe said, they feel less need to look toward the future. (In a recent talk at the Ludwig von Mises Institute, which Mr. Hoppe says was similar to his classroom lecture, he declared, "Homosexuals have higher time preferences, because life ends with them.")

[The student], Mr. Knight found that argument unwarranted and obnoxious, and he promptly filed a complaint with the university. In a telephone interview on Saturday, Mr. Knight said: "I was just shocked and appalled. I said to myself, Where the hell is he getting this information from? I was completely surprised, and that's why I went to the university about this."

Hoppe's comments triggered an academic investigation which resulted in a "nondisciplinary" letter being issued February 9, 2005 instructing him to "cease mischaracterizing opinion as objective fact." The ACLU agreed to represent Hoppe, and he was defended in an editorial in the ''The Rebel Yell'', the UNLV student newspaper." Carol Harter, president of UNLV, in a February 18, 2005 letter said that "UNLV, in accordance with policy adopted by the Board of Regents, understands that the freedom afforded to Professor Hoppe and to all members of the academic community carries a significant corresponding academic responsibility. In the balance between freedoms and responsibilities, and where there may be ambiguity between the two, academic freedom must, in the end, be foremost." The "nondisciplinary" letter was removed from his personnel file. Hoppe's request for a one-year paid leave (sabbatical) and a letter of apology were denied.

Hoppe has been criticised by his fellow libertarian Walter Block for his views on homosexuality: Block attributes the quote to Hoppe, "Likewise, in a covenant founded for the purpose of protecting family and kin, there can be no tolerance toward those habitually promoting lifestyles incompatible with this goal. They — the advocates of alternative, non-family and kin-centered lifestyles such as, for instance, individual hedonism, parasitism, nature-environment worship, homosexuality, or communism — will have to be physically removed from society, too, if one is to maintain a libertarian order."

Monarchy

In June 2005, Hoppe gave an interview in the German far-right newspaper ''Junge Freiheit'', in which he characterized monarchy as a lesser evil than democracy, calling the latter mob rule and saying, "Liberty instead of democracy!" In the interview Hoppe also condemned the French revolution as belonging in "the same category of vile revolutions as well as the Bolshevik revolution and the Nazi revolution," because the French revolution led to "Regicide, Egalitarianism, democracy, socialism, hatred of all religion, terror measures, mass plundering, rape and murder, military draft and the total, ideologically motivated War."

Immigration

Hans-Hermann Hoppe's views about immigration, which do not cast libertarianism as requiring open borders, have been controversial within the wider libertarian movement. Walter Block offered arguments against Hoppe's immigration position in a 1999 article, "A Libertarian Case for Free Immigration."

Hoppe has countered his opponents by commenting on their opinions in footnote 23 to ''Natural Order, the State, and the Immigration Problem'' :

Works

Books

''Handeln und Erkennen'' (Bern 1976)

''Kritik der kausalwissenschaftlichen Sozialforschung'' (Westdeutscher Verlag 1983) ISBN 3-531-11624-X.

''Eigentum, Anarchie und Staat'' (Westdeutscher Verlag 1987)

''Praxeology and Economic Science'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1988) (no ISBN)

''A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism'' (Kluwer Academic Publishers 1989) ISBN 0-89838-279-3. Full Text in PDF format

''Economic Science and the Austrian Method'' (Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1995) ISBN 0-945466-20-X. Full Text in PDF format

''Democracy: The God That Failed'' (Transaction Publishers, 2001) Paperback (in English) ISBN 0-7658-0868-4.

''The Economics and Ethics of Private Property'' (2nd edition, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2006) ISBN 0-945466-40-4

Editor: ''The Myth of National Defense. Essays on the Theory and History of Security Production''. Ludwig von Mises Institute. October 2003. ISBN 0-945466-37-4. Full Text in PDF format With writings by L.M. Bassani, C. Lottieri, M.N. Rothbard, E. von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, B. Lemennicier, G. Radnitsky, J.R. Stromberg, L.J. Sechrest, J.R. Hummel, W. Block, and J.G. Hulsmann.

Translator: ''Capital and Production'' by Richard Ritter von Strigl ISBN 0-945466-31-5

''Property, Freedom, and Society: Essays in Honor of Hans-Hermann Hoppe''. Ludwig von Mises Institute. July 2009. ISBN 978-1-933550-52-7.

Interviews

A 2011 interview with Hoppe

A 2004 interview with Hoppe

A 2003 radio interview with Hoppe

A 1998 interview with Hoppe

Articles

Full text of Hoppe's 1998 introduction to ''The Ethics of Liberty'' by Murray Rothbard. (also in PDF format).

"My Battle With the Thought Police" Hoppe's own account on what happened

"The Errors of Hans-Hermann Hoppe – Strategies of Liberation?" Dr Oliver Marc Hartwich, October 2005, Open Republic Institute

In Defense of Extreme Rationalism: Thoughts on D. McCloskey's ''The Rhetoric of Economics'' by Hans-Hermann Hoppe.

Some Brief Comments on Hoppe's Justification of the Private Property Ethic by David Friedman.

LewRockwell.com: Hoppe's archives at LewRockwell.com

“Small is Beautiful and Efficient: The Case for Secession”. ''Telos'' 107 (Spring 1996). New York: Telos Press.

References

External links

Hans-Hermann Hoppe homepage

Hans-Hermann Hoppe, The Mises Institute

The Property and Freedom Society

Hoppe's Ten Lecture Seminar, "Economy, Society, and History"

More on Hoppe's Argumentation Ethics

Category:1949 births Category:Living people Category:People from the District of Peine Category:Saarland University alumni Category:Goethe University Frankfurt alumni Category:American anarchists Category:American libertarians Category:Anarchist academics Category:Anarchism theorists Category:Anarcho-capitalists Category:Austrian School economists Category:American people of German descent Category:German economists Category:German expatriates Category:German anarchists Category:German libertarians Category:German emigrants to the United States Category:Libertarian economists Category:University of Nevada, Las Vegas faculty

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