- published: 06 Feb 2013
- views: 2086
- author: CNN
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Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
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Algeria
Coordinates: 28°N 2°E / 28°N 2°E / 28; 2
Algeria
i/ælˈdʒɪəriə/ (Arabic: الجزائر, al-Jazā'ir; Berber: ⴷⵣⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer), officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية, al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash-Shaʿbiyyah), also formally referred to as the Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria, is a large country in the Maghreb region of Northwest Africa with Algiers as its capital.
When referring to its land area, Algeria is the largest country in Africa, Maghreb and the Arab World. It is also the largest of the countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea; it is also the tenth-largest country in the world. The country is bordered in the northeast by Tunisia, in the east by Libya, in the west by Morocco, in the southwest by Western Sahara, Mauritania, and Mali, in the southeast by Niger, and in the north by the Mediterranean Sea. Its size is almost 2,400,000 square kilometres (926,645 sq mi) with an estimated population of 37.1 million as of 2012. Algeria is a member of the African Union, the Arab League, OPEC and the United Nations. The country is also a founding member of the Arab Maghreb Union.
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Anatolia
Coordinates: 39°N 32°E / 39°N 32°E / 39; 32
Anatolia (from Greek Ἀνατολή Anatolē — "east" or "(sun)rise"; also Asia Minor, from Greek: Μικρὰ Ἀσία Mikrá Asía "small Asia"; in modern Turkish: Anadolu) is a geographic and historical term denoting the westernmost protrusion of Asia, comprising the majority of the Republic of Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south and the Aegean Sea to the west. The Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits, and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Iskenderun and the Black Sea, approximately corresponding to the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. However, since Anatolia is now often considered to be synonymous with Asian Turkey, its eastern and southeastern borders are widely taken to be the Turkish borders with the neighboring countries, which are Georgia, Armenia, Iran, Iraq and Syria, in clockwise direction.
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Argentina
Argentinai/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Babylon
Coordinates: 32°32′11″N 44°25′15″E / 32.53639°N 44.42083°E / 32.53639; 44.42083
Babylon (Arabic: بابل, Babil; Akkadian: Bābili(m);Sumerian logogram: KÁ.DINGIR.RAKI;Hebrew: בָּבֶל, Bābel;Greek: Βαβυλών, Babylōn) was an Akkadian city-state (founded in 1867 BC by an Amorite dynasty) of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babylon Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad. All that remains of the original ancient famed city of Babylon today is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The city itself was built upon the Euphrates, and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods.
Available historical resources suggest that Babylon was at first a small town which had sprung up by the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. The town flourished and attained independence with the rise of the First Amorite Babylonian Dynasty in 1894 BC. Claiming to be the successor of the ancient Eridu, Babylon eclipsed Nippur as the "holy city" of Mesopotamia around the time an Amorite king named Hammurabi first created the short lived Babylonian Empire; this quickly dissolved upon his death and Babylon spent long periods under Assyrian, Kassite and Elamite domination. Babylon again became the seat of the Neo-Babylonian Empire from 612 to 539 BC which was founded by Chaldeans and whose last king was an Assyrian. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. After the fall of Babylon it came under the rules of the Achaemenid, Seleucid, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid empires.
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Baghdad
Baghdad (Arabic: بغداد, Baġdād, IPA: [bæɣˈdæːd]) is the capital of Republic of Iraq, as well as the coterminous Baghdad Province. The population of Baghdad as of 2011 is approximately 7,216,040, making it the largest city in Iraq, the second largest city in the Arab World (after Cairo, Egypt), and the second largest city in Western Asia (after Tehran, Iran).
Located along the Tigris River, the city was founded in the 8th century and became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate. Within a short time of its inception, Baghdad evolved into a significant cultural, commercial, and intellectual center for the Islamic World. This in addition to housing several key academic institutions (e.g. House of Wisdom) garnered the city a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". Throughout the High Middle Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated population of 1,200,000 people. The city was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938, Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arabic culture.
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Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
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Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
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Beth Hatefutsoth
Beth Hatefutsoth or Diaspora Museum (Hebrew: בית התפוצות, "The Diaspora House") — the Nahum Goldmann Museum of the Jewish Diaspora, is located on the campus of Tel Aviv University in Ramat Aviv, Tel Aviv, Israel. Its president is Natan Sharansky.
The museum opened in May 1978. At the time, it was considered as one of the most innovative museums in the world. The idea to establish Beth Hatefutsoth was proposed by Nahum Goldmann, founder and President of the World Jewish Congress, who sought to create a monument to the Jewish diaspora, past and present.
Using audio-visual displays, the museum traces the history of communities of the Jewish diaspora through the ages and throughout the world, telling the story of the Jewish people from the time of their expulsion from the Land of Israel 2,600 years ago to the present. The layout of the Museum, based on the proposal of the poet Abba Kovner, is divided into six thematic parts. Exhibitions are arranged thematically, with a study area on each floor.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Brooklyn
Coordinates: 40°41′34″N 73°59′25″W / 40.69278°N 73.99028°W / 40.69278; -73.99028
Brooklyn is the most populous of New York City's five boroughs, with approximately 2.5 million residents, and the second-largest in area. Since 1896, Brooklyn has had the same boundaries as Kings County, which is now the most populous county in New York State and the second-most densely populated county in the United States, after New York County (Manhattan). It is also the westernmost county on Long Island.
Brooklyn was an independent city until it was annexed by New York City in 1898. It continues to maintain a distinct culture. Many Brooklyn neighborhoods are ethnic enclaves where particular ethnic groups and cultures predominate.
Brooklyn's official motto is Eendraght Maeckt Maght. Written in the (early modern spelling of the) Dutch language, it is inspired by the motto of the United Dutch Provinces and translated "Unity makes strength". The motto is displayed on the borough seal and flag, which also feature a young robed woman bearing fasces, a traditional emblem of republicanism. Brooklyn's official colors are blue and gold.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia (for endonyms, see below), is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus. Politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts.
The northern portion of the Caucasus is known as the Ciscaucasus and the southern portion as the Transcaucasus.
The Ciscaucasus contains the larger majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, also known as the Major Caucasus mountains. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
The Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northern parts) and Georgia (excluding the northern parts) are in South Caucasus.
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Chile
Chile (i/ˈtʃɪliː/ or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] (
listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. Along with Ecuador, it is one of two countries in South America that do not border Brazil. Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas and Easter Island. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty.
Chile's distinctive shape—4,300 kilometres (2,700 mi) long and on average 175 kilometres (109 mi) wide—makes it the longest country in the world, north to south, with the fifth lengthiest coastline at over 78 thousand kilometers. The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama—through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, humid subtropical in Easter Island, to an Oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. The northern desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources, and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.
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Crete
Crete (Greek: Κρήτη; [kriti]) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own dialect, poetry, and music). Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization (c. 2700–1420 BC), the earliest civilization in Europe, comprising the first palaces in Europe.
The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC, repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting some form similar to both was the Minoan name for the island.
The Mycenaean Greek name for Crete is unknown; it is not mentioned in extant Linear B texts. The name Crete (Κρήτη) first appears in Homer's Odyssey. Its etymology is unknown. One speculative proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luvian word *kursatta (cf. kursawar "island", kursattar "cutting, sliver"). In Latin, it became Creta.
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Cyprus
Cyprusi/ˈsaɪprəs/ (Greek: Κύπρος, Kýpros, IPA: [ˈcipɾos]; Turkish: Kıbrıs, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs]), officially the Republic of Cyprus (Greek: Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία, Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [cipɾiaˈci ðimokɾaˈtia]; Turkish: Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti, IPA: [ˈkɯbɾɯs dʒumhuɾijeˈti]), is an island country in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, east of Greece, south of Turkey, west of Syria, Lebanon, northwest of Israel and north of Egypt. Cyprus is the third largest island in the Mediterranean Sea and the Republic of Cyprus is a member state of the European Union.
The earliest known human activity on the island dates back to around the 10th millennium BC. Archaeological remains from this period include the well-preserved Neolithic village of Khirokitia, which has been declared a World Heritage Site with an "enhanced protection" status in the event of armed conflict by UNESCO, along with the archaeological sites of Paphos and the Painted Churches of the Troodos Region. Cyprus is home to some of the oldest water wells in the world.
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Einsatzgruppen
Einsatzgruppen (German: "task forces"; singular Einsatzgruppe; official full name Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD) were SS paramilitary death squads that were responsible for mass killings, typically by shooting, of Jews in particular, but also significant numbers of other population groups and political categories. The Einsatzgruppen operated throughout the territory occupied by the German armed forces following the German invasions of Poland, in September, 1939, and later, of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. The Einsatzgruppen carried out operations ranging from the murder of a few people to operations which lasted over two or more days, such as the massacres at Babi Yar (33,771 killed in two days) and Rumbula (25,000 killed in two days). The Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the murders of over 1,000,000 people, and they were the first Nazi organizations to commence mass killing of Jews as an organized policy.
The Einsatzgruppen were formed under the direction of SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich (deputy to Heinrich Himmler) and operated by the Schutzstaffel (SS) before and during World War II. From September 1939 forward the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA - Reich Main Security Office) had overall command of the Einsatzgruppen. Their principal task during the war (according to SS General Erich von dem Bach at the Nuremberg Trials) "... was the annihilation of the Jews, Gypsies, and Soviet political commissars". The Einsatzgruppen had a leading role in the implementation of the final solution of the Jewish question (Die Endlösung der Judenfrage) in the conquered territories.
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Ethiopia
Ethiopia (
/ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə/) (Ge'ez: ኢትዮጵያ ʾĪtyōṗṗyā), officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With its capital at Addis Ababa, it is also the most populous landlocked nation in the world.
Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history, and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC. Ethiopia is also one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists today, having yielded some of humanity's oldest traces. It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond. Alongside Rome, Persia, China and India, the Ethiopian Aksum Empire was considered one of the great world powers of the 3rd century. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia was the only African country beside Liberia that retained its sovereignty as a recognized independent country, and was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. After a brief period of Italian occupation, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. When other African nations received their independence following World War II, many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag, and Addis Ababa became the location of several international organizations focused on Africa.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Gargano
Gargano is a historical and geographical Italian sub-region situated in Apulia, consisting of a wide isolated mountain massif made of highland and several peaks and forming the backbone of the Gargano Promontory projecting into the Adriatic Sea. The high point is Monte Calvo at 1,065 m (3,494 ft). Most of the upland area, about 1,200 km2 (460 sq mi), is part of the Gargano National park, founded in 1991. It is within the Italian Province of Foggia.
The Gargano peninsula is partly covered by the remains of an ancient forest, Foresta Umbra, the only remaining part in Italy of the ancient oak and beech forest that once covered much of Central Europe as well as the Apennine deciduous montane forests biome. Horace spoke of the oaks of Garganus in Ode II, ix.
The coast of Gargano is rich in beaches and tourist facilities. Vieste, Peschici and Mattinata are world-wide-famous seaside resort locations. The two major salt lakes of Lesina and Varano are located in the northern part of the peninsula. Monte Gargano is the site of the oldest shrine in Western Europe dedicated to the archangel Michael, Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano. Today tourism is thriving with several hotels and campsites, in particular along the seaside of Marina of Lesina, give the possibility of staying in this suggestive area. Tourist attractions include the cathedral, the episcopal palace, the Abbey of Santa Maria of Ripalta and the volcanic rocks dating back to the Triassic era, known as "Black Stones", as well as the Sanctuary of San Nazario.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Hebron
Hebron (Arabic: الخليل (help·info) al-Ḫalīl; Hebrew: חֶבְרוֹן (help·info), Standard Hebrew: Ḥevron, Tiberian: Ḥeḇrôn ISO 259-3: Ḥebron), is located in the southern West Bank, 30 km (19 mi) south of Jerusalem. Nestled in the Judean Mountains, it lies 930 meters (3,050 ft) above sea level. It is the largest city in the West Bank and home to an estimated 175,000 Palestinians, and over 500 Jewish settlers concentrated in and around the old quarter. The city is most notable for containing the traditional burial site of the biblical Patriarchs and Matriarchs and is therefore considered the second-holiest city in Judaism after Jerusalem. The city is also venerated by Muslims for its association with Abraham and was traditionally viewed as one of the "four holy cities of Islam."
Hebron is a busy hub of West Bank trade, responsible for roughly a third of the area's gross domestic product, largely due to the sale of marble from quarries. It is locally well known for its grapes, figs, limestone, pottery workshops and glassblowing factories, and is the location of the major dairy product manufacturer, al-Junaidi. The old city of Hebron is characterized by narrow, winding streets, flat-roofed stone houses, and old bazaars. The city is home to Hebron University and the Palestine Polytechnic University.
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Hispania
Hispania was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula. Under the Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. During the Principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces, Baetica and Lusitania, while Hispania Citerior was renamed Tarraconensis. Subsequently, the western part of Tarraconensis was split off, first as Hispania Nova, later renamed Callaecia (or Gallaecia, whence modern Galicia). From Diocletian's Tetrarchy (AD 284) onwards, the south of remaining Tarraconensis was again split off as Carthaginensis, and probably then too the Balearic Islands and all the resulting provinces formed one civil diocese under the vicarius for the Hispaniae (that is, the Celtic provinces). The name, Hispania, was also used in the period of Visigothic rule. The modern name Spain derives from Hispania.
The origin of the word Hispania is much disputed and the evidence for the various speculations are based merely upon what are at best mere resemblances, likely to be accidental, and suspect supporting evidence. One theory holds it to be of Punic derivation, from the Phoenician language of colonizing Carthage. Specifically, it may derive from a Punic cognate of Hebrew אי-שפניא (i-shfania) meaning "Island of the Hyrax" or "island of the hare" or "island of the rabbit" (Phoenician-Punic and Hebrew are both Canaanite languages and therefore closely related to each other). Another theory, proposed by the etymologist Eric Partridge in his work Origins, is that it is of Iberian derivation and that it is to be found in the pre-Roman name for Seville, Hispalis, which strongly hints at an ancient name for the country of *Hispa, an Iberian or Celtic root whose meaning is now lost. It may alternatively derive from Heliopolis (Greek for "city of the sun"). Occasionally it was called Hesperia, the western land, by Roman writers, or Hesperia ultima.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Mirandese, Portuguese and Spanish: Península Ibérica, Catalan: Península Ibèrica, Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica, French: Péninsule Ibérique, Basque: Iberiar Penintsula), sometimes called Iberia, is a peninsula located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of approximately 582,000 km2 (225,000 sq mi).
The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ιβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south-west (he named it "west") of there.
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Iberian peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Mirandese, Portuguese and Spanish: Península Ibérica, Catalan: Península Ibèrica, Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica, French: Péninsule Ibérique, Basque: Iberiar Penintsula), sometimes called Iberia, is a peninsula located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of approximately 582,000 km2 (225,000 sq mi).
The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ιβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south-west (he named it "west") of there.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ or
i/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( /dʒəˈruːsələm/; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushaláyim ; Arabic: القُدس al-Quds and/or أورشليم Ûrshalîm) is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such, and one of the oldest cities in the world. It is located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea. If the area and population of East Jerusalem is included, it is Israel's largest city in both population and area, with a population of 801,000 residents over an area of 125.1 km2 (48.3 sq mi). Jerusalem is also a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. The oldest part of the city was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent. Today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond its boundaries.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Judea
Coordinates: 31°41′56″N 35°18′23″E / 31.69889°N 35.30639°E / 31.69889; 35.30639
Judea or Judæa ( /dʒuː.ˈdiː.ə/; from Hebrew: יהודה, Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh "Tribe of Judah", Greek: Ιουδαία, Ioudaía; Latin: Iudaea) was the name of the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ ישראל Eretz Yisrael) from the 8th century BCE (Assyrian rule) to the 2nd century CE, when Roman Judea was renamed Syria Palaestina following the Jewish Bar Kokhba revolt.
The name Judea is a Greek and Roman adaptation of the name "Judah", which originally encompassed the territory of the Israelite tribe of that name and later of the ancient Kingdom of Judah. Judea was sometimes used as the name for the entire region, including parts beyond the river Jordan. It was the name in use in English until the Jordanian occupation of the area in 1948. Jordan called the area of Judea and Samaria ad-difa’a al-gharbiya (translated into English as the "West Bank"). "Yehuda" is the Hebrew term used for the area in modern Israel since the region was conquered and occupied by Israel in 1967.
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Knesset
The Knesset (Hebrew: הַכְּנֶסֶת [haˈkneset] ( listen); lit. the gathering or assembly; Arabic: الكنيست) is the unicameral legislature of Israel, located in Givat Ram, Jerusalem.
The legislative branch of the Israeli government, the Knesset passes all laws, elects the President and Prime Minister (although the latter is ceremonially appointed by the President), approves the cabinet, and supervises the work of the government. In addition, it also recommends a candidate for the State Comptroller to the President, who appoints someone to the post. It also has the power to waive the immunity of its members, remove the President and the State Comptroller from office, remove a Prime Minister convicted of an offense involving moral turpitude, and to dissolve itself and call new elections. The Prime Minister may dissolve the Knesset. However, until an election is completed, the Knesset maintains authority in its current composition.
Knesset members annually convene for plenary assemblies, or plenums, for two annual sittings of at least eight months' duration. The two sittings together form a session. The Knesset may be convened at any other time if thirty or more members demand this in writing or if the government requests. As well as approving or rejecting proposed legislation, the plenum also elects the Speaker and one or more Deputy Speakers.
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Lebanon
Lebanon (i/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.
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Los Angeles
Los Angeles (i/lɒs ˈændʒələs/ loss-AN-jə-ləs; Spanish: [los ˈaŋxeles], which is written Los Ángeles; British pronounciation /lɒs ˈændʒəliːz/ loss-AN-jə-leez) with a population at the 2010 United States Census of 3,792,621, is the most populous city in the state of California, and the second most populous in the United States, after New York City. It has an area of 468.67 square miles (1,213.8 km2), and is located in Southern California. Often known by its initials L.A., the city is the focal point of the larger Los Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana metropolitan statistical area and Greater Los Angeles Area region, which contain 12,828,837 and nearly 18 million people respectively as of 2010, making it one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world and the second largest in the United States. Los Angeles is also the seat of Los Angeles County, the most populated and one of the most ethnically diverse counties in the United States, while the entire Los Angeles area itself has been recognized as the most diverse of the nation's largest cities. The city's inhabitants are referred to as "Angelenos".
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] ( listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Minsk
Coordinates: 53°54′N 27°34′E / 53.9°N 27.567°E / 53.9; 27.567
Minsk (Russian: Минск, [mʲinsk]; Belarusian: Мінск, pronounced [minsk]) is the capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers. Minsk is also a headquarters of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). As the national capital, Minsk has a special administrative status in Belarus; it is also the administrative centre of Minsk Region (voblast) and Minsk raion (district). It has a population of 1,836,808 inhabitants (2009).
The earliest historic references to Minsk date to the 11th century (1067), when it was noted as a provincial city within the principality of Polotsk. The settlement developed on the rivers. In 1242, Minsk became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. It received town privileges in 1499.
From 1569, it was a capital of the Minsk Voivodship in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was part of a region annexed by the Russian Empire in 1793, as a consequence of the Second Partition of Poland. From 1919–1991, after the Russian Revolution, Minsk was the capital of the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic within the Soviet Union.
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Morocco
Morocco (Arabic: المغرب al-Maghrib ; Berber: ⵍⵎⴻⵖⵔⵉⴱ / ⴰⵎⴻⵔⵔⵓⴽElmeɣrib / Amerruk), officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country located in North Africa. It has a population of about 32 million and an area of 710,850 km², including the disputed region of the Western Sahara, seen by and mostly administered by Morocco as the Southern Provinces. Morocco is part of the Maghreb region, in addition to Tunisia, Algeria, Mauritania, and Libya, with which it shares cultural, historical and linguistic ties.
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy with an elected parliament. The King of Morocco holds vast executive powers, including the power to dissolve the parliament. Executive power is exercised by the government but more importantly by the king himself. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament, the Assembly of Representatives and the Assembly of Councillors. The king can also issue decrees called dahirs which have the force of law. The latest Parliamentary elections were held in November 25, 2011, and were considered by some neutral observers to be mostly free and fair. Voter turnout in these elections was estimated to be 43% of registered voters, but only about 25% of Moroccan adult citizens actually voted. The rest either chose not to vote or they were not registered as voters. The political capital is Rabat, but the largest city is Casablanca; other main cities include Marrakesh, Tetouan, Tangier, Salé, Fes, Agadir, Meknes, Oujda, Kenitra, and Nador.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Netherlands
The Netherlands (i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
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Nicosia
Nicosia (/ˌnɪkəˈsiːə/ NIK-ə-SEE-ə), known locally as Lefkosia (Greek: Λευκωσία, Turkish: Lefkoşa), is the capital and largest city in Cyprus, as well as its main business center. After the collapse of the Berlin Wall, Nicosia remained the only divided capital in the world, with the southern and the northern portions divided by a Green Line. It is located near the center of the island, on the banks of the Pedieos River.
Nicosia is the capital and seat of government of the Republic of Cyprus. The northern part of the city functions as the capital of the self-proclaimed Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, a disputed breakaway region whose independence is recognized only by Turkey, and which the rest of the international community considers as occupied territory of the Republic of Cyprus since the Turkish Invasion in 1974.
Despite the division Nicosia has managed to become a sophisticated and cosmopolitan city, rich in history and culture that combines its historic past with the amenities of a modern city.
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Oman
Oman (i/oʊˈmɑːn/ oh-MAAN; Arabic: عمان ʻUmān), officially called the Sultanate of Oman (Arabic: سلطنة عُمان Salṭanat ʻUmān), is an Arab state in southwest Asia on the southeast coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by the United Arab Emirates (UAE) to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea on the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The Madha and Musandam enclaves are surrounded by the UAE on their land borders, with the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman forming Musandam's coastal boundaries.
For a period, Oman was a moderate regional power, formerly having a sultanate extending across the Strait of Hormuz to Iran, and modern day Pakistan, and far south to Zanzibar on the coat of south-east Africa. Over time, as its power declined, the sultanate came under heavy influence from the United Kingdom, though Oman was never formally part of the British Empire, or a British protectorate. The Omani royal family claim that Oman has been ruled by the Al Said dynasty since 1744, although without substantial proof. Oman has long-standing military and political ties with the United Kingdom and the United States, although it maintains an independent foreign policy.
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Papal States
The Papal State(s), the State(s) of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States (Italian: Stato Pontificio, also Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa, Stati Pontifici, and Stato Ecclesiastico; Latin: Status Pontificius, also Dicio Pontificia) were among the major historical states of Italy from roughly the 6th century until the Italian peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia (after which the Papal States, in less territorially extensive form, continued to exist until 1870).
The Papal States comprised territories under direct sovereign rule of the papacy, and at its height it covered most of the modern Italian regions of Romagna, Marche, Umbria and Lazio. This governing power is commonly called the temporal power of the Pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy.
The plural Papal States is usually preferred; the singular Papal State (equally correct since it was not a mere personal union) tends to be used (normally with lower-case letters) for the modern State of Vatican City, an enclave within Italy's national capital, Rome. The Vatican City was founded in 1929, again allowing the Holy See the political benefits of territorial sovereignty.
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Pescara
Pescara listen (help·info) is the capital city of the Province of Pescara, in the Abruzzo region of Italy. As of January 1, 2007 it was the most populated city within Abruzzo at 123,059 residents, 400,000 with the surrounding metropolitan area. Located on the Adriatic coast at the mouth of the Aterno-Pescara river, the present-day municipality was formed in 1927 joining the municipalities of Pescara, the part of the city to the south of the river (then in the province of Chieti), and Castellamare Adriatico, the part of the city to the north of the river (then in the province of Teramo). The surrounding area was formed into the province of Pescara. The poet Gabriele D'Annunzio, a native of Pescara, was a major sponsor for the creation of the new city.
The main commercial street of the city is Corso Umberto I, which runs from Piazza della Republica and reaches the seacoast at Piazza Primo Maggio. The rectangle that it forms with Corso Vittorio Emanuele II and Via Nicola Fabrizi encloses the main shopping district, where several of the best fashion shops are located. Corso Manthonè, the course of the old Pescara has, for many years, been the center of the nightlife of the city. City hall and the administration of the province are in Piazza Italia, near the river, and in the area between here and the faculties of Economics, Architecture, Foreign Languages and Literature of G. d'Annunzio University to the south, a business district has grown up over the years. To the immediate south of the mouth of the river is the marina. Pescara has also an important international airport, called Abruzzo Airport and one of the most important and major ports of Adriatic Sea and Italy, the Port of Pescara.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Russian Empire
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian orthography: Россійская Имперія, Modern Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean and into North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires, it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was the last absolute monarchy in Europe at the time of its demise.
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Safed
Safed (Hebrew: צְפַת, Tzfat; Arabic: صفد, Safed, Ashkenazi: Tzfas; Biblical: Ṣ'fath, ISO 259-3: Çpat),[dubious – discuss] is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Located at an elevation of 900 metres (2,953 ft), Safed is the highest city in the Galilee and of Israel. Due to its high elevation, Safed experiences warm summers and cold, often snowy, winters. Since the sixteenth century, Safed has been considered one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Hebron and Tiberias; since that time, the city has remained a center of Kabbalah, also known as Jewish mysticism.
Due to its beautiful setting surrounded by pine forests and its mild climate, Safed has become a summer holiday resort frequented by Israelis and foreign visitors alike. It has a lot of historic tourist attractions for both religious and secular Jews, as well as foreign tourists.
According to the Book of Judges, the area where Safed is located was assigned to the Tribe of Naphtali. Legend has it that Safed was founded by a son of Noah after the Great Flood.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Sicily
Sicily (Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia, [siˈtʃiːlja]; [sɪˈɕilja]) is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea; along with surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana (Sicilian Autonomous Region).
Sicily is located in the central Mediterranean. It extends from the tip of the Apennine peninsula from which it is separated only by the narrow Strait of Messina, towards the North African coast. Its most prominent landmark is Mount Etna, which is at 3,320 m (10,890 ft) the tallest active volcano in Europe and one of the most active in the world. The island has a typical Mediterranean climate.
The earliest archeological evidence of human dwelling on the island dates from 8000 BC. At around 750 BC, Sicily became a Greek colony and for the next 600 years it was the site of the Greek-Punic and Roman-Punic wars, which ended with the Roman destruction of Carthage. After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century AD, Sicily often changed hands, and during the early Middle Ages it was ruled in turn by the Vandals, Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Arabs and Normans. Later on, the Kingdom of Sicily lasted between 1130 and 1816, subordinated to the crowns of Aragon, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and finally the Bourbons, as the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. It was united with the rest of Italy in 1860, but a subsequent economic collapse led to a wave of emigration, separatism, and the emergence of the Mafia, whose criminal activities pose problems to this day. After the birth of the Italian Republic in 1946, Sicily was given special status as an autonomous region.
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South Africa
Coordinates: 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces and has 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline. To the north of the country lie the neighbouring territories of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa is multi-ethnic and has diverse cultures and languages. Eleven official languages are recognised in the constitution. Two of these languages are of European origin: South African English and Afrikaans, a language which originated mainly from Dutch that is spoken by the majority of white and Coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language. All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Syria
Syria (/ˈsɪriə/ ( listen) SIRR-ee-ə; Arabic: سورية Sūriyya or سوريا Sūryā; Syriac: ܣܘܪܝܐ; Kurdish: Sûrî), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية al-Jumhūriyyah al-‘Arabīyah as-Sūriyyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is a country in Western Asia, bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the West, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east, Jordan to the south, and Israel to the southwest.
In English, the name Syria was formerly synonymous with the Levant, known in Arabic as Sham, while the modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, the oldest continuously inhabited city in the world, was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate, and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.
The population of Syria is 74% Sunni, 12% Alawi, 10% Christian, and 3% Druze. Combined, 87% of the Syrian population is Muslim, while the other 10% is Christian, which includes mainly Arab Christians but also Assyrians and Armenians. Major ethnic minorities in Syria include Kurds (9%), Assyrians, Armenians, Turkmens and Circassians. The majority of the population is Arab (90%).
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Tehrangeles
Tehrangeles is a portmanteau deriving from the combination of Tehran, the capital of Iran, and Los Angeles. It is used when referring to the large number (estimates range from 700,000 to 800,000) of former Iranian nationals and their descendants residing in the Los Angeles metropolitan area; it is the largest such population outside of Iran. In common usage, it usually refers to the proportionally larger Persian-American subset of Iranian immigrants, many of whom are second generation citizens. This area is now officially recognized by the City of Los Angeles as "Persian Square".
The Persian community in the L.A. area originally centered in the Westwood neighborhood of west Los Angeles, particularly Westwood Boulevard between Pico Boulevard and the UCLA campus, often referred to as Little Persia or Persian Hills/Persian Square. It is between Beverly Hills and West Los Angeles. Immigration to the area increased several-fold due to the events surrounding the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Westwood Boulevard became known for its many Persian shops and restaurants; and the Persian expatriate community of Los Angeles entered all forms of media including magazines, newspapers, radio and television stations.
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Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ, Modern: Bet HaMikdash, Tiberian: Beṯ HamMiqdāš, Ashkenazi: Beis HaMikdosh) was one of a series of structures which were historically located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, these successive temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acted as the figurative "footstool" of God's presence and a Third Temple will be built there in the future.
The Bible reports that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon (reigned c.970-c.930 BCE). As the sole place of Jewish sacrifice, the Temple replaced the portable sanctuary constructed in the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. This temple was however sacked a few decades later by Sheshonk I, Pharaoh of Egypt. Although efforts were made at partial reconstruction, it was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib, King of Assyria in c700 BCE. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE when they sacked the city.
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Tiberias
Tiberias ( /taɪˈbɪəriəs/; Hebrew: טְבֶרְיָה, Tverya, Tiveria (audio) (help·info); Arabic: طبرية, Ṭabariyyah) is a city on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (also called the Kinneret), Lower Galilee, Israel. Established in 20 CE, it was named in honour of the emperor Tiberius.
Tiberias has been venerated in Judaism since the middle of the 2nd century CE and since the 16th century has been considered one of Judaism's Four Holy Cities, along with Jerusalem, Hebron and Safed. In the 2nd-10th centuries, Tiberias was the largest Jewish city in the Galilee and the political and religious hub of the Jews of Palestine. According to Christian tradition, Jesus performed several miracles in the Tiberias district, making it an important pilgrimage site for Christians. Tiberias has historically been known for its hot springs, believed to cure skin and other ailments, for thousands of years.
Tiberias was founded sometime around 20 CE in Herodian Tetrarchy of Galilee and Peraea by the Roman Jewish client king Herod Antipas, son of Herod the Great. Herod Antopas made it the capital of his realm in the Galilee. Tiberias had a Jewish majority, living alongside a heterogeneous population. It was named in honor of the Roman Emperor Tiberius. There is a legend that Tiberias was built on the site of the Israelite village of Rakkat, mentioned in the Book of Joshua (Joshua 19:35). A discussion of Tiberias as Rakkat appears in the Talmud.[better source needed] In The Antiquities of the Jews, the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus states that Tiberias was located near Emmaus. This location is repeated in The Wars of the Jews.[better source needed]
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Ur
Coordinates: 30°57′45″N 46°06′11″E / 30.9625°N 46.10306°E / 30.9625; 46.10306 Ur (Sumerian: Urim;Sumerian Cuneiform: 𒋀𒀕𒆠 URIM2KI or 𒋀𒀊𒆠 URIM5KI;Akkadian: Uru) was an important city-state in ancient Sumer located at the site of modern Tell el-Muqayyar in Iraq's Dhi Qar Governorate. Once a coastal city near the mouth of the Euphrates on the Persian Gulf, Ur is now well inland, south of the Euphrates on its right bank, 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from Nasiriyah.
The city's patron deity was Nanna, the Sumerian moon god, and the name of the city is in origin derived from the god's name, URIM2KI being the classical Sumerian spelling of LAK-32.UNUGKI, literally "the abode (UNUG) of Nanna (LAK-32)".
The site is marked by the ruins of the Ziggurat of Ur, which contained the shrine of Nanna, excavated in the 1930s. The temple was built in the 21st century BC (short chronology), during the reign of Ur-Nammu and was reconstructed in the 6th century BC by Nabonidus. The ruins cover an area of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) northwest to southeast by 800 metres (2,600 ft) northeast to southwest and rise up to about 20 metres (66 ft) above the present plain level.
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Uruguay
Uruguayi/ˈjʊərəɡwaɪ/, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, sometimes the Eastern Republic of Uruguay; (Spanish: República Oriental del Uruguay pronounced: [re̞ˈpuβ̞lika o̞ɾje̞n̪ˈt̪al̪ d̪e̞l uɾuˈɰwai̯]) is a country in the southeastern part of South America. It is home to 3.3 million people, of whom 1.8 million live in the capital Montevideo and its metropolitan area. An estimated 88% of the population are of European ancestry.
Except for the recent union of Timoteo Domínguez Island and Argentina's Martín García Island, Uruguay's only land border is with Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, to the north. To the west lies the Uruguay River and the estuary of the Río de la Plata to the southwest. To the southeast lies the southern part of the Atlantic Ocean. With an area of approximately 176,000 square kilometres (68,000 sq mi), Uruguay is the second-smallest nation in South America by area, after Suriname.
Colonia del Sacramento, one of the oldest European settlements in the country, was founded by the Portuguese in 1680. Montevideo was founded by the Spanish in the early 18th century as a military stronghold. Uruguay won its independence in 1811–28 following a three-way struggle between the claims of Spain, Argentina and Brazil. It is a constitutional democracy, with a president who is both the head of state and the head of government.
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Venezuela
Venezuela (i/ˌvɛnɨˈzweɪlə/ VEN-ə-ZWAY-lə), officially called the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela [repuˈβlika βoliβaˈɾjana ðe βeneˈswela]), is a tropical country on the northern coast of South America. It borders Colombia to the west, Guyana to the east, and Brazil to the south. Its northern coastline of roughly 2,800 kilometres (1,700 mi) includes numerous islands in the Caribbean Sea, and in the north east borders the northern Atlantic Ocean. Caribbean islands such as Trinidad and Tobago, Grenada, Curaçao, Bonaire, Aruba and the Leeward Antilles lie near the Venezuelan coast. Venezuela's territory covers around 916,445 square kilometres (353,841 sq mi) with an estimated population of 29,105,632. Venezuela is considered a state with extremely high biodiversity, with habitats ranging from the Andes mountains in the west to the Amazon Basin rainforest in the south, via extensive llanos plains and Caribbean coast in the center and the Orinoco River Delta in the east.
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Western Wall
The Western Wall, Wailing Wall or Kotel (Hebrew: הַכֹּתֶל הַמַּעֲרָבִי (help·info), translit.: HaKotel HaMa'aravi; Ashkenazic pronunciation: Kosel; Arabic: حائط البراق, translit.: Ḥā'iṭ Al-Burāq, translat.: The Buraq Wall) is located in the Old City of Jerusalem at the foot of the western side of the Temple Mount. It is a remnant of the ancient wall that surrounded the Jewish Temple's courtyard, and is arguably the most sacred site recognized by the Jewish faith outside of the Temple Mount itself. Just over half the wall, including its 17 courses located below street level, dates from the end of the Second Temple period, commonly believed to have been constructed around 19 BCE by Herod the Great, but recent excavations indicate that the works were not finished during Herod's lifetime. The remaining layers were added from the 7th century onwards. The Western Wall refers not only to the exposed section facing a large plaza in the Jewish Quarter, but also to the sections concealed behind structures running along the whole length of the Temple Mount, such as the Little Western Wall–a 25 ft (8 m) section in the Muslim Quarter.
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Yehud Medinata
Yehud Medinata (Aramaic for "the province of Judah") or simply Yehud, was an autonomous province of the Achaemenid (ancient Persia) empire, roughly equivalent to the older kingdom of Judah but covering a smaller area, within the satrapy of Eber-Nari. The region corresponded to the Babylonian province with the same name, formed after the fall of the kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire (c.597 after its conquest of the Mediterranean east coast, and again in 585/6 BCE after suppressing an unsuccessful Judean revolt).
The name Yehud is known from coins unearthed in the region. Archaeological evidence is quite limited, and a history of the period is dependent almost entirely on biblical sources of often uncertain reliability.
There is not complete agreement on the chronology of the Babylonian and Persian periods: the following table is used in this article, but alternative dates for many events are plausible - this is especially true of the chronological sequence of Ezra and Nehemiah, with Ezra 7:6-8 stating that Ezra came to Jerusalem "in the seventh year of Artaxerxes the King," without specifying whether this was Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (404-359 BCE); the probable date for his mission is 458 BCE, but it is possible that it took place in 397 BCE.
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Yemen
The Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah), commonly known as Yemeni/ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman), is a country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east. Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in the Arab world. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes over 200 islands, the largest of which is Socotra, about 415 km (258 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen, off the coast of Somalia. It is the only state in the Arabian Peninsula to have a purely republican form of government. Approximately 53% of Yemenis are Sunnis, while 45% are Zaydi Shias.
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia), which was their term for northern Arabia.
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Abraham
Abraham (Hebrew: אַבְרָהָם (help·info), Modern: Avraham, Tiberian: ʼAḇrāhām, Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom, Arabic: إبراهيم Ibrāhīm, Ge'ez: አብርሃም ʼAbrəham, Greek: Aβραάμ, Russian: Авраам), whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. According to both the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, through his sons Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham is the forefather of many tribes, namely the Ishmaelites, Israelites, Midianites and Edomites. Abraham was a descendant of Noah's son, Shem. Christians believe that Jesus was a descendant of Abraham through Isaac, and Muslims believe that Muhammad was a descendant of Abraham through Ishmael. Abraham is notable for his advocation and promotion of monotheism.
The Book of Genesis narrative that records the life of Abraham presents his role as one that could only be fulfilled through a monotheistic covenant established between him and God. The Qur'an has stories about Abraham and his offspring that are similar to the Bible's. In Islam, Abraham is recognised as a prophet, patriarch and messenger, archetype of the perfect Muslim, and reformer of the Kaaba.
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Abraham Geiger
Abraham Geiger (24 May 1810 in Frankfurt am Main – 23 October 1874 in Berlin) was a German rabbi and scholar who led the founding of Reform Judaism. He sought to remove all nationalistic elements (particularly the "Chosen People" doctrine) from Judaism, stressing it as an evolving and changing religion.
As a child, Geiger started doubting the traditional understanding of Judaism when his studies in classical history seemed to contradict the biblical claims of divine authority. At the age of seventeen, he began writing his first work, a comparison between the legal style of the Mishnah and Biblical and Talmudic law. He also worked on a dictionary of Mishnaic (Rabbinic) Hebrew.
Geiger's friends provided him with financial assistance which enabled him to attend the University in Heidelberg, to the great disappointment of his family. His main focus was centered on the areas of philology, Syriac, Hebrew, and classics, but he also attended lectures in Old Testament, philosophy, and archaeology. After one semester, he transferred to the University of Bonn, where he studied at the same time as Samson Raphael Hirsch. Hirsch initially formed a friendship with Geiger, and with him organized a society of Jewish students for the stated purpose of practicing homiletics, but with the deeper intention of bringing them closer to Jewish values. It was to this society that Geiger preached his first sermon (January 2, 1830). In later years he and Hirsch became bitter opponents as the leaders of two opposing Jewish movements.
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Abraham ibn Ezra
Rabbi Abraham Ben Meir Ibn Ezra (Hebrew: אברהם אבן עזרא or ראב"ע, Arabic ابن عزرا; also known as Abenezra) (1089 — 1164) was born at Tudela, Navarre Tudela, Navarre (now in Spain) in 1089, and died c. 1167, apparently in Calahorra. He was one of the most distinguished Jewish men of letters and writers of the Middle Ages. Ibn Ezra excelled in philosophy, astronomy/astrology, mathematics, poetry, linguistics, and exegesis; he was called The Wise, The Great and The Admirable Doctor.
He was born at Tudela[citation needed], (current day province of Navarre) when the town was under the Muslim rule of the emirs of Zaragoza. Later he lived in Córdoba. In Granada, it is said, he met his future friend (and perhaps his father-in-law) Yehuda Halevi. He left Spain before 1140 to escape persecution of the Jews by the new fanatical regime of the Almohads. He led a life of restless wandering, which took him to North Africa, Egypt (in 1109, maybe in the company of Yehuda Halevi), the Land of Israel, Italy (Rome in 1140-1143, Lucca, Mantua, Verona), Southern France (Rodez, Narbonne, Béziers), Northern France (Dreux), England (London, and Oxford in 1158), and back again to Narbonne in 1161, until his death on January 23 or 28, 1167, the exact location unknown: maybe at Calahorra at the border of Navarre and Aragon, or maybe in Rome or in the Holy Land.
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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
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Arnold Dashefsky
Arnold Dashefsky, born in 1942, is a professor at the University of Connecticut who has written several books on the topics relating to Jewish ethnicity, culture, ideologies, among others. One of his key theses is that Jewish identify is taken for granted in populations, such as Israel where Jews make up a majority of the population. Furthermore, he has asserted that the number of Jews in the United States is roughly the same as the number of Jews in Israel. Hence, he feels that Jewish identity should be no less strong in either nation.
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Asher ben Jehiel
Asher ben Jehiel- Ashkenazi (Hebrew, אשר בן יחיאל, or Asher ben Yechiel, sometimes Asheri) (1250 or 1259 – 1327) was an eminent rabbi and Talmudist best known for his abstract of Talmudic law. He is often referred to as Rabbenu Asher, “our Rabbi Asher” or by the Hebrew acronym for this title, the ROSH (Hebrew, רא"ש, literally "Head"). His yahrzeit is on the 9 Cheshvan.
The Rosh was born in western Germany and died in Toledo, Spain. His family was prominent for learning and piety, his father Yechiel was a Talmudist, and one of his ancestors was Rabbi Eliezer ben Nathan (the RaABaN). Asher had eight sons, the most prominent of whom were Judah and Jacob, author of the Arba'ah Turim, a code of Jewish law. His primary teacher was the Tosafist Rabbi Meir of Rothenburg, then in Worms. In addition to his studies, ROSH worked in money lending, and according to his own statement, was independently wealthy.
In 1286, Emperor Rudolf I had instituted a new persecution of the Jews, and Rabbi Meir left Germany, but was captured and imprisoned. The ROSH raised a ransom for his release, but Rabbi Meir refused it, for fear of encouraging the imprisonment of other rabbis. Thereafter the Rosh assumed Rabbi Meir's position in Worms. He was, however, forced to emigrate (in all likelihood, a victim of blackmail by the government, aimed at acquiring his fortune). After leaving Germany, he first settled in southern France, and then in Toledo, Spain, where he became rabbi on the recommendation of Rabbi Solomon ben Abraham Adret (RaShBA). Rabbenu Asher's son Judah testified to the fact that he died in poverty. Rabbeinu Asher died in Toledo on 9 Cheshvan 5089 (1328 CE).
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Ashkenazi Jews
Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, pronounced [ˌaʃkəˈnazim], singular: [ˌaʃkəˈnazi]; also יְהוּדֵי אַשְׁכֲּנָז, Y'hudey Ashkenaz, "the Jews of Ashkenaz"), are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities along the Rhine in Germany from Alsace in the south to the Rhineland in the north.[citation needed]
The name Ashkenazi derives from the bibilical figure of Ashkenaz, the first son of Gomer, and a Japhetic patriarch in the Table of Nations (Genesis 10). In the Rabbinic literature, Ashkenaz's kingdom was first associated with the Scythian region, then later on with the Slavic territories, and from the 11th century onwards with Northern Europe and Germany. The Jews living in the northern regions, associated with Ashkenaz's kingdom, thus came to call themselves the Ashkenazi Jews. Later, Jews from Western and Central Europe also came to be called "Ashkenazi" because the main centers of Jewish learning were located in Germany.
Many Ashkenazi Jews later migrated, largely eastward, forming communities in non German-speaking areas, including Bohemia, Hungary, Poland, Belarus, Lithuania, Russia, Ukraine, Romania, and elsewhere between the 11th and 19th centuries. With them, they took and diversified Yiddish, a High German language written using the Hebrew alphabet. It had developed in medieval times as the lingua franca among Ashkenazi Jews. The Jewish communities of three cities along the Rhine: Speyer, Worms and Mainz, created the SHUM league (SHUM after the first Hebrew letters of Shpira, Vermayza, and Magentza). The ShUM-cities are considered the cradle of the distinct Ashkenazi culture and liturgy.
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Avner Falk
Avner Falk (Hebrew: אבנר פלק; born 1943) is an Israeli clinical psychologist and author. Falk has written psychoanalytic studies of Jewish and Israeli leaders, Jewish history, the Arab-Israeli conflict, antisemitism and Islamic terrorism.
Avner Falk studied at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (1960–1966) and at Washington University in St. Louis (1966–1970). He has published psychoanalytic biographies of Moshe Dayan, David Ben-Gurion, Theodor Herzl, Napoleon and Barack Obama. In 2005,his book Fratricide in the Holy Land: A Psychoanalytic View of the Arab-Israeli Conflict (2004) won the Outstanding Academic Title award from the American Library Association's Choice magazine.
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Baal Shem Tov
Rabbi Yisroel (Israel) ben Eliezer (רבי ישראל בן אליעזר) (August 25, 1698 — May 22, 1760), often called Baal Shem Tov (/ˌbɑːl ˈʃɛm ˌtʊv/ or /ˌtʊf/) or Besht, was a Jewish mystical rabbi. He is considered to be the founder of Hasidic Judaism (see also Mezhbizh Hasidic dynasty).
The Besht was born to Eliezer and Sara in Okopy (Ukrainian: Окопи) a small village that over the centuries has been part of Poland, Russia, and is now part of Ukraine, (located in the Borschiv Raion (district) of the Ternopil Oblast). He died in Medzhybizh, (Ukrainian: Меджибіж, Polish: Międzybórz, Międzyborz or Międzybóż, Yiddish: מעזשביזש), which had once been part Poland and Russia, and is also now in Ukraine, in the Khmelnytskyi Oblast (not to be confused with other cities of the same name).
The Besht is better known to many religious Jews as “the holy Baal Shem” (der heyliger baal shem in Yiddish), or most commonly, the Baal Shem Tov (בעל שם טוב). The title Baal Shem Tov is usually translated into English as “Master of the Good Name,” but at least two other translations are possible:
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Bernard Lewis
Bernard Lewis, FBA (born May 31, 1916) is a British-American historian, scholar in Oriental studies, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman Empire.
Lewis served in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and Intelligence Corps during the Second World War before being seconded to the Foreign Office. After the war, he returned to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London and was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle Eastern History.
Lewis is a widely read expert on the Middle East, and is regarded as one of the West’s leading scholars of that region. His advice has been frequently sought by policymakers, including the George W. Bush administration. In the Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing Martin Kramer, whose Ph.D. thesis was directed by Lewis, considered that, over a 60-year career, he has emerged as "the most influential postwar historian of Islam and the Middle East." Lewis is known for his Armenian genocide denial. He is also famous for his public debates with the late Edward Said concerning the latter's book Orientalism (1978), which criticized Lewis.
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Chaldea
Chaldea or Chaldaea ( /kælˈdiːə/), from Greek Χαλδαία, Chaldaia; Akkadian māt Kaldu; Hebrew כשדים, Kaśdim;Aramaic: ܟܐܠܕܘ, Kaldo) was a marshy land located in modern-day southern Iraq which came to rule Babylon briefly. Tribes of settlers who arrived in the region from the 8th Century BC became known as the Chaldeans or the Chaldees. The Hebrew Bible uses the term כשדים (Kaśdim) and this is translated as Chaldaeans in the Septuagint.
The short-lived 11th dynasty of the Kings of Babylon (6th century BC) is conventionally known to historians as the Chaldean Dynasty, although only the first four rulers of this dynasty were known to be Chaldeans, and the last ruler was known not to be. Their kingdom in the southern portion of Babylonia lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of southern Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was in fact the vast plain in the far south east formed by the deposits of the Euphrates and the Tigris, extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.
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Crimean Karaites
The Crimean Karaites (Crimean Karaim: sg. къарай - qaray, pl. къарайлар - qaraylar; Trakai Karaim: sg. karaj, pl. karajlar, Hebrew קָרָאִים - qara'im, 'readers', tr. Karaylar), also known as Karaim and Qarays, are a community of ethnic Turkic adherents of Karaite Judaism in Eastern Europe. "Qaray" is a Romanized spelling of the original name "къарай", while "Karaim" is a Russian, Ukrainian, Lithuanian, and Polish name for the community. Originally centered in Crimea, Karaim were established in Lithuania and elsewhere in Europe from late medieval times.
The name "Crimean Karaites" has often been considered as something of a misnomer, as many branches of this community found their way to locations throughout Europe and the Middle East. Historians distinguish between Karaite Jews and Jews who simply left the Levant before the canonization of the Talmud and therefore had no way of being Rabbinic Jews. Whether descended from the non-Rabbinic sects of the Second Temple Period, or from Rabbinate families rebelling against Talmudic rules, these communities started in present day Iran.
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Cyrus the Great
Cyrus II of Persia (Old Persian:
Kuruš (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, also known as Cyrus the Elder, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Under his rule, the empire embraced all the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, parts of Europe and the Caucasus. From the Mediterranean sea and Hellespont in the west to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world had yet seen. He also pronounced one of the first historically important declarations of human rights via the Cyrus Cylinder sometime between 539-530 BCE.
The reign of Cyrus the Great lasted between 29 and 31 years. Cyrus built his empire by conquering first the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Either before or after Babylon, he led an expedition into central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that were described as having brought "into subjection every nation without exception". Cyrus did not venture into Egypt, as he himself died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in December 530 BC. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to add to the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short rule.
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David
David (Hebrew: דָּוִד, דָּוִיד, Modern David Tiberian Dāwîḏ; ISO 259-3 Dawid; Strong's Daveed; beloved; Arabic: داوود or داود Dāwūd) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and, according to the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, an ancestor of Jesus. David is seen as a major Prophet in Islamic traditions. His life is conventionally dated to c. 1040–970 BC, his reign over Judah c. 1010–1003 BC,[citation needed] and his reign over the United Kingdom of Israel c. 1003–970 BC.[citation needed] The Books of Samuel, 1 Kings, and 1 Chronicles are the only sources of information on David, although the Tel Dan stele records "House of David", which some take as confirmation of the existence in the mid-9th century BC of a Judean royal dynasty called the "House of David".
David is very important to Jewish, Christian and Islamic doctrine and culture. In Judaism, David, or David HaMelekh, is the King of Israel, and the Jewish people. Jewish tradition maintains that a direct descendant of David will be the Messiah. In Islam, he is known as Dawud, considered to be a prophet and the king of a nation. He is depicted as a righteous king, though not without faults, as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician, and poet, traditionally credited for composing many of the psalms contained in the Book of Psalms.
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Deborah
Deborah (Hebrew: דְבוֹרָה, Modern Dvora Tiberian Dəḇôrā ; "Bee", Arabic: دبورة Daborah) was a prophetess of the God of the Israelites, the fourth Judge of pre-monarchic Israel, counselor, warrior, and the wife of Lapidoth according to the Book of Judges chapters 4 and 5.
The only female judge mentioned in the Bible, Deborah led a successful counterattack against the forces of Jabin king of Canaan and his military commander Sisera, the narrative is recounted in chapter 4.
Judges chapter 5 gives the same story in poetic form. This passage, often called The Song of Deborah, may date to as early as the 12th century BC and is perhaps the earliest sample of Hebrew poetry. It is also significant because it is one of the oldest passages that portrays fighting women, the account being that of Jael, the wife of Heber, a Kenite tent maker. Jael killed Sisera by driving a tent peg through his temple as he slept. Both Deborah and Jael are portrayed as strong independent women. The poem may have been included in the Book of the Wars of the Lord mentioned in Numbers 21:14.
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Edward Henry Palmer
Edward Henry Palmer (7 August 1840 – August 1882) was an English orientalist.
Palmer was born in Cambridge as the son of a private schoolmaster. He was educated at The Perse School, and as a schoolboy showed the characteristic bent of his mind by picking up the Romany tongue and a great familiarity with the life of the Gypsies. From school he was sent to London as a clerk in the city. Palmer disliked this life, and varied it by learning French and Italian, mainly by frequenting the society of foreigners wherever he could find it.
In 1859 he returned to Cambridge, apparently dying of consumption. He had an almost miraculous recovery, and in 1860, while he was thinking of a new start in life, fell in with Sayyid Abdallah, teacher of Hindustani at Cambridge, under whose influence he began his Oriental studies. He matriculated at St John's College in November 1863, and in 1867 was elected a fellow on account of his attainments as an orientalist, especially in Persian and Hindustani.
During his residence at St Johns he catalogued the Persian, Arabic and Turkish manuscripts in the university library, and in the libraries of Kings and Trinity. In 1867 he published a treatise on Oriental mysticism, based on the Maksad-i-Aksa of Aziz ibn Mohammad Nafasi. He was engaged in 1869 to join the survey of Sinai, undertaken by the Palestine Exploration Fund, and followed up this work in the next year by exploring the desert of El-Tih in company with Charles Drake. They completed this journey on foot and without escort, making friends among the Bedouin, to whom Palmer was known as Abdallah Effendi.
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Eliezer ben Yehuda
Eliezer Ben‑Yehuda (Hebrew: אליעזר בן־יהודה ; 7 January 1858 – 16 December 1922) was a Litvak lexicographer and newspaper editor. He was the driving spirit behind the revival of the Hebrew language in the modern era.
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda was born Eliezer Yitzhak Perlman (Yiddish אליעזר יצחק פערלמאן), in Luzhki (Belarusian Лужкі (Lužki), Polish Łużki), Vilna Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Vitsebsk Voblast, Belarus). He attended cheder where he studied Hebrew and the Bible from the age of three, as was customary among the Jews of Eastern Europe. By the age of twelve, he had read large portions of the Torah, Mishna, and Talmud. His parents hoped he would become a rabbi, and sent him to a yeshiva. There, he continued to study ancient Hebrew and was also exposed to the Hebrew of the enlightenment, including secular writings. Later, he learned French, German, and Russian, and was sent to Dünaburg for more education. Reading the Hebrew language newspaper HaShahar, he became acquainted with Zionism and concluded that the revival of Hebrew language in the Land of Israel could unite all Jews worldwide.
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Elijah
Elijah ( /ɨˈlaɪdʒə/; also Elias /ɨˈlaɪ.əs/; Hebrew: אֱלִיָּהוּ, Eliyahu, meaning "Yahweh is my God";Arabic:إلياس, Ilyās), was a prophet in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of Ahab (9th century BC), according to the Books of Kings.
According to the Books of Kings, Elijah defended the worship of Yahweh over that of the Phoenician god Baal; he raised the dead, brought fire down from the sky, and was taken up in a whirlwind (either accompanied by a chariot and horses of flame or riding in it). In the Book of Malachi, Elijah's return is prophesied "before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord," making him a harbinger of the Messiah and the eschaton in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible. Derivative references to Elijah appear in the Talmud, Mishnah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an.
In Judaism, Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover seder and the Brit milah (ritual circumcision). He appears in numerous stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.
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Gershom ben Judah
Gershom ben Judah, (c. 960 -1040? -1028?) best known as Rabbeinu Gershom (Hebrew: רבנו גרשום, "Our teacher Gershom") and also commonly known to scholars of Judaism by the title Rabbeinu Gershom Me'Or Hagolah ("Our teacher Gershom the light of the exile"), was a famous Talmudist and Halakhist.
Rashi of Troyes (d. 1105) said less than a century after Gershom's death, "all members of the Ashkenazi diaspora are students of his." As early as the 14th century Asher ben Jehiel wrote that Rabbeinu Gershom's writings were "such permanent fixtures that they may well have been handed down on Mount Sinai."
He is most famous for the synod he called around 1000 CE, in which he instituted various laws and bans.
Born in Metz in 960, Gershom was a student of Judah ben Meir ha-Kohen (Sir Léontin), who was one of the greatest authorities of his time. Having lost his first wife, Gershom married a widow named Bonna and settled at Mainz (Mayence), where he devoted himself to teaching the Talmud. During his lifetime Mainz became a center of Torah and Jewish scholarship for many Jewish communities in Europe that had formerly been connected with the Babylonian yeshivas. He was the spiritual guide of the fledgling Ashkenazic Jewish communities and was very influential in molding them at a time when their population was dwindling.
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Gersonides
Levi ben Gershon, better known by his Latinised name as Gersonides or the abbreviation of first letters as RaLBaG (1288–1344), philosopher, Talmudist, mathematician, astronomer/astrologer. He was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, France. According to Abraham Zacuto and others, he was the son of Gerson ben Solomon Catalan.
As in the case of the other medieval Jewish philosophers little is known of his life. His family had been distinguished for piety and exegetical skill in Talmud, but though he was known in the Jewish community by commentaries on certain books of the Bible, he never seems to have accepted any rabbinical post. It has been suggested that the uniqueness of his opinions may have put obstacles in the way of his preferment. He is known to have been at Avignon and Orange during his life, and is believed to have died in 1344, though Zacuto asserts that he died at Perpignan in 1370.
Part of his writings consist of commentaries on the portions of Aristotle then known, or rather of commentaries on the commentaries of Averroes. Some of these are printed in the early Latin editions of Aristotle’s works. His most important treatise, that by which he has a place in the history of philosophy, is entitled Sefer Milhamot Ha-Shem, ("The Wars of the Lord"), and occupied twelve years in composition (1317–1329). A portion of it, containing an elaborate survey of astronomy as known to the Arabs, was translated into Latin in 1342 at the request of Pope Clement VI.
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Hasidic Judaism
Hasidic Judaism or Hasidism, from the Hebrew: חסידות—Ḥasidut (IPA: [ħɑsiduθ]) in Sephardi Hebrew, Chasidus (IPA: [χɑsidus]) in Ashkenazi Hebrew and Yiddish, meaning "piety" (literally "loving kindness"), is a branch of Orthodox Judaism that promotes spirituality and joy through the popularisation and internalisation of Jewish mysticism as the fundamental aspects of the Jewish faith. It was founded in 18th century Eastern Europe by Rabbi Israel Baal Shem Tov as a reaction against overly legalistic Judaism. His example began the characteristic veneration of leadership in Hasidism as embodiments and intercessors of Divinity for the followers.[citation needed] Opposite to this, Hasidic teachings cherished the sincerity and concealed holiness of the unlettered common folk, and their equality with the scholarly elite. The emphasis on the Immanent Divine presence in everything gave new value to prayer and deeds of kindness, alongside Rabbinic supremacy of study, and replaced historical mystical (kabbalistic) and ethical (musar) asceticism and admonishment with optimism, encouragement, and daily fervour. This populist emotional revival accompanied the elite ideal of nullification to paradoxical Divine Panentheism, through intellectual articulation of inner dimensions of mystical thought.
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Hebrews
Hebrews (Hebrew: עברים or עבריים, Tiberian ʿIḇrîm, ʿIḇriyyîm; Modern Hebrew ʿIvrim, ʿIvriyyim; ISO 259-3 ʕibrim, ʕibriyim) is an ethnonym used in the Hebrew Bible. It is mostly taken as synonymous with the Semitic Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still nomadic, but in some instances it may also be used in a wider sense, referring to the groups known as Habiru or Shasu on the eve of the Bronze Age collapse.
By the Roman era, Greek Hebraios could refer to the Jews in general, but more specifically to the Jews living in Judea. In Early Christianity, the Greek term refers to Jewish Christians, as opposed to the gentile Christians (Acts 6:1).
The origin of the term remains uncertain. The biblical word Ivri (Hebrew: עברי), meaning to traverse or pass over, is usually rendered as Hebrew in English, from the ancient Greek Ἑβραῖος and Latin Hebraeus. In the plural it is Ivrim, or Ibrim.
In Genesis 10:21 Shem, the elder brother of Ham and Japheth, first born son of Noah, is referred to as the father of the sons of Eber (עבר), which may have a similar meaning.
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Herod the Great
Herod (Hebrew: הוֹרְדוֹס, Hordos, Greek: Ἡρῴδης, Hērōdēs), also known as Herod the Great (born 73 or 74 BCE, died 4 BCE in Jericho), was a Roman client king of Judea. His epithet of "the Great" is widely disputed as he is described as "a madman who murdered his own family and a great many rabbis." He is also known for his colossal building projects in Jerusalem and elsewhere, including his expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (sometimes referred to as Herod's Temple) and the construction of the port at Caesarea Maritima. Important details of his biography are gleaned from the works of the 1st century CE Roman-Jewish historian Josephus Flavius.
The Romans made Herod's son Herod Archelaus ethnarch of Judea, Samaria, and Idumea (biblical Edom) from 4 BCE to 6 CE, referred to as the tetrarchy of Judea. Archelaus was judged incompetent by the Roman emperor Augustus who then combined Samaria, Judea proper and Idumea into Iudaea province under rule of a prefect until 41. Herod's other son Herod Antipas was tetrarch of Galilee from 4 BCE – 39 CE.
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Hiloni
Hiloni (Hebrew: חִלּוֹנִי), plural hilonim (Hebrew: חִלּוֹנִים) derived from the Hebrew word hulin, meaning secular or mundane, is the term used in Israel for non-religious Jews.
As natives of Israel, hilonim speak Hebrew. As Israel is a Jewish state, many hilonim observe national holidays and customs, such as Israel's Independence Day, and Holocaust Remembrance Day.
The concept of Modern-day Political Zionism, in itself, was founded largely upon secular beliefs and values. Theodor Herzl, founder of the Modern Day Zionist movement, was an assimilated Austrian Jew. At first, most of those immigrating to Palestine were Orthodox Jews who immigrated due to the holiness of the land and their wish to be buried in Jerusalem (due to the belief that The Messiah will resurrect those interred in Jerusalem first before the rest of the world). With the onset of numerous pogroms throughout Eastern Europe, many Jews citing security, freedom of religion, and strong Zionist affinities left their surrogate lands to settle in their native homeland, the Land of Israel. During the first wave (1882–1903) of Zionist aliyah, and especially during the Second Aliyah (1904–1914) the Jewish population of Ottoman Palestine, consisting mainly of secular or nontraditional Jews, greatly increased. These Olim founded cities such as Tel Aviv and established kibbutzim which were based around ideas of socialism, not necessarily connected to Judaism as a religion or a set of values. As the number of new immigrants increased so did the proportion of secular Jews. Up to, and during the Establishment of The State of Israel, the number of religious Jews was relatively minor.
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Isaac
Isaac ( /ˈaɪzək/;Hebrew: יִצְחָק, Modern Yitsẖak Tiberian Yiṣḥāq, ISO 259-3 Yiçḥaq, "he will laugh"; Yiddish: יצחק, Yitskhok; Ancient Greek: Ἰσαάκ, Isaak; Latin: Isaac; Arabic: إسحاق or Arabic: إسحٰقʼIsḥāq) as described in the Hebrew Bible, was the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah, and was the father of Jacob and Esau. Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites. According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born, and Sarah was beyond childbearing years.
Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not leave Canaan. Compared to those of Abraham and Jacob, Isaac's story relates fewer incidents of his life. He died when he was 180 years old, making him the longest-lived patriarch.
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means "He laughs/will laugh."Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El. Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaac's parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the biblical narrative, Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son's eventual birth. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing; both she and Abraham were advanced in age. Later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it.
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Isaac Abrabanel
Isaac ben Judah Abrabanel, (Lisbon, 1437 – Venice, 1508), commonly referred to (erroneously) just as AbARbanel, was a Portuguese Jewish statesman, philosopher, Bible commentator, and financier.
Abrabanel was born in Lisbon, Portugal, into one of the oldest and most distinguished Jewish Iberian families who had escaped persecution in Castile during 1391. A student of the rabbi of Lisbon, Joseph Chaim, he became well versed in rabbinic literature and in the learning of his time, devoting his early years to the study of Jewish philosophy. Abrabanel is quoted as saying that he included Joseph ibn Shem-Tov as his mentor. At twenty years old, he wrote on the original form of the natural elements, on religious questions and prophecy. Together with his intellectual abilities, he showed a complete mastery of financial matters. This attracted the attention of King Afonso V of Portugal who employed him as treasurer.
Notwithstanding his high position and the great wealth he had inherited from his father, his love for his afflicted brethren was unabated. When Arzila, in Morocco, was captured by the Moors, and the Jewish captives were sold as slaves, he contributed largely to the funds needed to free them, and personally arranged for collections throughout Portugal. He also wrote to his learned and wealthy friend, Vitale (Yehiel) Nissim da Pisa, on behalf of the captives.
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Isaac Alfasi
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi ha-Cohen (1013 - 1103) (Hebrew: ר' יצחק אלפסי) - also known as the Alfasi or by his Hebrew acronym Rif (Rabbi Isaac al-Fasi), was a Talmudist and posek (decider in matters of halakha - Jewish law). He is best known for his work of halakha, the legal code Sefer Ha-halachot, considered the first fundamental work in halakhic literature. He was born in the Algerian city Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, but spent the majority of his career in Fes, and is therefore known as "Alfasi" ("of Fes" in Arabic).
Alfasi was born in Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad, the capital city of the Hammadid rulers of central Maghreb. He studied in Kairouan, Tunisia under Rabbeinu's Nissim ben Jacob, and Chananel ben Chushiel the recognized rabbinical authorities of the age. Rabbeinu Chananel trained Alfasi to deduce and to clarify the Halakha from Talmudic sources, and Alfasi then conceived of the idea of compiling a comprehensive work that would present all of the practical conclusions of the Gemara in a clear, definitive manner. To achieve this goal, he worked for ten consecutive years in his father-in-law's attic.
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Isaac Luria
Isaac (ben Solomon) Luria Ashkenazi (1534 – July 25, 1572) (Hebrew:יִצְחָק בן שלמה לוּרְיָא אשכנזי Yitzhak Ben Sh'lomo Lurya Ashkenazi), commonly known as "Ha'ARI" (meaning "The Lion"), "Ha'ARI Hakadosh" [the holy ARI] or "ARIZaL" [the ARI, Zikhrono Livrakha] was a foremost rabbi and Jewish mystic in the community of Safed in the Galilee region of Ottoman Palestine. He is considered the father of contemporary Kabbalah, his teachings being referred to as Lurianic Kabbalah. While his direct literary contribution to the Kabbalistic school of Safed was extremely minute (he wrote only a few poems), his spiritual fame led to their veneration and the acceptance of his authority. The works of his disciples compiled his oral teachings into writing. Every custom of the Ari was scrutinized, and many were accepted, even against previous practice.
Luria died at Safed, Ottoman Empire controlled Land of Israel, July 25, 1572 (5 Av 5332). He was buried in the Old Cemetery of Safed.
Luria was born in 1534 in Jerusalem in what is now the Old Yishuv Court Museum to an Ashkenazi father, Solomon, and a Sephardic mother.
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Israeli Jews
Israeli Jews, also known as Jewish Israelis, can refer to:
Israeli Jews are found mostly in Israel and Western world countries, as well as many other countries worldwide, not necessarily only in Jewish communities. Israeli Jews mostly speak Hebrew and most practice Judaism in some form. Israel, the Jewish state, currently has almost half the world's Jews.
The Jewish community in Israel is composed from all Jewish ethnic divisions, including Ashkenazi Jews, Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Beta Israel and some converts. The Israeli Jewish community manifests a wide range of Jewish cultural traditions, as well as encompassing the full spectrum of religious observance, from the Haredi communities to the Hilonim Jewish communities who live a secular lifestyle.
Despite the ongoing debate over the question of who is a Jew among Israeli Jews, the Jewish status of a person, which is considered a matter of "nationality" by the Israeli authorities, is registered and controlled by the Israeli Ministry of the Interior, which requires a person to meet the halakhic definition to be registered as a "Jew". Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics estimated the Israeli Jewish population was 5,901,000 in December 2011 (75.3% of the total population). Depending on religious definitions and varying population data, Israel is home to the largest or second largest (after the United States) Jewish community in the world.
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Israelites
The Israelites (בני ישראל, Standard: Bnai Yisraʾel; Tiberian: Bnai Yiśrāʾēl; ISO 259-3: Bnai Yiśraˀel) were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East, who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods (15th to 6th centuries BCE), later evolving into Jews and Samaritans of the classic period, inhabiting Judea and Samaria respectively. In Modern Hebrew usage, an Israelite is, broadly speaking, a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious community, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites.
The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew word "Israel". Although most literary references to Israelites are located in the Hebrew Bible, there is also abundant non-biblical archaeological and historical evidence of ancient Israel and Judah. The ethnonym is attested as early as the 13th century BCE in an Egyptian inscription. The Hebrew Bible etymologizes the name as from yisra "to prevail over" or "to struggle/wrestle with", and el, "God, the divine". The eponymous biblical patriarch of the Israelites is Jacob, who wrestled with God who gave him a blessing and renamed him "Israel" because he had "striven with God and with men, and have prevailed." (Genesis 32:24-32) According to the Hebrew Bible, Israelites were the "chosen people" of God. The name Hebrews is sometimes used synonymously with "Israelites". The Qurʾānic term is for Israelites is Banī Israʾīl (children of Israel).
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Jacob
Jacob ( /ˈdʒeɪkəb/; Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב Standard Yaʿakov, Tiberian Yaʿăqōḇ (help·info); Septuagint Greek: Ἰακώβ Iakōb; Arabic: يَعْقُوب Yaʿqūb; "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Standard Yisraʾel, Tiberian Yiśrāʾēl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ Israēl; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل Isrāʾīl; "persevere with God"), as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.
In the Hebrew Bible, he is the son of Isaac and Rebekah, the grandson of Abraham and Sarah and of Bethuel, and the younger twin brother of Esau. Jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and by their female slaves Bilhah and Zilpah. The children named in Genesis were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, daughter Dinah, Joseph, and Benjamin.
Before the birth of Benjamin, Jacob is renamed "Israel" by an angel (Genesis 32:28-29 and 35:10). The name "Israel" can be translated as "God contended", but other meanings have also been suggested. Some commentators say the name comes from the verb śœarar ("to rule, be strong, have authority over"), thereby making the name mean "God rules" or "God judges". Other possible meanings include "the prince of God" (from the King James Version) or "El fights/struggles".
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Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932) is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York.
Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (where he received rabbinic ordination), the University of Oxford, and Columbia University.
Neusner is often celebrated as one of the most published authors in history (he has written or edited more than 950 books.) Since 1994, he has taught at Bard College. He has also taught at Columbia University, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, and the University of South Florida.
Neusner is a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He is the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.[citation needed] He also has received scores of academic awards, honorific and otherwise.
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Jewish Buddhist
A Jewish Buddhist (also Jewbu or Jubu or Buju) is a person with a Jewish background who practices forms of Buddhist meditation and spirituality. The term Jubu was first brought into wide circulation with the publication of The Jew in the Lotus (1994) by Rodger Kamenetz. In some cases, the term can refer to individuals who practice both traditions; in other cases, "Jewish" is no more than an ethnic designation where the person's main religious practice is Buddhism. In yet other cases, a Jubu is simply a Jew with an interest in Buddhism. A large demographic of Jewish Buddhists, constituting its majority, still maintain religious practices and beliefs in Judaism coupled with Buddhist practices and perhaps beliefs.
The first recorded instance of an American being converted to Buddhism on American soil occurred at the 1893 exposition on world religions and the convert had been a Jew named Charles Strauss. He declared himself a Buddhist at a public lecture that followed the World Conference on Religions in 1893. Strauss later became an author and leading expositor of Buddhism in the West. After World War II, there was increasing interest in Buddhism, associated with the Beat generation. Zen was the most important influence at that time. A new wave of Jews involved with Buddhism came in the late 1960s. Prominent teachers included Joseph Goldstein, Jack Kornfield and Sharon Salzberg, who founded the Insight Meditation Society and learned vipassana meditation primarily through Thai teachers.
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Jewish diaspora
The Jewish diaspora (or simply the Diaspora) is the English term used to describe the Galut גלות (Yiddish: 'Golus'), or 'exile', of the Jews from the region of the Kingdom of Judah and Roman Judaea and later emigration from wider Eretz Israel.
The diaspora began with the 6th century BCE conquest of the ancient Kingdom of Judah, the destruction of the First Temple (c. 586 BCE), and the expulsion of the population, as recorded in the Bible. The Babylonian ruler, Nebuchadnezzar allowed them to remain in a unified community in Babylon. Another group of Jews fled to Egypt, where they settled in the Nile delta. From 597 BCE onwards, there were three distinct groups of Hebrews: a group in Babylon and other parts of the Middle East, a group in Judaea, and another group in Egypt. While Cyrus the Persian allowed the Jews to return to their homeland in 538 BCE, most chose to remain in Babylon. A large number of Jews in Egypt became mercenaries in Upper Egypt on an island called the Elephantine. All of these Jews retained their religion, identity, and social customs; both under the Persians and the Greeks, they were allowed to conduct their lives according to their own laws.
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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Joseph Albo
Joseph Albo (Hebrew: יוסף אלבו) (ca. 1380–1444) was a Jewish philosopher and rabbi who lived in Spain during the fifteenth century, known chiefly as the author of Sefer ha-Ikkarim ("Book of Principles"), the classic work on the fundamentals of Judaism.
Albo's birthplace is generally assumed to be Monreal, a town in Aragon. This is based on Astruc ha-Levi's report of the religious debate held at Tortosa in 1413-14, which mentions Albo as one of the Jewish participants and notes he was the delegate of the congregation of Monreal. However, the Latin account of this debate makes no reference to this locality. Heinrich Graetz believes that Albo could not have been less than thirty years of age when he was sent to take part in the disputation, and he accordingly places the date of Albo's birth not later than 1380. His date of death is given variously as 1444 (most likely) or 1430. He is mentioned, however, as preaching at Soria in 1433.
The use Albo makes of medical illustrations creates the presumption that he was adept in medical science, which suggests that he may have practiced medicine. He was versed to some degree in the writings of Arab Aristotelians. His teacher was Hasdai Crescas, author of Or Adonai.
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Judah Halevi
Judah Halevi (also Yehuda Halevi; Hebrew: יהודה הלוי; Arabic: يهوذا هاليفي; c. 1075–1141) was a Spanish Jewish physician, poet and philosopher. He was born in Spain, either in Toledo or Tudela, in 1075 or 1086, and died shortly after arriving in Palestine in 1141. Halevi is considered one of the greatest Hebrew poets, celebrated both for his religious and secular poems, many of which appear in present-day liturgy. His greatest philosophical work was The Kuzari.
Convention suggests that Judah ben Shmuel HaLevi was born in Toledo, Spain in 1075. He often referred to himself as coming from Christian territory, which would point to Toledo, which was conquered by Alfonso VI from the Muslims in Halevi's childhood (1086). As a youth, he seems to have gone to Granada, the main center of Jewish literary and intellectual life at the time, where he found a mentor in Moses Ibn Ezra. Although it is often said that he studied in the academy at Lucena, there is no evidence to this effect. He did compose a short elegy on the death of Isaac Alfasi, the head of the academy. His aptitude as a poet was recognized early. He was educated in traditional Jewish scholarship, in Arabic literature, and in the Greek sciences and philosophy that were available in Arabic. As an adult he was a physician, apparently of renown, and an active participant in Jewish communal affairs. For at least part of his life he lived in Toledo and may have been connected with the court there as a physician. In Toledo he complains of being too busy with medicine to devote himself to scholarship. At other times he lived in various Muslim cities in the south.
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Judah the Prince
Judah the Prince, (Hebrew: יהודה הנשיא, Yehudah HaNasi) or Judah I, also known as Rabbi or Rabbenu HaQadosh (Hebrew: רבנו הקדוש, "Our Sacred Teacher"), was a 2nd-century CE rabbi and chief redactor and editor of the Mishnah. He was a key leader of the Jewish community during the Roman occupation of Judea . He was of the Davidic line, the royal line of King David, hence the title nasi, meaning prince. The title nasi was also used for presidents of the Sanhedrin. Judah died on 15 Kislev in 188CE or 219CE .[citation needed]
Judah the Prince was born in 135 CE. According to the Midrash, he came into the world on the same day that Rabbi Akiva died a martyr's death. The Talmud suggests that this was a result of Divine Providence: God had granted the Jewish people another leader of great stature to succeed Rabbi Akiva. His place of birth is unknown; nor is it recorded where his father, Shimon ben Gamliel II, sought refuge with his family during the persecutions under Hadrian. He is the only tanna known as "our holy teacher" due to his deep piety.
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Justinian I
Justinian I ( /dʒʌˈstɪniən/) (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Ancient Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός) (c. 482 – 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.
One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity and the last Roman Emperor to speak Latin as a first language, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general Belisarius swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the Empire after more than half a century of barbarian control.
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Kohen
Kohen (or Kohain; Hebrew: כֹּהֵן, "priest", pl. כֹּהֲנִים Kohanim) is the Hebrew word for priest. Jewish Kohanim are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from the Biblical Aaron.
The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests, both Jewish and non-Jewish, such as the Jewish nation as a whole, as well as the priests (Hebrew kohanim) of Baal (2Kings 10:19). During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, Kohanim performed the daily and holiday (Yom Tov) duties of sacrificial offerings.
Today kohanim retain a lesser though somewhat distinct status within Judaism, and are bound by additional restrictions according to Orthodox Judaism.
The Hebrew noun kohen is most often translated as "priest", whether Jewish or pagan, such as the priests of Baal or Dagon, though Christian priests are referred to in Hebrew by the term komer (Hebrew כומר). The word derives from a Semitic root common, at minimum, to the Central Semitic languages; the cognate Arabic word كاهن kāhin means "soothsayer, augur, or priest".
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Lebanese people
The Lebanese people (Arabic: الشعب اللبناني el shaab el libnene, Lebanese Arabic pronunciation: [eʃˈʃaʕb ellɪbˈneːne]) are a nation and ethnic group of Levantine people originating in what is today the country of Lebanon, including those who had inhabited Mount Lebanon prior to the creation of the modern Lebanese state.
The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Lebanese people is a rich blend of both indigenous elements and the foreign cultures that have come to rule the land and its people over the course of thousands of years.
Lebanon does not collect official census data on ethnic background and therefore is difficult to have an exact demographic analysis of Lebanese society, with the last census conducted by the French Mandate government in 1932. The largest concentration or people of Lebanese ancestry is in Brazil having an estimated population of 6 to 7 million. As with their predecessors, the Lebanese have always travelled the world, many of them settling permanently, most notably in the last two centuries.
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Leopold Zunz
Leopold Zunz (Hebrew/ Yiddish: יום טוב ליפמן צונץ—"Yom Tov Lipmann Tzuntz"; 10 August 1794 – 17 March 1886) was a German Reform rabbi and writer, the founder of what has been termed "Jewish Studies" or "Judaic Studies" (Wissenschaft des Judentums), the critical investigation of Jewish literature, hymnology and ritual. Zunz's historical investigations and contemporary writings had an important influence on contemporary Judaism.
Leopold Zunz was born at Detmold, and settled in Berlin in 1815, studying at the University of Berlin and obtaining a doctorate from the University of Halle. He was ordained by the early Reformer, Aaron Chorin, and served for two years teaching and giving sermons in the Reform New Synagogue in Berlin. He found the career uncongenial, and in 1840 he was appointed director of a Lehrerseminar, a post which relieved him from pecuniary troubles. Zunz was always interested in politics, and in 1848 addressed many public meetings. In 1850 he resigned his headship of the Teachers' Seminary, and was awarded a pension. Throughout his early and married life he was the champion of Jewish rights, and he did not withdraw from public affairs until 1874, the year of the death of his wife Adelheid Beermann, whom he had married in 1822.
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Lists of Jews
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Louis Brandeis
Louis Dembitz Brandeis (pronounced /ˈbrændaɪs/; November 13, 1856 – October 5, 1941) was an Associate Justice on the Supreme Court of the United States from 1916 to 1939.
He was born in Louisville, Kentucky, to Jewish immigrant parents who raised him in a secular mode. He enrolled at Harvard Law School, graduating at the age of twenty with the highest grade average in the college’s history.
Brandeis settled in Boston where he became a recognized lawyer through his work on progressive social causes. Starting in 1890, he helped develop the "right to privacy" concept by writing a Harvard Law Review article of that title, and was thereby credited by legal scholar Roscoe Pound as having accomplished "nothing less than adding a chapter to our law". He later published a book entitled Other People's Money And How the Bankers Use It, suggesting ways of curbing the power of large banks and money trusts, which partly explains why he later fought against powerful corporations, monopolies, public corruption, and mass consumerism, all of which he felt were detrimental to American values and culture. He also became active in the Zionist movement, seeing it as a solution to antisemitism in Europe and Russia, while at the same time being a way to "revive the Jewish spirit."
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Lyudmila Alexeyeva
Lyudmila Mikhailovna Alexeyeva (Russian: Людми́ла Миха́йловна Алексе́ева, IPA: [lʲʊˈdmʲilə ɐlʲɪˈksʲeɪvə]; born July 20, 1927) is a Russian historian, human rights activist, founding member of the Moscow Helsinki Watch Group, and one of the few veterans of the Soviet dissident movement still active in modern Russia.
Alexeyeva was born in Yevpatoria, Crimea, then part of Russian SFSR (now part of Ukraine). She was trained as an archeologist, graduating from the History Department of the Moscow State University in 1950 and finishing the graduate school of the Moscow Institute for Economics and Statistics in 1956. In 1952, Alexeyeva joined the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1959-1968, she worked as a editor in the ethnography and archeology section of the publishing house “Science”. During 1970-1977 Alexeyeva worked at the Institute of Information on Social Sciences affiliated with the Science Academy of the USSR. Having become completely disillusioned with the Soviet ideology, Alexeyeva decided not to defend her Candidate of Sciences (roughly equivalent to a PhD) thesis and forgo the career as a scholar.
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Maimonides
Mosheh ben Maimon משה בן מימון, called Moses Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn (Arabic: موسى بن ميمون), or RaMBaM (רמב"ם – Hebrew acronym for "Rabbi Mosheh Ben Maimon"), was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the most prolific and followed Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages. He was born in Córdoba, Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain) on Passover Eve, 1135, and died in Egypt (or Tiberias) on 20th Tevet, December 12, 1204. He was a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt.
Although his writings on Jewish law and ethics were met with acclaim and gratitude from most Jews even as far off as Spain, Iraq and Yemen, and he rose to be the revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt, there were also vociferous critics of some of his rulings and other writings particularly in Spain. Nevertheless, he was posthumously acknowledged to be one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history, his copious work a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law. In the Yeshiva world he is known as "haNesher haGadol" (the great eagle) in recognition of his outstanding status as a bona fide exponent of the Oral Torah.
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Maurycy Gottlieb
Maurycy Gottlieb ( pronunciation (help·info), Drohobytsch, February 21/28, 1856 – Kraków, July 17, 1879) was a Jewish painter, of Polish-speaking Galician Jews from the western part of Ukraine. He was born in Drohobych (at that time Austria-Hungary), Galicia, modern Lviv region, western Ukraine.
Maurycy was one of Isaac and Fanya Tigerman Gottlieb's eleven children. At fifteen, he was enrolled at the Vienna Fine Arts Academy. Later, he would study under Jan Matejko in Kraków. However, he experienced anti-semitism from his fellow students, and left Matejko's studio after less than a year, he then traveled to Norway settling in Molde. After several years he returned to Vienna to pursue his Jewish roots.
At twenty, he won a gold medal from a Munich art competition for Shylock and Jessica (at right), showing a scene from Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice. He based Jessica's face on that of Laura Rosenfeld, to whom he had proposed marriage. However, Rosenfeld rejected his proposal, and wed a Berlin banker. Gottlieb then planned to marry Lola Rosengarten, but when he heard about Rosenfeld's marriage he committed suicide by exposure to the elements, dying of complications from a cold.
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Max Seligsohn
Max Seligsohn (April 13, 1865, Russia –) was a Russian-American Orientalist.
Having received his rabbinical training at Slutsk, government (guberniya) of Minsk, he went in 1888 to New York, where he studied modern languages till 1894, in which year he went to Paris to study Oriental languages, especially Semitic studies ("élève diplômé" of the Ecole des Langues Orientales, 1897, and of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, 1900). In 1898 he was sent by the Alliance Israélite Universelle to Abyssinia to inquire into the conditions of the Falashas; but, certain difficulties arising, he was able to proceed no farther than Cairo, where he taught for eighteen months. Returning to Paris, he was invited in 1902 to go to New York to become a member of the staff of office editors of The Jewish Encyclopedia.
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Mizrahi Jews
Mizrahi Jews or Mizrahim (Hebrew: מזרחים), also referred to as Adot HaMizrach (עֲדוֹת-הַמִּזְרָח) (Communities of the East; Mizrahi Hebrew: ʿAdot(h) Ha(m)Mizraḥ) are Jews descended from the Jewish communities of the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus. The term Mizrahi is used in Israel in the language of politics, media and some social scientists for Jews from mostly Arab-ruled geographies and adjacent, primarily Muslim-majority countries. This includes Jews from Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Yemen, Azerbaijan, Iran/Persia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kurdish areas, Northern and Eastern Sudan, as well as Ethiopia, and within and nearby Israel. Sometimes, Sephardi Jews such as Jews from Morocco, Algeria, or Turkey are erroneously grouped into the Mizrahi category for some historical reasons.
Despite their heterogeneous origins, Mizrahi Jews generally practice rites identical or similar to traditional Sephardic Judaism, although with some differences among the minhagim of the particular communities. This has resulted in a conflation of terms, particularly in Israel, and in religious usage, where "Sephardi" is used in a broad sense to include Mizrahi Jews as well as Sephardim proper. Indeed, from the point of view of the official Israeli rabbinate, the Mizrahi rabbis in Israel are under the jurisdiction of the Sephardi Chief Rabbi of Israel who, in most cases, is a Mizrahi Jew. Today they make up more than half of Israel's Jewish population, but before the mass immigration of 1,000,000 mostly Ashkenazi immigrants from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s they made up over 70% of Israel's Jewish population.
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Moors
The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Berber, Black African and Arab descent from Northern Africa, who came to conquer, occupy and rule the Iberian Peninsula for nearly 800 years.[citation needed] At that time they were Muslim, although earlier the people had followed other religions. They called the territory Al Andalus, comprising most of what is now Spain and Portugal.
" Moors" are not a distinct or self-defined people. Medieval and early modern Europeans applied the name primarily to Berbers, but also at various times to Arabs, Muslim Iberians and West Africans from Mali and Niger who had been absorbed into the Almoravid dynasty. Mainstream scholars observed in 1911 that "The term 'Moors' has no real ethnological value."
The Andalusian Moors of the late Medieval era inhabited the Iberian Peninsula after the Moorish conquests of the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates, and the final Umayyad conquest of Hispania.[citation needed] The Moors' rule stretched at times as far as modern-day Mauritania, West African countries, and the Senegal River. Earlier, the Classical Romans interacted with (and later conquered) parts of Mauretania, a state that covered northern portions of modern Morocco and much of north western and central Algeria during the classical period. The people of the region were noted in Classical literature as the Mauri.
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Moses
Moses (Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה, Modern Moshe Tiberian Mōšéh ISO 259-3 Moše; Greek: Mωϋσῆς Mōüsēs; Arabic: موسىٰ Mūsa) was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew (מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, Lit. "Moses our Teacher/Rabbi"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism, and is also considered an important prophet in Christianity and Islam, as well as a number of other faiths.
The existence of Moses as well as the veracity of the Exodus story is disputed amongst archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture. Other historians maintain that the biographical details, and Egyptian background, attributed to Moses imply the existence of a historical political and religious leader who was involved in the consolidation of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan towards the end of the Bronze Age.
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Moses Mendelssohn
Moses Mendelssohn (6 September 1729 – 4 January 1786) was a German Jewish philosopher to whose ideas Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment) is indebted. Although himself a practicing orthodox Jew, he has been referred to as the father of Reform Judaism.
Born to a poor Jewish family in Dessau and originally destined for a rabbinical career, Mendelssohn educated himself in German thought and literature and from his writings on philosophy and religion came to be regarded as a leading cultural figure of his time by both Germans and Jews. He also established himself as an important figure in the Berlin textile industry, which was the foundation of his family's wealth.
Moses Mendelssohn's descendants include the composers Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn and the founders of the Mendelssohn & Co. banking house.
Moses Mendelssohn was born in Dessau. His father's name was Mendel and he later took the surname Mendelssohn ("Mendel's son"). Mendel Dessau was a poor scribe—a writer of torah scrolls—and his son Moses in his boyhood developed curvature of the spine. His early education was cared for by his father and by the local rabbi, David Fränkel, who besides teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him the philosophy of Maimonides. Fränkel received a call to Berlin in 1743. A few months later Moses followed him.
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Mountain Jews
Highland Jews, Mountain Jews or Kavkazi Jews also known as Juvuro or Juhuro, are Jews of the eastern Caucasus, mainly of Dagestan and Azerbaijan. They are also less commonly known as Caucasus Jews, or East Caucasian Jews, because the majority of these Jews settled the eastern part of the Caucasus.
The Mountain Jewish community originally came from Ancient Persia, from 5th century AD onwards, and their language, Juhuri, a relation of the Tat language, is an Ancient Southwest Iranian language, which integrates many elements of Ancient Hebrew. It is believed that they had arrived in Persia, from Ancient Israel, as early as the 8th century BCE. The Mountain Jews survived numerous historical vicissitudes by settling in extremely remote and mountainous areas, and they were accomplished at fighting from horseback.
Despite their name, the "Mountain Jews" or "Caucasian Jews" do not include the Georgian Jews of the Caucasus Mountains. The Mountain Jews are culturally and ethnically distinct from the Georgian Jews, with a different language, and many differences of custom and culture.
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Nahmanides
Nahmanides, also known as Rabbi Moses ben Naḥman Girondi, Bonastruc ça (de) Porta and by his acronym Ramban, (Porta, Barcelona, 1194 – Land of Israel, 1270) was a leading medieval Jewish scholar, Catalan rabbi, philosopher, physician, kabbalist, and biblical commentator. He was raised, studied, and lived for most of his life in Girona.
"Nahmanides" is a Greek-influenced formation meaning "son of Naḥman". He is also commonly known by his Hebrew acronym, "Ramban", (Rabbi Moshe ben Naḥman). His Catalan name was Bonastruc ça Porta, (also written Saporta, de Porta).
Nahmanides was born at Porta, Barcelona in 1194. He grew up and studied in Girona (hence his name "Girondi"), and died in the Land of Israel about 1270. He was the grandson of Isaac ben Reuben of Barcelona and cousin of Jonah Gerondi (the Rabbeinu Yonah); possibly his brother was Benveniste de Porta, the bailie of Barcelona.[clarification needed] Among his teachers in Talmud were Judah ben Yakkar and Meïr ben Nathan of Trinquetaille, and he is said to have been instructed in Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism) by his countryman Azriel of Gerona, who was in turn a disciple of Isaac the Blind.
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Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government (for example the inhabitants of a sovereign state) irrespective of their ethnic make-up. In international relations, nation can refer to a country or sovereign state. The word nation can more specifically refer to people of North American Indians, such as the Cherokee Nation that prefer this term over the contested term tribe.
According to Joseph Stalin writing in 1913 in Marxism and the National Question: "a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or ephemeral conglomeration, but a stable community of people;" "a common language is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people living together generation after generation;" "a common territory is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common economic life, economic cohesion, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common psychological make-up, which manifests itself in a common culture, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "A nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture." According to Stalin, this would exclude Jews as they have no common territory.
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Nationality
Nationality is membership of a nation or sovereign state, usually determined by their citizenship, but sometimes by ethnicity or place of residence, or based on their sense of national identity.[citation needed]
Citizenship is determined by jus soli, jus sanguinis, or naturalization, which affords the state jurisdiction over the person and affords the person the protection of the state. The word citizenship is often used in a different sense from nationality. The most common distinguishing feature of citizenship is that citizens have the right to participate in the political life of the state, such as by voting or standing for election. The term national can include both citizens and non-citizens.
Nationality can refer to membership in a nation (collective of people sharing a national identity, usually based on ethnic and cultural ties and self-determination) even if that nation has no state, such as the Basques, Kurds, and Tamils. Individuals may also be considered nationals of groups with autonomous status which have ceded some power to a larger government, such as the federally recognized tribes of Native Americans in the United States. Spanish law recognises the autonomous communities of Andalusia, Aragon, Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, Catalonia, Valencia, Galicia and the Basque Country as "nationalities" (nacionalidades), while in Italy, the German speakers of South Tyrol are considered to be Austrian nationals.
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Norman Stillman
Norman Arthur Stillman, also Noam (נועם, in Hebrew), b. 1945, is the Schusterman-Josey Professor and Chair of Judaic History at the University of Oklahoma. He specializes in the intersection of Jewish and Islamic culture and history, and in Oriental and Sephardi Jewry, with special interest in the Jewish communities in North Africa. His major publications are The Jews of Arab Lands: a History And Source Book and Sephardi Religious Responses to Modernity. In the last few years, Stillman has been the executive editor of the Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World, a project that includes over 2000 entries in 5 volumes. It will be published by Brill in 2010.[citation needed]
Stillman studied at the University of Pennsylvania, receiving the B.A. (magna cum laude) in 1967 and Ph.D. in Oriental Studies in 1970, Shelomo Dov Goitein being his thesis advisor. He was a post-doctoral fellow at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America. He has received numerous academic honors, among them the Phi Beta Kappa, the SUNY Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching and the SUNY-Binghamton award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching. He delivered the Momigliano Lectures for the University of Chicago's Committee on Social Thought and the Sherman Lectures for the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. He was Lady Davis Fellow at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem in 1994-1995 and visiting fellow at the Moshe Dayan Center for Middle Eastern and African Studies at Tel-Aviv University. He received the Ohio State University Melton Center's Distinguished Humanist award in 2000 and was a visiting scholar at l'Institut National des Langues et Civilisation Orientales in Paris in 2001-2002. Stillman also appears in the 2005 film, The Hebrew Project.
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Palestinian people
The Palestinian people, (Arabic: الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha‘b al-Filasṭīnī) also referred to as Palestinians (Arabic: الفلسطينيون, al-Filasṭīniyyūn), are descendants of the peoples who have lived in Palestine over the centuries. Today, Palestinians are largely culturally and linguistically Arab. Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the world's Palestinian population continues to reside in the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and Israel. In this combined area, as of 2004, Palestinians constituted 49% of all inhabitants, encompassing the entire population of the Gaza Strip (1.6 million), the majority of the population of the West Bank (approximately 2.3 million versus close to 500,000 Jewish Israeli citizens which includes about 200,000 in East Jerusalem), and 16.5% of the population of Israel proper as Arab citizens of Israel.
Throughout the aforementioned combined area, many are Palestinian refugees or internally displaced Palestinians, including more than a million in the Gaza Strip, three-quarters of a million in the West Bank,, and about a quarter of a million in Israel proper. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, making up what is known as the Palestinian diaspora, more than half of these are stateless refugees lacking citizenship in any country. About 2.6 million of the diaspora population live in neighboring Jordan where they make up approximately half the population, 1.5 million live between Syria and Lebanon, a quarter of a million in Saudi Arabia, with Chile's half a million representing the largest concentration outside the Arab world.
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Rachel
Rachel (Hebrew: רחל, Modern Raḥel Tiberian Rāḫēl, Rāḥēl ISO 259-3 Raḥel ; meaning "ewe") as described in the Bible, is a prophet and the favorite wife of Jacob, one of the three Biblical Patriarchs, and mother of Joseph and Benjamin. She was the daughter of Laban and the younger sister of Leah, Jacob's first wife. Jacob was her first cousin, and she was the youngest niece of Rebecca.
Rachel is first mentioned in the Bible in Genesis 29 when Jacob happens upon her as she is watering her lamb. He had traveled a great distance to find his mother's brother, Laban. Rebekah had sent him there to be safe from his furious twin brother, Esau.
During Jacob's stay, he fell in love with Rachel and agreed to work seven years for Laban in return for her hand in marriage. On the night of the wedding, the bride was veiled and Jacob did not notice that Leah, Rachel's older sister, had been substituted for Rachel. Whereas "Rachel was lovely in form and beautiful," "Leah had tender eyes". Later Jacob confronted Laban, who excused his own deception by insisting that the older sister should marry first. He assured Jacob that after his wedding week was finished, he could take Rachel as a wife as well, and work another seven years as payment for her.
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Raphael Patai
Raphael Patai (Hebrew רפאל פטאי) (November 22, 1910 − July 20, 1996), born Ervin György Patai, was a Hungarian-Jewish ethnographer, historian, Orientalist and anthropologist.
Patai was born in Budapest, Hungary in 1910 to Edith Ehrenfeld Patai and József Patai. Patai's mother was born in Nagyvárad to German-speaking, Jewish parents who expressed their commitment to Magyar nationalism by sending their daughter to Hungarian-language schools. Both parents spoke Hungarian and German fluently, and educated their children to be perfectly fluent in both Hungarian and German. His father was a prominent literary figure, author of numerous Zionist and other writings, including a biography of Theodor Herzl. József was founder and editor of the Jewish political and cultural journal Mult és jövő, (Past and Future) from 1911 to 1944, a journal that was revived in 1988 by János Köbányai in Budapest. József Patai also wrote an early History of Hungarian Jews, and founded a Zionist organization in Hungary that procured support for the settlement of Jews in the British Mandate of Palestine.
wn.com/Raphael_Patai -
Rashi
Shlomo Yitzhaki (Hebrew: רבי שלמה יצחקי), or in Latin Salomon Isaacides, and today generally known by the acronym Rashi (Hebrew: רש"י, RAbbi SHlomo Itzhaki; February 22, 1040 – July 13, 1105), was a medieval French rabbi famed as the author of a comprehensive commentary on the Talmud, as well as a comprehensive commentary on the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible). He is considered the "father" of all commentaries that followed on the Talmud (i.e., the Baalei Tosafot) and the Tanakh (i.e., Ramban, Ibn Ezra, Ohr HaChaim, et al.).
Acclaimed for his ability to present the basic meaning of the text in a concise, lucid fashion, Rashi appeals to both learned scholars and beginning students, and his works remain a centerpiece of contemporary Jewish study. His commentary on the Talmud, which covers nearly all of the Babylonian Talmud (a total of 30 tractates), has been included in every edition of the Talmud since its first printing by Daniel Bomberg in the 1520s. His commentary on Tanakh — especially his commentary on the Chumash ("Five Books of Moses") — is an indispensable aid to students of all levels. The latter commentary alone serves as the basis for more than 300 "supercommentaries" which analyze Rashi's choice of language and citations, penned by some of the greatest names in rabbinic literature.
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Romani people
The Romani are an ethnic group living mostly in Europe, who trace their origins to the Indian Subcontinent. Romani are widely known in the English-speaking world by the exonym Gypsies (or Gipsies).
They are known collectively in the Romani language as Romane or Rromane (depending on the dialect concerned) and also as Romany, Romanies, Romanis, Roma or Roms.
Romani are widely dispersed, with their largest concentrated populations in Europe, especially the Roma of Central and Eastern Europe and Anatolia, followed by the Kale of Iberia and Southern France.
The Americas are also home to large numbers of Romani. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States; 800,000 in Brazil, to which Kale were deported by the government of Portugal during the colonial era; and in more recent migrations, Romani have also moved to other parts of the New World.
The Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large (several times as large according to high estimates). Many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two.
wn.com/Romani_people -
Saadia Gaon
Saʻadiah ben Yosef Gaon (Arabic: سعيد بن يوسف الفيومي Saʻīd bin Yūsuf al-Fayyūmi, Sa'id ibn Yusuf al-Dilasi, Saadia ben Yosef aluf, Sa'id ben Yusuf ra's al-Kull;Hebrew: רבי סעדיה בן יוסף אלפיומי גאון or in short: סעדיה גאון; Alternative English Names: Saadia b. Joseph,Saadia ben Joseph or Saadia ben Joseph of Faym or Saadia ben Joseph Al-Fayyumi; b. Egypt 882/892, d. Baghdad 942) was a prominent rabbi, Jewish philosopher, and exegete of the Geonic period.
The first important rabbinic figure to write extensively in Arabic, he is considered the founder of Judeo-Arabic literature. Known for his works on Hebrew linguistics, Halakha, and Jewish philosophy, he was one of the more sophisticated practitioners of the philosophical school known as the "Jewish Kalam" (Stroumsa 2003). In this capacity, his philosophical work Emunoth ve-Deoth represents the first systematic attempt to integrate Jewish theology with components of Greek philosophy. Saadia was also very active in opposition to Karaism, in defense of rabbinic Judaism.
wn.com/Saadia_Gaon -
Salo Wittmayer Baron
Salo Wittmayer Baron (May 26, 1895 - November 25, 1989) was an American historian of Polish-Austrian Jewish ancestry and the most noted historian of the Jews of his generation. Baron taught at Columbia University from 1930 until his retirement in 1963.
Baron was born in Tarnów, Galicia which was then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire but is now in Poland. Baron's family was educated and affluent, part of the Jewish aristocracy of Galicia. His father was a banker and president of the Jewish community of 16,000. Baron's first language was Polish, but he knew twenty languages, including Yiddish, Biblical and modern Hebrew, French and German, and was famous for being able to give scholarly lectures without notes - in five languages. Baron received rabbinical ordination at the Jewish Theological Seminary in Vienna in 1920, and earned three doctorates from the University of Vienna, in philosophy in 1917, in political science in 1922 and in law in 1923. He began his teaching career at the Jewish Teachers College in Vienna in 1926, but was persuaded to move to New York to teach at the Jewish Institute of Religion by Rabbi Stephen S. Wise in New York.
wn.com/Salo_Wittmayer_Baron -
Sarah
Sarah or Sara ( /ˈsɛərə/;Hebrew: שָׂרָה, Modern Sara Tiberian Śārā ISO 259-3 Śarra; Latin: Sara; Arabic: سارة) was the wife of Abraham and the mother of Isaac as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran. Her name was originally Sarai. According to Genesis 17:15 God changed her name to Sarah as part of a covenant after Hagar bore Abraham his first son, Ishmael.
The Hebrew name Sarah indicates a woman of high rank and is translated as "princess".
Sarah was the wife of Abraham, as well as being his half-sister, the daughter of his father Terah (Genesis 20:12). The Talmud identifies Sarai with Iscah, daughter of Abraham's deceased brother Haran (Genesis 11:29), so that Sarah turns out to be the niece of Abraham and the sister of Lot and Milcah. She was also the mother-in-law of Rebecca, her successor. She was considered beautiful to the point that Abraham feared that when they were near more powerful rulers she would be taken away and given to another man. Twice he purposefully identified her as being only his sister so that he would be "treated well" for her sake. It is apparent that she remained attractive into her later years. Despite her great beauty, she was barren for an unknown reason. She was originally called "Sarai" which is translated "my princess." Later she was called "Sarah" i.e., princess." In Biblical times, the changing of one's name was significant and used to symbolize the binding of a covenant. In this case, God promised to put an end to her barrenness and give her a child (Isaac).
wn.com/Sarah -
Sephardi Jews
Sephardi Jews (Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּי, Modern Sfaraddi Tiberian Səp̄āraddî) is a general term referring to the descendants of the Jews who lived in the Iberian Peninsula before their expulsion in the Spanish Inquisition. It can also refer to those who use a Sephardic style of liturgy or would otherwise define themselves in terms of the Jewish customs and traditions which originated in the Iberian Peninsula. Accordingly, the term Sephardic Jew refers to the Jews following the Sephardic Halakha.
The term essentially means "Spanish". It comes from Sepharad (Hebrew: סְפָרַד, Modern Sfarád Tiberian Səp̄āráḏ), a Biblical location. This location is disputed, but "Sepharad" was identified by later Jews as the Iberian Peninsula, and still means "Spain" in modern Hebrew.[citation needed]
In other languages and scripts, "Sephardi" translates as plural Hebrew: סְפָרַדִּים, Modern Sfaraddim Tiberian Səp̄āraddîm; Spanish: Sefardíes; Portuguese: Sefarditas; Catalan: Sefardites; Basque: Sefardiak; Galician: Sefardís; Italian: Sefarditi; Greek: Σεφαρδίτες Sefardites; Bulgarian: Сефаради Sefaradi; Bosnian: Sefardi; Serbian: Сефарди Sefardi; Turkish: Sefarad, Judaeo-Spanish: Sefaradies/Sefaradim; and Arabic: سفارديون Safārdīyyūn.
wn.com/Sephardi_Jews -
Sergio DellaPergola
Sergio Della Pergola (born Trieste, Italy, September 7, 1942) is widely acknowledged as the leading authority in demography and statistics related to the Jewish population all over the world. Della Pergola has lived in Israel since 1966. He holds a Ph.D. from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and is a professor of Population Studies at the Hebrew University’s Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry, where he has directed the Division of Jewish Demography and Statistics and holds the Shlomo Argov Chair in Israel-Diaspora Relations.
Della Pergola is a specialist on the demography of world Jewry and has published numerous books and over one hundred papers on historical demography, the family, international migration, Jewish identification, and population projections in the Diaspora and in Israel. He has lectured at over 50 universities and research centers worldwide and served as senior policy consultant to the President of Israel, the Israeli government, the Jerusalem municipality, and many major national and international organizations.
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Solomon
Solomon (Hebrew: שְׁלֹמֹה, Modern Shlomo Tiberian Šəlōmō ISO 259-3 Šlomo; Arabic: سليمان Sulaymān, also colloquially: Silimān; Greek: Σολομών Solomōn), according to the Book of Kings and the Book of Chronicles, a King of Israel and according to the Talmud one of the 48 prophets, is identified as the son of David, also called Jedidiah (Hebrew יְדִידְיָהּ) in 2 Samuel 12:25, and is described as the third king of the United Monarchy, and the final king before the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah split; following the split his patrilineal descendants ruled over Judah alone. In the Qur'an, he is considered as a major Prophet, known as Sulaiman, son of David.
The Hebrew Bible credits Solomon as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem, and portrays him as great in wisdom, wealth, and power, but ultimately as a king whose sin, including idolatry and turning away from Yahweh, leads to the kingdom being torn in two during the reign of his son Rehoboam. Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends.
wn.com/Solomon -
Solomon Schechter
Solomon Schechter (Hebrew: שניאור זלמן שכטר; December 7, 1847 – November, 19 1915) was a Moldavian-born Romanian and English rabbi, academic scholar, and educator, most famous for his roles as founder and President of the United Synagogue of America, President of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, and architect of the American Conservative Jewish movement.
Born in Focşani to a Jewish Romanian family adhering to the Chabad Hasidic branch, he attended yeshivas in Eastern Europe. Schechter received his early education from his father who was a shochet ("ritual slaughterer"). Reportedly, he learned to read Hebrew by age three, and by five mastered Chumash. He went to a yeshiva in Piatra Neamţ at age ten and at age thirteen studied with one of the major Talmudic scholars, Rabbi Joseph Saul Nathanson of Lemberg. In his twenties he went to the Rabbinical College in Vienna, where he studied under the more modern Talmudic scholar Meir Friedmann, before in 1879 moving on to undertake further studies at the Berlin Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums and at the University of Berlin. Three years later he was invited to the UK, to be tutor of rabbinics under Claude Montefiore in London.
wn.com/Solomon_Schechter -
Tomás de Torquemada
Tomás de Torquemada, O.P. (1420 – September 16, 1498) was a fifteenth century Spanish Dominican friar, first Grand Inquisitor in Spain's movement to restore Christianity among its populace in the late fifteenth century. As well as being the Grand Inquisitor, Torquemada was also the confessor to Isabella I of Castile. He is notorious for his zealous campaign against the crypto-Jews and crypto-Muslims of Spain. He was one of the chief supporters of the Alhambra Decree, which expelled the Jews from Spain in 1492. Concerning the number of autos-da-fé during Torquemada's tenure as Inquisitor General, there is a general consensus among the scholars that about 2,000 people were burned at the stake due to prosecution by the Spanish Inquisition in the whole of Spain between 1480 and 1530. In modern times, his name has become synonymous with the Christian Inquisition’s horror, religious bigotry, and cruel fanaticism.
Tomás de Torquemada was born in Valladolid, Castile-León, Spain.[citation needed] He was the nephew of a celebrated theologian and cardinal, Juan de Torquemada, who himself was a descendant of a converso. This was the term that designated a Spaniard who had converted to Christianity from Islam or Judaism.
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Vilna Gaon
Elijah ben Shlomo Zalman Kremer, (Hebrew: ר' אליהו בן שלמה זלמן) known as the Vilna Gaon or Elijah of Vilna and simply by his Hebrew acronym Gra ("Gaon Rabbenu Eliyahu") or Elijah Ben Solomon, (Vilnius April 23, 1720 – Vilnius October 9, 1797), was a Talmudist, halachist, kabbalist, and the foremost leader of non-hasidic Jewry of the past few centuries. He is commonly referred to in Hebrew as ha'Gaon ha'Chasid mi'Vilna, "the saintly genius from Vilnius."
He was one of the most influential Rabbinic authorities since the Middle Ages, and—although he is counted among the sages known as the Acharonim—he is held by many authorities after him as belonging to the Rishonim (Rabbinic authorities of the Middle Ages). Large groups of people, including many yeshivas, uphold the set of Jewish customs and rites (minhag), the "minhag ha-Gra," which is named for him, and which is also considered by many to be the prevailing Ashkenazi minhag in Jerusalem.
Born in Vilnius, capital city of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Gaon displayed extraordinary talent while still a child. By the time he was twenty years old, rabbis were submitting their most difficult halakhic problems to him for legal rulings. He was a voluminous author, writing such works as glosses on the Babylonian Talmud and Shulchan Aruch known as Biurei ha-Gra ("Elaboration by the Gra"), a running commentary on the Mishnah (Shenoth Eliyahu ("The Years of Elijah"), and insights on the Pentateuch entitled Adereth Eliyahu ("The Splendor of Elijah"). Various Kabbalistic works have commentaries in his name, and commentaries on the Proverbs and other books of the Tanakh were written later on in his life. None were published in his lifetime.
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
wn.com/World_War_I -
Yehuda Bauer
Yehuda Bauer (Hebrew: יהודה באואר; born 1926) is a historian and scholar of the Holocaust. He is a Professor of Holocaust Studies at the Avraham Harman Institute of Contemporary Jewry at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Born and raised in Prague, Czechoslovakia, Bauer was fluent at an early age in the Czech, Slovak and German languages, later learning Hebrew, Yiddish, English, French and Polish. His father had strong Zionist convictions and during the 1930s tried to raise money to get his family to the British Mandate of Palestine. On March 15, 1939, the family migrated to Palestine.
Bauer attended high school in in Haifa and at sixteen, inspired by his history teacher, Rachel Krulik, decided to dedicate himself to studying history. Upon completing high school, he joined the Palmach. He attended Cardiff University, Wales, on a British scholarship, interrupting his studies to fight in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, after which he completed his degree.
Bauer returned to Israel to join Kibbutz Shoval and began his graduate work in history at Hebrew University. He received his doctorate in 1960 for a thesis on the British Mandate of Palestine. The following year, he began teaching at the Institute for Contemporary Jewry at the Hebrew University.
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Yordim
Yerida (Hebrew: ירידה Translit.: yerida Translated: descent) is a Hebrew term referring to emigration by Israeli Jews from the State of Israel. Yerida is the opposite of Aliyah (lit. "ascent"), which is immigration to Israel. Zionists are generally critical of the act of yerida and the term is somewhat derogatory.
Common reasons for emigration are economic constraints, criticism of the government, lack of security due to ongoing Palestinian political violence and the Arab–Israeli conflict, perceived religious coercion and academic or professional advancement.
Emigrants from Israel are known as yordim ("those who go down [from Israel]"). Immigrants to Israel are known as olim ("those who go up [to Israel]"). The use of the Hebrew word "Yored" (which means "descending") is a modern renewal of a term taken from the Torah: "אנכי ארד עמך מצרימה ואנכי אעלך גם עלו", and from the Mishnah: "הכל מעלין לארץ ישראל ואין הכל מוציאין", and from the Talmud "ארץ ישראל גבוה מכל הארצות" (The Land of Israel is higher than all the countries).
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Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel put religious studies first
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel put religious studies over military duties. CNN's Sara Sidner reports.
http://wn.com/Ultra-Orthodox_Jews_in_Israel_put_religious_studies_first
Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel put religious studies over military duties. CNN's Sara Sidner reports.
Evicted New York synagogue burried in Jersey basement
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:29
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
NEW YORK (JTA) -- In the dank basement of a storage facility in New Jersey, Richard McBee rummages through piles of chairs, prayer books and dismantled memorial plaques, the remains of his beloved 16th Street Synagogue. McBee and other regulars at the 67-year old house of worship were forced to evict the building that housed their synagogue the week before, transferring its items to the space donated by one of the congregants. JTA's Gil Shefler and Uri Fintzy visited 16th Street Synagogue's unusual new location.
http://wn.com/Evicted_New_York_synagogue_burried_in_Jersey_basement
NEW YORK (JTA) -- In the dank basement of a storage facility in New Jersey, Richard McBee rummages through piles of chairs, prayer books and dismantled memorial plaques, the remains of his beloved 16th Street Synagogue. McBee and other regulars at the 67-year old house of worship were forced to evict the building that housed their synagogue the week before, transferring its items to the space donated by one of the congregants. JTA's Gil Shefler and Uri Fintzy visited 16th Street Synagogue's unusual new location.
- published: 07 Feb 2013
- views: 5
- author: jtanews
Jewish school looks to attract non-Jews: novel new initiative at Frankfurt's Lichtigfeld School
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
The Lichtigfeld School opened here in Frankfurt in 1966, it was the first German-Jewish school to reopen its doors after the Holocaust. Now in 2013 the Lichtigfeld School has introduced a new program, a new game plan to attract more non-Jewish students.
http://wn.com/Jewish_school_looks_to_attract_non-Jews_novel_new_initiative_at_Frankfurt's_Lichtigfeld_School
The Lichtigfeld School opened here in Frankfurt in 1966, it was the first German-Jewish school to reopen its doors after the Holocaust. Now in 2013 the Lichtigfeld School has introduced a new program, a new game plan to attract more non-Jewish students.
- published: 07 Feb 2013
- views: 53
- author: JewishNewsOne
Jewish Spanish Civil War veteran dies in Britain: last known member of 1930s Jewish brigade
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:45
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
The last known survivor in Britain to fight in the Spanish Civil War has died aged 94. Born in Manchester to Polish immigrants, David Lomon was one of 800 Jewish soldiers who volunteered to fight against Franco in the 1930s. In order to become less conspicuous during a period of rife anti-Semitism in Europe, he changed his name from Solomon to Lomon, a fact he said would later save his life.
http://wn.com/Jewish_Spanish_Civil_War_veteran_dies_in_Britain_last_known_member_of_1930s_Jewish_brigade
The last known survivor in Britain to fight in the Spanish Civil War has died aged 94. Born in Manchester to Polish immigrants, David Lomon was one of 800 Jewish soldiers who volunteered to fight against Franco in the 1930s. In order to become less conspicuous during a period of rife anti-Semitism in Europe, he changed his name from Solomon to Lomon, a fact he said would later save his life.
- published: 06 Feb 2013
- views: 56
- author: JewishNewsOne
Jewish Lobby Crushes Chuck Hagel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:48
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
www.realjewnews.com brothernathanaelfoundation.org brovids.com
http://wn.com/Jewish_Lobby_Crushes_Chuck_Hagel
www.realjewnews.com brothernathanaelfoundation.org brovids.com
- published: 04 Feb 2013
- views: 16504
- author: Brother Nathanael
Orthodox Jewish All Stars: With Alex Clare, Joe Lieberman, Faye Kellerman and More!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:47
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
JewintheCity.com JITC's wig by http Jew in the City announces the first inaugural class of Orthodox Jewish All Stars! See them talk about balancing professional and spiritual success in our latest video and debunk the myths that all Orthodox Jewish men are rabbis and that Orthodox Jewish women aren't allowed to work. Read more about the message of the video: www.jewinthecity.com shot and edited by Elliot Gabor eliecreative.com original score by Talia and Rami Goren www.imageinmusic.com JITC's stylist Sharon Langert fashion-isha.com JITC's makeup by Jenna Hanley http Jamie Geller's makeup by Bleema Weissman www.facebook.com and Jamie's wig styling by Leah Kaplan www.facebook.com Miriam Rosenbaum's makeup by Cynthia Galimidi facebook.com Faye Kellerman's makeup by Jocelyn Miller www.facebook.com Rochelle Shoretz's makeup by Sarah Appel sarahappel.com Special thanks to: www.yu.edu www.fightfactoryny.com The Booksteins
http://wn.com/Orthodox_Jewish_All_Stars_With_Alex_Clare,_Joe_Lieberman,_Faye_Kellerman_and_More!
JewintheCity.com JITC's wig by http Jew in the City announces the first inaugural class of Orthodox Jewish All Stars! See them talk about balancing professional and spiritual success in our latest video and debunk the myths that all Orthodox Jewish men are rabbis and that Orthodox Jewish women aren't allowed to work. Read more about the message of the video: www.jewinthecity.com shot and edited by Elliot Gabor eliecreative.com original score by Talia and Rami Goren www.imageinmusic.com JITC's stylist Sharon Langert fashion-isha.com JITC's makeup by Jenna Hanley http Jamie Geller's makeup by Bleema Weissman www.facebook.com and Jamie's wig styling by Leah Kaplan www.facebook.com Miriam Rosenbaum's makeup by Cynthia Galimidi facebook.com Faye Kellerman's makeup by Jocelyn Miller www.facebook.com Rochelle Shoretz's makeup by Sarah Appel sarahappel.com Special thanks to: www.yu.edu www.fightfactoryny.com The Booksteins
- published: 09 Dec 2012
- views: 63215
- author: jewinthecity
European Jewish Parliament delegation at Auschwitz: trip marked Holocaust Memorial Day
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
120 delegates from around 50 countries - all members of the European Jewish Parliament - visited Auschwitz on International Holocaust Memorial Day 2013 to remember the dead.
http://wn.com/European_Jewish_Parliament_delegation_at_Auschwitz_trip_marked_Holocaust_Memorial_Day
120 delegates from around 50 countries - all members of the European Jewish Parliament - visited Auschwitz on International Holocaust Memorial Day 2013 to remember the dead.
- published: 06 Feb 2013
- views: 36
- author: JewishNewsOne
EJP urges EU to blacklist Hezbollah: European Jewish Parliament sends appeal to Ashton
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:22
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
The European Jewish Parliament has submitted a letter to European Union Foreign Policy Chief Catherine Ashton urging her and the EU to reclassify Lebanese-based militant group Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.
http://wn.com/EJP_urges_EU_to_blacklist_Hezbollah_European_Jewish_Parliament_sends_appeal_to_Ashton
The European Jewish Parliament has submitted a letter to European Union Foreign Policy Chief Catherine Ashton urging her and the EU to reclassify Lebanese-based militant group Hezbollah as a terrorist organization.
- published: 08 Feb 2013
- views: 2
- author: JewishNewsOne
This Is Jewish Style - Official Parody - GANGNAM STYLE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:25
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This...
http://wn.com/This_Is_Jewish_Style_Official_Parody_GANGNAM_STYLE
This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This user have been hacked......... This...
- published: 19 Sep 2012
- views: 306973
- author: darkdarkdarkbar1
I'M JEWISH
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:30
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
DailyGrace answers your questions! SUBSCRIBE YOU GORGEOUS POPSICLES! www.youtube.com www.youtube.com SUBSCRIBE TO TIM: www.youtube.com FOLLOW ME: www.twitter.com www.facebook.com MERCH: www.districtlines.com
http://wn.com/I'M_JEWISH
DailyGrace answers your questions! SUBSCRIBE YOU GORGEOUS POPSICLES! www.youtube.com www.youtube.com SUBSCRIBE TO TIM: www.youtube.com FOLLOW ME: www.twitter.com www.facebook.com MERCH: www.districtlines.com
- published: 03 Dec 2012
- views: 514606
- author: dailygrace
Why Jews Must Believe In Jesus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
www.realjewnews.com brothernathanaelfoundation.org brovids.com
http://wn.com/Why_Jews_Must_Believe_In_Jesus
www.realjewnews.com brothernathanaelfoundation.org brovids.com
- published: 27 Jan 2013
- views: 41075
- author: Brother Nathanael
TJC's Jewish News Week in Review: February 8, 2013
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:35
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
newsdesk.tjctv.com
http://wn.com/TJC's_Jewish_News_Week_in_Review_February_8,_2013
CNN: Ultra-Orthodox Jews In Israel Put Religious Studies First
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel put religious studies over military duties. CNN's Sara Sidner reports.
http://wn.com/CNN_Ultra-Orthodox_Jews_In_Israel_Put_Religious_Studies_First
Ultra-Orthodox Jews in Israel put religious studies over military duties. CNN's Sara Sidner reports.
- published: 06 Feb 2013
- views: 3767
- author: JewsOnTelevision
Jewish Rabbis Against Zionism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:53
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
Dozens of ultra Orthodox Jews converged in London to protest against Zionism and the persecution of religious Jews in Israel. They also believe the numerous human rights violations committed by the Israeli regime are a big factor in anti-Jewish hatred around the world. Press TV London's correspondent, Hassan Alkatib, was at the protest. An outcry of British Jews against Israeli tyranny. That was the title of the protest held by dozens of anti-Zionist Orthodox Jews outside the Israeli embassy in London. They got together in a unified stand to condemn the Zionist regime and its mistreatment of Judaism and religious Jews. 'Israel has a tendency in order to project themselves as an enlightened and democratic nation to sign any and every international treaty. However in reality they constantly and flagrantly breach these same treaties. This includes the absolute violation of human rights.' The protesters were angry at the news of a Jewish rabbi being arrested for trying to stop the destruction of Jewish graves by the Israeli regime. They feel the Israeli government suppresses religious freedoms and goes on to persecute, intimidate and silence the voices of legitimate protesters. 'The very eminent Rabbi David Shmidel who has been working for decades on trying to protect ancient burials sites. He was deliberately arrested, a man of 80 years of age, he was handcuffed. And he was put into a cell and not allowed to have even a drop of water for a whole day and all this is an ...
http://wn.com/Jewish_Rabbis_Against_Zionism
Dozens of ultra Orthodox Jews converged in London to protest against Zionism and the persecution of religious Jews in Israel. They also believe the numerous human rights violations committed by the Israeli regime are a big factor in anti-Jewish hatred around the world. Press TV London's correspondent, Hassan Alkatib, was at the protest. An outcry of British Jews against Israeli tyranny. That was the title of the protest held by dozens of anti-Zionist Orthodox Jews outside the Israeli embassy in London. They got together in a unified stand to condemn the Zionist regime and its mistreatment of Judaism and religious Jews. 'Israel has a tendency in order to project themselves as an enlightened and democratic nation to sign any and every international treaty. However in reality they constantly and flagrantly breach these same treaties. This includes the absolute violation of human rights.' The protesters were angry at the news of a Jewish rabbi being arrested for trying to stop the destruction of Jewish graves by the Israeli regime. They feel the Israeli government suppresses religious freedoms and goes on to persecute, intimidate and silence the voices of legitimate protesters. 'The very eminent Rabbi David Shmidel who has been working for decades on trying to protect ancient burials sites. He was deliberately arrested, a man of 80 years of age, he was handcuffed. And he was put into a cell and not allowed to have even a drop of water for a whole day and all this is an ...
- published: 07 Dec 2012
- views: 436
- author: presstvlondon
A Jewish Star International Singing Competition Auditions promo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:13
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
LIVE AUDITIONS in front of the judges on February 17th and 18th At the Manhattan Beach Jewish Center, 60 West End Ave, Brooklyn NY www.ajewishstar.com Facebook.com/JewishStar In association with Young Israel Of America Judges are rotating and include: Lipa, Gad Elbaz, Yeedle, Yossi Green, and Yehuda Solomon. Host is MODI "Wanna be a Jewish Star" Written and performed by NACHAS Musical production: Ruli Ezrachi Produced by Danny Finkelman Executive producers: Yossi and Mica Soffer Director of photography: Sean Sinderbrand Sound: Michael Puro Israel shoot: Shlomo Chaim Rivkin California shoot: Ron Widerberg A Sparks Next production
http://wn.com/A_Jewish_Star_International_Singing_Competition_Auditions_promo
LIVE AUDITIONS in front of the judges on February 17th and 18th At the Manhattan Beach Jewish Center, 60 West End Ave, Brooklyn NY www.ajewishstar.com Facebook.com/JewishStar In association with Young Israel Of America Judges are rotating and include: Lipa, Gad Elbaz, Yeedle, Yossi Green, and Yehuda Solomon. Host is MODI "Wanna be a Jewish Star" Written and performed by NACHAS Musical production: Ruli Ezrachi Produced by Danny Finkelman Executive producers: Yossi and Mica Soffer Director of photography: Sean Sinderbrand Sound: Michael Puro Israel shoot: Shlomo Chaim Rivkin California shoot: Ron Widerberg A Sparks Next production
- published: 24 Jan 2013
- views: 20308
- author: ajewishstar
London Jewish community reacts to Channel 4's TV documentary on Haredi sex abuse
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:36
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
A documentary looking at how claims of child sexual abuse are dealt with in Britain's Charedi Jewish community was recently featured on British television. It's sparked off debate here in the UK, but how has London and its Jewish community reacted to the documentary?
http://wn.com/London_Jewish_community_reacts_to_Channel_4's_TV_documentary_on_Haredi_sex_abuse
A documentary looking at how claims of child sexual abuse are dealt with in Britain's Charedi Jewish community was recently featured on British television. It's sparked off debate here in the UK, but how has London and its Jewish community reacted to the documentary?
- published: 08 Feb 2013
- views: 4
- author: JewishNewsOne
Hava Nagila: The Movie Trailer 1 (2013) - Jewish Documentary Movie HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:12
- Updated: 03 Feb 2013
Subscribe to TRAILERS: bit.ly Subscribe to COMING SOON: bit.ly Like us on FACEBOOK: goo.gl Hava Nagila: The Movie Trailer 1 (2013) - Jewish Documentary Movie HD A documentary on the history of the song "Hava Nagila." Cast: Director: Roberta Grossman Producer: Sophie Sartain Roberta Grossman Marta Kauffman Writer: Sophie Sartain Editor: Cinematographer: Composer: "Hava Nagila: The Movie trailer" "Hava Nagila: The Movie movie" 2013 hd "jewish song" "jewish dance" "jewish celebration song" "simpsons jewish song" bah-mitzvah "jewish wedding" "jewish documentary" "Robert Redford" "Barbra Streisand" zedison movieclips movieclipstrailers movieclips movieclipsDOTcom movieclipscomingsoon "hava nagila the movie"
http://wn.com/Hava_Nagila_The_Movie_Trailer_1_2013_Jewish_Documentary_Movie_HD
Subscribe to TRAILERS: bit.ly Subscribe to COMING SOON: bit.ly Like us on FACEBOOK: goo.gl Hava Nagila: The Movie Trailer 1 (2013) - Jewish Documentary Movie HD A documentary on the history of the song "Hava Nagila." Cast: Director: Roberta Grossman Producer: Sophie Sartain Roberta Grossman Marta Kauffman Writer: Sophie Sartain Editor: Cinematographer: Composer: "Hava Nagila: The Movie trailer" "Hava Nagila: The Movie movie" 2013 hd "jewish song" "jewish dance" "jewish celebration song" "simpsons jewish song" bah-mitzvah "jewish wedding" "jewish documentary" "Robert Redford" "Barbra Streisand" zedison movieclips movieclipstrailers movieclips movieclipsDOTcom movieclipscomingsoon "hava nagila the movie"
- published: 30 Jan 2013
- views: 2298
- author: MovieclipsCOMINGSOON
How the Jews Treat Christians in Israel?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:07
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
How the Jews Treat Christians in Israel? In this video some christian tourists have been in israel. see how the zionist trait them, why the jews live in the western and arabic countries as kings and when you go to israel they trait you with this method front of the police. The jews in israel have the right do every thing against people of ather religion if you can't beilive that come here as tourist and pass just one day. You must know that the police can't arrest any jew when beat or insult someone of ather religion but he will go to prison if he do it against a jew. I tell that because i'm israelian too and i was an ex-jew. At the heart of the Zionist critique of liberal assimilation lay the conviction that Jews constitute a unique race. It was the belief in insurmountable racial differences that made the inevitability of anti-Semitism credible, just as it rationalizes the view that every effort to assimilate must go aground on the barrier reef of biological determinism ... The maintenance of that [racial] purity was essential to German Zionism, for it acknowledged the essential prerequisite for nationhood to be [in the 1922 words of Zionist Fritz Kahn] "consanguinity of the flesh and solidarity of the soul" together with the "will to establish a closer [Jewish] brotherhood over [and] against all other communities on earth." tags: Jews christians zionist racist nazi israel arab arabic iran hamas gaza islam muslem truth ossama ben laden usa france germany italy japon uk ...
http://wn.com/How_the_Jews_Treat_Christians_in_Israel?
How the Jews Treat Christians in Israel? In this video some christian tourists have been in israel. see how the zionist trait them, why the jews live in the western and arabic countries as kings and when you go to israel they trait you with this method front of the police. The jews in israel have the right do every thing against people of ather religion if you can't beilive that come here as tourist and pass just one day. You must know that the police can't arrest any jew when beat or insult someone of ather religion but he will go to prison if he do it against a jew. I tell that because i'm israelian too and i was an ex-jew. At the heart of the Zionist critique of liberal assimilation lay the conviction that Jews constitute a unique race. It was the belief in insurmountable racial differences that made the inevitability of anti-Semitism credible, just as it rationalizes the view that every effort to assimilate must go aground on the barrier reef of biological determinism ... The maintenance of that [racial] purity was essential to German Zionism, for it acknowledged the essential prerequisite for nationhood to be [in the 1922 words of Zionist Fritz Kahn] "consanguinity of the flesh and solidarity of the soul" together with the "will to establish a closer [Jewish] brotherhood over [and] against all other communities on earth." tags: Jews christians zionist racist nazi israel arab arabic iran hamas gaza islam muslem truth ossama ben laden usa france germany italy japon uk ...
- published: 02 Jul 2009
- views: 1604409
- author: 2000barak
Jonathan Cahn and the Nine Harbingers: Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis, January 8, 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:31
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Jonathan Cahn, author of The Harbinger, shares nine omens that spell judgment for America on this edition of Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
http://wn.com/Jonathan_Cahn_and_the_Nine_Harbingers_Jewish_Voice_with_Jonathan_Bernis,_January_8,_2012
Jonathan Cahn, author of The Harbinger, shares nine omens that spell judgment for America on this edition of Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 06 Jan 2012
- views: 42126
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Jewish Commentator - My First Taste of a Real Job (And More)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:23
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
This is the first episode of my new series, Jewish Commentator (also known as Jewish Commentator Week Breakdown). Each episode contains a mix of game clips, highlights, life stories, and excerpts of the week's new videos/articles. Each week a new episode will be released. This episode's links: My First Real Job, First Taste Of Work And Real Life (article) - www.jewishcommentator.com How I am going to run my channel (video) - www.jewishcommentator.com Armored Shield Tank Gameplay (video) - www.jewishcommentator.com My Website - www.jewishcommentator.com My Twitter - http My Facebook - www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Jewish_Commentator_My_First_Taste_of_a_Real_Job_And_More
This is the first episode of my new series, Jewish Commentator (also known as Jewish Commentator Week Breakdown). Each episode contains a mix of game clips, highlights, life stories, and excerpts of the week's new videos/articles. Each week a new episode will be released. This episode's links: My First Real Job, First Taste Of Work And Real Life (article) - www.jewishcommentator.com How I am going to run my channel (video) - www.jewishcommentator.com Armored Shield Tank Gameplay (video) - www.jewishcommentator.com My Website - www.jewishcommentator.com My Twitter - http My Facebook - www.facebook.com
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 1317
- author: JewishCommentator
Is Jesus the Jewish Messiah?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 33:43
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/Is_Jesus_the_Jewish_Messiah?
REVIEW: Jewish Mum of the Year | Amy McLean
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:59
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
What do you think of the TV show? Amy x Website and contact information on channel page.
http://wn.com/REVIEW_Jewish_Mum_of_the_Year_|_Amy_McLean
What do you think of the TV show? Amy x Website and contact information on channel page.
- published: 12 Oct 2012
- views: 1299
- author: Amy McLean
Egyptian Historian: MB Bears Much of Responsibility for Fleeing of Jews from Egypt
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:42
- Updated: 07 Feb 2013
#3709 - Egyptian Historian Khaled Fahmi: The Muslim Brotherhood Bears Much of the Responsibility for the Fleeing of Jews from Egypt Al-Nahar TV (Egypt) - January 3, 2013
http://wn.com/Egyptian_Historian_MB_Bears_Much_of_Responsibility_for_Fleeing_of_Jews_from_Egypt
#3709 - Egyptian Historian Khaled Fahmi: The Muslim Brotherhood Bears Much of the Responsibility for the Fleeing of Jews from Egypt Al-Nahar TV (Egypt) - January 3, 2013
- published: 13 Jan 2013
- views: 2101
- author: MEMRITVVideos
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Jack Black Will Do Anything To Get Into Hebrew School - CONAN on TBS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:37
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
Jack Black will sing, dance, and do whatever you need to believe he's qualified for Hebrew school.
http://wn.com/Jack_Black_Will_Do_Anything_To_Get_Into_Hebrew_School_CONAN_on_TBS
Jack Black will sing, dance, and do whatever you need to believe he's qualified for Hebrew school.
- published: 27 Apr 2012
- views: 83423
- author: teamcoco
Extended Interview with Jews for Jesus' David Brickner and Susan Perlman
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 29:49
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
David Brickner and Susan Perlman of Jews for Jesus talk about being Messianic Jews on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
http://wn.com/Extended_Interview_with_Jews_for_Jesus'_David_Brickner_and_Susan_Perlman
David Brickner and Susan Perlman of Jews for Jesus talk about being Messianic Jews on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 05 Nov 2011
- views: 3991
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:03
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
http://wn.com/Mel_Gibson_Jewish_Question_Interview_Part_1_
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
- published: 26 Nov 2009
- views: 596592
- author: Badpeopleincharge
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Roy Schoeman
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 23:38
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
Watch the full, in-depth interview with our guest Roy Schoeman on this clip from the "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" TV show and learn how salvation comes from the Jews. www.jewishvoice.org
http://wn.com/Jewish_Voice_Extended_Interview_with_Roy_Schoeman
Watch the full, in-depth interview with our guest Roy Schoeman on this clip from the "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" TV show and learn how salvation comes from the Jews. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 01 Jul 2011
- views: 4185
- author: jewishvoicetoday
borat interviews a jew (Matt Zaller)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:25
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
vid from funny-videos.co.uk, sorry for the poor quality
http://wn.com/borat_interviews_a_jew_Matt_Zaller
vid from funny-videos.co.uk, sorry for the poor quality
- published: 15 Jan 2009
- views: 58653
- author: SamuelMcCloud
Bishop Richard Williamson - Gas Chambers, Anti-Semitism and the Truth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:48
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
Please comment, but use a civilized language. No name-calling! Comments with insulting language will be removed. "- Anti-Semitism can only be bad if it is against the truth. But if something is true, it cant be bad. I am not interested in the word anti-Semitism." For a follow up, look at www.youtube.com and at www.youtube.com ("More info ...."). The Crucifixion of Bishop Williamson truthisbeauty.wordpress.com " - As I observe the vilification of Bishop Williamson occurring in the Catholic blogosphere, I cant help but recall the gospel account of the crucifixion of Christ Himself. For with the exception of the Blessed Mother and St. John, the rest of His apostles had abandoned Him, quaking in their boots for fear of the Jews (John 19:38)." I believe in freedom of speech for Bishop Williamson revisionistreview.blogspot.com The Church and anti-Semitism—again Kevin MacDonald " - Let's hope the traditionalists don't give in to what will be a furious onslaught to prevent any glimmer of the resurgence of traditional Catholicism. " www.theoccidentalobserver.net The John Paul II Theology of Pope Benedict XVI revisionistreview.blogspot.com 'Holocaust bishop' told to recant news.bbc.co.uk For a German translation of the interview: globalfire.tv .An English transcript at globalfire.tv More about Williamson at blog.balder.org at jackmyers.daylife.com and at www.tellingfilms.co.uk Bishop Richard Williamson's own blog "Dinoscopus" at dinoscopus.blogspot.com " - Amidst this tremendous ...
http://wn.com/Bishop_Richard_Williamson_Gas_Chambers,_Anti-Semitism_and_the_Truth
Please comment, but use a civilized language. No name-calling! Comments with insulting language will be removed. "- Anti-Semitism can only be bad if it is against the truth. But if something is true, it cant be bad. I am not interested in the word anti-Semitism." For a follow up, look at www.youtube.com and at www.youtube.com ("More info ...."). The Crucifixion of Bishop Williamson truthisbeauty.wordpress.com " - As I observe the vilification of Bishop Williamson occurring in the Catholic blogosphere, I cant help but recall the gospel account of the crucifixion of Christ Himself. For with the exception of the Blessed Mother and St. John, the rest of His apostles had abandoned Him, quaking in their boots for fear of the Jews (John 19:38)." I believe in freedom of speech for Bishop Williamson revisionistreview.blogspot.com The Church and anti-Semitism—again Kevin MacDonald " - Let's hope the traditionalists don't give in to what will be a furious onslaught to prevent any glimmer of the resurgence of traditional Catholicism. " www.theoccidentalobserver.net The John Paul II Theology of Pope Benedict XVI revisionistreview.blogspot.com 'Holocaust bishop' told to recant news.bbc.co.uk For a German translation of the interview: globalfire.tv .An English transcript at globalfire.tv More about Williamson at blog.balder.org at jackmyers.daylife.com and at www.tellingfilms.co.uk Bishop Richard Williamson's own blog "Dinoscopus" at dinoscopus.blogspot.com " - Amidst this tremendous ...
- published: 22 Jan 2009
- views: 285196
- author: kvalvika
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Rabbi David Chernoff
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:17
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
The rebirth of the Messianic Jewish Movement is clearly a fulfillment of Last Days Bible prophecy. What is the Messianic Jewish Movement? Here to tell us more on this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" is Rabbi David Chernoff, who leads a large Messianic congregation in Philadelphia. His parents, Martin and Yohanna, were pioneers in the Messianic Movement. David explains more about how this Movement is a true move of God in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
http://wn.com/Jewish_Voice_Extended_Interview_with_Rabbi_David_Chernoff
The rebirth of the Messianic Jewish Movement is clearly a fulfillment of Last Days Bible prophecy. What is the Messianic Jewish Movement? Here to tell us more on this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" is Rabbi David Chernoff, who leads a large Messianic congregation in Philadelphia. His parents, Martin and Yohanna, were pioneers in the Messianic Movement. David explains more about how this Movement is a true move of God in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 16 Jun 2011
- views: 3037
- author: jewishvoicetoday
PJTV: Roger L. Simon Interviews Norman Podhoretz on "Why Are Jews Liberals?"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
From the pages of the New York Times to countless dinner table debates, Norman Podhoretz has some controversial observations about political identity. www.PJTV.com
http://wn.com/PJTV_Roger_L_Simon_Interviews_Norman_Podhoretz_on_Why_Are_Jews_Liberals?
From the pages of the New York Times to countless dinner table debates, Norman Podhoretz has some controversial observations about political identity. www.PJTV.com
- published: 22 Sep 2009
- views: 3096
- author: Pajamasmedia
Jews of Beirut Interview # 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:41
- Updated: 12 Jan 2013
For Historical purposes, some information, in the description, and interviews may be repeated. In Beirut the main synagogue's name was Magen Abraham. It was one of seventeen synagogues in the city (The Official Site of the Lebanese Jewish Community Council). It was built in 1926, after some delay due to World War One. Although its main purpose was a house of worship, it was also used as a school, and it was part of an underground railroad. The synagogue helped unify the Jews of Beirut, because previously there were many small houses of worship for different social classes. Once the communal synagogue was built, many of the Jews of Beirut prayed together (Magen-Abraham, Synagogue, Wadi Bujmil, Beirut). The Alliance was an organization established in 1860 in Paris. It was organized by the "free" Jews in France, to help their brothers in other countries who were discriminated against because of their religious beliefs. The French Jews wanted to help Middle Eastern countries, because Jews in Lebanon, Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, and Iran were not receiving the education that could achieve "betterment of the social and legal status of the Jews through their 'cultural and moral elevation.'" The Alliance school was an integral part of the culture and community in Beirut. Over 1000 students a year went to the three different Alliance Schools in Lebanon. At this time, the French language was one of the main languages in the world. It was the international language, and knowing it ...
http://wn.com/Jews_of_Beirut_Interview_1
For Historical purposes, some information, in the description, and interviews may be repeated. In Beirut the main synagogue's name was Magen Abraham. It was one of seventeen synagogues in the city (The Official Site of the Lebanese Jewish Community Council). It was built in 1926, after some delay due to World War One. Although its main purpose was a house of worship, it was also used as a school, and it was part of an underground railroad. The synagogue helped unify the Jews of Beirut, because previously there were many small houses of worship for different social classes. Once the communal synagogue was built, many of the Jews of Beirut prayed together (Magen-Abraham, Synagogue, Wadi Bujmil, Beirut). The Alliance was an organization established in 1860 in Paris. It was organized by the "free" Jews in France, to help their brothers in other countries who were discriminated against because of their religious beliefs. The French Jews wanted to help Middle Eastern countries, because Jews in Lebanon, Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, and Iran were not receiving the education that could achieve "betterment of the social and legal status of the Jews through their 'cultural and moral elevation.'" The Alliance school was an integral part of the culture and community in Beirut. Over 1000 students a year went to the three different Alliance Schools in Lebanon. At this time, the French language was one of the main languages in the world. It was the international language, and knowing it ...
- published: 21 Feb 2012
- views: 2326
- author: jewsofbeirut1
Jewish Partisans - Minsk Ghetto Rescue from 'Interviews From The Underground' by Phillip Alloy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Jewish partisan Michael Treister's account of his rescue of captives from the Minsk Ghetto during World War II. Filmed on site in Minsk, Belarus. Features historical and primary documentation. More info at www.jewishpartisans.net
http://wn.com/Jewish_Partisans_Minsk_Ghetto_Rescue_from_'Interviews_From_The_Underground'_by_Phillip_Alloy
Jewish partisan Michael Treister's account of his rescue of captives from the Minsk Ghetto during World War II. Filmed on site in Minsk, Belarus. Features historical and primary documentation. More info at www.jewishpartisans.net
- published: 25 Nov 2008
- views: 5254
- author: philalloy
interview with Eli Roth Inglourious Basterds - Bear Jew, acting and Red Sox: Stupid For Movies
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:55
- Updated: 12 Jan 2013
www.twitter.com www.twitter.com Part 1 of 4 from the The DigiGods interviews of the actors from Inglorious Basterds. Actor Eli Roth from Quentin Tarantino's Inglourious Basterds Coming soon- a weekly web show featuring the DigiGods from Producer Mike Rotman Follow us on twitter to learn all about it
http://wn.com/interview_with_Eli_Roth_Inglourious_Basterds_Bear_Jew,_acting_and_Red_Sox_Stupid_For_Movies
www.twitter.com www.twitter.com Part 1 of 4 from the The DigiGods interviews of the actors from Inglorious Basterds. Actor Eli Roth from Quentin Tarantino's Inglourious Basterds Coming soon- a weekly web show featuring the DigiGods from Producer Mike Rotman Follow us on twitter to learn all about it
- published: 19 Aug 2009
- views: 28866
- author: MRotman
The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:10
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
www.jewishracism.com Rev. Bedros Hajian interviews Christopher Jon Bjerknes about the book: The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
http://wn.com/The_Jewish_Genocide_of_Armenian_Christians
www.jewishracism.com Rev. Bedros Hajian interviews Christopher Jon Bjerknes about the book: The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
- published: 25 Feb 2011
- views: 19145
- author: reamonnk
Borat's Jewish Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:24
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
Borat gets interviewed by a jew and.. PENIS!
http://wn.com/Borat's_Jewish_Interview
Borat gets interviewed by a jew and.. PENIS!
- published: 11 Dec 2007
- views: 25641
- author: Baddestman1
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Michael Zeitler
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:03
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
Watch the extended interview with Rabbi Michael Zeitler on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. Zeitler discusses God's supernatural intervention in Israel and the lives of the Jewish People. www.jewishvoice.org Purchase Rabbi Zeitler's "Why Israel is Supernatural" book secure2.convio.net
http://wn.com/Jewish_Voice_Extended_Interview_with_Michael_Zeitler
Watch the extended interview with Rabbi Michael Zeitler on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. Zeitler discusses God's supernatural intervention in Israel and the lives of the Jewish People. www.jewishvoice.org Purchase Rabbi Zeitler's "Why Israel is Supernatural" book secure2.convio.net
- published: 28 Jun 2011
- views: 2801
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Paul McGuire's Extended 'Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis' Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:07
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
Prophecy expert Paul McGuire warns of the hidden agenda behind the global economic crisis in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis in this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis." www.jewishvoice.org Get Paul's book "The Day the Dollar Died" - https
http://wn.com/Paul_McGuire's_Extended_'Jewish_Voice_with_Jonathan_Bernis'_Interview
Prophecy expert Paul McGuire warns of the hidden agenda behind the global economic crisis in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis in this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis." www.jewishvoice.org Get Paul's book "The Day the Dollar Died" - https
- published: 14 Jun 2011
- views: 9013
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Drake Interview On Chelsea Lately! (Speaking Being Jewish,If He's Penetrating Nicki Minaj & More)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:21
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
www.dolobeats.com The Hottest Beats For Artists & Best Sounds For Producers
http://wn.com/Drake_Interview_On_Chelsea_Lately!_Speaking_Being_Jewish,If_He's_Penetrating_Nicki_Minaj_More
www.dolobeats.com The Hottest Beats For Artists & Best Sounds For Producers
- published: 24 Nov 2011
- views: 273168
- author: FocusedFolks20
Rapper Drake Talks About His Bar Mitzvah
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:30
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/Rapper_Drake_Talks_About_His_Bar_Mitzvah
Israel TV - Jews for Jesus' Dan Sered on HaOlam HaBoker
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:12
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
Donate to Jews for Jesus bit.ly Dan Sered, Israel Director of Jews for Jesus is interviewed along with Rabbi Rafi Feuerstein on the subject of Israelis and Jews believing in Jesus.
http://wn.com/Israel_TV_Jews_for_Jesus'_Dan_Sered_on_HaOlam_HaBoker
Donate to Jews for Jesus bit.ly Dan Sered, Israel Director of Jews for Jesus is interviewed along with Rabbi Rafi Feuerstein on the subject of Israelis and Jews believing in Jesus.
- published: 10 Jun 2008
- views: 45561
- author: jfjweb
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Larry Huch
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 26:56
- Updated: 10 Jan 2013
Larry Huch, senior pastor at New Beginnings Church in Irvine, Texas and author of The Torah Blessing shares his thoughts with Jewish Voice's Jonathan Bernis on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
http://wn.com/Jewish_Voice_Extended_Interview_with_Larry_Huch
Larry Huch, senior pastor at New Beginnings Church in Irvine, Texas and author of The Torah Blessing shares his thoughts with Jewish Voice's Jonathan Bernis on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 10 Jul 2011
- views: 5387
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Mel Gibson Jewish Question interview Part 3#
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:18
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
Mel Gibson Jewish Question interview Part 3#
http://wn.com/Mel_Gibson_Jewish_Question_interview_Part_3_
Mel Gibson Jewish Question interview Part 3#
- published: 28 Nov 2009
- views: 64228
- author: Badpeopleincharge
Jewish Food and Traditions for Chanukah - Interview with Vancouver Foodster's Richard Wolak
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:01
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
What Jewish foods are eaten during the festival of Chanukah? Wesla Wong of Global TV interviews editor and publisher Richard Wolak of vancouverfoodster.com on the topic of Jewish food and traditions in a visit to Sabra Restaurant in Vancouver BC Canada. Sabra Restaurant http 3844 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada phone: 604-733-4912 As featured on the show Global Village on Global Television in Vancouver, BC Canada. Please visit Vancouver Foodster online at vancouverfoodster.com to keep informed about the most interesting dining trends, the latest food luminaries and the best new foods, wines, spirits and cocktails around the city and region.
http://wn.com/Jewish_Food_and_Traditions_for_Chanukah_Interview_with_Vancouver_Foodster's_Richard_Wolak
What Jewish foods are eaten during the festival of Chanukah? Wesla Wong of Global TV interviews editor and publisher Richard Wolak of vancouverfoodster.com on the topic of Jewish food and traditions in a visit to Sabra Restaurant in Vancouver BC Canada. Sabra Restaurant http 3844 Oak Street, Vancouver, BC, Canada phone: 604-733-4912 As featured on the show Global Village on Global Television in Vancouver, BC Canada. Please visit Vancouver Foodster online at vancouverfoodster.com to keep informed about the most interesting dining trends, the latest food luminaries and the best new foods, wines, spirits and cocktails around the city and region.
- published: 10 Dec 2009
- views: 4078
- author: Vanfoodster
Mac Miller - Shalom Life Exclusive Interview
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
Shalom Life recently had a chance to interview Mac Miller and talk about his new album, favorite Jewish food, and making a Chanukah song with Drake.
http://wn.com/Mac_Miller_Shalom_Life_Exclusive_Interview
Shalom Life recently had a chance to interview Mac Miller and talk about his new album, favorite Jewish food, and making a Chanukah song with Drake.
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 189739
- author: ShalomMedia
Borat interview - interviewer is jew
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:25
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
I beeing interviewed by famous jew Matt Zaller. very dangerous!!!
http://wn.com/Borat_interview_interviewer_is_jew
I beeing interviewed by famous jew Matt Zaller. very dangerous!!!
- published: 26 May 2008
- views: 1052279
- author: BoratSvideos
2:37
Jack Black Will Do Anything To Get Into Hebrew School - CONAN on TBS
Jack Black will sing, dance, and do whatever you need to believe he's qualified for Hebrew...
published: 27 Apr 2012
author: teamcoco
Jack Black Will Do Anything To Get Into Hebrew School - CONAN on TBS
Jack Black will sing, dance, and do whatever you need to believe he's qualified for Hebrew school.
- published: 27 Apr 2012
- views: 83423
- author: teamcoco
29:49
Extended Interview with Jews for Jesus' David Brickner and Susan Perlman
David Brickner and Susan Perlman of Jews for Jesus talk about being Messianic Jews on Jewi...
published: 05 Nov 2011
author: jewishvoicetoday
Extended Interview with Jews for Jesus' David Brickner and Susan Perlman
David Brickner and Susan Perlman of Jews for Jesus talk about being Messianic Jews on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 05 Nov 2011
- views: 3991
- author: jewishvoicetoday
10:03
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #...
published: 26 Nov 2009
author: Badpeopleincharge
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
Mel Gibson Jewish Question Interview Part 1 #
- published: 26 Nov 2009
- views: 596592
- author: Badpeopleincharge
23:38
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Roy Schoeman
Watch the full, in-depth interview with our guest Roy Schoeman on this clip from the "Jewi...
published: 01 Jul 2011
author: jewishvoicetoday
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Roy Schoeman
Watch the full, in-depth interview with our guest Roy Schoeman on this clip from the "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" TV show and learn how salvation comes from the Jews. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 01 Jul 2011
- views: 4185
- author: jewishvoicetoday
3:25
borat interviews a jew (Matt Zaller)
vid from funny-videos.co.uk, sorry for the poor quality...
published: 15 Jan 2009
author: SamuelMcCloud
borat interviews a jew (Matt Zaller)
vid from funny-videos.co.uk, sorry for the poor quality
- published: 15 Jan 2009
- views: 58653
- author: SamuelMcCloud
5:48
Bishop Richard Williamson - Gas Chambers, Anti-Semitism and the Truth
Please comment, but use a civilized language. No name-calling! Comments with insulting lan...
published: 22 Jan 2009
author: kvalvika
Bishop Richard Williamson - Gas Chambers, Anti-Semitism and the Truth
Please comment, but use a civilized language. No name-calling! Comments with insulting language will be removed. "- Anti-Semitism can only be bad if it is against the truth. But if something is true, it cant be bad. I am not interested in the word anti-Semitism." For a follow up, look at www.youtube.com and at www.youtube.com ("More info ...."). The Crucifixion of Bishop Williamson truthisbeauty.wordpress.com " - As I observe the vilification of Bishop Williamson occurring in the Catholic blogosphere, I cant help but recall the gospel account of the crucifixion of Christ Himself. For with the exception of the Blessed Mother and St. John, the rest of His apostles had abandoned Him, quaking in their boots for fear of the Jews (John 19:38)." I believe in freedom of speech for Bishop Williamson revisionistreview.blogspot.com The Church and anti-Semitism—again Kevin MacDonald " - Let's hope the traditionalists don't give in to what will be a furious onslaught to prevent any glimmer of the resurgence of traditional Catholicism. " www.theoccidentalobserver.net The John Paul II Theology of Pope Benedict XVI revisionistreview.blogspot.com 'Holocaust bishop' told to recant news.bbc.co.uk For a German translation of the interview: globalfire.tv .An English transcript at globalfire.tv More about Williamson at blog.balder.org at jackmyers.daylife.com and at www.tellingfilms.co.uk Bishop Richard Williamson's own blog "Dinoscopus" at dinoscopus.blogspot.com " - Amidst this tremendous ...
- published: 22 Jan 2009
- views: 285196
- author: kvalvika
21:17
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Rabbi David Chernoff
The rebirth of the Messianic Jewish Movement is clearly a fulfillment of Last Days Bible p...
published: 16 Jun 2011
author: jewishvoicetoday
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Rabbi David Chernoff
The rebirth of the Messianic Jewish Movement is clearly a fulfillment of Last Days Bible prophecy. What is the Messianic Jewish Movement? Here to tell us more on this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis" is Rabbi David Chernoff, who leads a large Messianic congregation in Philadelphia. His parents, Martin and Yohanna, were pioneers in the Messianic Movement. David explains more about how this Movement is a true move of God in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis. www.jewishvoice.org
- published: 16 Jun 2011
- views: 3037
- author: jewishvoicetoday
9:56
PJTV: Roger L. Simon Interviews Norman Podhoretz on "Why Are Jews Liberals?"
From the pages of the New York Times to countless dinner table debates, Norman Podhoretz h...
published: 22 Sep 2009
author: Pajamasmedia
PJTV: Roger L. Simon Interviews Norman Podhoretz on "Why Are Jews Liberals?"
From the pages of the New York Times to countless dinner table debates, Norman Podhoretz has some controversial observations about political identity. www.PJTV.com
- published: 22 Sep 2009
- views: 3096
- author: Pajamasmedia
13:41
Jews of Beirut Interview # 1
For Historical purposes, some information, in the description, and interviews may be repea...
published: 21 Feb 2012
author: jewsofbeirut1
Jews of Beirut Interview # 1
For Historical purposes, some information, in the description, and interviews may be repeated. In Beirut the main synagogue's name was Magen Abraham. It was one of seventeen synagogues in the city (The Official Site of the Lebanese Jewish Community Council). It was built in 1926, after some delay due to World War One. Although its main purpose was a house of worship, it was also used as a school, and it was part of an underground railroad. The synagogue helped unify the Jews of Beirut, because previously there were many small houses of worship for different social classes. Once the communal synagogue was built, many of the Jews of Beirut prayed together (Magen-Abraham, Synagogue, Wadi Bujmil, Beirut). The Alliance was an organization established in 1860 in Paris. It was organized by the "free" Jews in France, to help their brothers in other countries who were discriminated against because of their religious beliefs. The French Jews wanted to help Middle Eastern countries, because Jews in Lebanon, Tunisia, Morocco, Syria, and Iran were not receiving the education that could achieve "betterment of the social and legal status of the Jews through their 'cultural and moral elevation.'" The Alliance school was an integral part of the culture and community in Beirut. Over 1000 students a year went to the three different Alliance Schools in Lebanon. At this time, the French language was one of the main languages in the world. It was the international language, and knowing it ...
- published: 21 Feb 2012
- views: 2326
- author: jewsofbeirut1
10:00
Jewish Partisans - Minsk Ghetto Rescue from 'Interviews From The Underground' by Phillip Alloy
Jewish partisan Michael Treister's account of his rescue of captives from the Minsk Ghetto...
published: 25 Nov 2008
author: philalloy
Jewish Partisans - Minsk Ghetto Rescue from 'Interviews From The Underground' by Phillip Alloy
Jewish partisan Michael Treister's account of his rescue of captives from the Minsk Ghetto during World War II. Filmed on site in Minsk, Belarus. Features historical and primary documentation. More info at www.jewishpartisans.net
- published: 25 Nov 2008
- views: 5254
- author: philalloy
3:55
interview with Eli Roth Inglourious Basterds - Bear Jew, acting and Red Sox: Stupid For Movies
www.twitter.com www.twitter.com Part 1 of 4 from the The DigiGods interviews of the actors...
published: 19 Aug 2009
author: MRotman
interview with Eli Roth Inglourious Basterds - Bear Jew, acting and Red Sox: Stupid For Movies
www.twitter.com www.twitter.com Part 1 of 4 from the The DigiGods interviews of the actors from Inglorious Basterds. Actor Eli Roth from Quentin Tarantino's Inglourious Basterds Coming soon- a weekly web show featuring the DigiGods from Producer Mike Rotman Follow us on twitter to learn all about it
- published: 19 Aug 2009
- views: 28866
- author: MRotman
17:10
The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
www.jewishracism.com Rev. Bedros Hajian interviews Christopher Jon Bjerknes about the book...
published: 25 Feb 2011
author: reamonnk
The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
www.jewishracism.com Rev. Bedros Hajian interviews Christopher Jon Bjerknes about the book: The Jewish Genocide of Armenian Christians
- published: 25 Feb 2011
- views: 19145
- author: reamonnk
3:24
Borat's Jewish Interview
Borat gets interviewed by a jew and.. PENIS!...
published: 11 Dec 2007
author: Baddestman1
Borat's Jewish Interview
Borat gets interviewed by a jew and.. PENIS!
- published: 11 Dec 2007
- views: 25641
- author: Baddestman1
21:03
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Michael Zeitler
Watch the extended interview with Rabbi Michael Zeitler on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bern...
published: 28 Jun 2011
author: jewishvoicetoday
Jewish Voice Extended Interview with Michael Zeitler
Watch the extended interview with Rabbi Michael Zeitler on Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis. Zeitler discusses God's supernatural intervention in Israel and the lives of the Jewish People. www.jewishvoice.org Purchase Rabbi Zeitler's "Why Israel is Supernatural" book secure2.convio.net
- published: 28 Jun 2011
- views: 2801
- author: jewishvoicetoday
Vimeo results:
4:16
This Isreal
A road trip straight through Israel. Had no idea what the complexities and diversity of th...
published: 20 Oct 2011
author: Matty Brown
This Isreal
A road trip straight through Israel. Had no idea what the complexities and diversity of the cultures were, but I got deeper and deeper, seeing all walks of life living together in this amazing land. The conglomerate of things happening in that tiny, but EPIC country (it's smaller than New Jersey!) packed a punch like a bustling beehive. I was overwhelmed and totally let Israel envelope me. I bonded with every flavor of person there... they were all Israeli. They were all beautiful people. (By the way, the title isn't spelled wrong, lol...read it again ;)
Shot with the 7D and edited with Sony Vegas
I edited this video with a fever, kidney infection, and $4 headphones! LOL.
Music by the amazing John Adams (Harmonielehre_ Part III - Meister) http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000TH4VOK/ref=dm_mu_dp_trk3
Featured in The Atlantic Magazine
SPECIAL THANKS:
-GONCALO DE ALMEIDA COSTA for touring me to the best places and meeting the best guides and locals!
-KEITH RIVERS for letting me borrow his camera for the trip!
-NATHAN MILLER for stocking me up on batteries and cards!
Thank you guys for trusting me with your stuff! haha.
4:22
The Great Schlep
Sarah Silverman wants Jews to gets their butts down to Florida for The Great Schlep.
Go t...
published: 24 Sep 2008
author: The Great Schlep
The Great Schlep
Sarah Silverman wants Jews to gets their butts down to Florida for The Great Schlep.
Go to http://www.TheGreatSchlep.com to learn more.
4:44
The Ninety-Nine Pound Powerlifter
published: 02 Jul 2012
author: Jewish Daily Forward
The Ninety-Nine Pound Powerlifter
1:38
Paul Rudd: Bat Mitzvah DJ
Before "Dinner for Schmucks," "I Love You, Man," and "Clueless" Paul Rudd helped you cheat...
published: 03 Aug 2010
author: Jewish Daily Forward
Paul Rudd: Bat Mitzvah DJ
Before "Dinner for Schmucks," "I Love You, Man," and "Clueless" Paul Rudd helped you cheat at limbo. This footage, from Forward web editor Gabrielle Birkner's Bat Mitzvah in 1992, shows Paul Rudd back when he was working the bar and bat mitzvah circuit in L.A.’s San Fernando Valley
Youtube results:
24:07
Paul McGuire's Extended 'Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis' Interview
Prophecy expert Paul McGuire warns of the hidden agenda behind the global economic crisis ...
published: 14 Jun 2011
author: jewishvoicetoday
Paul McGuire's Extended 'Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis' Interview
Prophecy expert Paul McGuire warns of the hidden agenda behind the global economic crisis in this extended interview with Jonathan Bernis in this edition of "Jewish Voice with Jonathan Bernis." www.jewishvoice.org Get Paul's book "The Day the Dollar Died" - https
- published: 14 Jun 2011
- views: 9013
- author: jewishvoicetoday
6:21
Drake Interview On Chelsea Lately! (Speaking Being Jewish,If He's Penetrating Nicki Minaj & More)
www.dolobeats.com The Hottest Beats For Artists & Best Sounds For Producers...
published: 24 Nov 2011
author: FocusedFolks20
Drake Interview On Chelsea Lately! (Speaking Being Jewish,If He's Penetrating Nicki Minaj & More)
www.dolobeats.com The Hottest Beats For Artists & Best Sounds For Producers
- published: 24 Nov 2011
- views: 273168
- author: FocusedFolks20
2:30
Rapper Drake Talks About His Bar Mitzvah
...
published: 04 Aug 2009
author: HeebMagazineFans
Rapper Drake Talks About His Bar Mitzvah
- published: 04 Aug 2009
- views: 272175
- author: HeebMagazineFans
11:12
Israel TV - Jews for Jesus' Dan Sered on HaOlam HaBoker
Donate to Jews for Jesus bit.ly Dan Sered, Israel Director of Jews for Jesus is interviewe...
published: 10 Jun 2008
author: jfjweb
Israel TV - Jews for Jesus' Dan Sered on HaOlam HaBoker
Donate to Jews for Jesus bit.ly Dan Sered, Israel Director of Jews for Jesus is interviewed along with Rabbi Rafi Feuerstein on the subject of Israelis and Jews believing in Jesus.
- published: 10 Jun 2008
- views: 45561
- author: jfjweb
photo: US Army / Chief Warrant Officer 4 Daniel McClinton
06 Feb 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "The art of war is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin." Sun Tzu, "The Art of War," 4th Century BCE. During confirmation hearings for the next U.S. Defense Secretary, it was appalling to observe several senators haggling with Chuck Hagel over whether the surge during the disastrous U.S.-Iraqi preemptive war and military occupation was a success or not ... The U.S....(size: 6.2Kb)
photo: AP / World Vision
07 Feb 2013
Aid workers struggled to reach remote, tsunami-ravaged villages in the Solomon Islands on Thursday, as the death toll rose with more bodies found in wrecked homes and debris in the South Pacific island chain ... Around 100 homes across five villages were damaged or destroyed ... Three more bodies were found Thursday, but Herming said details of how those victims died were not immediately available ... - AP. ....(size: 1.9Kb)
photo: USAF / Senior Airman Larry E. Reid Jr.
07 Feb 2013
Updated. February 7, 2013 12.29AM. WASHINGTON — President Barack Obama has directed the Justice Department to give Congress’ intelligence committees access to classified legal advice providing the government’s rationale for drone strikes against American citizens working with al-Qaida abroad, a senior administration official and Democratic lawmakers said Wednesday ... The unclassified memo says it is legal for the government to kill U.S ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Adam Moss
07 Feb 2013
Juror in Texas case wishes he heard more evidence. 12 minutes ago. Blizzard threatens New England; 1 to 2 feet feared. 17 minutes ago. UN. US air raids kill hundreds of Afghan children. 27 minutes ago. Ohio Amish set for sentencing in beard attacks. 44 minutes ago. Add-ons let semi-autos fire like military weapons. 1 hour ago. Deals!. View All. . . . . . ... St ... ....(size: 15.7Kb)
photo: WN / Arturo Ubaub
06 Feb 2013
A powerful 8.0 magnitude earthquake struck near the Solomon Islands on Wednesday, triggering a small tsunami and prompting alerts across the South Pacific that were later cancelled. By News Wires (text). ... Damage reports were limited, and there were no reports of casualties. The quake struck 340 km (211 miles) east of Kira Kira in the Solomons, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center in Hawaii said ... Hot spot ... (REUTERS). Date created ... ....(size: 8.1Kb)
STL Today
08 Feb 2013
Louis Jewish Community Center in Creve Coeur ... Contemporary Jewish music is an incredible way to engage people of all ages with Jewish values and instill Jewish identity, said Rabbi Brad Horwitz, director of the JCC Helene Mirowitz Center of Jewish Community Life ... "Having Jewish lyrics and Jewish performers is a very powerful way of helping connect people to and identify with their own faith and culture."....(size: 5.9Kb)
noodls
08 Feb 2013
7, 2013) -The University of South FloridaCollege of Arts and Sciencesin cooperation with the USF Humanities Institute, the Departments of Religious Studies and History, and the Tampa Jewish Book Festival, will present the fourth June Baumgardner Gelbart Lecture in Jewish Studies ... Sarna, professor of American Jewish History at Brandeis University ... It remains the most notorious anti-Jewish official order in American history....(size: 3.9Kb)
Ha'aretz
08 Feb 2013
A colleague asked him about the criticism of his deal to investigate, along with the Iranians in a "truth commission," the 1994 bombing of a Jewish community center, and he ignored the question ... The Jewish state has no mandate to speak on behalf of Argentina's Jews - or any other Jewish community in the world for that matter ... Timerman wasn't forced to choose between allegiance to his homeland and loyalty to the Jewish state....(size: 8.3Kb)
The Independent
08 Feb 2013
The party said "further decisions" would be taken about David Ward after Jewish leaders demanded action following a meeting with Lib Dem chiefs aimed at calming tensions ... Jewish News yesterday reported that Mr Ward had asked if it would satisfy critics if he changed the wording to read "the Jewish community", sparking renewed complaints....(size: 3.7Kb)
London Evening Standard
08 Feb 2013
To talk of “Jews” in that fashion — regarding everybody who is Jewish as a homogeneous entity who hold the same opinions — is the hallmark of racism ... Jewish people have been subjected to pogroms in various places across the world for at least 1000 years, which culminated in the murder of six million in the holocaust. They were killed for no other reason than they were Jewish....(size: 4.1Kb)
Ha'aretz
08 Feb 2013
In Israel there is an entire population sector whose name begins with "non" - "the non-Jewish sector." ... Because in Israel a person who isn't Jewish wasn't born in the image of the Creator. ... Hurry up, then, and take advantage of this benefit or phone a Jewish friend in Brooklyn and inform him like Ariella from Mifal Hapayis, the national lottery, of the great prize.....(size: 5.3Kb)
Ha'aretz
08 Feb 2013
For the first time, a state court has affirmed the constitutionality of a Modern Orthodox-sponsored prenuptial agreement meant to protect agunot — Jewish women “chained” by husbands who refuse to grant them a religious divorce. ... In the first, a couple agrees to allow a beit din to arbitrate their Jewish divorce ... He cited several precedents where secular courts had enforced Jewish and Islamic marriage contracts, including Odatalla v....(size: 9.9Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
08 Feb 2013
The salute and ugly tweets were apparently a disturbing reference to the three girls' dislike of Jewish teammate, with the trio also tweeting multiple references to Hitler and other anti-Semitic trains of thought. Two tweets pointed out by WLBZ left little doubt about the girls' feeling about their Jewish teammate. One tweet, dated December 24th, says "So Jewish to have prac on Christmas Eve day."....(size: 2.7Kb)
Ha'aretz
08 Feb 2013
Ha'aretz
08 Feb 2013
The Columbus Dispatch
08 Feb 2013
Not so, say many Jewish and non-Jewish scholars ... Poland that was shut down by the Germans after a Jewish revolt involving first an ax and then guns. “The heroism of those who resisted the Nazis in Warsaw and Sobibor is undeniable and should be honored,” columnist Michael Moynihan wrote in the Tablet, an online magazine of Jewish culture....(size: 5.9Kb)
BBC News
08 Feb 2013
The party said "further decisions" would be taken about David Ward, MP for Bradford East. Jewish leaders demanded action following a meeting with Lib Dem chiefs aimed at calming tensions ... Jewish News had reported Mr Ward asked if it would satisfy critics if he changed the wording to read "the Jewish community", sparking renewed complaints. 'A fresh issue' ... ....(size: 2.0Kb)
noodls
08 Feb 2013
Treasures of the collection include the earliest known example of a Jewish engagement deed (dating from 1119), an eyewitness account of Crusader atrocities, and letters by leading Jewish traders of the 11th and 12th centuries ... For more than 1,000 years the Jewish community of Fustat (now a suburb of Cairo) deposited all manner of writings (not just sacred texts) into the sacred storeroom of the Ben Ezra Synagogue....(size: 6.7Kb)
This article is about the Jewish people. For their religion, law and culture, see Judaism.
"Jew" redirects here. For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation).
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The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.[2][3][4] Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh."[5] Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350[6] to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora.[7] A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
As of 2010[update], the world Jewish population was estimated at 13.4 million by the North American Jewish Data Bank,[1] or roughly 0.2% of the total world population. According to this report, about 42.5% of all Jews reside in Israel (5.7 million), and 39.3% in the United States (5.3 million), with most of the remainder living in Europe (1.5 million) and Canada (0.4 million).[1] These numbers include all those who consider themselves Jews, whether or not they are affiliated with a Jewish organization. The total world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure. In addition to issues with census methodology, there are halakhic disputes regarding who is a Jew and secular, political, and ancestral identification factors that may affect the figure considerably.[8]
Contents |
Name and etymology[link]
Main article: Jew (word)
The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, a loan from Old French giu, earlier juieu, ultimately from Latin Iudaeum. The Latin Iudaeus simply means Judaean, "from the land of Judaea". The Latin term itself, like the corresponding Greek Ἰουδαῖος, is a loan from Aramaic Y'hūdāi, corresponding to Hebrew: יְהוּדִי, Yehudi (sg.); יְהוּדִים, Yehudim (pl.), in origin the term for a member of the tribe of Judah or the people of the kingdom of Judah. The name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob.[9]
The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced [jehuˈdi], with the stress on the final syllable, in Israeli Hebrew, in its basic form.[10]
The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio (sg.); ג׳ודיוס, Djudios (pl.); Yiddish: ייִד Yid (sg.); ייִדן, Yidn (pl.).
The etymological equivalent is in use in other languages, e.g., "Yahoud"/"Yahoudi" (Arabic: يهود/يهودي) in Arabic language, "Jude" in German, "judeu" in Portuguese, "juif" in French, "jøde" in Danish, "judío" in Spanish, "joodse" in Dutch, etc., but derivations of the word "Hebrew" are also in use to describe a Jew, e.g., in Italian (Ebreo), in Persian ("Ebri/Ebrani" (Persian: عبری/عبرانی)) and Russian (Еврей, Yevrey).[11] The German word "Jude" is pronounced [ˈjuːdə], the corresponding adjective "jüdisch" [ˈjyːdɪʃ] (Jewish) is the origin of the word "Yiddish".[12] (See Jewish ethnonyms for a full overview.)
According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition (2000):
It is widely recognized that the attributive use of the noun Jew, in phrases such as Jew lawyer or Jew ethics, is both vulgar and highly offensive. In such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a practice that carries risks of its own. In a sentence such as There are now several Jews on the council, which is unobjectionable, the substitution of a circumlocution like Jewish people or persons of Jewish background may in itself cause offense for seeming to imply that Jew has a negative connotation when used as a noun.[13]
Origins[link]
See also: Origins of Judaism
According to their tradition, the Jewish people originated from the Israelites of the Southern Levant, who had several independent states before being overtaken first by the Assyrian and Babylonian Empires and later the Roman Empire, with a large portion of the population being scattered throughout the world. According to the Hebrew Bible, all Israelites were descended from Abraham, who was born in the Sumerian city of Ur, and migrated to Canaan (commonly known as the Land of Israel) with his family. Genetic studies on Jews show that most Jews worldwide do indeed bear a common genetic heritage which originates in the Middle East, and that they bear their strongest resemblance to the peoples of the Fertile Crescent, with only minor contribution from their host populations[14] (historically due to the taboo on intermarriage in Jewish tradition, the low number of converts to Judaism, as well as the general isolations and persecutions of Jews throughout history). According to some Biblical archaeologists, however, Israelite culture did not overtake the region, but rather grew out of Canaanite culture.
Judaism[link]
Main article: Judaism
Judaism guides its adherents in both practice and belief, and has been called not only a religion, but also a "way of life,"[15] which has made drawing a clear distinction between Judaism, Jewish culture, and Jewish identity rather difficult. Throughout history, in eras and places as diverse as the ancient Hellenic world,[16] in Europe before and after The Age of Enlightenment (see Haskalah),[17] in Islamic Spain and Portugal,[18] in North Africa and the Middle East,[18] India,[19] and China,[20] or the contemporary United States[21] and Israel,[22] cultural phenomena have developed that are in some sense characteristically Jewish without being at all specifically religious. Some factors in this come from within Judaism, others from the interaction of Jews or specific communities of Jews with their surroundings, others from the inner social and cultural dynamics of the community, as opposed to from the religion itself. This phenomenon has led to considerably different Jewish cultures unique to their own communities, each as authentically Jewish as the next.[23]
Who is a Jew?[link]
Main article: Who is a Jew?
Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used.[24] Generally, in modern secular usage, Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion; those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent); and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.[25]
Historical definitions of Jewish identity have traditionally been based on halakhic definitions of matrilineal descent, and halakhic conversions. Historical definitions of who is a Jew date back to the codification of the oral tradition into the Babylonian Talmud. Interpretations of sections of the Tanakh, such as Deuteronomy 7:1–5, by learned Jewish sages, are used as a warning against intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews because "[the non-Jewish husband] will cause your child to turn away from Me and they will worship the gods of others." Leviticus 24:10 says that the son in a marriage between a Hebrew woman and an Egyptian man is "of the community of Israel." This is complemented by Ezra 10:2–3, where Israelites returning from Babylon vow to put aside their gentile wives and their children.[26][27] Since the Haskalah, these halakhic interpretations of Jewish identity have been challenged.[28]
At times, conversion has accounted for a substantial part of Jewish population growth. In the first century of the Christian era, for example, the population more than doubled, from four to 8–10 million within the confines of the Roman Empire, in good part as a result of a wave of conversion.[29]
Ethnic divisions[link]
Main article: Jewish ethnic divisions
Within the world's Jewish population there are distinct ethnic divisions, most of which are primarily the result of geographic branching from an originating Israelite population, and subsequent independent evolutions. An array of Jewish communities were established by Jewish settlers in various places around the Old World, often at great distances from one another resulting in effective and often long-term isolation from each other. During the millennia of the Jewish diaspora the communities would develop under the influence of their local environments; political, cultural, natural, and populational. Today, manifestation of these differences among the Jews can be observed in Jewish cultural expressions of each community, including Jewish linguistic diversity, culinary preferences, liturgical practices, religious interpretations, as well as degrees and sources of genetic admixture.[30]
Jews are often identified as belonging to one of two major groups: the Ashkenazim, or "Germanics" (Ashkenaz meaning "Germany" in Medieval Hebrew, denoting their Central European base), and the Sephardim, or "Hispanics" (Sefarad meaning "Spain/Hispania" or "Iberia" in Hebrew, denoting their Spanish, and Portuguese, base). The Mizrahim, or "Easterners" (Mizrach being "East" in Hebrew), that is, the diverse collection of Middle Eastern and North African Jews, constitute a third major group, although they are sometimes termed Sephardi for liturgical reasons.[31]
Smaller groups include, but are not restricted to, Indian Jews such as the Bene Israel, Bnei Menashe, Cochin Jews, and Bene Ephraim; the Romaniotes of Greece; the Italian Jews ("Italkim" or "Bené Roma"); the Teimanim from Yemen and Oman; various African Jews, including most numerously the Beta Israel of Ethiopia; and Chinese Jews, most notably the Kaifeng Jews, as well as various other distinct but now almost extinct communities.[32]
The divisions between all these groups are approximate and their boundaries are not always clear. The Mizrahim for example, are a heterogeneous collection of North African, Central Asian, Caucasian, and Middle Eastern Jewish communities that are often as unrelated to each other as they are to any of the earlier mentioned Jewish groups. In modern usage, however, the Mizrahim are sometimes termed Sephardi due to similar styles of liturgy, despite independent development from Sephardim proper. Thus, among Mizrahim there are Egyptian Jews, Iraqi Jews, Lebanese Jews, Kurdish Jews, Libyan Jews, Syrian Jews, Bukharian Jews, Mountain Jews, Georgian Jews, Iranian Jews and various others. The Teimanim from Yemen and Oman are sometimes included, although their style of liturgy is unique and they differ in respect to the admixture found among them to that found in Mizrahim. In addition, there is a differentiation made between Sephardi migrants who established themselves in the Middle East and North Africa after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal in the 1490s and the pre-existing Jewish communities in those regions.[32]
Despite this diversity, Ashkenazi Jews represent the bulk of modern Jewry, with at least 70% of Jews worldwide (and up to 90% prior to World War II and the Holocaust). As a result of their emigration from Europe, Ashkenazim also represent the overwhelming majority of Jews in the New World continents, in countries such as the United States, Canada, Argentina, Australia, and Brazil. In France, emigration of Jews from North Africa has led them to outnumber the Ashkenazim .[33] Only in Israel is the Jewish population representative of all groups, a melting pot independent of each group's proportion within the overall world Jewish population.[34]
Languages[link]
Main article: Jewish languages
Hebrew is the liturgical language of Judaism (termed l'shon ha-kodesh, "the holy tongue"), the language in which the Hebrew scriptures (Tanakh) were composed, and the daily speech of the Jewish people for centuries. By the 5th century BCE, Aramaic, a closely related tongue, joined Hebrew as the spoken language in Judea.[35] By the third century BCE, Jews of the diaspora were speaking Greek.[36]
For centuries, Jews worldwide have spoken the local or dominant languages of the regions they migrated to, often developing distinctive dialectal forms or branches that became independent languages. Yiddish is the Judæo-German language developed by Ashkenazi Jews who migrated to Central Europe. Ladino is the Judæo-Spanish language developed by Sephardic Jews who migrated to the Iberian peninsula. Due to many factors, including the impact of the Holocaust on European Jewry, the Jewish exodus from Arab lands, and widespread emigration from other Jewish communities around the world, ancient and distinct Jewish languages of several communities, including Gruzinic, Judæo-Arabic, Judæo-Berber, Krymchak, Judæo-Malayalam and many others, have largely fallen out of use.[37]
For over sixteen centuries Hebrew was used almost exclusively as a liturgical language, and as the language in which most books had been written on Judaism, with a few speaking only Hebrew on the Sabbath.[38] Hebrew was revived as a spoken language by Eliezer ben Yehuda, who arrived in Palestine in 1881. It had not been used as a mother tongue since Tannaic times.[35] Modern Hebrew is now one of the two official languages of the State of Israel along with Arabic.[39]
The three most commonly spoken languages among Jews today are Hebrew, English and Russian. Some Romance languages, such as French and Spanish, are also widely used.[37] Yiddish has been spoken by more Jews in history than any other language,[40] but it is far less used today, after the Holocaust and the adoption of Hebrew by the Zionist movement, then Israel.
Genetic studies[link]
Main article: Genetic studies on Jews
Genetic studies indicate various lineages found in modern Jewish populations; however, most of these populations share a lineage in common, traceable to an ancient population that underwent geographic branching and subsequent independent evolutions.[41] While DNA tests have demonstrated inter-marriage in all of the various Jewish ethnic divisions over the last 3,000 years, it was substantially less than in other populations.[42] The findings lend support to traditional Jewish accounts accrediting their founding to exiled Israelite populations, and counters theories that many or most of the world's Jewish populations were founded entirely by local populations that adopted the Jewish religion, devoid of any actual Israelite genetic input.[42]
DNA analysis further determined that modern Jews of the priesthood tribe—"Kohanim"—share an ancestor dating back about 3,000 years.[43] This result is consistent for all Jewish populations around the world.[43] The researchers estimated that the most recent common ancestor of modern Kohanim lived between 1000 BCE (roughly the time of the Biblical Exodus) and 586 BCE, when the Babylonians destroyed the First Temple.[44] They found similar results analyzing DNA from Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews.[44] The scientists estimated the date of the original priest based on genetic mutations, which indicated that the priest lived roughly 106 generations ago, between 2,650 and 3,180 years ago depending whether one counts a generation as 25 or 30 years.[44] These Jews belong to the haplotypes J1e and J2a. However, more recent research has shown that many ethnic groups in the Middle East and Mediterranean area also share this genetic profile.[45]
Although individual and groups of converts to Judaism have historically been absorbed into contemporary Jewish populations, it is unlikely that they formed a large percentage of the ancestors of modern Jewish groups, and much less that they represented their genesis as Jewish communities.[41][46]
Biologist Robert Pollack stated in 2003 that one cannot determine the biological "Jewishness" of an individual because "there are no DNA sequences common to all Jews and absent from all non-Jews".[47] A 2009 study was able to genetically identify individuals with full or partial Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry.[48]
Male lineages: Y chromosomal DNA[link]
A study published by the National Academy of Sciences found that "the paternal gene pools of Jewish communities from Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East descended from a common Middle Eastern ancestral population", and suggested that "most Jewish communities have remained relatively isolated from neighboring non-Jewish communities during and after the Diaspora".[41] Researchers expressed surprise at the remarkable genetic uniformity they found among modern Jews, no matter where the diaspora has become dispersed around the world.[41]
Other Y-chromosome findings show that the world's Jewish communities are closely related to Kurds, Syrians and Palestinians.[43][49] Skorecki and colleague wrote that "the extremely close affinity of Jewish and non-Jewish Middle Eastern populations observed ... supports the hypothesis of a common Middle Eastern origin".[43] According to another study of the same year, more than 70% of Jewish men and half of the Arab men (inhabitants of Israel and the territories only) whose DNA was studied inherited their Y-chromosomes from the same paternal ancestors who lived in the region within the last few thousand years. The results are consistent with the Biblical account of Jews and Arabs having a common ancestor. About two-thirds of Israeli Arabs and Arabs in the territories and a similar proportion of Israeli Jews are the descendants of at least three common ancestors who lived in the Middle East in the Neolithic period. However, the Palestinian Arab clade includes two Arab modal haplotypes which are found at only very low frequency among Jews, reflecting divergence and/or large scale admixture from non-local populations to the Palestinians.[50]
A study of haplotypes of the Y-chromosome, published in 2000, addressed the paternal origins of Ashkenazi Jews. Hammer et al.[41] found that the Y chromosome of some Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews contained mutations that are also common among Middle Eastern peoples, but uncommon in the general European population. This suggested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could be traced mostly to the Middle East. The proportion of male genetic admixture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than 0.5% per generation over an estimated 80 generations, with "relatively minor contribution of European Y chromosomes to the Ashkenazim," and a total admixture estimate "very similar to Motulsky's average estimate of 12.5%." This supported the finding that "Diaspora Jews from Europe, Northwest Africa, and the Near East resemble each other more closely than they resemble their non-Jewish neighbors." However, when all haplotypes were included in the analysis, m (the admixture percentage) increased to 23% ± 7%. In addition, of the Jewish populations in this cluster, the Ashkenazim were closest to South European populations, specifically the Greeks.[41]
In Jewish populations, Haplogroup J1 (defined by the 267 marker) constitutes 30% of the Yemenite Jews[51] 20.0% of the Ashkenazim results and 12% of the Sephardic results.[51][52][53][54] However, J1 is most frequent in Yemen (76%),[55][56] Saudi (64%),[57] Qatar (58%).[56] J1 is generally frequent amongst Negev Bedouins (62%[58]). It is also very common among other Arabs such as those of the Levant, i.e. Palestinian (38.4%),[52] Syria (30%), Lebanon (25%).[59][60] In Europe, higher frequencies have been reported in the central Adriatic regions of Italy: Gargano (17.2%),[61] Pescara (15%),[61] in the Mediterranean Paola (11.1%)[61] and in South Sicilian Ragusa (10.7%).[62] Fairly high frequencies have also been reported in other nearby Mediterranean areas: Crete (8.3%),[63] Malta (7.8%), Cyprus (6.2%),[64] Greece (5.3%).[63]
Haplogroup J2 which is found in the Sephardic Jews (29%)[65] and Ashkenazi Jews (23%),[65] or 19%.[66] is found mainly in the Fertile Crescent, the Caucasus,[67] Anatolia, the Balkans, Italy, the Mediterranean littoral, the Iranian plateau, Central Asia, and South Asia.[65] More specifically, it is found in Iraq,[68] Syria, Lebanon,[69] Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Greece, Italy and the eastern coasts of the Iberian Peninsula,[61] and more frequently in Iraqis 29.7%,[70] Lebanese 25%,[71] Palestinians 16.8%,[65] Syrians 22.5%,[72] Kurds 28.4%, Saudi Arabia 15.92%,[73] Jordan 14.3%, Oman 10–15%,[74] UAE 10.4%, Yemen 9.7%,[56] in Israel,[65] in Palestine,[65] and in Turkey.[75]
Female lineages: Mitochondrial DNA[link]
Before 2006, geneticists largely attributed the genesis of most of the world's Jewish populations to founding acts by males who migrated from the Middle East and "by the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to Judaism", though no genetic relation was found between Jewish and non Jewish female lineages. However, more recent findings of studies of maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA, at least in Ashkenazi Jews, has led to a review of this archetype.[76] This research has suggested that, in addition to Israelite male, significant female founder ancestry might also derive from the Middle East-with 40% of Ashkenazim descended from four women lived about 1000–1500 years ago in the Middle East.[76] In addition, Behar (2006) suggested that the rest of Ashkenazi mtDNA is originated from about 150 women, most of those were probably of Middle Eastern origin.[77] Approximately 32% of people with Ashkenazi Jewish ancestry belong to the mtDNA haplogroup K. This high percentage points to a genetic bottleneck occurring some 100 generations ago.[78]
Research in 2008 found significant founder effects in many non-Asheknazi Jewish populations. In Belmonte, Azerbaijani, Georgian, Bene Israel and Libyan Jewish communities "a single mother was sufficient to explain at least 40% of their present-day mtDNA variation". In addition, "the Cochin and Tunisian Jewish communities show an attenuated pattern with two founding mothers explaining >30% of the variation." In contrast, Bulgarian, Turkish, Moroccan and Ethiopian Jews were heterogeneous with no evidence "for a narrow founder effect or depletion of mtDNA variation attributable to drift". The authors noted that "the first three of these communities were established following the Spanish expulsion and/or received large influxes of individuals from the Iberian Peninsula and high variation presently observed, probably reflects high overall mtDNA diversity among Jews of Spanish descent. Likewise, the mtDNA pool of Ethiopian Jews reflects the rich maternal lineage variety of East Africa." Jewish communities from Iraq, Iran, and Yemen showed a "third and intermediate pattern... consistent with a founding event, but not a narrow one".[79]
In this and other studies Yemenite Jews differ from other Mizrahim, as well as from Ashkenazim, in the proportion of sub-Saharan African gene types which have entered their gene pools.[80] African-specific Hg L(xM,N) lineages were found only in Yemenite and Ethiopian Jewish populations.[79] Among Yemenites, the average stands at 35% lineages within the past 3,000 years.[80]
Genome-wide association and linkage studies[link]
In genetic epidemiology, a genome-wide association study (GWA study, or GWAS) is an examination of all or most of the genes (the genome) of different individuals of a particular species to see how much the genes vary from individual to individual. These techniques were originally designed for epidemiological uses, to identify genetic associations with observable traits.[81]
A 2006 study by Seldin, et al. used over five thousand autosomal SNPs to demonstrate European genetic substructure amongst the Ashkenazi. The results showed "a consistent and reproducible distinction between 'northern' and 'southern' European population groups". Most northern, central, and eastern Europeans (Finns, Swedes, English, Irish, Germans, and Ukrainians) showed >90% in the 'northern' population group, while most individual participants with southern European ancestry (Italians, Greeks, Portuguese, Spaniards) showed >85% in the 'southern' group. Both Ashkenazi Jews as well as Sephardic Jews showed >85% membership in the "southern" group. Referring to the Jews clustering with southern Europeans, the authors state the results were "consistent with a later Mediterranean origin of these ethnic groups".[82]
A 2007 study by Bauchet, et al. found that Ashkenazi Jews were most closely clustered with Arabic North African populations when compared to Global population, and in the European structure analysis, they share similarities only with Greeks and Southern Italians, reflecting their east Mediterranean origins.[83][84]
A 2010 study on Jewish ancestry by Atzmon-Ostrer et al. stated "Two major groups were identified by principal component, phylogenetic, and identity by descent (IBD) analysis: Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews. The IBD segment sharing and the proximity of European Jews to each other and to southern European populations suggested similar origins for European Jewry and refuted large-scale genetic contributions of Central and Eastern European and Slavic populations to the formation of Ashkenazi Jewry.", as both groups—the Middle Eastern Jews and European/Syrian Jews shared common ancestors in the Middle East about 2500 years ago. The study examines genetic markers spread across the entire genome and shows that the Jewish groups (Ashkenazi and non Ashkenazi) share large swaths of DNA, indicating close relationships and that each of the Jewish groups in the study (Iranian, Iraqi, Syrian, Italian, Turkish, Greek and Ashkenazi) has its own genetic signature but is more closely related to the other Jewish groups than to their non Jewish fellow countrymen.[85] Atzmon's team found that the SNP markers in genetic segments of 3 million DNA letters or longer were 10 times more likely to be identical among Jews than non-Jews. Results of the analysis also tally with biblical accounts of the fate of the Jews. Using their DNA analysis, the authors traced the ancestors of all Jews to Persia and Babylon, areas that now form part of Iran and Iraq.[86] The study also found that with respect to non-Jewish European groups, the population most closely related to Ashkenazi Jews are modern-day Italians. The study speculated that the genetic-similarity between Ashkenazi Jews and Italians may be due to inter-marriage and conversions in the time of the Roman Empire. It was also found that any two Ashkenazi Jewish participants in the study shared about as much DNA as fourth or fifth cousins[87][88]
A 2010 study by Bray et al, using SNP microarray techniques and linkage analysis, estimated that 35 to 55 percent of the modern Ashkenazi genome is specifically traceable to Europe, and that European "admixture is considerably higher than previous estimates by studies that used the Y chromosome". The study assumed Druze and Palestinian Arabs populations to represent the reference to world Jewry ancestor genome. With this reference point, the linkage disequilibrium in the Ashkenazi Jewish population was interpreted as "matches signs of interbreeding or 'admixture' between Middle Eastern and European populations". In their press release, Bray stated: "We were surprised to find evidence that Ashkenazi Jews have higher heterozygosity than Europeans, contradicting the widely-held presumption that they have been a largely isolated group". "Thus, the AJ population shows evidence of past founding events; however, admixture and selection have also strongly influenced its current genetic makeup." The authors note that their results will require further investigation.[89][90]
Demographics[link]
Main article: Jewish population
Population centres[link]
Further information: Judaism by country and Jewish population by cities and city areas
| Country[1] | Jews, № | Jews, % |
|---|---|---|
| Israel |
5,916,200[91] | 75.52% |
 United States |
5,275,000 | 1.71% |
 France |
483,500 | 0.77% |
 Canada |
375,000 | 1.11% |
 United Kingdom |
292,000 | 0.47% |
 Russia |
205,000 | 0.15% |
 Argentina |
182,300 | 0.45% |
 Germany |
119,000 | 0.15% |
 Australia |
107,500 | 0.50% |
 Brazil |
95,600 | 0.05% |
 Ukraine |
71,500 | 0.16% |
 South Africa |
70,800 | 0.14% |
 Hungary |
48,600 | 0.49% |
 Mexico |
39,400 | 0.04% |
 Belgium |
30,300 | 0.28% |
 Netherlands |
30,000 | 0.18% |
 Italy |
28,400 | 0.05% |
| Total | 13,558,300 | 0.21% |
There are an estimated 13–14 million Jews worldwide.[1] The table lists countries with significant populations.[1] Please note that these populations represent low-end estimates of the worldwide Jewish population, accounting for around 0.2% of the world's population.
State of Israel[link]
Main article: Israeli Jews
Israel, the Jewish nation-state, is the only country in which Jews make up a majority of the citizens.[92] Israel was established as an independent democratic and Jewish state on May 14, 1948.[93] Of the 120 members in its parliament, the Knesset,[94] currently, 12 members of the Knesset are Arab citizens of Israel, most representing Arab political parties and one of Israel's Supreme Court judges is a Palestinian Arab.[95]
Between 1948 and 1958, the Jewish population rose from 800,000 to two million.[96] Currently, Jews account for 75.8% of the Israeli population, or 5.4 million people.[97] The early years of the state of Israel were marked by the mass immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jews fleeing Arab lands.[98] Israel also has a large population of Ethiopian Jews, many of whom were airlifted to Israel in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[99] Between 1974 and 1979 nearly 227,258 immigrants arrived in Israel, about half being from the Soviet Union.[100] This period also saw an increase in immigration to Israel from Western Europe, Latin America, and the United States[101]
A trickle of immigrants from other communities has also arrived, including Indian Jews and others, as well as some descendants of Ashkenazi Holocaust survivors who had settled in countries such as the United States, Argentina, Australia, Chile, and South Africa. Some Jews have emigrated from Israel elsewhere, due to economic problems or disillusionment with political conditions and the continuing Arab-Israeli conflict. Jewish Israeli emigrants are known as yordim.[102]
Diaspora (outside Israel)[link]
Main article: Jewish diaspora
The waves of immigration to the United States and elsewhere at the turn of the 19th century, the founding of Zionism and later events, including pogroms in Russia, the massacre of European Jewry during the Holocaust, and the founding of the state of Israel, with the subsequent Jewish exodus from Arab lands, all resulted in substantial shifts in the population centers of world Jewry by the end of the 20th century.[103]
Currently, the largest Jewish community in the world is located in the United States, with 5.3 million to 6.4 million Jews by various estimates. Elsewhere in the Americas, there are also large Jewish populations in Canada, Argentina, and Brazil, and smaller populations in Mexico, Uruguay, Venezuela, Chile, and several other countries (see History of the Jews in Latin America).[97]
Western Europe's largest Jewish community can be found in France, home to 490,000 Jews, the majority of whom are immigrants or refugees from North African Arab countries such as Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia (or their descendants).[105] There are 295,000 Jews in the United Kingdom. In Eastern Europe, there are anywhere from 350,000 to one million Jews living in the former Soviet Union, but exact figures are difficult to establish. The fastest-growing Jewish community in the world, outside Israel, is the one in Germany, especially in Berlin, its capital. Tens of thousands of Jews from the former Eastern Bloc have settled in Germany since the fall of the Berlin Wall.[106]
The Arab countries of North Africa and the Middle East were home to around 900,000 Jews in 1945. Fueled by anti-Zionism[107] after the founding of Israel, systematic persecution caused almost all of these Jews to flee to Israel, North America, and Europe in the 1950s (see Jewish exodus from Arab lands). Today, around 8,000 Jews remain in all Arab nations combined.[108]
Iran is home to around 10,800 Jews, down from a population of 100,000 Jews before the 1979 revolution. After the revolution some of the Iranian Jews emigrated to Israel or Europe but most of them emigrated (with their non-Jewish Iranian compatriots) to the United States (especially Los Angeles, where the principal community is called "Tehrangeles").[108][109]
Outside Europe, the Americas, the Middle East, and the rest of Asia, there are significant Jewish populations in Australia and South Africa.[108]
Demographic changes[link]
Main article: Historical Jewish population comparisons
Assimilation[link]
Main article: Jewish assimilation
Since at least the time of the Ancient Greeks, a proportion of Jews have assimilated into the wider non-Jewish society around them, by either choice or force, ceasing to practice Judaism and losing their Jewish identity.[110] Assimilation took place in all areas, and during all time periods,[110] with some Jewish communities, for example the Kaifeng Jews of China, disappearing entirely.[111] The advent of the Jewish Enlightenment of the 18th century (see Haskalah) and the subsequent emancipation of the Jewish populations of Europe and America in the 19th century, accelerated the situation, encouraging Jews to increasingly participate in, and become part of, secular society. The result has been a growing trend of assimilation, as Jews marry non-Jewish spouses and stop participating in the Jewish community.[112]
Rates of interreligious marriage vary widely: In the United States, they are just under 50%,[113] in the United Kingdom, around 53%, in France, around 30%,[114] and in Australia and Mexico, as low as 10%.[115][116] In the United States, only about a third of children from intermarriages affiliate themselves with Jewish religious practice.[117] The result is that most countries in the Diaspora have steady or slightly declining religiously Jewish populations as Jews continue to assimilate into the countries in which they live.
War and persecution[link]
Main article: Persecution of Jews
Further information: Antisemitism, Islam and antisemitism, History of antisemitism, and New antisemitism
The Jewish people and Judaism have experienced various persecutions throughout Jewish history. During late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages the Roman Empire (in its later phases known as the Byzantine Empire) repeatedly repressed the Jewish population, first by ejecting them from their homelands during the pagan Roman era and later by officially establishing them as second-class citizens during the Christian Roman era.[118][119]
According to James Carroll, "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."[120]
Later in medieval Western Europe, further persecutions of Jews in the name of Christianity occurred, notably during the Crusades—when Jews all over Germany were massacred—and a series of expulsions from England, Germany, France, and, in the largest expulsion of all, Spain and Portugal after the Reconquista (the Catholic Reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula), where both unbaptized Sephardic Jews and the ruling Muslim Moors were expelled.[121][122]
In the Papal States, which existed until 1870, Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called ghettos.[123] In the 19th and (before the end of World War II) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic Church adhered to a distinction between "good antisemitism" and "bad antisemitism". The "bad" kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The "good" kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.[124]
Islam and Judaism have a complex relationship. Traditionally Jews and Christians living in Muslim lands, known as dhimmis, were allowed to practice their religions and to administer their internal affairs, but subject to certain conditions.[125] They had to pay the jizya (a per capita tax imposed on free adult non-Muslim males) to the Islamic state.[125] Dhimmis had an inferior status under Islamic rule. They had several social and legal disabilities such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims.[126] Many of the disabilities were highly symbolic. The one described by Bernard Lewis as "most degrading"[127] was the requirement of distinctive clothing, not found in the Qur'an or hadith but invented in early medieval Baghdad; its enforcement was highly erratic.[127] On the other hand, Jews rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and they were mostly free in their choice of residence and profession.[128]
Notable exceptions include the massacre of Jews and/or forcible conversion of some Jews by the rulers of the Almohad dynasty in Al-Andalus in the 12th century,[129] as well as in Islamic Persia,[130] and the forced confinement of Moroccan Jews to walled quarters known as mellahs beginning from the 15th century and especially in the early 19th century.[131] In modern times, it has become commonplace for standard antisemitic themes to be conflated with anti-Zionist publications and pronouncements of Islamic movements such as Hezbollah and Hamas, in the pronouncements of various agencies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and even in the newspapers and other publications of Turkish Refah Partisi."[132]
Throughout history, many rulers, empires and nations have oppressed their Jewish populations or sought to eliminate them entirely. Methods employed ranged from expulsion to outright genocide; within nations, often the threat of these extreme methods was sufficient to silence dissent. The history of antisemitism includes the First Crusade which resulted in the massacre of Jews;[121] the Spanish Inquisition (led by Torquemada) and the Portuguese Inquisition, with their persecution and autos-da-fé against the New Christians and Marrano Jews;[133] the Bohdan Chmielnicki Cossack massacres in Ukraine;[134] the Pogroms backed by the Russian Tsars;[135] as well as expulsions from Spain, Portugal, England, France, Germany, and other countries in which the Jews had settled.[122] According to a recent study published in the American Journal of Human Genetics 19.8% of the modern Iberian population has Sephardic Jewish ancestry,[136] indicating that the number of conversos may have been much higher than originally thought.[137][138]
The persecution reached a peak in Nazi Germany's Final Solution, which led to the Holocaust and the slaughter of approximately 6 million Jews.[139] The Holocaust — the state-led systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews (and certain communities of North African Jews in European controlled North Africa) and other minority groups of Europe during World War II by Germany and its collaborators remains the most notable modern day persecution of Jews.[140] The persecution and genocide were accomplished in stages. Legislation to remove the Jews from civil society was enacted years before the outbreak of World War II.[141] Concentration camps were established in which inmates were used as slave labour until they died of exhaustion or disease.[142] Where the Third Reich conquered new territory in eastern Europe, specialized units called Einsatzgruppen murdered Jews and political opponents in mass shootings.[143] Jews and Roma were crammed into ghettos before being transported hundreds of miles by freight train to extermination camps where, if they survived the journey, the majority of them were killed in gas chambers.[144] Virtually every arm of Germany's bureaucracy was involved in the logistics of the mass murder, turning the country into what one Holocaust scholar has called "a genocidal nation."[145]
Migrations[link]
Throughout Jewish history, Jews have repeatedly been directly or indirectly expelled from both their original homeland and the areas in which they have resided. This experience as refugees has shaped Jewish identity and religious practice in many ways, and is thus a major element of Jewish history.[146] The incomplete list of major and other noteworthy migrations that follows includes numerous instances of expulsion or departure under duress:
- The patriarch Abraham was a migrant to the land of Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees[147] after an attempt on his life by King Nimrod.[148]
- The Children of Israel experienced the Exodus (meaning "departure" or "exit" in Greek) from ancient Egypt, as recorded in the Book of Exodus.[149]
- The Kingdom of Israel was sent into permanent exile by Assyria, initially to the Upper Mesopotamian provinces of the Assyrian Empire,[150] from whence they scattered all over the world (or at least to unknown locations).[151]
- The Kingdom of Judah was exiled by Babylonia,[152] then returned to Judea by Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire,[153] and then many were exiled again by the Roman Empire.[154]
- The 2,000 year dispersion of the Jewish diaspora beginning under the Roman Empire, as Jews were spread throughout the Roman world and, driven from land to land, and settled wherever they could live freely enough to practice their religion. Over the course of the diaspora the center of Jewish life moved from Babylonia[155] to the Iberian Peninsula[156] to Poland[157] to the United States[158] and, as a result of Zionism, back to Israel.[159]
- Many expulsions during the Middle Ages and Enlightenment in Europe, including: 1290, 16,000 Jews were expelled from England, see the (Statute of Jewry); in 1396, 100,000 from France; in 1421 thousands were expelled from Austria. Many of these Jews settled in Eastern Europe, especially Poland.[160]
- Following the Spanish Inquisition in 1492, the Spanish population of around 200,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled by the Spanish crown and Catholic church, followed by expulsions in 1493 in Sicily (37,000 Jews) and Portugal in 1496. The expelled Jews fled mainly to the Ottoman Empire, the Netherlands, and North Africa, others migrating to Southern Europe and the Middle East.[161]
- During the 19th century, France's policies of equal citizenship regardless of religion led to the immigration of Jews (especially from Eastern and Central Europe).[162]
- The arrival of millions of Jews in the New World, including immigration of over two million Eastern European Jews to the United States from 1880–1925, see History of the Jews in the United States and History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union.[163]
- The Pogroms in Eastern Europe,[135] the rise of modern antisemitism,[164] the Holocaust,[165] and the rise of Arab nationalism[166] all served to fuel the movements and migrations of huge segments of Jewry from land to land and continent to continent, until they arrived back in large numbers at their original historical homeland in Israel.[159]
- The Islamic Revolution of Iran caused many Iranian Jews to flee Iran. Most found refuge in the US (particularly Los Angeles, CA) and Israel. Smaller communities of Persian Jews exist in Canada and Western Europe.[167]
- When the Soviet Union collapsed, many of the Jews in the affected territory (who had been refuseniks) were suddenly allowed to leave. This produced a wave of migration to Israel in the early 1990s.[102]
Growth[link]
Israel is the only country with a consistently growing Jewish population due to natural population increase, though the Jewish populations of other countries in Europe and North America have recently increased due to immigration. In the Diaspora, in almost every country the Jewish population in general is either declining or steady, but Orthodox and Haredi Jewish communities, whose members often shun birth control for religious reasons, have experienced rapid population growth.[168]
Orthodox and Conservative Judaism discourage proselytism to non-Jews, but many Jewish groups have tried to reach out to the assimilated Jewish communities of the Diaspora in order for them to reconnect to their Jewish roots. Additionally, while in principle Reform Judaism favors seeking new members for the faith, this position has not translated into active proselytism, instead taking the form of an effort to reach out to non-Jewish spouses of intermarried couples.[169]
There is also a trend of Orthodox movements pursuing secular Jews in order to give them a stronger Jewish identity so there is less chance of intermarriage. As a result of the efforts by these and other Jewish groups over the past 25 years, there has been a trend of secular Jews becoming more religiously observant, known as the Baal Teshuva movement, though the demographic implications of the trend are unknown.[170] Additionally, there is also a growing movement of Jews by Choice by gentiles who make the decision to head in the direction of becoming Jews.[171]
Leadership[link]
Main article: Jewish leadership
There is no single governing body for the Jewish community, nor a single authority with responsibility for religious doctrine.[172] Instead, a variety of secular and religious institutions at the local, national, and international levels lead various parts of the Jewish community on a variety of issues.[173]
Notable individuals[link]
Main article: Lists of Jews
Jews have made contributions in a broad range of human endeavors, including the sciences, arts, politics, and business.[174][175] Although Jews comprise only 0.2% of the world's population, over 20%[175][176] of Nobel Prize laureates have been Jewish, with multiple winners in each field.
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x DellaPergola, Sergio (November 2, 2010). "World Jewish Population, 2010". In Dashefsky, Arnold; Sheskin, Ira (PDF). Current Jewish Population Reports. Storrs, Connecticut: North American Jewish Data Bank. http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Reports/World_Jewish_Population_2010.pdf. Retrieved March 3, 2012.
- ^ Brandeis, Louis (April 25, 1915). "The Jewish Problem: How To Solve It". University of Louisville School of Law. http://www.law.louisville.edu/library/collections/brandeis/node/234. Retrieved April 2, 2012. "Jews are a distinctive nationality of which every Jew, whatever his country, his station or shade of belief, is necessarily a member"
- ^ Palmer, Edward Henry (October 14, 2002) [First published 1874]. A History of the Jewish Nation: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day. Gorgias Press. ISBN 978-1-931956-69-7. OCLC 51578088. http://archive.org/details/historyofjewishn00palm. Retrieved April 2, 2012. Lay summary.
- ^ Einstein, Albert (June 21, 1921). "How I Became a Zionist". Einstein Papers Project. Princeton University Press. http://press.princeton.edu/einstein/materials/jewish_nationality.pdf. Retrieved April 5, 2012. "The Jewish nation is a living fact"
- ^ A 1970 amendment to Israel's Law of Return defines "Jew" as "a person who was born of a Jewish mother or has become converted to Judaism and who is not a member of another religion." "Law of Return". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Immigration/Text_of_Law_of_Return.html.
- ^ Ancient Canaan and Israel: an introduction. Golden, Jonathan M. (2009). Oxford University Press US.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 82.
- ^ Pfeffer, Anshel (September 12, 2007). "Jewish Agency: 13.2 million Jews worldwide on eve of Rosh Hashanah, 5768". Haaretz. Archived from the original on March 19, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090319024731/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/903585.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Jew", Oxford English Dictionary.
- ^ Grintz, Yehoshua M. (2007). "Jew". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 253. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Falk, Avner (1996). A Psychoanalytic History of the Jews. Madison, N.J.: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-8386-3660-8.
- ^ "Yiddish". Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary (11th ed.). Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster. 2004. p. 1453. ISBN 0-87779-809-5.
- ^ "Jew". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/Jew. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Jared Diamond (1993). "Who are the Jews?". http://ftp.beitberl.ac.il/~bbsite/misc/ezer_anglit/klali/05_123.pdf. Retrieved November 8, 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12-19.
- ^ Neusner (1991) p. 64
- ^ Patai, Raphael (1996) [1977]. The Jewish Mind. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-8143-2651-X.
- ^ Johnson, Lonnie R. (1996). Central Europe: Enemies, Neighbors, Friends. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-19-510071-9.
- ^ a b Sharot (1997), pp. 29–30.
- ^ Sharot (1997), pp. 42–3.
- ^ Sharot (1997), p. 42.
- ^ Fishman, Sylvia Barack (2000). Jewish Life and American Culture. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 38. ISBN 0-7914-4546-1.
- ^ Kimmerling, Baruch (1996). The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-88706-849-9.
- ^ Lowenstein, Steven M. (2000). The Jewish Cultural Tapestry: International Jewish Folk Traditions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-19-513425-7.
- ^ Weiner, Rebecca (2007). "Who is a Jew?". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/whojew1.html. Retrieved 2007-10-06.
- ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997). World Religions: An Introduction for Students. Sussex Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 1-898723-48-6.
- ^ "What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?". Shamash.org. September 4, 2003. http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/10-11.html. Retrieved January 9, 2009.
- ^ "What is the source of the law that a child is Jewish only if its mother is Jewish?". Torah.org. http://www.torah.org/qanda/seequanda.php?id=318. Retrieved January 9, 2009.
- ^ Dosick (2007), pp. 56–7.
- ^ Bauer, Yehuda. "Beyond the fourth wave: contemporary anti-Semitism and radical Islam". http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0411/is_1-2_55/ai_n26961277/. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 60.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 59.
- ^ a b Schmelz, Usiel Oscar; Sergio DellaPergola (2007). "Demography". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 5 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 571. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Schmelz, Usiel Oscar; Sergio DellaPergola (2007). "Demography". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 5 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. pp. 571–2. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Dosick (2007), p. 61.
- ^ a b Grintz, Jehoshua M. (March 1960). "Hebrew as the Spoken and Written Language in the Last Days of the Second Temple". Journal of Biblical Literature (The Society of Biblical Literature) 79 (1): 32–47. DOI:10.2307/3264497. JSTOR 3264497.
- ^ Feldman (2006), p. 54.
- ^ a b "Links". Beth Hatefutsoth. Archived from the original on March 26, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090326102214/http://www.bh.org.il/links/jewishlangs.asp. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Parfitt, T. V. (1972). "The Use Of Hebrew In Palestine 1800–1822". Journal of Semitic Studies 17 (2): 237–52. DOI:10.1093/jss/17.2.237. http://jss.oxfordjournals.org/content/17/2/237.full.pdf+html.
- ^ "Israel and the United States: Friends, Partners, Allies". Embassy of Israel in Washington, D.C.. http://www.mfa.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/EDC6CB3D-73EE-43BD-9CDC-ED4EFF8A4008/0/usisrael_pub.pdf. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Hebrew, Aramaic and the rise of Yiddish. D. Katz. (1985) Readings in the sociology of Jewish languages'
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- ^ a b Wade, Nicholas (May 9, 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D02E0D71338F93AA35756C0A9669C8B63. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
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- ^ Nebel, A; Filon, D; Brinkmann, B; Majumder, Pp; Faerman, M; Oppenheim, A (November 2001). "The Y chromosome pool of Jews as part of the genetic landscape of the Middle East". Am J Hum Genet 69 (5): 1095–112. DOI:10.1086/324070. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1274378. PMID 11573163. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1274378.
- ^ Pollack, Robert (March 7, 2003). "The Fallacy of Biological Judaism". http://www.forward.com/articles/9406/. "...there are no DNA sequences common to all Jews and absent from all non-Jews. There is nothing in the human genome that makes or diagnoses a person as a Jew."
- ^ Need AC, Kasperaviciute D, Cirulli ET, Goldstein DB (2009). "A genome-wide genetic signature of Jewish ancestry perfectly separates individuals with and without full Jewish ancestry in a large random sample of European Americans". Genome Biology 10 (1): R7. DOI:10.1186/gb-2009-10-1-r7. PMC 2687795. PMID 19161619. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2687795.
- ^ Appelbaum, Diana Muir; Paul S. Appelbaum (12 February 2008). "Genetics and the Jewish identity". Jerusalem Post. http://www.jpost.com/Features/Article.aspx?id=91746. Retrieved April 3, 2012.
- ^ Nebel, Almut; Filon, Dvora; Weiss, Deborah A.; Weale, Michael; Faerman, Marina; Oppenheim, Ariella; Thomas, Mark G. (2000). "High-resolution Y chromosome haplotypes of Israeli and Palestinian Arabs reveal geographic substructure and substantial overlap with haplotypes of Jews". Human Genetics 107 (6): 630–41. DOI:10.1007/s004390000426. PMID 11153918.
- ^ a b Shen, et al. 2004
- ^ a b Semino, et al. 2004
- ^ Questions Answered through DNA Genealogy Testing for Ancestry by Familybuilder
- ^ Behar, et al. 2004
- ^ Alshamaly, et al. 2009: 84/104 (81%), Malouf, et al. 2008: 28/40 = 70% J1-M267, 6/40 = 15% J2a4b-M67
- ^ a b c Cadenas AM, Zhivotovsky LA, Cavalli-Sforza LL, Underhill PA, Herrera RJ (March 2008). "Y-chromosome diversity characterizes the Gulf of Oman". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 16 (3): 374–86. DOI:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201934. PMID 17928816.
Yemen 45/62 = 72.6% J1-M267
Qatar 42/72 = 58.3% J1-M267 - ^ Alshamaly, et al. 2009: 68/106 (64%)
- ^ 21/31 Nebel, et al. 2001
- ^ combined (Wells, et al. 2001 19%) & (Zalloua, et al. 2008 20%) Wells, et al. 2001: 32.0% E-M96, 30.0% J1-M267, 30.0% J2-M172, 2.0% L-M20, 6.0% R1-M173.
- ^ Zalloua PA, Xue Y, Khalife J, Makhoul N, Debiane L, Platt DE, Royyuru AK, Herrera RJ, Hernanz DF, Blue-Smith J, Wells RS, Comas D, Bertranpetit J, Tyler-Smith C (April 2008). "Y-chromosomal diversity in Lebanon is structured by recent historical events". Am. J. Hum. Genet. 82 (4): 873–82. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.01.020. PMC 2427286. PMID 18374297. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2427286.
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- ^ Di Gaetano C, Cerutti N, Crobu F, Robino C, Inturri S, Gino S, Guarrera S, Underhill PA, King RJ, Romano V, Cali F, Gasparini M, Matullo G, Salerno A, Torre C, Piazza A (January 2009). "Differential Greek and northern African migrations to Sicily are supported by genetic evidence from the Y chromosome". Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 17 (1): 91–9. DOI:10.1038/ejhg.2008.120. PMC 2985948. PMID 18685561. http://volgagermanbrit.us/documents/ejhg2008120a.pdf.
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Crete 16 out of 193
Greece 9 out of 171 - ^ Capelli C, Redhead N, Romano V, Calì F, Lefranc G, Delague V, Megarbane A, Felice AE, Pascali VL, Neophytou PI, Poulli Z, Novelletto A, Malaspina P, Terrenato L, Berebbi A, Fellous M, Thomas MG, Goldstein DB (March 2006). "Population structure in the Mediterranean basin: a Y chromosome perspective". Ann. Hum. Genet. 70 (Pt 2): 207–25. DOI:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00224.x. PMID 16626331.
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- ^ "Population, by Religion and Population Group". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2006. http://www1.cbs.gov.il/reader/shnaton/templ_shnaton_e.html?num_tab=st02_01&CYear=2006. Retrieved 2007-08-07.
- ^ a b "Annual Assessment" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). 2007. p. 15. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. , based on Annual Assessment 2007. 106. American Jewish Committee. 2006. http://www.ajcarchives.org/main.php?GroupingId=10142.
- ^ Dekmejian 1975, p. 247. "And most [Oriental-Sephardic Jews] came... because of Arab persecution resulting from the very attempt to establish a Jewish state in Palestine."
- ^ "airlifted tens of thousands of Ethiopian Jews". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ejhist.html#operation1/. Retrieved July 7, 2005.
- ^ Alexeyeva, Lyudmila (1983). "История инакомыслия в СССР [History of Dissident Movement in the USSR]" (in Russian). Vilnius. http://www.memo.ru/history/diss/books/alexeewa/.
- ^ Goldstein (1995) p. 24
- ^ a b Dosick (2007), p. 340.
- ^ Gartner (2001), p. 213.
- ^ Gurock, Jeffrey S. (1998). East European Jews in America, 1880–1920: Immigration and Adaptation. New York: Routledge. p. 54. ISBN 0-415-91924-X.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 410–410.
- ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). pp. 40–2. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
- ^ "The Ingathering of the Exiles". Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs. http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/History/Modern%20History/Israel%20at%2050/The%20Ingathering%20of%20the%20Exiles.
- ^ a b c "Jewish Virtual Library". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html#region. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Littman (1979), p. 5.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), p. 171.
- ^ Edinger, Bernard (December 15, 2005). "Chinese Jews: Reverence for Ancestors". Shavei Israel. http://www.shavei.org/communities/kaifeng_jews/articles-kaifeng_jews/chinese-jews-reverence-for-ancestors/. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Elazar (2003), p. 434.
- ^ "NJPS: Defining and Calculating Intermarriage". http://www.jewishfederations.org/page.aspx?id=46252. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ Cohen, Erik H.. "Les Juifs de France: La Lente Progression des Mariages Mixtes" (in French). http://www.akadem.org/photos/contextuels/1027_357_Rapport_Erik_Cohen.pdf. Retrieved March 25, 2009.
- ^ "Australia". World Jewish Congress. http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/communities/show/id/2. Retrieved April 2, 2012.
- ^ "The Virtual Jewish History Tour – Mexico". http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Mexico.html. Retrieved July 7, 2005.
- ^ Waxman, Chaim I. (2007). "Annual Assessment 2007" (PDF). Jewish People Policy Planning Institute (Jewish Agency for Israel). p. 61. http://jppi.org.il/uploads/Annual%20Assessment%202007.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-03.
- ^ Goldenberg (2007), pp. 131, 135–6.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 164–5.
- ^ Carroll, James. Constantine's Sword (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) ISBN 0-395-77927-8 p.26
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 207–8.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 213, 229–31.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 243–4.
- ^ "A Catholic Timeline of Events Relating to Jews, Anti-Judaism, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust, From the 3rd century to the Beginning of the Third Millennium". Sullivan-county.com. http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/timeline.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ a b Lewis (1984), pp. 10, 20
- ^ Lewis (1987), p. 9, 27
- ^ a b Lewis (1999), p.131
- ^ Lewis (1999), p.131; (1984), pp.8,62
- ^ Lewis (1984), p. 52; Stillman (1979), p.77
- ^ Lewis (1984), pp. 17–8, 94–5; Stillman (1979), p. 27
- ^ Lewis (1984), p. 28.
- ^ Lewis, Bernard (June 1998). "Muslim Anti-Semitism". Middle East Quarterly. Middle East Forum. http://www.meforum.org/396/muslim-anti-semitism.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 226–9.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 259–60.
- ^ a b Johnson (1987), pp. 364–5.
- ^ "Study: 20 Percent of Spanish, Portuguese Have Jewish Ancestry". Fox News Channel. December 8, 2008. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,463564,00.html.
- ^ "DNA study shows 20 percent of Iberian population has Jewish ancestry". The New York Times. December 4, 2008. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/04/world/europe/04iht-gene.4.18411385.html.
- ^ "The Genetic Legacy of Religious Diversity and Intolerance: Paternal Lineages of Christians, Jews, and Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula". Cell.com. http://www.cell.com/AJHG/fulltext/S0002-9297(08)00592-2. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 512.
- ^ Donald L Niewyk, The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." However, the Holocaust usually includes all of the different victims who were systematically murdered.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 484–8.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 490–2.
- ^ "Ukrainian mass Jewish grave found". BBC News. 2007-06-05. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6724481.stm. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 493–8.
- ^ Berenbaum, Michael. The World Must Know," United States Holocaust Museum, 2006, p. 103.
- ^ de Lange (2002), pp. 41–3.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 10.
- ^
Hirsch, Emil G.; Seligsohn, Max (1901–1906). "NIMROD". Jewish Encyclopedia. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/11548-nimrod. - ^ Johnson (1987), p. 30.
- ^ Malamat, Abraham (2007). "Exile, Assyrian". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-02-865928-7. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0006_0_06182.html.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 70–1.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 78–9.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 85–6.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 147.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 163.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 177.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 231.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 460.
- ^ a b Gartner (2001), p. 431.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 11–2.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 229–31.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 306.
- ^ Johnson (1987), p. 370.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 213–5.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 357–70.
- ^ Johnson (1987), pp. 529–30.
- ^ Netzer, Amnon (2007). "Iran". In Fred Skolnik. Encyclopaedia Judaica. 10 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. pp. 13. ISBN 0-02-865928-7.
- ^ Gartner (2001), pp. 400–1.
- ^ Kaplan (2003), p. 301.
- ^ Danzger (2003), pp. 495–6.
- ^ de Lange (2002), p. 220.
- ^ Eisenstadt, S.N. (2004). Explorations in Jewish Historical Experience: The Civilizational Dimension. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. p. 75. ISBN 90-04-13693-2.
- ^ Lewis, Hal M. (2006). From Sanctuary to Boardroom: A Jewish Approach to Leadership. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. ISBN 0-7425-5229-2.
- ^ Schwartz, Richard H. (2001). Judaism and Global Survival. New York: Lantern Books. p. 153. ISBN 1-930051-87-5.
- ^ a b Brooks, David (January 11, 2010). "The Tel Aviv Cluster". The New York Times: p. A23. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/12/opinion/12brooks.html. Retrieved January 13, 2010. "Jews are a famously accomplished group. They make up 0.2 percent of the world population, but 54 percent of the world chess champions, 27 percent of the Nobel physics laureates and 31 percent of the medicine laureates. Jews make up 2 percent of the U.S. population, but 21 percent of the Ivy League student bodies, 26 percent of the Kennedy Center honorees, 37 percent of the Academy Award-winning directors, 38 percent of those on a recent Business Week list of leading philanthropists, 51 percent of the Pulitzer Prize winners for nonfiction."
- ^
- Shalev, Baruch (2005). 100 Years of Nobel Prizes. p. 57. "A striking fact... is the high number of Laureates of the Jewish faith—over 20% of the total Nobel Prizes (138); including: 17% in Chemistry, 26% in Medicine and Physics, 40% in Economics and 11% in Peace and Literature each. These numbers are especially startling in light of the fact that only some 14 million people (0.2% of the world's population) are Jewish."
- Dobbs, Stephen Mark (October 12, 2001). "As the Nobel Prize marks centennial, Jews constitute 1/5 of laureates". j.. http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/16556/as-the-nobel-prize-marks-centennial-jews-constitute-1-5-of-laureates/. Retrieved April 3, 2012. "Throughout the 20th century, Jews, more so than any other minority, ethnic or cultural group, have been recipients of the Nobel Prize -- perhaps the most distinguished award for human endeavor in the six fields for which it is given. Remarkably, Jews constitute almost one-fifth of all Nobel laureates. This, in a world in which Jews number just a fraction of 1 percent of the population."
- "Jewish Nobel Prize Winners". http://www.jewishbiography.com/biographies/list-of-jews/jewish-nobel-prize-winners/index.html. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
- Ted Falcon, David Blatner (2001). "28". Judaism for dummies. John Wiley & Sons. "Similarly, because Jews make up less than a quarter of one percent of the world's population, it's surprising that over 20 percent of Nobel prizes have been awarded to Jews or people of Jewish descent."
- Lawrence E. Harrison (2008). The Central Liberal Truth: How Politics Can Change a Culture and Save It. Oxford University Press. p. 102. "That achievement is symbolized by the fact that 15 to 20 percent of Nobel Prizes have been won by Jews, who represent two tenths of one percent of the world's population."
- Jonathan B. Krasner, Jonathan D. Sarna (2006). The History of the Jewish People: Ancient Israel to 1880's America. Behrman House, Inc.. p. 1. "These accomplishments account for 20 percent of the Nobel Prizes awarded since 1901. What a feat for a people who make up only .2 percent of the world's population!"
References[link]
- Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1952). A Social and Religious History of the Jews, Volume II, Ancient Times, Part II. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America.
- Carr, David R. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism in Christendom". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Cowling, Geoffrey (2005). Introduction to World Religions. Singapore: First Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-3714-3.
- Danzger, M. Herbert (2003) [2000]. "The "Return" to Traditional Judaism at the End of the Twentieth Century: Cross-Cultural Comparisons". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Dekmejian, R. Hrair (1975). Patterns of Political Leadership: Egypt, Israel, Lebanon. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-87395-291-X.
- de Lange, Nicholas (2002) [2000]. An Introduction to Judaism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-46073-5.
- Dosick, Wayne (2007). Living Judaism. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-062179-6.
- Elazar, Daniel J. (2003) [2000]. "Judaism as a Theopolitical Phenomenon". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Feldman, Louis H. (2006). Judaism and Hellenism Reconsidered. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. ISBN 90-04-14906-6.
- Gartner, Lloyd P. (2001). History of the Jews in Modern Times. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289259-2.
- Goldenberg, Robert (2007). The Origins of Judaism: From Canaan to the Rise of Islam. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84453-3.
- Goldstein, Joseph (1995). Jewish History in Modern Times. Sussex Academic Press. ISBN 1-898723-06-0.
- Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-091533-1.
- Kaplan, Dana Evan (2003) [2000]. "Reform Judaism". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
- Katz, Shmuel (1974). Battleground: Fact and Fantasy in Palestine. Taylor Productions. ISBN 0-929093-13-5.
- Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8
- Lewis, Bernard (1999). Semites and Anti-Semites: An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice. W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-31839-7
- Littman, David (1979). "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin XXXII (New series 49/50).
- Neusner, Jacob (1991). Studying Classical Judaism: A Primer. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25136-6.
- Poliakov, Leon (1974). The History of Anti-semitism. New York: The Vanguard Press.
- Ruderman, David B. Early Modern Jewry: A New Cultural History (Princeton University Press; 2010) 326 pages. Examines print culture, religion, and other realms in a history emphasizing the links among early modern Jewish communities from Venice and Kraków to Amsterdam and Smyrna.
- Sharot, Stephen (1997). "Religious Syncretism and Religious Distinctiveness: A Comparative Analysis of Pre-Modern Jewish Communities". In Endelman, Todd M.. Comparing Jewish Societies. Ann Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-06592-0.
- Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0-8276-0198-0
- Sweeney, Marvin A. (2003) [2000]. "The Religious World of Ancient Israel to 586 BCE". In Neusner, Jacob; Avery-Peck, Alan J.. The Blackwell Companion to Judaism. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-57718-058-5.
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Spanish Civil War | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Republican International Brigadiers at the Battle of Belchite |
|||||||
|
|||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 Republican
Supported by
|
 Nationalist
Supported by |
||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
Republican leaders Manuel Azaña Julián Besteiro Francisco Largo Caballero Juan Negrín Indalecio Prieto Vicente Rojo Lluch José Miaja Juan Modesto Juan Hernández Saravia Carlos Romero Giménez Buenaventura Durruti † Lluís Companys José Antonio Aguirre Alfonso Castelao |
Nationalist leaders José Sanjurjo † Emilio Mola † Francisco Franco Miguel Cabanellas † Manuel Goded Llopis † Manuel Hedilla Manuel Fal Condé José María Gil-Robles Gonzalo Queipo de Llano |
||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 450,000 infantry 350 aircraft 200 batteries (1938)[1] |
600,000 infantry 600 aircraft 290 batteries (1938)[2] |
||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
~500,000 killed[3][nb 1]
|
|||||||
|
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The Spanish Civil War[nb 2] was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of generals under the leadership of José Sanjurjo against the elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The rebel coup was supported by a number of conservative groups including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right,[nb 3] monarchists such as the religious conservative Carlists, and the Fascist Falange.[nb 4][5] The uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist in inspiration; anti-Basque and anti-Catalan feeling marked the Nationalist zone.[6]
Following the only partially successful coup,[nb 5] Spain was left militarily and politically divided. From that moment onwards, general Francisco Franco began a protracted war of attrition against the established government for the control of the country. The rebel forces received the support of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, as well as neighbouring Portugal, while the Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the Republican government or loyalist side.
Bloody purges occurred in pieces of territory conquered from the republic in order to consolidate Franco's future regime,[7] while fundamentally different killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans, where killings were largely a result of a breakdown in law and order.[8] The Civil War became notable for the passion and political division it inspired. Tens of thousands of civilians on both sides were killed for their political or religious views, and after the War's conclusion in 1939, those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists.
The war ended with the victory of the Nationalists, the overthrow of the democratically elected government, and the exile of thousands of left-leaning Spaniards, many of whom fled to refugee camps in Southern France. With the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the Civil War, all right-wing parties were fused into the structure of the Franco regime.[5]
Contents |
Background[link]
Main article: Background of the Spanish Civil War
File:SalvadorDali-SoftConstructionWithBeans.jpg
Foreshadowing the conflict: Salvador Dalí's Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War) (1936)
At the end of the 19th century, the owners of large estates, called latifundia, held most of the power in a land-based oligarchy. The landowners' power was unsuccessfully challenged by the industrial and merchant sectors.[9] In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon. In 1873 Isabella's replacement, King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy, abdicated due to increasing political pressure, and the short-lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed.[10][11] After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874,[12] Carlists and anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy.[13][14] Alejandro Lerroux helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia, where poverty was particularly acute.[15] Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909.[16] After the First World War, the working class, the industrial class, and the military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government, but were unsuccessful.[17] Fears of communism grew.[18] A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923, and he ran Spain as a military dictatorship.[19] Support for his regime gradually faded, and he resigned in January 1930.[20] There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities, and King Alfonso XIII abdicated;[21] the Second Spanish Republic was formed, whose power would remain until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War.[22]
Niceto Alcalá-Zamora became the first prime minister.[23] The Republic had broad support from all segments of society;[24] elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists.[25] With the onset of the Great Depression, the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight-hour day and giving tenure to farm workers.[26][27] Fascism remained a reactive threat, helped by controversial reforms to the military.[28] In December a new reformist, liberal, and democratic constitution was declared. It started a theme of laic, reforming actions by the government, and committed Catholics opposed its leftist governments.[29] In October 1931 Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister of a minority government whose actions were described as barbaric, unjust, and corrupt by opponents.[30][31] The Right won the elections of 1933 following an unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo in August 1932, who would later lead the coup that started the civil war.[32][33]
Events in the period following November 1933, called the "black two years", seemed to make a civil war more likely.[34] Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party (RRP) formed a government and rolled back changes made under the previous administration.[35] Some monarchists moved to the Fascist Falange Española to help achieve their aims.[36] Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities and militancy continued to increase right up until the start of the civil war,[37] reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval rather than peaceful democratic means as a solution to Spain's problems.[38] In the last months of 1934, two government collapses brought members of the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA) into the government, making it more right-wing.[39][40] Farm workers' wages were halved, and the military was purged of republican members and reformed.[40] A Popular Front alliance was organised,[40] which narrowly won the 1936 elections.[41] Azaña led a weak minority government, but soon replaced Zamora as president in April.[42] Prime Minister Casares failed to heed warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals, who decided that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented.[43]
Military coup[link]
Main article: Spanish coup of July 1936
Preparations[link]
The republican government had been attempting to remove suspect generals from their posts, and so Franco was sacked as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary Islands.[44] Goded was sacked as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands; Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to be military commander of Pamplona in Navarre.[44] However, this allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising. General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation, and helped to come to an agreement with the Carlists.[44] Mola was chief planner and second in command.[45] José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid-March in order to restrict the Falange.[44] However, government actions were not as thorough as they might have been: warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon.[46]
On 12 June, Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe, but Yagüe managed to convince Casares of his loyalty to the Republic.[47] Mola began serious planning in the spring.[45] Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1934.[45] He was well respected in the Army of Africa, the Spanish Republican Army's toughest military force.[48] He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June, suggesting that the military was disloyal, but could be restrained if he were put in charge; Casares did nothing, failing to arrest or buy off Franco.[48] On July 5, an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco.[49] It arrived on July 14.[49]
On 12 July 1936, in Madrid, members of the Falange murdered Lieutenant José Castillo of the Assault Guards police force.[49] Castillo was a member of the Socialist party. The next day, members of the Assault Guards arrested José Calvo Sotelo, a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative.[50] Calvo Sotelo was shot by the Guards without trial.[50] The killing of Calvo Sotelo, a prominent member of Parliament, with involvement of the police, aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right.[51][nb 6] Massive reprisals followed.[50] Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in advanced stages of a planned uprising, the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup.[50] The Socialists and Communists (led by Prieto) demanded that arms be distributed to the people, before the military took over. The Prime Minister was hesitant.[50] Franco's plane landed in Gran Canaria on July 14.
Beginning of the coup[link]
|
Initial Nationalist zone – July 1936
Nationalist advance until September 1936
Nationalist advance until October 1937
Nationalist advance until November 1938
Nationalist advance until February 1939
Last area under Republican control
 Main Nationalist centres Main Republican centres |
 Land battles Naval battles Bombed cities Concentration camps Massacres Refugee camps |
The uprising's timing was fixed at 17 July, at 5:00 p.m.; this was agreed to by the leader of the Carlists, Manuel Fal Conde.[52] However, the timing was changed: the men in Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 5:00 a.m. and those in Spain itself starting exactly a day later, so control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there.[53] The rising was intended to be a swift coup d'état, but the government retained control of most of the country.[54]
Control in Spanish Morocco was all but certain.[55] The plan was discovered in Morocco during 17 July, which prompted it to be enacted immediately. Little resistance was encountered; in total, 189 people were shot by the rebels.[56] Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned.[45] On 18 July, Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and UGT, leading the groups to proclaim a general strike, in effect mobilising. They opened weapons caches, some buried since the 1934 risings.[55] The paramilitary forces often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion. Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town.[57] General Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels, arresting a number of other officers.[58]
Outcome[link]
The rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville which provided a landing point for Franco’s African troops. The primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León fell quickly.[54] The government retained control of Málaga, Jaén and Almería. Cadiz was taken for the rebels with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa.[59]
In Madrid they were hemmed into the Montaña barracks, which fell with much bloodshed. Republican leader Santiago Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population.[60] This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres, including Madrid, Barcelona, and Valencia, but it allowed the anarchists to take control of Barcelona and large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia.[61] General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death.[62]
The Republican Government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid, as well as Asturias, Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north. Mola was keen to create a sense of fear within Nationalist-controlled areas.[63] The rebels termed themselves "Nacionales", normally translated as "Nationalists", although the former implies "true Spaniards" rather than a pure nationalistic cause.[64]
The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 million of Spain's population of 25 million.[65] The Nationalists had secured the support of around half of Spain's territorial army, some 60,000 men, joined by the Army of Africa, made up of 35,000 men,[66] and a little under half of Spain's militaristic police forces, the Assault Guards, the Civil Guards, and the Carabineers.[67] Republicans controlled under half of rifles, and about a third of both machine guns and artillery pieces.[66][68]
The Spanish Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design, and the Republicans retained 10.[69] Naval capacity was fairly even, with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage but with the Navy's top ships in Nationalist hands. The Republican navy suffered from the same problems as the army: many officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so.[69] Two-thirds of air capability was retained by the government – however, the whole of the air service was very outdated.[70]
Combatants[link]
The war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between "tyranny and democracy", and by Nationalist supporters as between communist and anarchist "red hordes" and "Christian civilization".[71] Nationalists also claimed to be protecting the establishment and bringing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless society.[71]
Spanish politics, especially on the left, were quite fragmented, as socialists and communists supported the Republic. During the Republic, anarchists had had mixed opinions, but major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War. The Conservatives, by contrast, were united by their fervent opposition to the Republican government, and presented a more unified front.[72]
Republicans[link]
Main article: Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)
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The Republicans received weapons and volunteers from the Soviet Union, Mexico, the international Marxists movement and International Brigades. Their supporters ranged from centrists who supported a moderately capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists; their base was primarily secular and urban, but also included landless peasants, and was particularly strong in industrial regions like Asturias and Catalonia.[73]
This faction was called variously loyales ("loyalists") by supporters; "Republicans", "the Popular Front" or "the Government" by all parties, while their opponents frequently called them los rojos ("the reds").[74] Republicans were supported by most urban workers, a large share of peasants, and much of the educated middle class.
The conservative, strongly Catholic Basque country, along with Galicia and the more left-leaning Catalonia, sought autonomy or even independence from the central government of Madrid. The Republican government allowed for the possibility of self-government for the two regions,[75] whose forces were gathered under the People's Republican Army (Ejército Popular Republicano, or EPR).
Nationalists[link]
Main article: National faction (Spanish Civil War)
The Nationalists (nacionales), (also called "insurgents", "rebels" or by opponents "Francoists" or "Fascists") fearing national fragmentation, opposed the separatist movements, and were chiefly defined by their anti-communism, which galvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists and monarchists. Their leaders had a generally wealthier, more conservative, monarchist, landowning background.[76]
The Nationalist side included the Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists, Spanish nationalists, the fascist Falange, and most conservatives and monarchist liberals. Virtually all Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy.[76] The Nationals included the majority of the Catholic clergy and practitioners (outside of the Basque region), important elements of the army, most large landowners, and many businessmen.[71]
One of the rightists' principal stated motives was to confront the anti-clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Church,[76] which had been the targeted by opponents, including Republicans who blamed the institution for the country's ills. Prior to the war, in the Asturias uprising of 1934, religious buildings were burnt and at least one hundred clergy, religious civilians, and police were killed by revolutionaries against whom the president and the radicals prevented the implementation of serious sanctions or punishment.[77][78]
Articles 24 and 26 of the Constitution of Spain's Republic had banned the Jesuits, which deeply offended many within the conservative fold. The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war, killing 7,000 clergy and thousands of lay people, drove many Catholics to the Nationalist faction.[79][80]
Other factions[link]
Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal. Left-wing Catalan nationalists sided with the Republicans, while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal supporting the government due to anti-clericalism and confiscations occurring in areas within its control. Basque nationalists, heralded by the conservative Basque Nationalist Party, were mildly supportive of the Republican government, even though some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans. Notwithstanding religious matters, Basque nationalists, who were for the most part Catholic, generally sided with the Republicans.[81]
Foreign involvement[link]
Main article: Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War involved large numbers of non-Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisory positions. Germany and Italy contributed large amounts of financial assistance and military aid to forces led by Franco. Forces fighting on behalf of the Republican faction also received support, but the Republic's allies were seriously hampered by the non-intervention proclaimed by France and the United Kingdom. The attempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective, however, and France especially was accused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops.[82] The clandestine actions of the various European powers were at the time considered to be risking another 'Great War'.[83]
The League of Nations' reaction to the war was mostly neutral and insufficient to contain the massive importation by fighting factions of arms and other war resources. Although a Non-Intervention Committee was formed, its policies accomplished little, and its directives were dismantled due to the policies of appeasement practised by European states; the official Spanish government of Juan Negrín was gradually abandoned within the organization during this period.[84]
Support for the Nationalists[link]
Germany[link]
Main article: German involvement in the Spanish Civil War
Despite the German signing of a non-intervention agreement in September 1936, various forms of aid and military help from Germany found their way to both sides of the Spanish conflict, largely in support of the Nationalist faction. Nazi actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion, while German efforts to move the Army of Africa to mainland Spain proved successful in the war's early stages.[85] German operations slowly expanded to include strike targets, most notably – and controversially – the bombing of Guernica, which on 26 April 1937 killed 200 to 300 civilians.[86]
German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula, a U-boat undertaking, and contributions from the Kriegsmarine. The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories, particularly in aerial combat,[87] while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics. The training German units provided to Nationalist force would prove valuable; by the War's end, perhaps fifty-six thousand Nationalist soldiers encompassing infantry, artillery, aerial and naval forces had been trained by German detachments.[85]
Probably a total of 16,000 German citizens fought in the War, including approximately 300 killed,[88] though no more than ten thousand participated at any one time. German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £43,000,000 ($215,000,000) in 1939 prices,[88][nb 7] 15.5% of which was used for salaries and expenses and 21.9% for direct delivery of supplies to Spain, while 62.6% was expended on the Condor Legion.[88] In total Germany provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks.[89]
Italy[link]
After Francisco Franco’s request and encouragement by Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini joined the war. While the conquest of Abyssinia had made Italy delirious with power, a Spanish ally would help secure Italian control of the Mediterranean.[90] The Royal Italian Navy (Regia Marina Italiana) played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns, artillery, aircraft, tankettes, the Legionary Air Force (Italian: Aviazione Legionaria), and the Corps of Volunteer Troops (Italian: Corpo Truppe Volontarie, or CTV) to the Nationalist cause.[91] The Italian CTV would at its peak supply the Nationalists with 50,000 men.[91] Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy's blockade of Nationalist-held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican-held Malaga, Valencia, and Barcelona.[92] In total Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes, 150 tanks, 800 artillery pieces, 10,000 machine-guns and 240,000 rifles.[93]
Portugal[link]
António de Oliveira Salazar's Estado Novo played an important role in supplying Franco’s forces with ammunition and logistical help.[94] Despite its discreet direct military involvement – restrained to a somewhat "semi-official" endorsement, by its authoritarian regime, of a volunteer force of up to 20,000,[95][96] so-called "Viriatos" – for the whole duration of the conflict, Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbour to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to the Nationalist cause.[97]
Others[link]
Despite the Irish government's prohibition against participating in the war, around six hundred Irishmen, followers of Eoin O'Duffy known as the "Irish Brigade", went to Spain to fight alongside Franco.[95] Romanian volunteers were led by Ion I Moţa, deputy-leader of the Legion of the Archangel Michael (or Iron Guard), whose group of seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with the Nationalists.[98]
Support for the Republicans[link]
International Brigades[link]
Many non-Spaniards, often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entities, joined the International Brigades, believing that the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war against fascism. The units represented the largest foreign contingent of those fighting for the Republicans. Roughly forty thousand foreign nationals fought with the Brigades, though no more than 18,000 were entered into the conflict at any given time; they claimed to represent 53 states.[99]
Significant numbers of volunteers originated in France (10,000), Germany and Austria (5,000) and Italy (3,350). More than 1,000 came each from the Soviet Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, Poland, Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Canada.[99] The Thälmann Battalion, a group of Germans, and the Garibaldi Battalion, a group of Italians, distinguished their unit during the Siege of Madrid. Americans fought in units such as the Abraham Lincoln Brigade, while Canadians joined the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion.[100]
Over five hundred Romanians fought on the Republican side, including Romanian Communist Party members Petre Borilă and Valter Roman.[101] About 80 volunteers from Ireland formed the Connolly Column, the latter of which was immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song 'Viva La Quinta Brigada.' Some Chinese joined the Brigades; the majority of them eventually returned to China, while some went to prison or French refugee camps, and a handful remained in Spain.[102]
Soviet Union[link]
The Soviet Union primarily provided material assistance to the Republican forces. In total the USSR provided the Republicans with between 648[103] and 806 planes, 362 tanks, and 1,555 artillery pieces.[104] The Soviet Union ignored the League of Nations embargo and sold arms to the Republic when few other nations would do so; it was therefore the Republic's only source of major weapons. Joseph Stalin had signed the Non-Intervention Agreement but decided to break the pact, though he tried doing so secretly, unlike Hitler and Mussolini.[105]
The Soviet premier created a section X of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons shipment operation, coined Operation X. Despite Stalin's interest in aiding the Republicans, however, most of the weapons and artillery sent to Spain were relics, some captured from past conflicts.[106] Occasionally, modern weapons such as BT-5 tanks were sent.[107]
Many of the Soviet deliveries were lost, due to short notice on orders, or arrived only partially matching what Stalin had authorised.[108] When the ships left with supplies for the Republican cause, their journeys were extremely slow. Stalin ordered the builders to include false decks in the original designs of boats. Furthermore, once the sea vessels left shore, the Soviets were required to change flags and boat colors to minimize capture by the Nationalists.[109] Such manoeuvres become unnecessary in 1938, however, when Stalin withdrew his troops and tanks as government ranks floundered. The Republican-Soviet alliance was an uneasy affair, and had the Spanish leftists had the opportunity to buy transport and weapons from alternative sources, they may have cut ties with Moscow.[110]
The Republic was obliged to pay for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves, in an affair that would become a frequent subject of Francoist propaganda, under the term "Moscow Gold". The cost to the Republic of Soviet arms was more than US $500 million (in 1936 prices); the entire of Spain's gold reserve, the fourth-largest in the world.[111] 176 tonnes was transferred through France.[111]
The USSR further sent a number of military advisers to Spain (2,000[112]–3,000[113]),[114] and while Soviet troops amounted to no more than 500 men at a time, Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet-made Republican tanks and aircraft, particularly at the beginning of the war.[99] In addition, the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades. Another significant Soviet involvement were the pervasive activities of the NKVD spanning the Republican rearguard. Communist figures like Vittorio Vidali ("Comandante Contreras"), Iosif Grigulevich and, most prominently, Alexander Orlov led "secret" operations that included murders like those of Andreu Nin[115] and José Robles.[116]
Mexico[link]
Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments such as the ABC Powers and Peru, the Mexican government supported the Republicans.[117][118] Mexico refused to follow the French-British non-intervention proposals,[117] furnishing $2,000,000 in aid and material assistance, which included 20,000 rifles and 20 million cartridges.[117]
Mexico's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic were its diplomatic help, as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees, including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families. Some 50,000 took refuge, primarily in Mexico City, accompanied by $300 million in various treasures still owned by the Left.[119]
France[link]
Though the government of France did not send direct support to the Republican faction, the left-wing government of French Prime Minister Léon Blum was sympathetic to the Republic,[120] fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy (largely surrounding France).[120] Right-wing politicians opposed the French government's actions and began a vicious campaign against the Blum government.[121] On 27 July 1936, British officials held discussions with Prime Minister Blum, and it is believed that they convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republicans.[122] On 27 July, the French government declared that it would not send military aid, technology, forces to assist the Republican forces.[123] However, Blum made clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic:
- We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [Republicans], a legitimate government...We have not done so, in order not to give an excuse to those who would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [Nationalists]. Blum, 1936.[124]
On 1 August 1936, a pro-Republican rally of 20,000 people confronted Blum demanding that he send aircraft to the Republicans at the same time as right-wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco.[124] Germany informed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported "the maneouveres of Moscow" by supporting the Republicans.[125] On 21 August 1936, France signed the Non-Intervention Agreement.[125]
However the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 54 bomber aircraft, Dewoitine aircraft, and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to December of that year to Republican forces.[126] Also, until 8 September 1936, aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in other countries.[127]
Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936, the possibility of French intervention against the Nationals remained a serious possibility throughout the war. German intelligence reported to Franco and the Nationals that the French military was engaging in open discussions about intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands.[128] In 1938 Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through French occupation of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Spanish Morocco.[129]
Course of the war[link]
1936[link]
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Main article: Spanish Civil War chronology 1936
A large air and sea-lift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organized to the south-west of Spain.[130] Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20 July,[131][132] leaving an effective command split between Mola in the North and Franco in the South.[45] This period also saw the worst actions of the so-called "Red" and "White" "Terrors" in Spain.[133][134] On 21 July, the fifth day of the rebellion, the Nationalists captured the central Spanish naval base, located in Ferrol in north-western Spain.[135]
A rebel force under Colonel Beorlegui Canet, sent by General Mola, undertook the Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September. The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north. On 5 September, after heavy fighting the force took Irún, closing the French border to the Republicans.[136] On 15 September, San Sebastián, home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basque nationalists, was taken by Nationalist soldiers.[137] The Nationalists then advanced toward their capital, Bilbao, but were halted by Republican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September.
The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September, unable to cope with the situation in which it found itself, and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organization under Largo Caballero.[138] The new leadership began to unify central command in the republican zone.[139] On the Nationalist side, Franco was chosen as chief military commander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September, now called by the title Generalísimo.[45][140]
Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the Alcázar in Toledo[140] that had been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel Moscardo since the beginning of the rebellion, resisting thousands of Republican troops who totally surrounded the isolated building. Two days after relieving the siege, Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ("chieftain"), while forcibly unifying the various and diverse Falangist, Royalist and other elements within the Nationalist cause.[138] The diversion to Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense, but was hailed as a major propaganda victory and personal success for Franco.[141]
In October, the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid,[142] reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November.[143] The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to Valencia, outside the combat zone, on 6 November.[144] However, the Nationalists' attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 November and 23 November. A contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the arrival of the International Brigades, though only an approximate three thousand foreign volunteers participated in the battle.[145] Having failed to take the capital, Franco bombarded it from the air and, in the following two years, mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid. The battle of the Corunna Road, a Nationalist offensive to the north-west, pushed Republican forces back, but failed to isolate Madrid. The city lasted into January.[146]
1937[link]
Main article: Spanish Civil War chronology 1937
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Morocco, Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February 1937, but was again unsuccessful. The Battle of Málaga started in mid-January; this Nationalist offensive in Spain's south-east would turn into a disaster for the Republicans, who were poorly organised and armed. The city was taken by Franco on 8 February.[147] The consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army had started in December 1936.[148] The main Nationalist advance, to cross the Jarama river and cut the supply of Madrid by the Valencia road, termed the Battle of Jarama, led to heavy casualties (6–20,000) on both sides. The operation's main objective was not met, though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territory.[149]
A similar Nationalist offensive, the Battle of Guadalajara, was a more significant defeat for Franco and his armies; it proved the only publicised Republican victory of the war. Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco, and while many strategists blamed the latter for the rightists' defeat, the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists' 5,000 casualties and loss of valuable equipment.[150] The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first.[151]
The "War in the North" began in mid-March,[152] with Biscay as a first target.[153] The Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable air force;[154] on 26 April, the Condor Legion bombed the town of Guernica, killing two to three hundred. The destruction had a significant effect on international opinion.[155] The Basques retreated.[156]
April and May saw infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia. The dispute was between an ultimately victorious government – Communist force and the anarchist CNT. The disturbance pleased Nationalist command, but little was done to exploit Republican divisions.[157] After the fall of Guernica, the Republican government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness. In July, it made a move to recapture Segovia, forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front, but for only two weeks. A similar Republican attack on Huesca failed similarly.[158]
Mola, Franco's second-in-command, was killed on 3 June.[159] In early July, despite the earlier fall in June of Bilbao, the government launched a strong counter-offensive to the west of Madrid, focusing on Brunete. The Battle of Brunete, however, was a significant defeat for the Republic, which lost many of its most accomplished troops. The offensive had led to an advance of 50 square kilometres (19 sq mi), and left 25,000 Republican casualties.[160]
A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure. Despite having land and aerial advantages, the Battle of Belchite resulted in an advance of only ten kilometres and the loss of much equipment.[161] Franco invaded Aragón in August and then took the city of Santander.[162] With the surrender of the Republican army in the Basque territory came the Santoña Agreement;[163] Gijón finally fell in late October.[164] Franco had effectively won in the north. At November's end, with Franco's troops closing in on Valencia, the government had to move again, this time to Barcelona.[165]
1938[link]
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Main article: Spanish Civil War chronology 1938–1939
The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation. The city, which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists, was conquered by Republicans in January. The Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February, but Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support.[166]
On 7 March, Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive, and by 14 April, they had pushed through to the Mediterranean, cutting the Republican-held portion of Spain in two. The Republican government attempted suing for peace in May,[167] but Franco demanded unconditional surrender; the war raged on. In July, the Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Valencia, but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ Line, a system of fortifications defending Valencia.[168]
The Republican government then launched an all-out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of the Ebro, from 24 July until 26 November.[169] The campaign was unsuccessful, and was undermined by the Franco-British appeasement of Hitler in Munich. The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republican morale by ending hope of an anti-fascist alliance with Western powers.[170] The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war.[169] Eight days before the new year, Franco threw massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia.[171]
1939[link]
Main article: Spanish Civil War chronology 1938–1939
Area under Nationalist control
Area under Republican control
Franco's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1939. Tarragona fell on 15 January,[172] followed by Barcelona on 26 January[173] and Gerona on 2 February.[174] On 27 February, the United Kingdom and France recognized the Franco regime.[175]
Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces. On 5 March 1939, the Republican army led by the colonel Segismundo Casado and the politician Julián Besteiro, rose against the prime minister Juan Negrin and formed a military Junta, the Council of National Defense (Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND) in order to negotiate a peace deal. Negrin fled to France on 6 March, but the Communist troops around Madrid rose against the Junta, starting a brief civil war within the civil war. Casado defeated them, and started peace negotiation with the Nationalists, but Francisco Franco only accepted an unconditional surrender. On 26 March the Nationalists started a general offensive, on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid and by 31 March they controlled all the Spanish territory. [176] Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 April, when the last of the Republican forces surrendered.
After the end of the War, there were harsh reprisals against Franco's former enemies;[177] thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30,000 executed.[178] Other calculations of these deaths range from 50,000[179] to 200,000 depending on which killings are included. Many others were put to forced labour, building railways, drying out swamps, and digging canals.[179]
Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad, some 500,000 to France.[180] Refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third Republic, such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet, where twelve thousand Republicans were housed in squalid conditions. In his quality as consul in Paris Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2,200 Republican exiles in France using the ship SS Winnipeg.[181]
Of the 17,000 refugees housed in Gurs, farmers and others who could not find relations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic, in agreement with the Francoist government, to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turned over to the Francoist authorities in Irún.[182] From there they were transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for "purification" according to the Law of Political Responsibilities. After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy regime, the refugees became political prisoners, and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from the camp. Along with other "undesirables", the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany. About 5,000 Spaniards thus died in the Mauthausen concentration camp.[182]
After the official end of the war, guerrilla war was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s, being gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population. In 1944, a group of republican veterans, who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis, invaded the Val d'Aran in northwest Catalonia, but were defeated after ten days.[183]
Evacuation of children[link]
Main article: Evacuation of children in the Spanish Civil War
The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30–35,000 children from their zone.[184] This started with Basque areas, from which 20,000 were evacuated. Their destinations included the United Kingdom[185] and the USSR, and many other locations in Europe, along with Mexico.[184] Around 4,000 were taken to the UK against initial opposition from both the government and charitable groups who saw the removal of children from their native country as potentially harmful. The upper age limit was initially set at 12 but raised to 15.[186]
Atrocities[link]
Death totals remain debated. Antony Beevor writes in his history of the Civil War that Franco's ensuing 'white terror' resulted in the deaths of 200,000 people and that the 'red terror' killed 38,000.[188] Julius Ruiz contends that "although the figures remain disputed, a minimum of 37,843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone with a maximum of 150,000 executions (including 50,000 after the war) in Nationalist Spain".[189]
In 2008 a Spanish judge, Baltasar Garzón, opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114,266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951 (Garzón has since been indicted for violating a 1977 amnesty law through his actions). Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca;[3] mention of his death was forbidden during Franco's regime.[190]
The view of historians including Helen Graham,[191] Paul Preston,[192] Antony Beevor,[193] Gabriel Jackson[194] and Hugh Thomas,[195] is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organized and approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities while the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of the breakdown of the republican state and anarchy:
Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain, the idea of the limpieza, the "cleaning up" of the country from the evils which had overtaken it, was a disciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of regeneration. In republican Spain, most of the killing was the consequence of anarchy, the outcome of a national breakdown, and not the work of the state; even though some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities, and even though some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority.
– Hugh Thomas[195]
Nationalists[link]
See also: White Terror (Spain)
File:Savoia-Marchetti SM.81.jpg
Nationalist SM.81 aircraft bomb Madrid in late November 1936.
File:Barcelona bombing.jpg
Bombing in Barcelona, 1938.
Atrocities of the Nationalists, frequently ordered by authorities in order to eradicate any trace of leftism in Spain, were common. According to historian Paul Preston, the minimum number of those executed by the rebels is 130,000,[196] and is likely to have been far higher.[197] The violence carried out in the rebel zone was carried out by the military, the Civil Guard and the Falange in the name of the regime and legitimized by the Catholic Church.[198]
Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of the war.[198] This included the execution of school teachers,[199] because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republic to promote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closing religious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalists as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church. Extensive killings of civilians were carried out in the cities Nationalists captured,[200] along with the execution of unwanted individuals. These included non-combatants such as trade-unionists, Popular Front politicians, suspected Freemasons, Basque, Catalan, Andalusian and Galician Nationalists, Republican intellectuals, relatives of known Republicans and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front.[198][201][202][203][204]
Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville, where some 8,000 people were shot; ten thousand were killed in Cordoba. 6–12,000 were killed in Badajoz.[205] In Granada, at least 2000 people were murdered.[199] In February 1937, over seven thousand were killed after the capture of Málaga.[206] When Bilbao was conquered thousands of people were sent to prison; there were fewer executions than usual, however, because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists' reputations internationally.[207] The numbers killed as the successful columns of the Army of Africa devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly difficult to calculate.[208]
Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics. In one particular incident, following the capture of Bilbao, hundreds of people, including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the Republican forces, were taken to the countryside or graveyards to be murdered.[209][210]
Franco's forces also persecuted Protestants, including the murder of twenty Protestant ministers.[211] Franco's forces were determined to remove the "Protestant heresy" from Spain.[212] The Nationalists also persecuted Basques, as they strived to eradicate Basque culture.[162] According to Basque sources, some 22,000 Basques were murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War.[213]
The Nationalist side also conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory, carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie, Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Guernica, Durango and other cities were targeted, the Bombing of Guernica was among the most controversial.[214]
Republicans[link]
See also: Red Terror (Spain)
File:SpanishLeftistsShootStatueOfChrist.jpg
"Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen. The photograph in the London Daily Mail had the caption the "Spanish Reds' war on religion."[215]
File:Brigde at Ronda, Spain.jpg
The Puente Nuevo bridge. Both Nationalists and Republicans are claimed to have thrown prisoners from the bridge to their deaths in the canyon.[216]
According to the Nationalists, an estimated 55,000 civilians died in Republican-held territories. This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor; however, it was much less than the half a million claimed during the war.[217] The deaths would form the prevailing outside opinion of the Republic up until the bombing of Guernica.[217]
The Republican government was anticlerical, and supporters attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to news of military revolt.[218] In his 1961 book, Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno, who at the time was director of the journal Ecclesia, wrote that 6,832 were killed during the war, including 4,184 priests, 2,365 monks and friars, and 283 nuns, in addition to 13 bishops, a figure accepted by historians including Beevor.[219][211][220] Some sources claim that by the conflict's end 20 percent of the nation's clergy had been killed,[221] though some argue the totals were lower.[nb 8] The "Execution" of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los Ángeles near Madrid, on 7 August 1936, was the most infamous of widespread desecration of religious property.[222]
Like clergy, civilians were executed in Republican territories. Some civilians were executed as suspected Falangists.[223] Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the Nationalist zone.[224] Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor.[225] Republican authorities did not order such measures to be taken.[226] Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they didn’t sympathize with the Republicans and usually spared if they did.[227] Fake justice was sought through commission, known by its name in Russia as checas.[223]
As pressure mounted with increasing success of the Nationalists, many civilians were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist and Anarchist groups.[223] Some members of the latter were executed by Soviet-advised communist functionaries in Catalonia,[216] as described by George Orwell's description of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia, which followed a period of increasing tension between competing elements of the Catalan political scene. Some individuals fled to friendly embassies, which would house up to 8,500 people during the war.[224]
In the Andalusian town of Ronda, 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the first month of the war.[216] Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares has been accused of the killing of Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos del Jarama.[228] Pro-Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Republicans, including other Marxists: André Marty, known as the Butcher of Albacete, was responsible for the deaths of some 500 members of the International Brigades.[229] Andreu Nin, leader of the POUM (Workers' Party of Marxist Unification), and many other prominent POUM members, were murdered by the Communists, with the help of the USSR's NKVD.[230]
Thirty eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war, 17,000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup. Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings, much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders.[231] Azaña came close to resigning.[224] He, alongside other members of parliament and a great number of other local officials, attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched. Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings.[231]
Social revolution[link]
Main article: Spanish Revolution
In the anarchist-controlled areas, Aragón and Catalonia, in addition to the temporary military success, there was a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry, and set up councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government.[232] This revolution was opposed by the Soviet-supported communists who, perhaps surprisingly, campaigned against the loss of civil property rights.[232] The agrarian collectives had considerable success despite opposition and lack of resources.[233]
As the war progressed, the government and the communists were able to leverage their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort, through both diplomacy and force.[234] Anarchists and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista, POUM) were integrated into the regular army, albeit with resistance; the POUM was outlawed and falsely denounced as an instrument of the fascists.[234] In the May Days of 1937, many thousands of anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona.[235]
The pre-war Falange was a small party of some 30–40,000 members.[236] It also called for a social revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism.[237] Following the execution of its leader, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, by the Republicans, the party swelled in size to several hundred thousand members.[238] The leadership of the Falange suffered 60% casualties in the early days of the civil war and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders, called camisas nuevas ("new shirts"), who were less interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism.[239] Subsequently, Franco united all rightist parties into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the National Syndicalist Offensive Juntas (Spanish: Falange Española Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista, FET y de las JONS).[240]
The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations including the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the War Resisters League and the War Resisters' International. Many people including, as they are now called, the 'insumisos' ('defiant ones', conscientious objectors) argued and worked for non-violent strategies. Prominent Spanish pacifists such as Amparo Poch y Gascón and José Brocca supported the Republicans. Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative but to make a stand against fascism. He put this stand into practice by various means including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies and through humanitarian work with war refugees.[nb 9]
People[link]
See also: List of people of the Spanish Civil War
|
Figures identified with the Nationalist side
|
Figures identified with the Republican side
|
Political parties and organizations[link]
Political parties and organizations in the Spanish Civil War
| The Popular Front (Republican) | Supporters of the Popular Front (Republican) | Nationalists (Francoist) |
|
The Popular Front was an electoral alliance formed between various left-wing and centrist parties for elections to the Cortes in 1936, in which the alliance won a majority of seats.
|
|
Virtually all Nationalist groups had very strong Roman Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy.
|
See also[link]
- List of foreign ships wrecked or lost in the Spanish Civil War
- Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic
- Guernica (painting)
- The Falling Soldier
- Foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War
- List of war films and TV specials#Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
- List of foreign correspondents in the Spanish Civil War
- List of surviving veterans of the Spanish Civil War
- List of non-participants who died defending their freedom of conscience
- Polish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
- Jewish volunteers in the Spanish Civil War
- European Civil War
- Spain in World War II
- SS Cantabria
- Pacifism in Spain
- Spanish Republican Air Force
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ The number of casualties is disputed; estimates generally suggest that between 500,000 and 1 million people were killed. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures and modern research concludes that 500,000 deaths is the correct figure. Thomas Barria-Norton, The Spanish Civil War (2001), pp. xviii & 899–901, inclusive.
- ^ Also known as The Crusade among Nationalists, the Fourth Carlist War among Carlists, and The Rebellion or Uprising among Republicans.
- ^ Known in Spanish as Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA).
- ^ Known in Spanish as the Falange Española de las JONS.
- ^ Barracks in important cities like Madrid, Barcelona, Valencia, Bilbao and Málaga did not join in the rebellion as had Morocco, Pamplona, Burgos, Valladolid, Cádiz, Cordova, and Seville.
- ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196–198, 309: Condés was a close personal friend of Castillo. His squad had originally sought to arrest Gil Robles as a reprisal for Castillo's murder, but Robles was not at home, so they went to the house of Calvo Sotelo. Thomas concluded that the intention of Condés was to arrest Calvo Sotelo and that Cuenca acted on his own initiative, although he acknowledges other sources that dispute this finding.
- ^ Westwell (2004) gives a figure of 500 million Reichmarks.
- ^ Since Beevor (2006). p. 82. suggests 7,000 members of some 115,000 clergy were killed, the proportion could well be lower.
- ^ See variously: Bennett, Scott, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963, Syracuse NY, Syracuse University Press, 2003; Prasad, Devi, War is A Crime Against Humanity: The Story of War Resisters' International, London, WRI, 2005. Also see Hunter, Allan, White Corpsucles in Europe, Chicago, Willett, Clark & Co., 1939; and Brown, H. Runham, Spain: A Challenge to Pacifism, London, The Finsbury Press, 1937.
Citations[link]
- ^ Thomas. p. 628.
- ^ Thomas. p. 619.
- ^ a b "Spanish judge opens case into Franco's atrocities". New York Times. 16 October 2008. http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/10/16/europe/spain.php. Retrieved 28 July 2009.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 410–411. Beevor notes that around 150,000 had returned by 1939.
- ^ a b Payne (1993). pp. 200–203.
- ^ Hilari Rageur, Gunpowder and Incense, p.40
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 88.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 260–271.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 18–19.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 13.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 21.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 22.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 24.
- ^ Fraser (1979). pp. 38–39.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 24–26.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 15.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 32–33.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 15.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 16.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 36.
- ^ Thomas (1961). pp. 18–19.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 20.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 21.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 38–39.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 50.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 42.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 22.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 45–48.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 53.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 47.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 61.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 63–65.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 62.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 66–67.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 67–68.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 69–70.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 70.
- ^ Preston 92006). p. 83.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 78.
- ^ a b c Preston (2006). p. 81.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 82–83.
- ^ Payne (1973). p. 642.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 93.
- ^ a b c d Preston (2006). p. 94.
- ^ a b c d e f Preston (1983). pp. 4–10.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 94–95.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 95.
- ^ a b Preston (2006). p. 96.
- ^ a b c Preston (2006). p. 98.
- ^ a b c d e Preston (2006). p. 99.
- ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 196–198, 309.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 126.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 55–56.
- ^ a b Preston (2006). p. 102.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 56.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 56–57.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 58–59.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 59.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 60–61.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 62.
- ^ Chomsky (1969).
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 69.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 103.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 102–3.
- ^ Westwell (2004). p. 9.
- ^ a b Howson (1998). p. 28.
- ^ Westwell (2004). p. 10.
- ^ Howson (1998). p. 20.
- ^ a b Howson (1998). p. 21.
- ^ Howson (1998). pp. 21–22.
- ^ a b c Beevor (2006). Chapter 21.
- ^ Beevor (1982). pp. 42–43.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 30–33.
- ^ Howson (1997). p. 2.
- ^ Thomas (1987). pp. 86–90.
- ^ a b c Howson (1998). pp.1–2.
- ^ Payne (1973) p. 637.
- ^ Coverdale (2002). p. 148.
- ^ Payne (2008). p. 13.
- ^ Rooney, Nicola. "The role of the Catholic hierarchy in the rise to power of General Franco" (PDF). Queen's University, Belfast. http://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/QUEST/FileStore/Issue4PerspectiviesonPowerPapers/Filetoupload,71752,en.pdf.
- ^ Peers, E. Allison; Hogan, James (December 1936). "The Basques and the Spanish Civil War" (PDF). Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review (Irish Province of the Society of Jesus) 25 (100): 540–542. ISSN 00393495. http://dl.dropbox.com/u/349981/basques.pdf.
- ^ Stone (1997). p. 133.
- ^ "Spain:Business & Blood". Time. 19 April 1937. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,757619-1,00.html. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ "International: Peace and Pirates". Time. 27 September 1937. http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,771949,00.html. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ a b Westwell (2004). p. 87.
- ^ "The legacy of Guernica". BBC website (BBC). 26 April 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6583639.stm. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ Westwell (2004). p. 88.
- ^ a b c Thomas (1961). p. 634.
- ^ Thomas, Hugh. (2001). The Spanish Civil War. Penguin Books. London. p. 937
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 135–6.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 199.
- ^ Balfour, Sebastian; Preston, Paul (2009). Spain and the great powers in the twentieth century. London, UK; New York, USA: Routledge.. p. 172. ISBN 978-0-415-18078-8.
- ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 938–939.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 116, 133, 143, 148, 174, 427.
- ^ a b Thomas (1961). p. 635.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 198.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 116.
- ^ Othen (2008). p. 102.
- ^ a b c Thomas (1961). p. 637.
- ^ Thomas (1961). pp. 638–639.
- ^ Deletant (1999). p. 20.
- ^ Benton, Pieke (1998). p. 215.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 467.
- ^ Academy of Sciences of the USSR, International Solidarity with the Spanish Republic, 1936–1939 (Moscow: Progress, 1974), 329–30
- ^ Howson (1998). p. 125.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 152–153.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 153.
- ^ Howson (1998). pp. 126–129.
- ^ Howson (1998). p. 134.
- ^ Thomas (2003) p. 683.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). pp. 153–154.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 163.
- ^ Graham (2005). p. 92.
- ^ Thomas (2003). p. 944.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 273.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 246.
- ^ a b c Beevor (2006). pp. 139–14.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 291.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 412–413.
- ^ a b Alpert (1994). p. 14.
- ^ Alpert (1994). pp. 14–15.
- ^ Alpert (1994). p. 20.
- ^ Alpert (1994). p. 23.
- ^ a b Alpert (1994). p. 41.
- ^ a b Alpert (1994). p. 43.
- ^ Alpert (1994). p. 46–47.
- ^ Alpert (1994). p. 47.
- ^ Payne (2008). p. 28.
- ^ Lukeš, Goldstein (1999). p. 176.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 71.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 96.
- ^ Thomas (1961). p. 162.
- ^ Red: Beevor (2006). pp. 81–87.
- ^ White: Beevor (2006). pp. 88–94.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 73–74.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 116–117.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 116
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 144
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 146–147.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 143
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 121
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 150
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 177
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 171.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 177–183.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 191–192.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 200–201.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 202.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 208–215.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 216–221.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 222.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 223–226.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 228.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 229.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 231–232.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 233.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 263–273.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 277.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 235.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 277–284.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 296–299.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 237.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 237–238.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 302.
- ^ Payne (1973).
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 315–322.
- ^ Thomas (2003). pp. 820–821.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 346–7.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 349–359.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 362.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 374.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 376.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 378.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 380.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 386.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 396–397.
- ^ Professor Hilton (27 October 2005). "Spain: Repression under Franco after the Civil War". Cgi.stanford.edu. http://cgi.stanford.edu/group/wais/cgi-bin/index.php?p=1843. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
- ^ Tremlett, Giles (1 December 2003). "Spain torn on tribute to victims of Franco". London: Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/spain/article/0,2763,1096841,00.html. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 405.
- ^ Caistor, Nick (28 February 2003). "Spanish Civil War fighters look back". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2809025.stm. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
- ^ Winnipeg, el poema que cruzó el Atlántico (Spanish)
- ^ a b Film documentary on the website of the Cité nationale de l'histoire de l'immigration (French)
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 421–422.
- ^ a b Daniel Kowalsky. "The Evacuation of Spanish Children to the Soviet Union". Gutenburg E. Columbia University Press. http://www.gutenberg-e.org/kod01/kod08.html. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "History of the arrival of the Basque Children to England in 1937". BasqueChildren.org. Basque Children of '37 Association. http://www.basquechildren.org/node/5. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Buchanan (1997). pp. 109–110.
- ^ The Splintering of Spain, p.36-37
- ^ "Men of La Mancha". The Economist. 22 June 2006. http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=7081116. Retrieved 3 August 2011.
- ^ Julius Ruiz (2007). "Defending the Republic: The García Atadell Brigade in Madrid, 1936". Journal of Contemporary History 42 (1): 97. DOI:10.1177/0022009407071625. http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/42/1/97.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 92.
- ^ Graham (2005). p. 30.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 307.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 86–87.
- ^ Jackson (1967). p. 305.
- ^ a b Thomas (2001). p. 268.
- ^ Paul Preston (January 19, 2008). "Paul Preston lecture: The Crimes of Franco" (PDF). http://www.pragda.com/pdfs/Preston-1.pdf. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 94.
- ^ a b c Beevor (2006). pp. 88–89.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 89.
- ^ Preston (2007). p. 121.
- ^ Jackson (1967). p. 377.
- ^ Thomas (2001). pp. 253-255.
- ^ Santos et al. (1999). p. 229.
- ^ Preston (2006). pp. 120–123.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 91.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 93.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 236–237.
- ^ Preston (2006). p. 302.
- ^ Bieter, Bieter (2003). p. 91.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 82–83.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 82.
- ^ Seidman (2011). p. 205.
- ^ Wieland (2002). p. 47.
- ^ Westwell (2004). p. 31.
- ^ "Shots of War: Photojournalism During the Spanish Civil War". Orpheus.ucsd.edu. http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/swphotojournalism/m629-f02-19.html. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
- ^ a b c Thomas (1961). p. 176.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 81.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 82–83.
- ^ Antonio Montero Moreno, Historia de la persecucion religiosa en Espana 1936-1939 (Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1961)
- ^ Payne (1973). p. 649.
- ^ Bowen (2006). p. 22.
- ^ Ealham, Richards (2005). pp. 80, 168.
- ^ a b c Beevor (2006). p. 84.
- ^ a b c Beevor (2006). p. 85.
- ^ Preston (2006).
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 86.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 83.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 172–173.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 161.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 272–273.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). p. 87.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). pp. 102–122.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "Objectivity and Liberal Scholarship". Question-everything.mahost.org. http://question-everything.mahost.org/Archive/chomskyspain.html. Retrieved 24 June 2009.
- ^ a b Beevor (2006). pp. 272–273.
- ^ Beevor (2006). pp. 263–273.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 40.
- ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1999). p. 151.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 253.
- ^ Arnaud Imatz, "La vraie mort de Garcia Lorca" 2009 40 NRH, 31–34, pp. 32-33.
- ^ Beevor (2006). p. 255.
Bibliography and books by noted authors[link]
- Alpert, Michael (1994, 2004). A New International History of the Spanish Civil War. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1171-1. OCLC 155897766.
- Beevor, Antony (1982, 2006). The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939. London: Weidenfield and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-84832-1. First published as The Spanish Civil War.
- Benton, Gregor; Pieke, Frank N. (1998). The Chinese in Europe. Macmillan. p. 390. ISBN 0-333-66913-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=_aqcIT11ShsC. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- Bieter, John; Bieter, Mark (2003). An Enduring Legacy: The Story of Basques in Idaho. University of Nevada Press. ISBN 978-0-87417-568-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=gPQZsu0Ma0cC.
- Bolloten, Burnett (1979). The Spanish Revolution. The Left and the Struggle for Power during the Civil War. University of North Carolina. ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
- Bowen, Wayne H. (2006). Spain During World War II. University of Missouri Press. ISBN 978-0-8262-1658-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=zVx2rFJIyQQC.
- Brenan, Gerald (1943). The Spanish Labyrinth: an account of the social and political background of the Civil War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1993). ISBN 978-0-521-39827-5. OCLC 38930004.
- Buchanan, Tom (1997). Britain and the Spanish Civil War. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45569-3.
- Coverdale, John F. (2002). Uncommon faith: the early years of Opus Dei, 1928–1943. New York: Scepter. ISBN 978-1-889334-74-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=bPhSpqRI4kQC.
- Cox, Geoffrey (1937). The Defence of Madrid. London: Victor Gollancz.
- Ealham, Chris; Richards, Michael (2005). The Splintering of Spain. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82178-0. http://books.google.com/books/cambridge?id=ypBS6N0aFJgC.
- Graham, Helen (2005). The Spanish Civil War: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-280377-1.
- Howson, Gerald (1998). Arms for Spain. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-24177-1. OCLC 231874197.
- Jackson, Gabriel (1965). The Spanish Republic and the Civil War, 1931–1939. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00757-8. OCLC 185862219.
- Koestler, Arthur (1983). Dialogue with death. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-34776-5. OCLC 16604744.
- Lukeš, Igor; Goldstein, Erik, eds. (1999). The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II. London, UK; Portland, Oregon, USA: Frank Cass. ISBN 978-0-7146-8056-9.
- Orwell, George (2000, first published in 1938). Homage to Catalonia. London: Penguin Books in association with Martin Secker & Warburg. ISBN 0-14-118305-5. OCLC 42954349.
- Othen, Christopher (2008). Franco's International Brigades: Foreign Volunteers and Fascist Dictators in the Spanish Civil War. London: Reportage Press.
- Payne, Stanley G. (1970). The Spanish Revolution. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-00124-8.
- Payne, Stanley G. (2004). The Spanish Civil War, the Soviet Union, and Communism. New Haven; London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10068-X. OCLC 186010979.
- Payne, Stanley G. (1973). "A History of Spain and Portugal (Print Edition)". University of Wisconsin Press (Library of Iberian resources online) 2, Ch. 25, 26. http://libro.uca.edu/payne2/payne26.htm. Retrieved 15 May 2007.
- Payne, Stanley G. (1999). Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-16564-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=NiD3UeOCSGsC&pg=PA200.
- Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=KPgPFqXub14C.
- Preston, Paul (1978). The Coming of the Spanish Civil War. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-23724-2. OCLC 185713276.
- Preston, Paul (1986, 1996). A Concise history of the Spanish Civil War. London: Fontana. ISBN 978-0-00-686373-1. OCLC 231702516.
- Preston, Paul (2006). The Spanish Civil War: Reaction, Revolution, and Revenge. New York: W. W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-32987-9.
- Radosh, Ronald; Mary Habeck, Grigory Sevostianov (2001). Spain betrayed: the Soviet Union in the Spanish Civil War. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-08981-3. OCLC 186413320.
- O'Riordan, Michael (2005). The Connolly Column. Pontypool, Wales: Warren and Pell.
- Rust, William (2003 Reprint of 1939 edition). Britons in Spain: A History of the British Battalion of the XV International Brigade. Pontypool, Wales: Warren and Pell.
- Santos, Juliá; Casanova, Julián; Solé I Sabaté, Josep Maria; Villarroya, Joan; Moreno, Francisco (1999) (in Spanish). Victimas de la guerra civil. Madrid: Ediciones Temas de Hoy.
- Seidman, Michael (2011). The Victorious Counter-revolution: The Nationalist Effort in the Spanish Civil War. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-24964-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=jSO-dC5ac_EC&pg=PA205.
- Taylor, F. Jay (1956, 1971). The United States and the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939. New York: Bookman Associates. ISBN 978-0-374-97849-5.
- Thomas, Hugh (1961, 1987, 2001, 2003). The Spanish Civil War. London: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-101161-0. OCLC 248799351.
- Westwell, Ian (2004). Condor Legion: The Wehrmacht's Training Ground. Ian Allan publishing.
Further reading[link]
- Brouè, Pierre (1988). The Revolution and the Civil War in Spain. Chicago: Haymarket. OCLC 1931859515.
- Carr, Sir Raymond (1977). The Spanish Tragedy: The Civil War in Perspective. Phoenix Press (2001). ISBN 1-84212-203-7.
- Deletant, Dennis (1999). Communist terror in Romania: Gheorghiu-Dej and the Police State, 1948–1965. C. Hurst & Co.. ISBN 978-1-85065-386-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=hRn56_qAwiYC.
- Doyle, Bob (2006). Brigadista – an Irishman's fight against fascism. Dublin: Currach Press. ISBN 1-85607-939-2. OCLC 71752897.
- Francis, Hywel (2006). Miners against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War. Pontypool, Wales (NP4 7AG): Warren and Pell.
- Graham, Helen (2002). The Spanish republic at war, 1936–1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45932-X. OCLC 231983673.
- Ibarruri, Dolores (1976). They Shall Not Pass: the Autobiography of La Pasionaria (translated from El Unico Camino by Dolores Ibarruri). New York: International Publishers. ISBN 0-7178-0468-2. OCLC 9369478.
- Jellinek, Frank (1938). The Civil War in Spain. London: Victor Gollanz (Left Book Club).
- Kowalsky, Daniel (2004). La Union Sovietica y la Guerra Civil Espanola. Barcelona: Critica. ISBN 84-8432-490-7. OCLC 255243139.
- Low, Mary; Juan Breá (1979 reissue of 1937). Red Spanish Notebook. San Francisco: City Lights Books (originally by Martin Secker & Warburg). ISBN 0-87286-132-5. OCLC 4832126.
- Paz, Abel (2011). The Story of the Iron Column: Militant Anarchism in the Spanish Civil War. Oakland, CA.: AK Press. ISBN 978-1-84935-064-8.
- Monteath, Peter (1994). The Spanish Civil War in literature, film, and art: an international Bibliography of secondary literature. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29262-0.
- Puzzo, Dante Anthony (1962). Spain and the Great Powers, 1936–1941. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press (originally Columbia University Press, N.Y.). ISBN 0-8369-6868-9. OCLC 308726.
- Southworth, Herbert Rutledge (1963). El mito de la cruzada de Franco. Paris: Ruedo Ibérico. ISBN 84-8346-574-4.
- Wheeler, George; Jack Jones (foreword), David Leach (editor) (2003). To Make the People Smile Again: a Memoir of the Spanish Civil War. Newcastle upon Tyne: Zymurgy Publishing. ISBN 1-903506-07-7. OCLC 231998540.
- Wilson, Ann (1986). Images of the Civil War. London: Allen & Unwin.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Spanish Civil War |
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Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
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Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
Primary documents[link]
- Magazines and journals published during the war, an online exhibit maintained by the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (English, Spanish)
- A collection of essays by Albert and Vera Weisbord with about a dozen essays written during and about the Spanish Civil War.
- La Cucaracha, The Spanish Civil War Diary, a detailed chronicle of the events of the war
- Ronald Hilton, Spain, 1931–36, From Monarchy to Civil War, An Eyewitness Account
- Mary Low and Juan Breá: Red Spanish Book. A testimony by two surrealists and trotskytes
- Spanish Civil War and Revolution text archive in the libcom.org library
- Southworth Spanish Civil War Collection, books and other literature housed at Mandeville Special Collection Library, University of California, San Diego
- "Trabajadores: The Spanish Civil War through the eyes of organised labour", a digitised collection of more than 13,000 pages of documents from the archives of the British Trades Union Congress held in the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick
- Spanish Civil War History Project at the University of South Florida
Images and films[link]
- Spain in Revolt, newsreel documentary (Video Stream) (Part 1, 2)
- Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters hosted online by Visual Arts Data Service (VADS)
- Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD's Southworth collection
- Civil War Documentaries made by the CNT
- Spanish Civil War and Revolution image gallery – photographs and posters from the conflict
- Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War
- Battle of Rio Segre Photographs Capa, Robert (1938) International Center of Photography.
Academics and governments[link]
- A History of the Spanish Civil War, excerpted from a U.S. government country study.
- Dutch Involvement in the Spanish Civil War. Columbia Historical Review.
- "The Spanish Civil War – causes and legacy" on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time featuring Paul Preston, Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent
Other[link]
- Original war reports from The Times
- The Anarcho-Statists of Spain, a different view of the anarchists in the Spanish Civil War, George Mason University
- Review of Paul Preston's The Spanish Holocaust
- Spanish Civil War information from Spartacus Educational
- American Jews in Spanish Civil War, by Martin Sugarman
- The Spanish Revolution, 1936–39 articles and links, from Anarchy Now!
- The Revolutionary Institutions: The Central Committee of Anti-Fascist Militias, by Juan García Oliver
- Warships of the Spanish Civil War
- ¡No Pasarán! Speech Dolores Ibárruri's famous rousing address for the defense of the Second Republic
- New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War
- Maps of Europe during Spanish Civil War at omniatlas.com
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Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Spanischer Bürgerkrieg
http://es.wn.com/Guerra Civil Española
http://ru.wn.com/Гражданская война в Испании
http://cs.wn.com/Španělská občanská válka
http://pt.wn.com/Guerra Civil Espanhola
http://pl.wn.com/Hiszpańska wojna domowa
http://hi.wn.com/स्पेनी गृहयुद्ध
http://it.wn.com/Guerra civile spagnola
http://id.wn.com/Perang Saudara Spanyol
http://nl.wn.com/Spaanse Burgeroorlog
http://fr.wn.com/Guerre d'Espagne
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Chuck Hagel | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Chairman of the President's Intelligence Advisory Board | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office October 28, 2009[1] Serving with David L. Boren |
|
| President | Barack Obama |
| Preceded by | Stephen Friedman |
| United States Senator from Nebraska |
|
| In office January 3, 1997 – January 3, 2009 |
|
| Preceded by | J. James Exon |
| Succeeded by | Mike Johanns |
| Deputy Administrator of Veteran Affairs | |
| In office 1981–1982 |
|
| President | Ronald Reagan |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1946-10-04) October 4, 1946 (age 65) North Platte, Nebraska |
| Nationality | American |
| Spouse(s) | Lilibet Hagel |
| Children | Allyn Hagel Ziller Hagel |
| Residence | Omaha, Nebraska |
| Alma mater | University of Nebraska at Omaha |
| Occupation | Electronics executive |
| Religion | Episcopalian[2] |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | United States Army |
| Years of service | 1967–1968 |
| Rank |  sergeant |
| Unit | 2nd Battalion, 47th Infantry Regiment, 9th Infantry Division |
| Battles/wars | Vietnam War |
| Awards | Purple Heart Army Commendation Medal Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry Combat Infantry Badge |
Charles Timothy "Chuck" Hagel (born October 4, 1946) is a former United States Senator from Nebraska. A member of the Republican Party, he was first elected in 1996 and was reelected in 2002. In 2009, he was elected as Chairman of the Atlantic Council.
Contents |
Early life and family[link]
Born in North Platte, Nebraska, to Betty Dunn Hagel and Charles Dean Hagel, who had German and Polish ancestry,[3] he graduated from St. Bonaventure High School (now Scotus Central Catholic High School) in Columbus, Nebraska, the Brown Institute for Radio and Television in 1966 and the University of Nebraska at Omaha in 1971. Hagel is a Vietnam War veteran, having served in the United States Army infantry, attaining the rank of Sergeant (E-5) from 1967 – 1968. He served as an infantry squad leader in the 9th Infantry Division.[4][5] While serving during the Vietnam War, Hagel received the Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry, two Purple Hearts, Army Commendation Medal, and the Combat Infantryman Badge.[citation needed] After returning from Vietnam, he worked as a bartender and radio newscaster while finishing college.
Hagel married Lilibet Ziller in April 1985. The couple live with their daughter, Allyn, and son, Ziller, in McLean, Virginia.[6] The family has one dog, Figgie, a Portuguese water dog who was trained by Dawn Sylvia-Stasiewicz, the same dog trainer who trained the Obama Family's dog, Bo, as well as Ted Kennedy's dogs.[7]
Hagel has two brothers: Thomas, also a highly decorated Vietnam War veteran, is a professor at the University of Dayton School of Law,[8] and Mike, an accomplished and well known artist who currently resides in Omaha, Nebraska.[9] Hagel's third brother, Jim, died in a tragic car accident at the age of 16.[10]
Hagel has been an avid Nebraska Cornhuskers football fan since he was a young boy growing up in Nebraska. He and his son, Ziller, presented the coin for the coin toss at the 2005 MasterCard Alamo Bowl, in which Nebraska was victorious over the Michigan Wolverines.
Career in Washington[link]
In 1971, Hagel was hired as a staffer for Congressman John Y. McCollister (R-NE), serving until 1977. For the next four years, he worked as a lobbyist for Firestone Tire and Rubber Company, and, in 1980, he served as an organizer for the successful presidential campaign of former California Governor Ronald Reagan.
After Reagan's inauguration as President, Hagel was named deputy administrator of the Veterans Administration. In 1982, however, he resigned his post over a disagreement with V.A. Administrator Robert P. Nimmo, who was intent on cutting funding for V.A. programs, and who had referred to veterans groups as "greedy", and to Agent Orange as not much worse than a "little teenage acne".[11]
Business career[link]
After leaving government employment, Hagel co-founded Vanguard Cellular, a mobile phone manufacturer that made him a multi-millionaire. While working with Vanguard, he served as president and chief executive officer of the United Service Organizations and the Private Sector Council, as deputy director and chief operating officer of the 1990 G7 Summit, and on the board of directors or advisory committee of the American Red Cross, the Eisenhower World Affairs Institute, Bread for the World, and the Ripon Society. He also served as Chairman of the Agent Orange Settlement Fund and is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.
Although he was pressured by some to run for Governor of Virginia, where he had lived for 20 years, in 1992 Hagel moved back to Nebraska to become president of the McCarthy Group, an investment banking firm. He also served as a Chairman and was CEO of American Information Systems Inc. (AIS), a voting machine manufacturer.
In 1992, as President of investment group McCarthy & Co., Hagel assumed ownership and became Chairman of American Information Services (AIS), later known as Election Systems & Software (ES&S), a manufacturer of computerized voting machines. On March 15, 1995, Hagel resigned from the board of AIS as he intended to run for office.[12]
Election to the Senate[link]
Main article: United States Senate election in Nebraska, 1996
In 1996, Hagel ran for the open US Senate seat created by the retirement of Democrat J. James Exon. Hagel's opponent was Ben Nelson, then the sitting Governor of Nebraska. Although many people[citation needed] believed Hagel had no chance of winning, he won a "stunning upset" in the election, receiving 56% of the vote, winning virtually all demographic groups including many black precincts that had always voted Democratic in previous elections,[citation needed] and becoming the first Republican in twenty-four years to win a Senate seat in Nebraska.
Six years later in 2002, Hagel overwhelmingly won re-election with over 83% of the vote, the largest margin of victory in any statewide race in Nebraska history.
Senate career[link]
Since his election to the Senate in 1996, Hagel served as deputy whip for the Republican Caucus. He was chair of both the Senate Global Climate Change Observer Group and the Senate Oversight Task Force. He served as co-chairman of the Congressional-Executive Commission on China. He also served on the NATO Observer Group. Hagel was a member of four Senate committees: Foreign Relations; Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs; the Select Committee on Intelligence, and the Committee on Rules and Administration.
Hagel's name was widely rumoured to be one of those considered by George W. Bush as a potential running mate in the 2000 presidential election. During the Bush administration, Hagel maintained a "traditionally Republican" voting record, receiving "a lifetime rating of 84 percent from the American Conservative Union and consistent A and B grades from the National Taxpayers Union."[13] Among his most notable votes, Hagel:
- Voted for the Iraq war
- Voted for the Patriot Act
- Voted for the 2001 and 2003 tax cuts
- Voted against No Child Left Behind
- Voted against Bush’s Medicare prescription drug bill
- Voted against McCain-Feingold[13]
In August 2004, Hagel acknowledged that he was considering a presidential campaign in 2008.
Hagel appeared as himself on the HBO series K Street in 2003, on the episode entitled "Week Four".[citation needed]
On immigration, Senator Hagel supports a "pathway to citizenship" and a "guest worker program" for undocumented immigrants.[citation needed] On May 25, 2006 he voted for S. 2611, the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2006, which passed the Senate before reaching a stalemate in the House in late 2006. On June 26, 2007, Hagel joined with Senator Ted Kennedy to support the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 (S. 1639).
In July 2007, Hagel was one of three Republican Senators who supported the legislation proposed by Democrats to require a troop withdrawal from Iraq to begin within 120 days. "This thing is really coming undone quickly, and [Prime Minister] Maliki's government is weaker by the day. The police are corrupt, top to bottom. The oil problem is a huge problem. They still can't get anything through the parliament—no hydrocarbon law, no de-Baathification law, no provincial elections" (from Robert Novak's interview with Hagel, published in the Washington Post: "Hagel's Stand".)
During his first campaign, Hagel indicated that, were he to be elected, he would retire in 2008 after two terms in the Senate.[14] Nebraska State Attorney General Jon Bruning announced plans to challenge him in the primaries in 2008 if he did not retire.[citation needed] After considering running in the 2008 presidential election, Hagel announced in 2007 that he would retire from the Senate at the end of his present term and would not seek the presidency.[15] He has joined the faculty of Georgetown University, where his daughter currently attends, starting in the fall of 2009, as a Distinguished Professor in the Practice of National Governance and will begin teaching in the fall of 2009, as reported in the Georgetown University student paper "The Hoya", and in the Washington Post [16]
Senator Hagel's differences with his party's platform on Iraq are reflected in a change to his voting record. As reported in:[17] " ... [A]ccording to Congressional Quarterly, in 2006 he voted with the President ninety-six per cent of the time... Hagel's support for Bush's policies declined—in 2007, he voted with the President just seventy-two per cent of the time."
Hagel had a tradition of wearing costumes to work on Halloween, usually masquerading as colleagues or other notable political figures. He has arrived at work dressed as Joe Biden, John McCain, Colin Powell, and Pat Roberts in past years.[18]
Committee assignments[link]
- Committee on Foreign Relations
- Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs
- Select Committee on Intelligence
- Committee on Rules and Administration
Criticism of the Bush Administration[link]
On August 18, 2005, Hagel compared the Iraq War to Vietnam and openly mocked Vice President Dick Cheney's assertion that the Iraqi insurgency was in its "last throes".[19]
In November 2005, Hagel made a much-publicized statement: "To question your government is not unpatriotic — to not question your government is unpatriotic." (This was in reference to the lack of open debate in Congress regarding the Iraq War, and in defense of his assertion that the United States should withdraw its troops.)[citation needed] In December 2005, in reference to Bush, the Republican Party, and the PATRIOT Act, Hagel made a much-publicized statement:
- "I took an oath of office to the Constitution, I didn't take an oath of office to my party or my president."[20]
In January 2006, Hagel took issue with Karl Rove over controversial statements the White House advisor made concerning the mindset of Republicans and Democrats. Hagel said, "Well, I didn't like what Mr. Rove said, because it frames terrorism and the issue of terrorism and everything that goes with it, whether it's the renewal of the Patriot Act or the NSA wiretapping, in a political context." He also said that "dark clouds" are hanging over the Republican party, and "If you look at the environment and the atmospherics politically in this town, read any poll. The sixth year of a governing party usually ... is not good ... the country is tired, a lot of complications in these international issues, we're at war."[21] Hagel further criticized the Bush administration, saying, "National security is more important than the Republican Party or the Democratic Party. And to use it to try to get someone elected will ultimately end up in defeat and disaster for that political party."[21]
In July 2006, Hagel again took issue with the Bush administration, this time on its handling of the Israel-Lebanon issue saying "The sickening slaughter on both sides must end and it must end now. President Bush must call for an immediate cease-fire. This madness must stop."[22] Following heavy Republican losses in the 2006 midterm election, Hagel penned an editorial in the Washington Post highly critical of military strategies both employed and proposed for Iraq. He unequivocally declared that "There will be no victory or defeat for the United States in Iraq," and called for a "phased troop withdrawal" — making Hagel one of the most prominent voices in his party to do so.[23]
According to a SurveyUSA poll, Hagel has a 10% higher approval rating among Nebraska Democrats than Republicans.[24][25] OnTheIssues.org rates Hagel as a "libertarian-leaning conservative".
In January 2007, Hagel openly criticized President Bush's plan to send an additional 20,000 troops to Iraq. He called it, "the most dangerous foreign policy blunder in this country since Vietnam, if it's carried out."[26] Together with Democrats Joseph Biden and Carl Levin he proposed a non-binding resolution to the Democratic-controlled Senate Foreign Relations Committee, which rejected Bush's policy as "not in the national interest" in a 12-9 vote.[27] However, in a Senate vote of 94-2 to revoke executive power to replace federal prosecutors without a preliminary hearing, Senator Hagel and Senator Kit Bond were the only opposition.[28]
After an April 2007 visit to Iraq with Pennsylvania Democratic Representative Joe Sestak, Hagel expressed his belief that the occupation of Iraq should not continue indefinitely and defended Congressional actions to set a timeline for an end in occupation. In July 2007, Hagel expressed his intention to cooperate with Senate Democrats in voting for a bill that would set a timeline to get out of Iraq.[29]
In November 2007, he rated the Bush administration "the lowest in capacity, in capability, in policy, in consensus—almost every area" of any presidency in the last forty years. He also revealed he was open to running as vice-president with the 2008 Democratic nominee.[30] In the same month, he said, "I have to say this is one of the most arrogant, incompetent administrations I've ever seen or ever read about."[30]
Despite his criticisms of the Bush administration, Hagel voted 78.1% of the time with the Republican party.[31]
Decision not to seek re-election[link]
On September 10, 2007, Hagel announced that he would be retiring from the Senate at the end of his term in 2009.[32] The announcement ended speculation regarding a possible bid for the presidency in 2008.
On its website The Times reported that the Senator was a possible candidate for the cabinet position of United States Secretary of Defense in the Barack Obama administration:
Obama is hoping to appoint cross-party figures to his cabinet such as Chuck Hagel, the Republican senator for Nebraska and an opponent of the Iraq war […] Senior advisers confirmed that Hagel, a highly decorated Vietnam war veteran and one of McCain’s closest friends in the Senate, was considered an ideal candidate for defense secretary.[33]
Senator Obama was quoted in the same article, when asked about Hagel as a potential cabinet member: "Chuck Hagel is a great friend of mine and I respect him very much."[33] Following Hagel's retirement from the Senate, in February 2009 he accepted a position as Distinguished Professor in the Practice of National Governance at the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.
In 2010, Hagel endorsed Democratic Pennsylvania Congressman Joe Sestak in his run for the United States Senate.
Vice Presidential possibilities[link]
Hagel was rumored to be a possible Obama pick for the Vice Presidential candidacy in his 2008 presidential election ticket. On June 20, 2008, Hagel said he would consider running with Obama if offered the VP spot.[34] He had also been mentioned as a potential United States Secretary of Defense to succeed incumbent Robert Gates in the Obama administration.[35][36] and said that he would consider serving if asked.[37] In August, Hagel indicated that he wouldn't endorse either candidate or get involved in their campaigns.[38] However, his wife endorsed Obama. Obama later picked Joe Biden as his running mate. Robert Gates remained Secretary of Defense for the Obama administration until 2011, when he was succeeded by Leon Panetta, a Democrat.
America: Our Next Chapter[link]
In Senator Hagel's new book, America: Our Next Chapter, he suggests that the United States should adopt independent leadership and possibly another political party. He also believes that the Iraq War is one of the five biggest blunders in U.S. history. Hagel is critical of George W. Bush's foreign policy, calling it "reckless." He has been a major critic of the war since it started, and has stated that the United States should learn from its mistakes in the Vietnam War. He considers Bush's foreign policy a "ping pong game with American lives".
Electoral history[link]
Republican primary for U.S. Senate from Nebraska, 1996[39]
- Chuck Hagel - 108,612 (62.11%)
- Don Stenberg - 65,753 (37.60%)
- Write-ins - 498 (0.29%)
Nebraska United States Senate election, 1996[40]
- Chuck Hagel (R) - 379,933 (56.12%)
- Ben Nelson (D) - 281,904 (41.64%)
- John W. DeCamp (Libertarian) - 9,483 (1.40%)
- Bill Dunn (Natural Law) - 4,806 (0.71%)
- Write-ins - 832 (0.12%)
Republican primary for U.S. Senate from Nebraska, 2002[41]
- Chuck Hagel (inc.) - 144,160 (100.00%) - unopposed
Nebraska United States Senate election, 2002[42]
- Chuck Hagel (R) (inc.) - 397,438 (82.76%)
- Charlie Matulka (D) - 70,290 (14.64%)
- Jack Graziano (Libertarian) - 7,423 (1.55%)
- Phil Chase (Independent) - 5,066 (1.06%)
Awards and honors[link]
In 2001, Hagel was awarded the exclusive Horatio Alger Award for Distinguished Americans.[43] Hagel is also Nebraska Admiral, an honorary title considering Nebraska is a landlocked state. On June 9, 2007, he gave the commencement address for North Central College and was given an honorary L.L.D.[44] Hagel was the keynote speaker at the College of William and Mary's Charter Day in 2007, at which he was awarded an honorary degree of Public Service.[45] On March 3, 2008, Hagel hosted a town hall meeting on domestic and foreign policy issues at the University of Maryland, at which the Center for American Politics and Citizenship (CAPC) gave him the Millard E. Tydings Award for Courage and Leadership in American Politics.[46] Hagel served as the 2010 Clifford P. Case Professor of Public Affairs at Rutgers University's Eagleton Institute of Politics, speaking at public programs in New Brunswick and Newark.[47]
Current Positions[link]
Hagel currently teaches at Georgetown University in the Walsh School of Foreign Service (SFS), as a Distinguished Professor in the Practice of National Governance.[48] He is Chairman of the Atlantic Council, Co-Chairman of the President’s Intelligence Advisory Board; a member of the Secretary of Defense’s Policy Board and Secretary of Energy’s Blue Ribbon Commission on America’s Nuclear Future; and is a member of Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) board of directors. He also serves on the Board of Directors of Chevron Corporation; the Advisory Boards of Deutsche Bank Americas; Corsair Capital; M.I.C. Industries; is a Director of the Zurich Holding Company of America; and is a Senior Advisor to McCarthy Capital Corporation.[49]
References[link]
- ^ "Remarks by the President Before Meeting with the President's Intelligence Advisory Board Co-Chairmen and Senior Leadership of the Intelligence Community". Whitehouse.gov. October 28, 2009. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-meeting-with-presidents-intelligence-advisory-board-co-chairmen-a. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Hagel was raised in the Roman Catholic faith; see cached excerpt from Charlyne Berens' biography, Chuck Hagel, which refers to Hagel's parents as "pillars of their Catholic church"; Hagel's father; Charles Hagel had converted to the Catholic faith of his wife.
- ^ Dufour, Jeff. "Glenn Close and Chuck Norris push pet projects". The Hill, online edition, Under The Dome, 11 May 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/diglib/vhp-stories/loc.natlib.afc2001001.02230/
- ^ http://www.fairness.com/resources/relation?relation_id=14827
- ^ Robert G. Kaiser. "The Political Veteran: He Survived Vietnam and Won the Senate. Could Chuck Hagel Take the White House?". "The Washington Post", Monday, November 15, 2004; Page C01. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
- ^ Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns-ap-us-obit-bos-trainer,0,7401487.story. [dead link]
- ^ "Alum Notes". The Nebraska Transcript (The University of Nebraska College of Law): 44. http://law2.unl.edu/forms/classNotes.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "Veterans Memorial Museum Unveils Original Oil Painting, "Red Tails Strike Again" in Honor of Tuskegee Airmen". Veterans Memorial Museum of Branson. http://www.veteransmemorialbranson.com/newsarchive/001.html. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Pierce, Charles P. (June 26, 2007). "'Before this is over, you might see calls for his impeachment.'". Esquire. http://www.esquire.com/features/chuckhagel0407-4. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Macpherson, Myra. Long Time Passing: Vietnam and the Haunted Generation, Indiana University Press 2001 p. xxxvi
- ^ Fitrakis, Bob and Harvey Wasserman (March 5, 2004). "Diebold's Political Machine". Mother Jones. http://motherjones.com/politics/2004/03/diebolds-political-machine. Retrieved 2010-01-08.
- ^ a b Boaz, David (2010-12-27) Is Chuck Hagel a Republican?, Cato Institute
- ^ "A Hagel Hint?". The Hotline (National Journal Group). 9 March 2007. http://hotlineblog.nationaljournal.com/archives/2007/03/a_hagel_hint.html. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
- ^ "AFP: Anti-war Republican and presidential hopeful Hagel to retire". AFP. September 10, 2007. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hvilcCCsR3MwCBy3wQT1Fzyde98w. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Hagel To Teach at Georgetown (February 3, 2009; 4:45 PM ET)
- ^ Bruck, Connie (November 3, 2008). "Odd Man Out: Chuck Hagel’s Republican exile". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2008/11/03/081103fa_fact_bruck?currentPage=all. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Kornreich, Lauren (October 31, 2007). "Will the real Joe Biden please stand up?". Political Ticker (CNN). http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2007/10/31/will-the-real-joe-biden-please-stand-up/. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
- ^ CNN. "Hagel: Iraq growing more like Vietnam; Republican Senator says Bush should meet with protesting mom". Politics. CNN, online edition, 18 August 2005. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ Babington, Charles. "4 GOP Senators Hold Firm Against Patriot Act Renewal More Safeguards Needed, They Say". Washington Post, online edition, 21 December 2005, p. A04. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ a b UPI. "Hagel takes issue with Rove". United Press International, online edition, 30 January 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ CNN. "Key Republican breaks with Bush on Mideast; Nebraska's Sen. Hagel calls for immediate cease-fire". CNN, online edition, 31 July 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ "Leaving Iraq, Honorably". Washington Post, Opinion by Senator C. Hagel, p. B07, online edition. 26 November 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ News Poll #9977. SurveyUSA. 15 August 2006. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ Profile Nebraska Senator Chuck Hagel (Republican Jr Senator). On the Issues, Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ Barrett, Ted. "GOP senator: Bush plan could match Vietnam blunder", CNN, online edition, 11 January 2007. Retrieved 4 March 2007.
- ^ BBC. "US Senate panel rejects Iraq plan". BBC News, online edition, Americas, 24 January 2007. Retrieved 4 March 2007
- ^ Stout, David (20 March 2007). "Bush and Democrats Clash Over Testimony". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/20/washington/20cnd-attorney.html. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
- ^ Barrett, Ted. "Dems Plan Senate All-nighter". CNN, Political Ticker blog, July 16, 2007. Retrieved July 16, 2007.
- ^ a b Haass, Richard N., interviewer (28 November 2007). ""A Conversation with Chuck Hagel" (Federal News Service FNS rush transcript)". Council on Foreign Relations. http://www.cfr.org/publication/14895/conversation_with_chuck_hagel_rush_transcript_federal_news_service.html?breadcrumb=%2Fpublication%2Fby_type%2Ftranscript. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
- ^ "Chuck Hagel - U.S. Congress Votes Database". The Washington Post. http://projects.washingtonpost.com/congress/members/h001028/. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Bratton, Anna Jo (10 September 2007). "Sen. Hagel leaving Congress after '08". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/US/wireStory?id=3580692. Retrieved 2008-03-23. [dead link]
- ^ a b Baxter, Sarah (2 March 2008). "Barnstorming Obama plans to pick Republicans for cabinet". Times Online (London: The Times). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article3466823.ece. Retrieved 2008-03-23.
- ^ "Hagel says he'd consider VP offer from Obama" Retrieved 20 June 2008
- ^ Madden, Mike (June 17, 2008). "And Obama's veep is ... a Republican?". Salon. http://www.salon.com/news/feature/2008/06/17/hagel_veep/. Retrieved 2008-06-17.
- ^ Who will be Obama's running mate Retrieved 7 June 2008
- ^ "Republican ready to serve as Obama's vice-president". Breaking News. 2008-06-25. http://www.breakingnews.ie/world/mhgbgbidojcw/. Retrieved 2008-06-25.
- ^ Mark Memmott and Jill Lawrence, "Sen. Hagel won't be endorsing a presidential candidate", August 12, 2008, USA Today's On Politics blog.
- ^ "NE US Senate - R Primary Race - May 14, 1996". Our Campaigns. http://ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=187861. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "NE US Senate Race - Nov 05, 1996". Our Campaigns. http://ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=176. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "NE US Senate- R Primary Race - May 14, 2002". Our Campaigns. http://ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=215488. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "NE US Senate Race - Nov 05, 2002". Our Campaigns. http://ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=196. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ Chuck Hagel Former United States Senator District of Columbia Class Year: 2001. Horatio Alger Association.
- ^ NCC. "Senator Chuck Hagel Commencement speaker". North Central College. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
- ^ Zagursky, Erin (January 9, 2007). "U.S. Sen. Chuck Hagel to speak at William and Mary’s Charter Day". The College of William & Mary. http://web.wm.edu/news/archive/index.php?id=7191. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ http://www.newsdesk.umd.edu/sociss/release.cfm?ArticleID=1606
- ^ "Clifford P. Case Professorship: America: Our Next Chapter – Tough Questions, Straight Answers". Eagleton Institute of Politics. April 9, 2010. http://www.eagleton.rutgers.edu/events/EventPhotos.php. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "Sen. Chuck Hagel Joins Faculty". Georgetown University. February 5, 2009. http://explore.georgetown.edu/news/?ID=39745. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
- ^ "Chuck Hagel". Atlantic Council. http://www.acus.org/users/chuck-hagel. Retrieved 2011-08-07.
Further reading[link]
External links[link]
|
Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Chuck Hagel |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Chuck Hagel |
- Official sites
- Speech on U.S.-Iran Relations, Senate Speeches, U.S. Government, February 22, 2007
- Sandhills PAC Hagel's Political Action Committee
- Documentaries, topic pages and databases
- Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
- Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
- Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
- Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
- Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
- New York Times — Chuck Hagel News news stories and commentary
- Chuck Hagel: Moving Forward authorized biography by Charlyne Berens, book information from University of Nebraska Press ISBN 0-8032-1075-2
- Media coverage
- Hagel low on cash on hand, raising retirement issue, The Hill, January 30, 2007
- Joseph Lelyveld, "The Heartland Dissident", New York Times Magazine, February 12, 2006
- Chuck Hagel: A Christmas Present, and Past, Washington Post, December 22, 2005
- Interview C-SPAN Q&A, November 13, 2005
- Hagel’s ethics filings pose disclosure issue, The Hill, January 29, 2003
- Sen. Chuck Hagel Interview (video), The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, March 31, 2008
- Connie Bruck, "Odd Man Out: Chuck Hagel's Republican Exile" The New Yorker 84/35 (3 November 2008) : 52-63
- Grassroots campaigns
- Blogspot: Chuck Hagel for President, Unofficial campaign site on Blogspot
- Draft Hagel '08 grassroots presidential draft site
- Michigan for Hagel 2008, Unofficial Michigan campaign site on Blogspot
- Students for Hagel, Unofficial students' campaign site on Blogspot
| United States Senate | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by J. James Exon |
United States Senator (Class 2) from Nebraska 1997–2009 Served alongside: Bob Kerrey, Ben Nelson |
Succeeded by Mike Johanns |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Hal Daub |
Republican Party nominee for United States Senator from Nebraska (Class 2) 1996, 2002 |
Succeeded by Mike Johanns |
|
||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hagel, Chuck |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American politician |
| Date of birth | 1946-10-04 |
| Place of birth | North Platte, Nebraska |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Chuck_Hagel
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Хэйгел, Чак
http://fr.wn.com/Chuck Hagel
http://nl.wn.com/Chuck Hagel
http://de.wn.com/Chuck Hagel
http://id.wn.com/Chuck Hagel
http://pl.wn.com/Chuck Hagel
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Hagel
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Alex Clare | |
|---|---|
| Birth name | Alexander George Clare |
| Born | 14 September 1985 (age 26) Southwark, London, England |
| Origin | Golders Green, London |
| Genres | Soul, Electronic, Dubstep |
| Occupations | Singer, songwriter |
| Instruments | Vocals, Guitar, Drums, Keyboard, Ukulele, Harmonica |
| Labels | Island |
| Associated acts | Diplo, Switch |
| Website | alexclare.com |
Alexander George Clare (born 14 September 1985 in Southwark, London, England) is a British singer-songwriter.[1] His debut album, The Lateness of the Hour, was released in the UK on 11 July 2011 on Island Records[2] and was produced by Mike Spencer and Major Lazer.[3]
Clare adopted his current stage name, Alex Clare, in 2010, replacing Alexander G. Muertos, a pseudonym he first used whilst still at school.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Clare was born in Southwark, London. He grew up listening to his father’s jazz records and was drawn to blues and soul (Donny Hathaway, Stevie Wonder), which eventually led to interests in drum and bass and UK garage. Though Clare took up the trumpet and drums as a youngster, he eventually placed an emphasis on guitar and songwriting, playing open mike nights with original material.[citation needed]
Music career[link]
A demo earned him a deal with the Island label in the UK. His debut album, The Lateness of the Hour, produced by Mike Spencer and Major Lazer[3] was released in July 2011. The first single from the album was "Up All Night", followed by "Too Close" and "Treading Water".
On 19 May 2011, Reggie Yates made Alex Clare's cover of Prince's "When Doves Cry" his Song of the Day.[4] A day later, the Dutch radio station 3FM announced single "Too Close" to be the '3FM's Megahit of that week.[5]
On 21 June 2011, Clare performed at the Queens' College, Cambridge May Ball.[6] On 14 August 2011, Clare performed at the Summer Well festival in Buftea, Romania.
Following the disappointing performance of the album, Clare was dropped from his record contract with Universal Island in the UK.[7]
In 2012, Clare's song "Too Close" was featured in an Internet Explorer 9 commercial.[8] Following its use in the commercial, the song debuted at #68 on the US Billboard Hot 100[9] Clare saw success on the German charts too, topping the charts at #1. On 16 May, Clare's song peaked at #4 on the UK Singles Chart.[10]
Personal life[link]
Clare is a practicing Shomer Shabbat Jew, refusing to perform, travel or work on the Jewish Sabbath or religious Holidays. He lives in Golders Green, North London but often travels to Jerusalem when his work permits.
Before gaining critical success, Clare dated singer Amy Winehouse for a year. They met while he performed and worked at a bar she frequented, The Hawley Arms in Camden, North London.[11]
Discography[link]
Studio albums[link]
| Title | Album details | Peak chart positions | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UK [12] |
SWI [13] |
US [14] |
||
| The Lateness of the Hour |
|
17 | 88 | 82 |
Singles[link]
| Title | Year | Peak chart positions | Album | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UK [15] |
AUT [16] |
DEN [17] |
GER [18] |
IRE | NLD [19] |
SWI [13] |
US [20] |
|||
| "Up All Night" | 2011 | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | The Lateness of the Hour |
| "Too Close" | 4 | 11 | 29 | 1 | 47 | 33 | 18 | 48 | ||
| "Treading Water" | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | ||
Music videos[link]
| Song | Year | Director | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| Up All Night" | 2010 | Blake Claridge | [21] |
| "Too Close" | 2011 | Ian Bonhote | [22] |
| "Treading Water" | Sam Pilling | [23] |
References[link]
- ^ Lester, Paul (3 December 2010). "New band of the day – No 923: Alex Clare". London: guardian.co.uk. http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2010/dec/03/new-band-alex-clare. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
- ^ "Alex Clare album release". http://www.alexclare.com/?p=250.
- ^ a b "Alex Clare – Diplo and Switch’s Superstar Turn". 1 December 2010. http://www.thecouchsessions.com/2010/12/alex-clare-diplo-and-switchs-superstar-turn/. Retrieved 17 June 2011.
- ^ "SONG OF THE DAY #20 When Does cry - Alex Clare". Reggie Yates. 2011-05-19. http://www.reggieyates.com/article/song-of-the-day-20-when-does-cry-alex-clare. Retrieved 2012-01-01.
- ^ 3FM.nl Alex Clare Biografie
- ^ "Queens' May Ball 2011". Queensball.com. http://www.queensball.com/. Retrieved 2012-01-01.
- ^ "Alex Clare Talks Microsoft Ad, Amy Winehouse & Career Re-Start". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. April 14, 2012. http://www.billboard.com/column/the-juice/alex-clare-talks-microsoft-ad-amy-winehouse-1006761952.story#/column/the-juice/alex-clare-talks-microsoft-ad-amy-winehouse-1006761952.story. Retrieved April 20, 2012.
- ^ http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2012/mar12/03-05AlexClare.mspx
- ^ Trust, Gary; Caulfield, Keith (March 28, 2012). "Chart Moves: Carly Rae Jepsen Hits Hot 100 Top 20; Alex Clare's Microsoft Boost; Shinedown's 'Bully' Bows". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/retail/chart-moves-carly-rae-jepsen-hits-hot-100-1006605952.story. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
- ^ "2012-05-05 Top 40 Official UK Singles Archive - Official Charts". The Official Charts Company. May 5, 2012. http://www.officialcharts.com/archive-chart/_/1/2012-05-05/. Retrieved April 30, 2012.
- ^ "Amy Winehouse ‘fears’ her ex will reveal ‘their secrets’ in songs". topnews.in. http://www.topnews.in/light/amy-winehouse-fears-her-ex-will-reveal-their-secrets-songs-234415. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
- ^ Zywietz, Tobias. "CLUK Update (23.07.2011)". Zobbel.de. Tobias Zywietz. http://www.zobbel.de/cluk/110723cluk.txt. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Discografie Alex Clare". hitparade.ch/. Hung Medien. http://hitparade.ch/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Alex+Clare. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "'The Lateness of the Hour' by Alex Clare". Billboard. http://www.billboard.com/album/alex-clare/the-lateness-of-the-hour/1494827#/album/alex-clare/the-lateness-of-the-hour/1494827. Retrieved 2012-04-05.
- ^ "Chart Archive > Week Ending: April 21, 2012". The Official Charts Company. http://www.officialcharts.com/archive-chart/_/1/2012-04-21/. Retrieved 2012-04-15.
- ^ "Discographie - Alex Clare". austriancharts.at/ Hung Medien. http://austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Alex+Clare. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
- ^ "Discography - Alex Clare". danishcharts.com/ Hung Medien. http://danishcharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Alex+Clare. Retrieved 2012-04-20.
- ^ "Chartverfolgung / Alex Clare / Single" (in German). musicline.de. Media Control Charts. http://www.musicline.de/de/chartverfolgung_summary/artist/Alex+Clare/36780/single. Retrieved April 25, 2012.
- ^ "Discografie Alex Clare". dutchcharts.nl. Hung Medien. http://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Alex+Clare. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Too Close - Alex Clare". Billboard. Prometheus Global Media. http://www.billboard.com/#/song/alex-clare/too-close/25313090. Retrieved 2 April 2012.
- ^ "Alex Clare - 'Up All Night' (Official Video)". Youtube. 2010-10-10. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=boOG4pUR83Q&feature=relmfu.
- ^ "Alex Clare - 'Too Close' (Official Video)". Youtube. 2011-03-15. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zYXjLbMZFmo.
- ^ "Alex Clare - 'Treading Water' (Official Video)". Youtube. 2011-06-09. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4wiPneqVyU&feature=relmfu.
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Clare, Alex |
| Alternative names | Beast |
| Short description | Musician |
| Date of birth | 1986 |
| Place of birth | London |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Alex_Clare
Related pages:
http://fr.wn.com/Alex Clare
http://de.wn.com/Alex Clare
http://nl.wn.com/Alex Clare
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Clare
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Joe Lieberman | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| United States Senator from Connecticut |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 3, 1989 Serving with Richard Blumenthal |
|
| Preceded by | Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. |
| Chairman of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 4, 2007 |
|
| Preceded by | Susan Collins |
| In office June 6, 2001 – January 3, 2003 |
|
| Preceded by | Fred Thompson |
| Succeeded by | Susan Collins |
| In office January 3, 2001 – January 20, 2001 |
|
| Preceded by | Fred Thompson |
| Succeeded by | Fred Thompson |
| 20th Connecticut Attorney General | |
| In office January 5, 1983 – January 3, 1989 |
|
| Governor | William A. O'Neill |
| Preceded by | Carl R. Ajello |
| Succeeded by | Clarine Nardi Riddle |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Joseph Isadore Lieberman (1942-02-24) February 24, 1942 (age 70) Stamford, Connecticut |
| Nationality | American |
| Political party | Independent Democratic (2006–present) |
| Other political affiliations |
Democratic (1989–2006) |
| Spouse(s) | 1) Elizabeth Haas (div.) 2) Hadassah Lieberman |
| Children | 4 |
| Residence | New Haven, Connecticut |
| Alma mater | Yale University (A.B.) Yale Law School (LL.B.) |
| Profession | Politician, Lawyer |
| Religion | Modern Orthodox Judaism[1] |
| Signature |  |
| Website | lieberman.senate.gov |
Joseph Isadore "Joe" Lieberman (born February 24, 1942) is the senior United States Senator from Connecticut. A former member of the Democratic Party, he was the party's nominee for Vice President in the 2000 election. Currently an independent, he remains closely affiliated with the party.
Born in Stamford, Connecticut, Lieberman is a graduate of Yale University and Yale Law School. He was elected as a "reform Democrat" in 1970 to the Connecticut Senate, where he served three terms as Majority Leader. After an unsuccessful bid for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1980, he served as state Attorney General from 1983 to 1989. Lieberman defeated moderate Republican Lowell Weicker in 1988 to win election to the United States Senate and was re-elected in 1994 and 2000. In the 2000 United States presidential election, Lieberman was the Democratic nominee for Vice President, running with presidential nominee Al Gore, becoming the first Jewish candidate on a major American political party presidential ticket.[2] He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 2004 presidential election.
During his re-election bid in 2006, he lost the Democratic Party primary election but won re-election in the general election as a third party candidate under the party label "Connecticut for Lieberman". Lieberman himself is not a member of the Connecticut for Lieberman party; he is a registered Democrat.[3]
Lieberman was officially listed in Senate records for the 110th and 111th Congresses as an "Independent Democrat"[4] and sits as part of the Senate Democratic Caucus. But since his speech at the 2008 Republican National Convention in which he endorsed John McCain for president, Lieberman no longer attends Democratic Caucus leadership strategy meetings or policy lunches.[5] On November 5, 2008, Lieberman met with Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid to discuss his future role with the Democratic Party. Ultimately, the Senate Democratic Caucus voted to allow Lieberman to keep chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs. Subsequently, Lieberman announced that he will continue to caucus with the Democrats.[6]
As Senator he led the historic and ultimately successful effort to repeal the Don't Ask Don't Tell military policy that barred homosexuals from openly serving in the military, by introducing and championing the Don't Ask, Don't Tell Repeal Act of 2010.[7] He is also known for championing and introducing the legislation that led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. Lieberman has scored many legislative successes and has been a leading advocate in efforts to fight against Global Warming, Bioterrorism, and Cyberterrorism; as well as successfully reforming and updating FEMA.[8]
Lieberman announced in January 2011 that he will not seek re-election in 2012.[9]
Contents |
Early life[link]
Lieberman was born in Stamford, Connecticut, the son of Marcia (née Manger) and Henry Lieberman. His paternal grandparents emigrated from Poland and his maternal grandparents were from Austria.[10] He received an A.B. in both political science and economics from Yale University in 1964 and was the first member of his family to graduate from college. At Yale he was editor of the Yale Daily News and a member of the Elihu Club. He later attended Yale Law School, receiving his law degree in 1967. After graduation from law school, Lieberman worked as a lawyer for the New Haven-based law firm Wiggin & Dana LLP.
A spokesperson told The Hartford Courant in 1994 that Lieberman received an educational deferment from the Vietnam War draft when he was an undergraduate and law student from 1960 to 1967. Upon graduating from law school at age 25, Lieberman qualified for a family deferment because he was already married and had one child, Matt.[11]
Personal life[link]
Lieberman met his first wife, Betty Haas, at the congressional office of Senator Abraham Ribicoff (D-CT), where they worked as summer student interns. They married in 1965 while Joe Lieberman was in law school. They had two children – Matt and Rebecca. Betty, who is also Jewish, later worked as a psychiatric social worker. In 1981, the couple divorced. When asked about the divorce in an interview with New York Magazine, Lieberman said, "one of the differences we had was in levels of religious observance," adding, "I'm convinced if that was the only difference, we wouldn't have gotten divorced."[12]
In 1982, he met his second wife, Hadassah Freilich Tucker, while he was running for Attorney General of Connecticut. Hadassah Lieberman is the child of a Holocaust survivor. According to Washington Jewish Week, Lieberman called her for a date because he thought it would be interesting to go out with someone named Hadassah. (Hadassah is the name of the Women's Zionist Organization of America).[13] Since March 2005, Hadassah Lieberman has worked for Hill & Knowlton, a lobbying firm based in New York City, as a senior counselor in its health and pharmaceuticals practice. She has held senior positions at the Hospital of Saint Raphael in New Haven, the American Committee for Shaare Zedek Medical Center in Jerusalem, Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials-International (APCO), Pfizer, National Research Council, Hoffmann-La Roche, and Lehman Brothers.[14]
Joe and Hadassah Lieberman have a daughter, Hani. Lieberman also has a stepson from Hadassah's previous marriage, Ethan Tucker. Matt Lieberman graduated from Yale University in 1989, and from Yale Law School in 1994. He is former Head of School of Greenfield Hebrew Academy in Atlanta, GA. Rebecca Lieberman graduated from Barnard College in 1991, and from the University of Pennsylvania Law School in 1997. She is married to Jacob Wisse. Ethan Tucker, son of Gordon Tucker, graduated from Harvard College in 1997 and received his rabbinic ordination from the Chief Rabbinate of Israel. Lieberman is also related to Disney Channel star Raviv Ullman of Phil of the Future.[15]
Lieberman describes himself as an "observant" Jew.[1] In 1965 he married Betty Haas, a Reform Jew. Since the death in 1967 of Lieberman's grandmother, a deeply religious immigrant, he found renewed interest in religious observance. His second wife, Hadassah, is also an observant Modern Orthodox Jew. "Hadassah calls herself my right wing," says Lieberman.[12] In Lieberman's 1988 upset of Republican Party incumbent Senator Lowell Weicker, his religious observance was mostly viewed in terms of inability to campaign on Shabbat. This changed when Gore chose Lieberman as the running mate; a Lieberman press officer who spoke on condition of anonymity said:
"He refers to himself as observant, as opposed to Orthodox, because he doesn't follow the strict Orthodox code and doesn't want to offend the Orthodox, and his wife feels the same way."[16]
The Liebermans keep a kosher home and observe Shabbat.[16]
Lieberman has said that there is currently "a constitutional place for faith in our public life", and that the Constitution does not provide for "freedom from religion."[17] He attends Kesher Israel Congregation in Georgetown, Washington, D.C. and Beth Hamedrosh Hagodol – B'nai Israel, The Westville Synagogue, New Haven, Connecticut. He also attends Congregation Agudath Sholom in Stamford.
He was the first observant Jew to run on a major party Presidential ticket. (1964 Presidential candidate Barry Goldwater's father was Jewish, but Sen. Goldwater's mother was an Episcopalian, and the Senator practiced his mother's faith.)
Early political career[link]
Lieberman was elected as a "reform Democrat" to the Connecticut Senate in 1970, where he served for 10 years, including the last six as Majority Leader. He suffered his first defeat in Connecticut elections in the Reagan landslide year of 1980, losing the race for the Third District Congressional seat to Republican Lawrence Joseph DeNardis, a state senator from suburban Hamden with whom he had worked closely on bipartisan legislative efforts. In 1981 he wrote an admiring biography of long-time Connecticut and national Democratic leader John Moran Bailey, reviewing also in the book the previous 50 years of Connecticut political history.[18] From 1983 to 1989, he served as Connecticut Attorney General.[19] In the 1986 general election, Lieberman won more votes than any other Democrat on the statewide ticket, including Governor William O'Neill.[20] As Attorney General, Lieberman emphasized consumer protection and environmental enforcement.
U.S. Senate[link]
Tenure[link]
In 1988, Lieberman defeated moderate Republican Lowell Weicker to win election to the United States Senate and was re-elected in 1994 and 2000. Like Bill Clinton and Dick Gephardt, Lieberman served as chair of the Democratic Leadership Council.
Lieberman was first elected to the United States Senate as a Democrat in the 1988 election, by a margin of 10,000 votes. He scored the nation's biggest political upset that year, after being backed by a coalition of Democrats and unaffiliated voters with support from conservative Republicans, who were disappointed in three-term Republican incumbent Lowell Weicker's moderate voting record and personal style. During the campaign, he received support from the Connecticut's Cuban-American community which was unhappy with Weicker. Lieberman has since remained firmly anti-Castro.[21] Six years later, Lieberman made history by winning by the largest landslide ever in a Connecticut Senate race, drawing 67 percent of the vote and beating his opponent by more than 350,000 votes.
In 1998, Lieberman was the first prominent Democrat to publicly challenge Bill Clinton for the judgment exercised in his affair with Monica Lewinsky.[22] However, he voted against removing Clinton from office by impeachment. In 2000, while concurrently running for the vice presidency, Lieberman was elected to a third Senate term with 64 percent of the vote easily defeating the Republican Philip Giordano.
When control of the Senate switched from Republicans to Democrats in June 2001, Lieberman became Chairman of the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee, with oversight responsibilities for a broad range of government activities. He was also a member of the Environment and Public Works Committee and chair of its Subcommittee Clean Air, Wetlands and Private Property; the Armed Services Committee, where he chaired the Airland Subcommittee and sat on the Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities; and the Small Business Committee. When Republicans gained control of the Senate in January 2003, Lieberman resumed his role as ranking minority member of the committees he had once chaired.[23]
2002, as Chairman of what was then known as the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, Senator Lieberman led the fight to create a new Department of Homeland Security. One month after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, he introduced legislation to reorganize the federal government to better protect the American people from terrorism and natural disasters and steered a bipartisan plan through his committee. After months of opposing the plan, the White House eventually endorsed the concept. Legislation that passed Congress in 2002 created a department incorporating key organizational elements Senator Lieberman advocated.[24]
In 2006, Senators Lieberman and Collins drafted legislation to reshape the Federal Emergency Management Agency into an agency that would more effectively prepare for and respond to catastrophes, including natural disasters and terrorist attacks. The legislation elevated FEMA to special status within the Department of Homeland Security, much like the Coast Guard and designated the head of FEMA to be the President's point person during an emergency. The bill also called for the reunification of the preparedness and response functions within FEMA, giving it responsibility for all phases of emergency management. And the measure strengthened FEMA's regional offices, creating dedicated interagency "strike teams" to provide the initial federal response to a disaster in the region. The legislation passed Congress in September 2006. As the 2007 hurricane season approached, Senator Lieberman held an oversight hearing on implementation of the FEMA reforms on May 22, 2007. He urged FEMA to implement the reforms at a quicker pace.[25]
Senator Lieberman actively oversaw the government response to the H1N1 influenza (swine flu) pandemic and held four hearings on the subject in 2009, including one in Connecticut. He has continually pressed the Department of Health and Human Services to distribute vaccines and antiviral medications in at quicker pace and to streamline the process.[26]
In the 110th Congress, Lieberman is Chairman of the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee, which is responsible for assuring the efficiency and effectiveness of the Federal Government. In addition, he is a member of the Environment and Public Works Committee; Senate Armed Services Committee, where he is Chairman of the Subcommittee on Air Land Forces and sits on the Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities; and the Small Business Committee.
Fundraising[link]
Since 1989, Lieberman has received more than $31.4 million in campaign donations from specific industries and sectors. His largest donors have represented the securities and investment ($3.7 million), legal ($3.6 million), real estate ($3.1 million) and health professional ($1.1 million) industries.[27]
Committee assignments[link]
- Committee on Armed Services
- Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs (Chairman)
- Committee on Small Business and Entrepreneurship
Caucus memberships[link]
- Senate Caucus on Global Internet Freedom (Co-Chair)
- Congressional Fire Services Caucus (Co-Chair)
- Congressional Public Service Caucus (Co-Chair)
- International Conservation Caucus
Retirement[link]
Senator Lieberman announced on January 19, 2011 that he would retire from the Senate at the end of his fourth term.[28][29]
Electoral history[link]
Main article: Electoral history of Joe Lieberman
Presidential politics[link]
2000 VP campaign[link]
File:Gorelieberman.jpg
Gore/Lieberman 2000 campaign logo
In August 2000, Lieberman was selected as the nominee for Vice President of the United States by Al Gore, the Democratic Party nominee for President. Lieberman was the first Jewish candidate on a major political party ticket. The announcement of Lieberman's selection was unusual in that it did not cause a positive "bump" in the Gore campaign's poll numbers according to a Newsweek poll done at the time.[30] Polling also indicated that Lieberman had badly lost his televised debate against Dick Cheney,[31] leading some to suggest later that Gore had lost the election due to choosing Lieberman as his running mate.[32]
The Gore/Lieberman ticket won a plurality of the popular vote, with over half a million more votes than the Republican ticket of George W. Bush and Dick Cheney, but they were defeated in the Electoral College by a vote of 271 to 266 after an intense legal battle concerning the outcome in disputed counties (see Bush v. Gore).
Like Democratic VP candidates Lyndon B. Johnson in 1960, Lloyd Bentsen in 1988, John Edwards in 2004, and Joe Biden in 2008, Lieberman's Senate term was due to expire during the election cycle. He decided to run for reelection to maintain his seat, as Johnson, Bentsen and Biden did. All four won, but since Johnson and Biden were also elected Vice-President, they gave up their seats.
2004 primaries[link]
On January 13, 2003, Lieberman announced his intention to seek the Democratic nomination as a candidate in the 2004 presidential election.
Describing his Presidential hopes, Lieberman opined that his historically hawkish stance would appeal to voters. Indeed he initially led in polls of primaries, but due to his political positions he failed to win a support of liberal Democratic voters, who dominated the primaries.[33]
Prior to his defeat in New Hampshire, Lieberman famously declared his campaign was picking up "Joementum"; however, he failed to provide such momentum during the New Hampshire primary debates, held at Saint Anselm College days before the primary.[34] On February 3, 2004, Lieberman withdrew his candidacy after failing to win any of the five primaries or two caucuses held that day. He acknowledged to the Hartford Courant that his support for the war in Iraq was a large part of his undoing with voters.[35]
Lieberman's former running candidate Al Gore did not support Lieberman's Presidential run, and in December 2003 endorsed Howard Dean's candidacy, saying "This is about all of us and all of us need to get behind the strongest candidate [Dean]."[36]
Finally Lieberman withdrew from the race without winning a single contest. In total popular vote he placed 7th behind eventual nominee, Massachusetts senator John Kerry, future Vice Presidential nominee, North Carolina Senator John Edwards, former Governor of Vermont Howard Dean, Ohio Representative Dennis Kucinich, retired General Wesley Clark and Reverend Al Sharpton.[37]
2008 activism[link]
Further information: United States presidential election, 2008
File:Mccainliebermann.JPG
Lieberman with Presidential Candidate John McCain at an event in Derry, New Hampshire
On December 17, 2007, Lieberman endorsed Republican Senator John McCain for president in 2008,[38] standing up to his party and going back on his stance in July 2006 where he stated "I want Democrats to be back in the majority in Washington and elect a Democratic president in 2008."[39] Lieberman cited his agreement with McCain's stance on the War on Terrorism as the primary reason for the endorsement.[40]
On June 5, Lieberman launched "Citizens for McCain," hosted on the McCain campaign website, to recruit Democratic support for John McCain's candidacy. He emphasized the group's outreach to supporters of Hillary Clinton, who was at that time broadly expected to lose the Democratic presidential nomination to Barack Obama.[41] Citizens for McCain was prominently featured in McCain team efforts to attract disgruntled Hillary Clinton supporters such as Debra Bartoshevich.[42][43]
Lieberman spoke at the 2008 Republican National Convention on behalf of McCain and his running mate, Alaska Governor Sarah Palin.[44] Lieberman was alongside McCain and Senator Lindsey Graham during a visit to French president Nicolas Sarkozy on March 21, 2008.[45] Lieberman was mentioned as a possible Vice Presidential nominee on a McCain ticket,[46][47] although Lieberman had denied interest.[48] ABC News reported that Lieberman was McCain's first choice for Vice President until several days before the selection, when McCain had decided that picking Lieberman would alienate the conservative base of the Republican Party.[49][50] Lieberman had been mentioned as a possible Secretary of State under a McCain administration.[51]
Many Democrats wanted Lieberman to be stripped of his chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs due to his support for John McCain which went against the party's wishes.[52] Republican Minority Leader Mitch McConnell reached out to Lieberman, asking him to caucus with the Republicans.[53] Ultimately, the Senate Democratic Caucus voted 42 to 13 to allow Lieberman to keep chairmanship (although he did lose his membership for the Environment and Public Works Committee). Subsequently, Lieberman announced that he will continue to caucus with the Democrats.[6] Lieberman credited President-elect Barack Obama for helping him keep his chairmanship. Obama had privately urged Democratic Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid not to remove Lieberman from his position. Reid stated that Lieberman's criticism of Obama during the election angered him, but that "if you look at the problems we face as a nation, is this a time we walk out of here saying, 'Boy did we get even'?" Senator Tom Carper of Delaware also credited the Democrats' decision on Lieberman to Obama's support, stating that "If Barack can move on, so can we."[54][55]
Partisan members of the Democratic caucus were reportedly angry at the decision to not punish Lieberman more severely. Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont (who is also an Independent who caucuses with the Democrats) stated that he voted to punish Lieberman "because while millions of people worked hard for Obama, Lieberman actively worked for four more years of President Bush's policies."[55]
Lieberman's embrace of certain conservative policies and in particular his endorsement of John McCain have been cited as factors for his high approval rating among Republicans in Connecticut with 66% of Republicans approving of him along with 52% of independents also approving of his job performance, this however is also cited for his low approval rating among Democrats: 44% approving and 46% disapproving.[56] Currentlly 51% of voters approve of his performance along with 40% disapproving.[56]
2006 Senate election[link]
Primary[link]
| Candidate | Votes[57] | Percentage |
|---|---|---|
| Ned Lamont | 146,587 | 52% |
| Joe Lieberman | 136,468 | 48% |
Lieberman sought the Democratic Party's renomination for U.S. Senate from Connecticut in 2006 but lost to Ned Lamont, a Greenwich businessman and antiwar candidate.
Lieberman was officially endorsed by the Connecticut Democratic Convention, which met in May. However, Lamont received 33 percent of the delegates' votes, forcing an August primary.
In July, Lieberman announced that he would file papers to appear on the November ballot should he lose the primary, stating, "I'm a loyal Democrat, but I have loyalties that are greater than those to my party, and that's my loyalty to my state and my country."[58] He stated that he would continue to sit as a Democrat in the Senate even if he was defeated in the primary and elected on an unaffiliated line, and expressed concern for a potentially low turnout.[59] On July 10, the Lieberman campaign officially filed paperwork allowing him to collect signatures for the newly formed Connecticut for Lieberman party ballot line.[60] On August 8, 2006, Lieberman conceded the Democratic primary election to Ned Lamont, saying, "For the sake of our state, our country and my party, I cannot and will not let that result stand," and announced he would run in the 2006 November election as an independent candidate on the Connecticut for Lieberman ticket, against both Lamont and the Republican candidate, Alan Schlesinger.[61]
General election[link]
Main article: Connecticut United States Senate election, 2006
Polls after the primary showed Lieberman ahead of Ned Lamont by 5 points.[citation needed] Later polls showed Lieberman leading by varying margins.[citation needed] Alan Schlesinger barely registered support[citation needed] and his campaign had run into problems based on alleged gambling debts. Thus, "Lieberman was able to run in the general election as the de facto Republican candidate – every major Republican office-holder in the state endorsed him – and to supplement that GOP base with strong support from independents."[62]
On August 9, 2006, Hillary Clinton affirmed her pledge to support the primary winner, saying "voters of Connecticut have made their decision and I think that decision should be respected",[63] and Howard Dean called for Lieberman to quit the race, saying he was being "disrespectful of Democrats and disrespectful of the Democratic Party".[64]
On August 10, in his first campaign appearance since losing the Democratic primary, referencing the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot, Lieberman criticized Lamont, saying:[65]
| “ | If we just pick up like Ned Lamont wants us to do, get out [of Iraq] by a date certain, it will be taken as a tremendous victory by the same people who wanted to blow up these planes in this plot hatched in England. It will strengthen them and they will strike again. | ” |
Lamont noted Lieberman's position was similar to George W. Bush's and Dick Cheney's position. Lamont said, “That comment sounds an awful lot like Vice President Cheney’s comment on Wednesday. Both of them believe our invasion of Iraq has a lot to do with 9/11. That’s a false premise.”[65] Lieberman's communications director replied that Lamont was politicizing national security by "portraying [Lieberman] as a soul mate of President Bush on Iraq".[65]
On August 17, 2006 the National Republican Senatorial Committee stated that they would favor a Lieberman victory in the November election over Democratic nominee Ned Lamont. The NRSC did state, however, that they were not going so far as to actually support Lieberman.[66]
Former New York Mayor Rudy Giuliani praised Lieberman at a South Carolina campaign stop on August 18, saying he was "a really exceptional senator."[67] Other Republican supporters of Lieberman included Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg, former Representative and Republican Vice Presidential candidate Jack Kemp, former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich and Senator Susan Collins of Maine.[citation needed]
Five Democratic Senators maintained their support for Lieberman, and Lieberman also received the strong support of former Senator and Democratic stalwart Bob Kerrey, who offered to stump for him.[68] Democratic minority leader Harry Reid, while endorsing Lamont, promised Lieberman that he would retain his committee positions and seniority if he prevailed in the general election.
On August 28, Lieberman campaigned at the same motorcycle rally as Republican Congressman Christopher Shays.[citation needed] Shays told a crowd of motorcycle enthusiasts, "We have a national treasure in Joe Lieberman."
Mel Sembler, a former Republican National Committee finance chairman, helped organize a reception that raised a "couple hundred thousand dollars" for Lieberman, who was personally in attendance. Sembler is a prominent Republican who chaired I. Lewis 'Scooter' Libby's legal defense fund.[69] New York Mayor Michael Bloomberg held a fundraiser for Lieberman at his home in November, co-hosted by former mayor Ed Koch and former Senator Alfonse M. D'Amato.[70] Koch called Lieberman "one of the greatest Senators we've ever had in the Senate."[71]
Despite still considering himself a Democrat, Lieberman was endorsed by numerous Republicans who actively spoke out in favor of his candidacy. Lieberman was also the focus of websites such as ConservativesforLieberman06.com.[72]
On November 7, Lieberman won re-election with 49.7% of the vote. Ned Lamont garnered 40% of ballots cast and Alan Schlesinger won 10%.[73] Lieberman received support from 33% of Democrats, 54% of independents and 70% of Republicans.[74]
Following the election, Lieberman struck a deal with Democratic leadership allowing him to keep his seniority and chairmanship of the Governmental Affairs Committee. In return, he agreed to vote with the Democrats on all procedural matters unless he asked permission of Majority Whip Richard Durbin.[citation needed] He is free to vote as he pleases on policy matters.[citation needed] Along with Bernie Sanders, Lieberman's caucusing with the Democrats gave them a 51–49 majority in the Senate, leaving a slim one Senator majority to control the Senate in the 110th Congress.
Criticism[link]
While he officially considers himself a member of the Democratic party, Lieberman has been accused of being more conservative than many Republicans and a political maverick since he often stands up to his party on issues on which he disagrees with them. He lost the Democratic Party nomination in the 2006 election to a more partisanly pure candidate, so he ran as an independent candidate to retain his senate seat. In February 2007, Lieberman spoke before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee in support of the confirmation of Sam Fox as ambassador to Belgium. Fox, a prominent Republican businessman and political donor, was a contributor to the Swift Boat Veterans for Truth campaign in 2004.[75] Fox is also reported to have donated to Lieberman's 2006 Senate campaign.[76] Critics claim Lieberman was a favorite of Fox News, since he was willing to go on the conservative channel and play the role of someone in the “opposition” party who criticised fellow Democrats on policy differences he had with them.
Lieberman was a supporter of the Iraq War and has urged action against Iran. In July 2008, Lieberman spoke at the annual conference of Christians United for Israel (CUFI) then later, in July 2009, accepted from John Hagee CUFI's "Defender of Israel Award".[77] Pastor Hagee, CUFI's founder and leader, has made a number of controversial remarks, including a statement that the Catholic Church is "the great whore" and a suggestion that God sent Adolf Hitler to bring the Jews to Israel.[78]
In May 2010, while favoring the filibuster and threatening to use it in 2009 to eliminate a public health option as part of the healthcare proposal, Lieberman once strongly opposed it. In 1995, he joined with Senator Tom Harkin to co-sponsor an amendment to kill the filibuster. “The filibuster hurts the credibility of the entire Senate and impedes progress,” Lieberman told the Hartford Courant (Jan 6, 1995).[79]
In April 2010, Lieberman blasted President Obama for stripping terms like "Islamic extremism" from a key national security document, calling the move dishonest, wrong-headed and disrespectful to the majority of Muslims who are not terrorists.[80]
Lieberman has favoured greater use of surveillance cameras by the federal government and referred to attempts by Congress to investigate illegal wire-tapping as "partisan gridlock". On June 19, 2010, Lieberman introduced a bill called "Protecting Cyberspace as a National Asset Act of 2010",[81] which he co-wrote with Senator Susan Collins (R-ME) and Senator Thomas Carper (D-DE). If signed into law, this controversial bill, which the American media dubbed the "Kill switch bill", would grant the President emergency powers over the Internet. However, all three co-authors of the bill issued a statement claiming that instead, the bill "[narrowed] existing broad Presidential authority to take over telecommunications networks".[82] American computer security specialist and author Bruce Schneier objected to the "kill switch" proposal on the basis that it rests on several faulty assumptions and that it's "too coarse a hammer". Schneier wrote:
Defending his proposal, Sen. Lieberman pointed out that China has this capability. It's debatable whether or not it actually does, but it's actively pursuing the capability because the country cares less about its citizens. Here in the U.S., it is both wrong and dangerous to give the president the power and ability to commit Internet suicide and terrorize Americans in this way.[83]
Sen. Lieberman has been a major opponent of the whistle-blowing website WikiLeaks. His staff "made inquiries"[84] of Amazon.com and other internet companies such as Paypal, Visa, and Mastercard which resulted in them suspending service to WikiLeaks. Blogger Glenn Greenwald called Lieberman's actions "one of the most pernicious acts by a U.S. Senator in quite some time," and accused Lieberman of "emulat[ing] Chinese dictators" by "abusing his position as Homeland Security Chairman to thuggishly dictate to private companies which websites they should and should not host—and, more important, what you can and cannot read on the Internet."[85] Lieberman has also suggested that "the New York Times and other news organisations publishing the US embassy cables being released by WikiLeaks could be investigated for breaking US espionage laws."[86]
Along with Senators John Ensign and Scott Brown, Lieberman "introduced a bill to amend the Espionage Act in order to facilitate the prosecution of folks like Wikileaks."[87] Critics have noted that "[l]eaking [classified] information in the first place is already a crime, so the measure is aimed squarely at publishers," and that "Lieberman’s proposed solution to WikiLeaks could have implications for journalists reporting on some of the more unsavory practices of the intelligence community."[88] Legal analyst Benjamin Wittes has called the proposed legislation "the worst of both worlds," saying:
"It leaves intact the current World War I-era Espionage Act provision, 18 U.S.C. 793(e), a law [with] many problems... and then takes a currently well-drawn law and expands its scope to the point that it covers a lot more than the most reckless of media excesses. A lot of good journalism would be a crime under this provision; after all, knowingly and willfully publishing material 'concerning the human intelligence activities of the United States or any foreign government' is no small part of what a good newspaper does."[87]
As a result of these statements and actions, Lieberman has been perceived as an opponent of Internet Free Speech and become the target of Anonymous attacks under Operation Payback.[89]
Political positions[link]
Main article: Political positions of Joe Lieberman
Lieberman is one of the Senate's strongest advocates for continued prosecution of the war in Iraq.[citation needed] He is also an outspoken supporter of the U.S.-Israel relationship. On domestic issues, he strongly supports free trade economics while reliably voting for pro-trade union legislation. He has also opposed filibustering Republican judicial appointments. With Lynne Cheney and others, Lieberman co-founded American Council of Trustees and Alumni in 1995. Lieberman is a supporter of abortion rights and of the rights of gays and lesbians to adopt children, to be protected with hatecrime legislation, and to serve openly in the military.[90] Lieberman is one of the Senate's leading opponents of violence in video games and on television. Lieberman describes himself as being "genuinely an Independent," saying "I agree more often than not with Democrats on domestic policy. I agree more often than not with Republicans on foreign and defense policy."[91] Senator Lieberman is also famous for championing, authoring and leading the effort that led to the repeal of Don't ask don't tell.
Senator Lieberman was an integral part in attempting to stop WikiLeaks from publishing further material using US-based corporations in the United States diplomatic cables leak of 2010.[92]
Published works[link]
Lieberman is the author of seven books: The Power Broker (1966), a biography of the late Democratic Party chairman, John M. Bailey; The Scorpion and the Tarantula (1970), a study of early efforts to control nuclear proliferation; The Legacy (1981), a history of Connecticut politics from 1930 to 1980; Child Support in America (1986), a guidebook on methods to increase the collection of child support from delinquent fathers; In Praise of Public Life (2000); An Amazing Adventure (2003), reflecting on his 2000 vice presidential run; and The Gift of Rest: Rediscovering the Beauty of the Sabbath (2011), written with David Klinghoffer.
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b "The Lieberman Phenomenon". Dr. Samuel Heilman - The Edah Journal Volume 1:1. http://www.edah.org/backend/coldfusion/search/document.cfm?title=The%20Lieberman%20Phenomenon&hyperlink=The_Lieberman_Phenomenon.html&type=JournalArticle&category=Orthodoxy%20and%20Modernity&authortitle=Dr.&firstname=Samuel&lastname=Heilman&pubsource=The%20Edah%20Journal%20Volume%201%3A1&authorid=278&pdfattachment=heilman.pdf. Retrieved December 31, 2011.
- ^ "Joseph Lieberman". Washington Times. http://www.washtimes.com/elections/candidate/336/. Retrieved September 3, 2008. [dead link]
- ^ MacEachern, Frank (September 18, 2007). "Lieberman registers to vote as a Democrat, wife and daughter unaffiliated" (– Scholar search). The Stamford Times. http://www.thestamfordtimes.com/stamford_templates/stamford_story/289850115142016.php [dead link]
- ^ "Senators of the 110th Congress". U.S. Senate. January 3, 2006. http://www.senate.gov/general/contact_information/senators_cfm.cfm?Name=Lieberman.
- ^ "The Hill". The Hill. http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/conventions-over-lieberman-embarks-on-lonely-september-2008-09-09.html. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ a b Hulse, Carl (November 19, 2008). "Democrats Gain as Stevens Loses Race". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/us/politics/19cong.html?nl=pol&emc=pola1. Retrieved March 27, 2010.
- ^ http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/02/22/lieberman-to-take-lead-on_n_471300.html
- ^ http://lieberman.senate.gov/index.cfm/issues-legislation/homeland-security-and-governmental-affairs
- ^ Lieberman to Announce He Will Not Seek Re-Election, Aide Says
- ^ http://www.wargs.com/political/lieberman.html
- ^ Lieberman: A history-making candidate. CNN.com. Retrieved October 10, 2006.
- ^ a b You Go, Joe. New York Magazine November 18, 2002.
- ^ Merida, Kevin. Lieberman's Morality Concerns Not New. The Washington Post September 5, 1998.
- ^ Conason, Joe (September 1, 2006). "In bed with Big Pharma". Salon. http://salon.com/opinion/conason/2006/09/01/hadassah_lieberman/. Retrieved November 14, 2009.
- ^ Jacobson, Judie. "Jewish Geography". www.jewishledger.com. http://www.jewishledger.com/articles/2006/02/23/news/news08.txt. Retrieved February 21, 2008.
- ^ a b Goodstein, Laurie. Lieberman Balances Private Faith With Life in the Public Eye New York Times August 18, 2000.
- ^ Gold, Matea. Lieberman and religion seem to be an easy mix. Los Angeles Times August 28, 2000.
- ^ Review of THE LEGACY: Connecticut Politics 1930–1980 Book by Joseph I. Lieberman. Introduction by Jack Zaiman. Cartoons by Ed Valtman. 215 pages. Spoonwood Press. Review in The New York Times, December 20, 1981. Retrieved September 24, 2010.
- ^ The official web site of the Connecticut Attorney General's office is at http://www.ct.gov/ag/site/default.asp.
- ^ Kornacki, Steve (January 19, 2011) The making (and unmaking) of Joe Lieberman, Salon.com
- ^ Toobin, Jeffrey. Joe Lieberman looks hopefully toward the White House. The New Yorker December 16, 2002.
- ^ Senator Joe Lieberman Attacks Clinton. AustralianPolitics.com September 3, 1998. Retrieved October 10, 2006.
- ^ Standing Committees of the Senate 108th Congress. Retrieved September 10, 2006.
- ^ http://lieberman.senate.gov/index.cfm/issues-legislation/homeland-security-and-governmental-affairs
- ^ http://lieberman.senate.gov/index.cfm/issues-legislation/homeland-security-and-governmental-affairs
- ^ http://lieberman.senate.gov/index.cfm/issues-legislation/homeland-security-and-governmental-affairs
- ^ "Center for Responsive Politics profile". Opensecrets.org. May 16, 2010. http://www.opensecrets.org/politicians/industries.php?cycle=Career&cid=N00000616&type=I. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ Hook, Janet (January 19, 2011). "Senators' Exits Reshape 2012 Fight". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703954004576089933308403202.html.
- ^ "Joe Lieberman Retiring In 2012". Huffington Post. January 19, 2011. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/19/joe-lieberman-retiring-in_n_810954.html.
- ^ "Newsweek Poll: Naming Lieberman No Charm for Democrats – Bush Retains 10 Point Lead". August 12, 2000. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-64086109.html. Retrieved January 21, 2010.
- ^ Langer, Gary. "Poll: Cheney Beats Lieberman in Veep Debate". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=122760&page=1. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ Shields, Mark (December 22, 2009). "SHIELDS: If You Could Change One Thing, Al Gore". St. Louis Globe-Democrat. http://www.globe-democrat.com/news/2009/dec/22/shields/. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ BY JOHN E. MULLIGANJournal Washington Bureau (July 13, 2003). "Moderate and steady may not win race for Lieberman". Projo.com. http://www.projo.com/news/content/projo_20030713_lieb13.a720e.html. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ Lieberman says he's got the 'Joementum' CNN.com January 26, 2004. Retrieved March 6, 2007.
- ^ Hamilton, Elizabeth. Lieberman Reflects on Candidacy. The Hartford Courant April 15, 2004.
- ^ Gore Endorses Dean: CNN LIVE EVENT/SPECIAL transcript. CNN.com December 9, 2003. Retrieved October 10, 2006.
- ^ "US President – D Primaries Race – Jan 13, 2004". Our Campaigns. http://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=1689. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ "LIEBERMAN, MCCAIN ENDORSEMENT". MSNBC. http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/12/17/521481.aspx. Retrieved November 6, 2008.
- ^ "Lieberman: "I want to elect a Democratic president in 2008"". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVcL8KFDetU. Retrieved August 5, 2008.
- ^ "Lieberman to Cross Aisle to Endorse McCain". blog.washingtonpost.com. http://blog.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2007/12/16/lieberman_to_cross_aisle_for_m.html. Retrieved December 16, 2007.
- ^ Rhee, Foon (June 5, 2008). "Lieberman leads new pro-McCain group". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/politicalintelligence/2008/06/lieberman_leads.html. Retrieved January 4, 2009.
- ^ Wheaton, Sarah (June 14, 2008). "McCain Courts Democrats, Independents". The New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/06/14/mccain-courts-democrats-independents/?scp=1&sq=%22citizens%20for%20mccain%22&st=cse. Retrieved January 4, 2009.
- ^ Falcone, Michael (August 24, 2008). "Republicans Unveil War Room in Denver". The New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/24/republicans-unveil-war-room-in-denver/?scp=2&sq=%22citizens%20for%20mccain%22&st=cse. Retrieved January 4, 2009.
- ^ Meckler, Laura (February 13, 2008). "McCain Gets Boost from Senate Buddy". Wall Street Journal. http://blogs.wsj.com/washwire/2008/02/13/mccain-gets-boost-from-senate-buddy/. Retrieved February 13, 2008.
- ^ J.C. (March 22, 2008). "McCain loue l'ère "d'amitié franco-américaine"" (in French). Le Figaro. http://www.lefigaro.fr/elections-americaines-2008/2008/03/21/01017-20080321ARTFIG00760-mccain-loue-l-ere-d-amitie-franco-americaine.php. Retrieved March 21, 2008.
- ^ Christensen, Alex. "The 2008 GOP Field or It's the Tenacity, Stupid". http://www.chooseourpresident2008.com/gop.html. Retrieved January 27, 2008.
- ^ Kristol, William (November 19, 2007). "Say It's So, Joe – Vice President Lieberman?". http://www.ourcampaigns.com/NewsDetail.html?NewsID=44260. Retrieved January 27, 2008.
- ^ "McCain Has 'Better Judgment' Than to Name Him VP". Web.archive.org. Archived from the original on January 7, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080107085408/http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewPolitics.asp?Page=/Politics/archive/200801/POL20080104c.html. Retrieved August 8, 2010.
- ^ Hunter, Duncan (August 29, 2008). "How Palin Came to the Top of the List". Political Radar – ABC News. http://blogs.abcnews.com/politicalradar/2008/08/how-palin-came.html. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
- ^ "Topic A: Assessing Sarah Palin". The Washington Post. August 30, 2008. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/08/29/AR2008082901777.html?hpid=opinionsbox1. Retrieved October 3, 2010.
- ^ "Gizzi on Politics: Convention Diary". Human Events. http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=28478. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ Rushing, J. Taylor. "Sen. Lieberman likely to lose his gavel in massive reshuffle being discussed". TheHill.com. http://thehill.com/leading-the-news/sen.-lieberman-likely-to-lose-his-gavel--in-massive-reshuffle-being-discussed-2008-10-28.html. Retrieved October 29, 2008.
- ^ Grim, Ryan. "McConnell Reaches Out To Lieberman". Politico.com. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15401.html. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
- ^ Sources: Lieberman likely to keep top Democratic post, CNN.com, November 17, 2008.
- ^ a b Lieberman credits Obama after Dems let him keep post, CNN.com, November 18, 2008.
- ^ a b http://hotlineoncall.nationaljournal.com/archives/2011/10/lieberman-prais.php
- ^ Election results. Hartford Courant August 10, 2006.
- ^ Klein, Rick. Lieberman crafts backup plan: Says he'll run even if he loses primary. The Boston Globe July 4, 2006.
- ^ Murray, Shailagh. Lieberman May Run as Independent. The Washington Post July 4, 2006.
- ^ Haigh, Susan. Lieberman campaign files forms to run as petitioning candidate. The Boston Globe July 10, 2006.
- ^ Barry, Ellen. Lieberman Is Defeated in Primary. Los Angeles Times August 9, 2006. pg. A1.
- ^ Kornacki, Steve (January 24, 2011) The most cowardly act of a retiring politician, Salon.com
- ^ Fouhy, Beth. Clinton Reiterates Pledge to Back Lamont. The Washington Post August 10, 2006.
- ^ Nagourney, Adam.PRIMARY IN CONNECTICUT: NEWS ANALYSIS; A Referendum On Iraq Policy. New York Times August 9, 2006.
- ^ a b c Healy, Patrick and Medina, Jennifer. Lieberman Goes on the Offensive, Linking the Terror Threat to Iraq. New York Times August 11, 2006.
- ^ NRSC Takes Lieberman.. Retrieved October 10, 2006.
- ^ First Read. MSNBC.com. August 17, 2006.
- ^ Kerrey for Lieberman.. Retrieved October 10, 2006.
- ^ Associated Press. Top Republican co-hosted fundraiser for Lieberman. International Herald Tribune. September 21, 2006.
- ^ In Connecticut Iraq Debate, Vague Policy Prescriptions Medina, Jennifer. New York Times. September 18, 2006. pg. B3.
- ^ Lieberman Stumps In New York, With Koch By His Side. NY1 News, October 3, 2006.
- ^ [1] The Right Perspective Podcast Blog, November 11, 2006.
- ^ Joe Lieberman wins CT Senate race.. Retrieved November 7, 2006.
- ^ "CNN.com – Elections 2006". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2006/pages/results/states/CT/S/01/epolls.0.html. Retrieved May 6, 2010.
- ^ Akers, Mary (November 2006). "Lieberman and Swiftie Donor, Bound by Admiration... and Money". Washington Post. http://blog.washingtonpost.com/sleuth/2007/03/lieberman_and_swiftie_donor_bo.html. Retrieved March 16, 2007.
- ^ Lightman, David (March 8, 2007). "Fox Makes Friends And Foes". Hartford Courant. http://www.courant.com/news/politics/hc-swiftboat0308.artmar08,0,4513074.story?coll=hc-headlines-home. Retrieved March 16, 2007.
- ^ Christian Zionist parley: Don’t pressure Israel by Eric Fingerhut, Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA), July 23, 2009.
- ^ Krieger, Mary (July 23, 2008). "Lieberman backs Hagee despite calls from Jews to cut ties". Jerusalem Post. http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1215331075715&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull. Retrieved July 23, 2008.
- ^ "TV, Rachel Maddow Show, Dec 14, 2009". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/26315908/ns/msnbc_tv-rachel_maddow_show#34423698. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ "Senator: Dropping 'Islamic extremism' term is 'Orwellian and counterproductive' – Military News and Comment". Politifi.com. http://politifi.com/news/Senator-Dropping-Islamic-extremism-term-is-Orwellian-and-counterproductive-440572.html. Retrieved August 8, 2010.
- ^ http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Files.View&FileStore_id=4ee63497-ca5b-4a4b-9bba-04b7f4cb0123%7Cpdf
- ^ Senators Say Cybersecurity Bill Has No 'Kill Switch', informationweek.com, June 24, 2010. Retrieved on June 25, 2010.
- ^ Schneier, Bruce (July 12, 2010). "Internet Kill Switch". Schneier on Security. http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2010/07/internet_kill_s.html. Retrieved December 6, 2010.
- ^ "Amazon stops hosting WikiLeaks site". The Globe and Mail (Toronto). December 1, 2010. http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/technology/amazon-stops-hosting-wikileaks-site/article1820859/.
- ^ Greenwald, Glenn (December 2, 2010) Joe Lieberman emulates Chinese dictators, Salon.com
- ^ Owen, Paul; Adams, Richard; and McAskill, Ewen (December 7, 2010) WikiLeaks: US Senator Joe Lieberman suggests New York Times could be investigated, The Guardian
- ^ a b Wittes, Benjamin (December 6, 2010) Espionage Act Amendments, Lawfare
- ^ Poulsen, Kevin (December 2, 2010) Lieberman Introduces Anti-WikiLeaks Legislation, Wired
- ^ Fernandez, Colin; Caroe, Laura (December 9, 2010). "Army of hackers targets the Swedish government, Sarah Palin and credit card giants in WikiLeaks 'Operation: Payback'". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1336806/WikiLeaks-hackers-Operation-Payback-cyber-war-targets-Swedish-Government.html.
- ^ "Joseph Lieberman on Civil Rights". Ontheissues.org. http://ontheissues.org/2008/Joseph_Lieberman_Civil_Rights.htm. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ Transcript: Sen. Joe Lieberman on 'FOX News Sunday' Fox News.com. January 28, 2007.
- ^ Arthur, Charles (December 3, 2010). "WikiLeaks cables visualisation pulled after pressure from Joe Lieberman". Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/blog/2010/dec/03/wikileaks-tableau-visualisation-joe-lieberman. Retrieved December 3, 2010.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Joseph Lieberman |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Joe Lieberman |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- Official site
- Directories and databases
- Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
- Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
- Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
- Congressional profile at GovTrack
- Congressional profile at OpenCongress
- Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
- Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
- Staff salaries, trips and personal finance at LegiStorm.com
- Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
- Appearances on C-SPAN programs
- Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Profile on SourceWatch
- Profile on OpenCongress, formerly Congresspedia
- Lieberman's Senate Voting Record 1989–2000 from CounterPunch
- Interviews
- Miscellaneous
- Watch: Joe Lieberman visits the Warner Theatre in Torrington, CT
- Joe Lieberman speaks at "Christian-Zionist" meeting, praising John Hagee (Lieberman appears at approx. 5:30)
| United States Senate | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Lowell P. Weicker, Jr. |
United States Senator (Class 1) from Connecticut 1989–present Served alongside: Chris Dodd, Richard Blumenthal |
Incumbent |
| Political offices | ||
| Preceded by Fred Thompson |
Chairman of the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee 2001–2003 |
Succeeded by Susan Collins |
| Preceded by Susan Collins |
Chairman of the Senate Homeland Security Committee 2007–present |
Incumbent |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Al Gore |
Democratic Party Vice Presidential nominee 2000 |
Succeeded by John Edwards |
| Preceded by Anthony T. Moffett |
Democratic Party nominee for United States Senator (class 1) from Connecticut 1988, 1994, 2000 |
Succeeded by Ned Lamont |
| Preceded by Dave McCurdy |
Chairman of the Democratic Leadership Council 1995–2001 |
Succeeded by Evan Bayh |
| Legal offices | ||
| Preceded by Carl R. Ajello |
Attorney General of Connecticut 1983–1989 |
Succeeded by Clarine Nardi Riddle |
| United States order of precedence | ||
| Preceded by Herb Kohl D-Wisconsin |
United States Senators by seniority 20th |
Succeeded by Daniel Akaka D-Hawaii |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Lieberman, Joseph Isadore |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Connecticut politician |
| Date of birth | February 24, 1942 |
| Place of birth | Stamford, Connecticut |
| Date of death | living |
| Place of death | |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
