A Soldier's Play is a drama by Charles Fuller. The play uses a murder mystery to explore the complicated feelings of anger and resentment that some African Americans have toward one another, and the ways in which many black Americans have absorbed white racist attitudes.

This play is loosely based on Herman Melville's novella Billy Budd.

Plot synopsis[link]

The story takes place at United States Army's Fort Neal, Louisiana in 1944 during the time when the military was racially segregated. In the opening scene, the audience witnesses the murder of black Sergeant Vernon Waters by an unseen shooter. Just before his death, Waters utters the enigmatic cry, "They still hate you!"

Captain Richard Davenport, a rare black Army officer, has been sent to investigate the killing. Initially, the primary suspects are local Ku Klux Klansmen. Later, bigoted white soldiers fall under suspicion. Ultimately, Davenport discovers the killer was one of the black soldiers under Waters' command. Waters' men hated him because Waters himself treated Southern black men in utter disdain and contempt.

As Davenport interviews witnesses and suspects, we see flashbacks showing what Sergeant Waters was like, and how he treated his men. The light-skinned Waters was highly intelligent and extremely ambitious, and loathed black men who conformed to old-fashioned racist stereotypes. Waters dreamed of sending his own children to an elite college where they would associate with white students, rather than with other blacks. In Waters' mind, Uncle Toms and "lazy, shiftless Negroes" reflected poorly on him, and made it harder for other African-Americans to succeed. For that reason, Waters persecuted black soldiers like Private C.J. Memphis, whose broad grin and jive talk made Waters' blood boil. Waters' cruelty and vindictiveness drove Memphis to suicide, which alienated the rest of Waters' men, and turned them hopelessly against him.

Shortly before he was murdered, Waters came to realize how futile and foolish his lifelong attempts to behave like a white man had been. His dying words, "They still hate you," reflected his belated understanding that white hatred and disdain of black men like himself had nothing to do with stereotypical black behavior, and that whites would probably always hate him, no matter how hard he tried to emulate "white" ways.

Productions[link]

The play originally was staged by the Negro Ensemble Company at the Theatre Four (now called the Julia Miles Theatre. It opened on November 10, 1981 and ran for 468 performances and won, in addition to the Pulitzer, the Outer Critics Circle Award for Best Off-Broadway Play, the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best American Play, and the Obie Award for Distinguished Ensemble Performance. The original cast included Adolph Caesar as Sergeant Waters, Denzel Washington as Private Peterson, Larry B. Riley as Private C.J. Memphis, Samuel L. Jackson as Private Louis Henson, and Peter Friedman as Captain Charles Taylor, Charles Brown as Captain Davenport.

Film adaptation[link]

Caesar, Washington and Larry B. Riley reprised their roles in the film version, A Soldier's Story, directed by Norman Jewison.

Awards and nominations[link]

• 1981 Drama Critics' Circle Award Best American Play
• 1982 Outer Critics Circle Award Best Off-Broadway Play
• 1982 Pulitzer Prize for Drama

References[link]

External links[link]

• A Soldier's Play at the Internet off-Broadway Database
• A Soldier's Play at the Internet off-Broadway Database

Will Dalton
Born	Queenstown, Maryland
Position	Transition
Height	6 ft 4 in (1.93 m)
NLL Team	San Jose Stealth
Nationality	United States
Pro Career	2009–present
Shoots	Right

Will Dalton from Queenstown, Maryland is a professional lacrosse transition player for the San Jose Stealth of the National Lacrosse League. Before college, Dalton was a member of the 2004 All-Tewaaraton Team for the Baltimore/Washington area. The newspapers, Baltimore Sun and Washington Post named him first team all-Metro. He was the 2004 Baltimore Sun Anne Arundel County Player of the Year, making him the third straight St. Mary's player to win the honor. The Baltimore Sun also picked Dalton for first team all-county. In high school, Dalton won 71 percent of face-offs as a senior. He scored 22 goals and added seven assists despite being double and triple-teamed almost every time he touched the ball. Dalton was also all-county and all-metro as a junior and scored 24 goals and added 10 assists while winning 72 percent of his face-offs in 2003.^[1]

College career[link]

As a freshman (2005) for the University of Maryland Terrapins, Dalton scored his first career goal in his collegiate debut in a 13-6 season-opening win over No. 5 Georgetown (2/26); scored one shot, one groundball and one caused turnover in a 10-8 loss to Duke (3/5); won his first collegiate face-off at the start of the third quarter in a 9-5 win at No. 9 Towson (3/12); was one for three in face-offs and picked up a groundball in a 14-10 win at No. 18 Bucknell (3/15); won two-of-five face-offs and picked up a groundball in a 16-10 win over UMBC (3/19); had a tremendous game in the face-off circle, winning six of nine draws all in the second half, in a 9-4 win over No. 19 North Carolina (3/26); won his only face-off in a 11-6 loss to No. 1 Johns Hopkins (4/15); and gave the team a boost by winning seven-of-11 face-offs in an 8-7 overtime victory over No. 3 Virginia in the ACC Semifinals (4/29); and picked up where he left off in the UVa game by winning seven-of-10 face-offs in a 9-5 win over No. 2 Duke (5/1) to win the ACC championship (he also picked up four groundballs vs. the Blue Devils). Dalton was selected to the ACC All-Tournament team; received honorable mention for national player of the week award by Inside Lacrosse for his performance in the ACC Tournament; scored his first goal since the season opener in a 21-6 drubbing of Penn (5/7) at Lincoln Financial Field; won two-of-six face-offs, picked up one groundball and caused a turnover in a 14-10 win over No. 11 Penn State (5/14) in the first round of the NCAA Tournament; and won six-of-19 face-offs and picked up one groundball in 18-9 loss to No. 2 Duke (5/28) in the NCAA Semifinals.

As a sophomore (2006), Dalton saw his first action of the season, taking one face-off in a 7-6 loss in double overtime to Bucknell (3/14); saw time with the second midfield unit in a 9-4 victory at UMBC (3/18); scored his first goal of the season in a 14-2 win over Dartmouth (3/21); won four of five face-offs in a 15-5 loss to No. 1 Virginia (4/1); won three of five face-offs in a 18-2 win over Sacred Heart (4/18) and also picked up a groundball; won five-of-seven face-offs and picked up four groundballs in a 10-9 win over North Carolina (4/28) in the ACC Semifinals; won 12-of-22 draws vs. Denver's Geoff Snider (the NCAA's leading face-off man (69.5%)) picked up four groundballs in a 16-8 win over No. 12 Denver (5/13) in the first round of the NCAA Tournament; and won one-of-three face-offs in 8-5 loss to No. 10 UMass (5/27) in NCAA Semifinals.

As a junior (2007), Dalton won 12-of-18 face-offs, made his first start with the first midfield unit, scored the first game-winning goal of his career, and had seven groundballs in a 11-6 season-opening win over Bellarmine (2/17). Dalton had dominating face-off performance in a 16-7 win over Vermont (2/20), winning 18-of-22 face-offs and picking up a career-best eight groundballs. In an 8-6 loss to No. 4 Georgetown (2/24), he won six-of-14 face-offs and collected two groundballs. He scored a goal and won 11-of-22 face-offs and picked up five groundballs in a 14-7 loss to No. 2 Duke (3/2). Dalton won nine-of-18 face-offs and picked up four groundballs in a 13-4 win over Lafayette (3/13). He won 10-of-14 face-offs, scored a goal, and picked up six groundballs in an 18-3 win over Mount St. Mary's (3/20). Daktib scrounged two groundballs in a 14-8 win over No. 11 North Carolina (3/24). He won 5-of-9 face-offs and picked up two groundballs in a 12-8 loss at No. 2 Virginia (3/31); scored a goal and went five-of-14 in a 14-10 win at Penn (4/21); gathered up three groundballs in a 12-4 win over Yale (5/5); and won five-of-10 face-offs in a 13-9 loss to UMBC (5/13) in the NCAA tournament. He competed for most of 2007 with a separated shoulder.

As a senior, Dalton was the 2008 Team Captain. At the end of the year, he was given the school's "Big Man" award. In an 11-6 win over No. 4 Georgetown (2/23), Dalton scored one goal and collected three ground balls and six out of 17 face-offs.^[2] Dalton tallied one goal, three ground balls, and five of 10 face-offs in a 17-7 victory over Mount St. Mary's (2/25).^[3] In a 7-15 loss to No. 2 Duke (3/1), Dalton collected one ground ball, but managed to win none of his four face-off attempts.^[4] Dalton won seven of 10 face-offs, collected four ground balls, and scored a goal in a 12-10 win over No. 18 Towson (3/8).^[5] Dalton scored a goal, collected 11 ground balls, and won 12 of 18 face-offs in a three overtime loss to No. 19 UMBC (3/14).^[6] In a 16-4 victory over Air Force (3/16), he scored two goals, harvested two ground balls, and won four out of 12 face-offs.^[7] While beating No. 4 North Carolina (3/22) 13-8 , Dalton scored one goal, but won zero out of five face-offs.^[8] In a 13-7 win over No. 1 ranked Virginia (3/29), Dalton won 8-of-14 face-offs and scored a goal.^[9] In a 5-4 loss to Navy (4/4), Dalton won one of three face-offs.^[10] While the team dropped a 10-4 decision at No. 15 Johns Hopkins (4/12), Dalton won three of 10 face-offs.^[11] Maryland beat Penn (4/19) 4-9 and Dalton collected 3 ground balls and three out of four face-offs.^[12] In a 16-10 win over Yale (5/3), Dalton scored two goals, collected five ground balls, and won 6 of 14 face-offs.^[13] Dalton won six of nine face-offs and collected two ground balls in a 7-8 overtime loss to No. 2 Virginia (5/17).^[14] In a 10-7 victory over Denver (5/10), he took two of seven face-offs and collected three ground balls.^[15] Over the season, he controlled 69 of 145 face-offs for a 47.6 percentage.^[16]

NLL career[link]

Dalton begins his NLL career as an undrafted free agent with the San Jose Stealth, replacing Tim Booth on face-offs. In his first experiences with the team, he is notable for breaking sticks.

References[link]

Paul Robeson
Background information
Birth name	Paul Leroy Robeson
Born	(1898-04-09)April 9, 1898 Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.
Died	January 23, 1976(1976-01-23) (aged 77) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Genres	Spirituals International folk Musicals
Occupations	Actor, concert singer, athlete, lawyer, social activist
Instruments	Vocals
Years active	1917–63

Paul Leroy Robeson ( /ˈroʊbsən/ ROHB-sən April 9, 1898 – January 23, 1976) was an American singer and actor who was a political activist for the Civil Rights Movement. His disaffection with the policies of the United States (US) government, post-World War II and during McCarthyism, and his simultaneous advocation of the policies of the Soviet Union, brought retribution from the executive branch of the US government and scrutiny from the United States Congress. Though internationally acclaimed, he was subsequently blacklisted in the US from performing artistically and was not permitted to travel overseas. His right to travel was restored in 1958, but his health had broken down under controversial circumstances. Thereafter, he remained defiant and refused to admit any of his denunciations of US policy, or his support of the Soviet Union, was incorrect.

Early in his life, he won a scholarship to Rutgers University, where he was an football All-American and the class valedictorian. He subsequently graduated from Columbia Law School while playing professionally in the National Football League (NFL) and singing and acting in off-campus productions. After graduation, he worked briefly as a lawyer before focusing on the arts and becoming a popular figure on the acting stage.

He was the first major concert star to popularize the performance of spirituals. He took the role of Shakespeare's Othello with an otherwise all-white cast. As his artistic career progressed, he became an outspoken political advocate. His political beliefs with respect to American policy caught the attention of the FBI, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), and brought public condemnation in the US.

During the Cold War, Robeson's passport was revoked, under the auspices of the McCarran Act, due to his work in the anti-imperialism movement, his criticism of American civil rights policies, and his affiliation with members of the Communist Party USA (CPUSA).

Early life[link]

Childhood (1898-1915)[link]

Paul Robeson was born in Princeton in 1898, to Reverend William Drew Robeson and Maria Louisa Bustill.^[2] His mother, Maria, was from a prominent Quaker family of mixed ancestry: African, Anglo-American, and Lenape.^[3] His father, William, had been born a slave but escaped from a plantation in his teens^[4] and eventually became the minister of Princeton's Witherspoon Street Presbyterian Church in 1881.^[5] Robeson had three brothers, William Drew, Jr. (born 1881), Reeve (born c. 1887), and Benjamin (born c. 1893), and one sister, Marian (born c. 1895).^[6]

In 1900, a disagreement between William and white, financial supporters of Witherspoon arose with apparent racial undertones,^[7] which were prevalent in Princeton.^[8] William, who had the support of his entirely black congregation, resigned in 1901.^[9] The loss of his position forced him to work menial jobs.^[10] Three years later when Paul was six, Maria, who was nearly blind from cataracts, tragically died in a house fire.^[11] Eventually, William became financially incapable of providing a house for himself and his children still living at home, Ben and Paul, so they moved into the attic of a store in Westfield, New Jersey.^[12]

William found a stable parsonage at the St. Thomas A. M. E. Zion in 1910,^[13] where Robeson would fill in for his father during sermons when he was called away.^[14] In 1912, Robeson attended Somerville High School,^[15] where he performed in Julius Caesar, Othello, sang in the chorus, and excelled in football, basketball, baseball and track.^[16] His athletic dominance elicited racial taunts which he ignored.^[17] Prior to his graduation, he won a statewide academic contest for a scholarship to Rutgers.^[18] He took a summer job as a waiter in Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island, where he befriended Fritz Pollard.^[19]

Rutgers University (1915-1919)[link]

In the fall of 1915, Robeson became the third African-American student ever enrolled at Rutgers, and the only one at the time.^[20] Although he was determined to excel at his studies, he tried out for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team that fall.^[21] During tryouts, the players tested his resolve to make the team by engaging in unwarranted and excessive play that was arguably precipitated by racism.^[22] In an ensuing practice, he used his superior size and strength to physically exact retribution against the other players. Witnessing his brutal tactics, the coach, Foster Sanford, decided he had overcome the provocation and announced that he had made the team.^[23]

He then joined the debate team^[24] and became involved with the Glee Club, although he was unable to join it because membership required attending all-white mixers, which he was prohibited from doing.^[25] Undeterred, he sang on-campus informally and off-campus for spending money.^[26] He also joined the track and field, basketball and baseball teams.^[27] In his sophomore year, amidst Rutgers' sesquicentennial celebration, he was benched, in a stinging insult, when a Southern team refused to take the field because Rutgers fielded a Negro, Robeson.^[28]

After a standout junior year of football,^[29] he was recognized in The Crisis for his athletic, academic, and singing talents.^[30] At what should have been a high point of Robeson's life,^[31] his father fell grievously ill.^[32] Consequently, Robeson took sole responsibility to care for him, shuttling between Rutgers and Somerville.^[33] His father soon died, and at Rutgers, Robeson somberly expounded on the incongruity of African-Americans fighting to protect America and not being afforded the same opportunities as whites.^[34]

He finished university with four annual oratorical triumphs^[35] and varsity letters in multiple sports.^[36] His play at end in football^[37] won him recognition as a first-team All-American in both junior and senior years. Walter Camp considered him the greatest defensive end ever.^[38] Academically, he was accepted into Phi Beta Kappa^[39] and Cap and Skull.^[40] His classmates showed their respect by^[41] electing him class valedictorian.^[42] They published a poem in The Daily Targum featuring his achievements.^[43] In his valedictorian speech, he exhorted his classmates to work for equality for all Americans.^[44]

Columbia Law School (1919-1923)[link]

Robeson entered New York University School of Law (NYU) in the fall of 1919.^[45] To support himself, he became an assistant football coach at Lincoln,^[46] where he joined the Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.^[47] Harlem had recently changed its predominantly Jewish American population to an almost entirely African-American one,^[48] and Robeson was drawn to it.^[49] He transferred to Columbia Law School in February 1920 and moved to Harlem.^[50] He was already well-known in the black community for his singing,^[51] and he was selected to perform at the dedication of the Harlem YWCA.^[52] He began dating Eslanda "Essie" Goode, a histological chemist at NewYork–Presbyterian Hospital.^[53] His theatrical debut was playing Simon in Ridgely Torrence's Simon of Cyrene.^[54] After a year of courtship, Goode and Robeson married on August 17, 1921.^[55]

Robeson was recruited by Pollard to play for the NFL's Akron Pros, while he continued his law studies.^[56] In the spring, he postponed school^[57] to portray Jim in Taboo by Mary Hoyt Wiborg.^[58] He then sang in a chorus in an off-broadway production of Shuffle Along^[59] before he abandoned it to join Taboo in Britain for the summer.^[60] The play was adapted by director Mrs. Patrick Campbell to highlight his singing.^[61] After the play ended, he befriended Lawrence Brown,^[62] a classically trained musician,^[63] before returning to Columbia while playing for the NFL's Milwaukee Badgers.^[64] He ended his football career after 1922,^[65] and months later, he graduated from law school.^[66]

Theatrical ascension and ideological transformation (1923-1939)[link]

Harlem renaissance (1923–1927)[link]

Robeson briefly worked as a lawyer, but he renounced that career due to blatant racism in the field, which he felt would relegate him to a position far below his intellect.^[67] Essie supported them as the head histological chemist of surgical pathology at New York-Presbyterian Hospital and they frequented the social functions at the future Schomburg Center.^[68] In December, he landed the lead role of Jim in Eugene O'Neill's All God's Chillun Got Wings,^[69] which culminated with Jim metaphorically consummating his marriage with his white wife by symbolically emasculating himself. Chillun's opening was postponed while a nationwide debate occurred over its plot.^[70]

Chilluns delay led to a revival of The Emperor Jones with Robeson as Brutus, a role pioneered by Charles Sidney Gilpin.^[71] The role terrified and galvanized him as it was practically a 90-minute soliloquy.^[72] Reviews declared him an unequivocal success.^[73] Weeks later, reviews of Jim in Chillun's, though arguably clouded by its controversial subject, were less favorable.^[74] Robeson deflected criticism of Chillun's plot by writing that fate had drawn him to the "untrodden path" of drama and stated the importance to America of African culture and that the only "original" American culture was African-American and that the measure of a culture is in its artistic contributions.^[75] The popular success of his acting placed him in elite social circles^[76] and his ascension to fame had occurred at a startling pace,^[77] which was forcefully aided by Essie.^[78] Her naked ambition for Robeson was a startling dichotomy to his insouciance.^[79] She quit her job, became his agent, and negotiated his first movie role in a silent race film directed by Oscar Micheaux, Body and Soul.^[80]

To support a charity for single mothers, Robeson headlined a concert singing spirituals.^[81] He performed his repertoire of spirituals on the radio.^[82] Brown, who had become renowned while touring with gospel singer Roland Hayes, stumbled on Robeson in Harlem.^[83] The two ad-libbed a set of spirituals, with Robeson as lead and Brown as accompanist. This so enthralled them that they booked Provincetown Playhouse for a concert.^[84] The pair's rendition of African-American folk songs and spirituals was captivating,^[85] and Victor Records signed Robeson to a contract.^[86]

The Robesons went to London for a revival of Jones, before spending the rest of the fall on holiday on the French Riviera socializing with Gertrude Stein and Claude McKay.^[87] Robeson and Brown performed a series of concert tours in America, with and without Essie, from January 1926 until May 1927.^[88] During a hiatus in New York, Robeson learned that Essie was several months pregnant.^[89] Nevertheless, Robeson and Brown toured Europe in October.^[90] On November 2, 1927, Paul Robeson, Jr. was born. Essie experienced complications.^[91] By mid-December, her health had deteriorated dramatically. Over her objections, Essie's mother wired Robeson and he returned to her in late December.^[92] Essie completely recovered after a few months.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Show Boat (1928-1929)

Robeson played the stevedore "Joe" in the London production of the American musical Show Boat, at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane.^[93] His rendition of "Ol' Man River" became the benchmark for judging all future performers of the song.^[94] Some black critics were not pleased with the play due to its usage of the word nigger.^[95] It was, nonetheless, immensely popular with white audiences,^[96] and it gained a royal audience, principally Queen Mary.^[97] Robeson was summoned for a Royal Command Performance at Buckingham Palace in honor of the King of Spain, Alfonso XIII.^[98] He was befriended by MPs from the House of Commons.^[99] Feeling comfortable in London, the Robesons bought a home in Hampstead.^[100] Show Boat continued for 350 performances and as of 2001, it remained the Royal's most profitable venture.^[94] Robeson reflected on his life in his diary and wrote that it was all part of a "'higher plan'" and "God watches over me and guides me. He's with me and lets me fight my own battles and hopes I'll win."^[101]

Marriage difficulties (1930-1932)[link]

Essie had learned early in their marriage that Robeson had been involved in extramarital affairs, but she tolerated them.^[102] However, when she discovered that he was having an affair with a Ms. Jackson, she unfavorably altered the characterization of him in his biography.^[103] At this time they went on a concert tour of Europe and there was no suggestion that their relationship had been harmed.^[104] In early 1930, Essie and Robeson together starred in the experimental classic Borderline.^[105]

They returned to the West End for Robeson's starring role in Shakespeare's Othello, opposite Peggy Ashcroft as Desdemona.^[106] Essie's Paul Robeson, Negro was published, wherein she defamed him by describing him with "negative racial stereotypes," which he found appalling.^[107] He internalized his disgust and became first black actor cast as Othello in Britain since Ira Aldridge.^[108] The production met with mixed reviews which pointed out Robeson's "highly civilized quality [but lacking the] grand style."^[109]

Drawn into an interview, Robeson stated that the best way to diminish the oppression African-Americans faced was for his artistic work to be an example of what "men of my colour" could accomplish rather than to "be a propagandist and make speeches and write articles about what they call the Colour Question."^[110] After Essie's discovery of Robeson's affair with Ashcroft, she decided to seek a divorce and they split up.^[111] Robeson's and Jackson's relationship became serious and they discussed marriage.^[112] He returned to Broadway as Joe in the spring 1932 revival of Show Boat, to critical and popular acclaim.^[113] Subsequently, Robeson received, with immense pride, an honorary master's degree from Rutgers.^[114] Robeson was advised by Sanford that divorcing Essie and marrying Jackson would do irreparable damage to his reputation.^[115] Jackson's and Robeson's relationship abruptly ended in 1932,^[116] following which Paul and Essie reconciled, although their relation was permanently scarred.^[117]

Ideological awakening (1933–1937)[link]

Robeson returned to the theatre as Joe in "Chillun" in 1933 because he found the character stimulating.^[118] He received no financial compensation for "Chillun", but he was a pleasure to work with.^[119] The play ran for several weeks and was panned by critics, except for Robesn's acting.^[120] He then returned to the US for a lucrative portrayal Brutus in the film The Emperor Jones.^[121] "Jones" became the first feature sound film starring an African American, an accomplishment not repeated for more than two decades in the U.S., and his acting was well-received, but offensive language in the script caused controversy.^[122] On the film set he rejected any slight to his dignity, notwithstanding the widespread Jim Crow attitudes.^[123] Although, the winter of 1932-1933 was, until then, the worst economic period in American history, Robeson was viewed, by some biographers, as unmindful of the disaster.^[124]

Post-production, he returned home to England and publicly criticized African-Americans' rejection of their own culture.^[125] His comments brought rebuke from the New York Amsterdam News, which retorted that his elitism had led him to "'jolly well [make an ass of himself].'"^[126] Robeson declared that he would reject any offers to perform European opera because the music had no connection to his cultural heritage.^[127] He enrolled in the School of Oriental and African Studies to study Swahili and Bantu, among other languages.^[128] His "sudden interest" in African history and its impact on culture^[129] coincided with his essay I Want to be African, wherein he wrote of his desire to embrace his heritage.^[130] Consequently, Robeson undertook Bosambo in the movie Sanders of the River set in Nigeria,^[131] which he felt would render a realistic view of colonial African culture.^{[citation needed]}

His friends in the anti-imperialism movement and association with British socialists led him to visit the USSR.^[130] Robeson, Essie, and Marie Seton embarked to the USSR on an invitation from Sergei Eisenstein in December 1934.^[132] During their sojourn, they encountered the racism that flourished in Nazi Germany.^[133] They were welcomed by Eisenstein upon reaching Moscow.^[134] He found the USSR free of racism and spoke of the irrelevance of his race there.^[135]

Sanders of the River was released in 1935. The film was immensely popular and made Robeson an international movie star.^[136] However, his stereotypical portrayal of a colonial African^[137] was seen as embarrassing to his stature as an artist^[138] and damaging to his reputation.^[139] The Commissioner of Nigeria to London protested the film as slanderous to his country,^[140] and Robeson henceforth became more politically conscious of his roles.^[141] In early 1936 he considered himself primarily apolitical, although he did express concern that Italy's conquest of Ethiopia was unnecessary.^[142] He then played the role of Toussaint Louverture in the eponymous play by C.L.R. James at the Westminster Theatre and appeared in the films Song of Freedom^[143], Show Boat, ^[144] Big Fella,^[145] My Song Goes Forth (a.k.a. Africa Sings)^[146], and the 1937 version of King Solomon's Mines.^[147] Consequently in 1937, he was the 10th-most popular star in British cinema.^[148]

Spanish Civil War (1937-1939)[link]

Robeson would later write that the struggle against fascism in Spain during the Spanish Civil War was "the turning point of my life", transforming him into a political activist and artist.^[149] In 1937, he used his concert performances to advocate the Republicans cause and for the war's refugees.^[150] He transformed his performances of Ol' Man River from a show tune into a battle cry of unwavering defiance.^[151] His business agent became concerned about political involvement.^[152] However, Robeson had decided that contemporary events were paramount and trumped his commercial activities.^[153]

After an invitation from J. B. S. Haldane,^[155] Robeson visited Spain in 1938 because he believed in the cause the members of the International Brigades were fighting for.^[156] He sang spirituals to the Republicans,^[157] appeared on Radio Madrid,^[158] and provided a morale boost to the troops when they felt victory was doubtful.^[159]

Robeson's view of the USSR was enhanced by the assistance it offered the Republicans.^[160]

Months later to support Jawaharlal Nehru efforts for Indian independence, he welcomed him to Kingsway Hall where Nehru expounded on imperialism's affiliation with Fascism, .^[161] He stated that he would no longer appear in "decadent Hollywood films", but instead would portray "the life, hopes and aspirations of the struggling people from which I come."^[162] Robeson appeared in Unity Theatre's Plant in the Sun by Herbert Marshall^[163] which dealt with labor activism.^[164] He visited the Rhondda Valley and performed for miners and their families in Cardiff, Neath and Aberdare.^[165] At Mountain Ash, his performance commemorated the Welsh killed while fighting for the Republicans.^[166] He recorded a message to the Republicans, which would become his epitaph:

Political activism (1939–1958)[link]

Outbreak of World War II (1939–1943)[link]

Robeson leading Moore Shipyard Oakland, California workers in singing the Star Spangled Banner, September 1942. Robeson himself was a shipyard worker in World War I.

Robeson returned from Europe after the outbreak of World War II, quickly becoming a national celebrity once again when he performed Ballad for Americans, an American patriotic cantata.^[167] In 1940, Robeson appeared in The Proud Valley, playing a black laborer who arrives in the Rhondda Valley in Wales and wins the hearts of the local people. The film won good reviews.^[168] It was the film of which he was most proud.^[169] He sang "Ballad for Americans" at The Hollywood Bowl to the largest crowd in its history.^[170] The Beverly Wilshire was the only hotel in Los Angeles willing to accommodate Robeson, at the then exorbitant rate of $100 per night and only if he would register under an assumed name. He complied, but then arranged to spend two hours every afternoon sitting in the lobby, where he could easily be recognized. When asked why, he responded, "To ensure that the next time Black singers and actors come through, they'll have a place to stay." During that period, Collier's magazine named him both "favorite male Negro singer" and "America's no.1 entertainer."^[171]

With Max Yergan Robeson co-founded the International Committee on African Affairs in 1937 (from 1941, the Council on African Affairs, CAA). The CAA provided information about Africa across the US, particularly to African-Americans. During World War II, it functioned as a coalition that included activists from varying leftist backgrounds. Its most successful campaign was for South African famine relief in 1946. Under the weight of internal disputes, government repression, and financial hardships, the CAA disbanded in 1955.

When Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor brought the US into the war, Robeson was among the first performers to give benefit concerts on behalf of the war effort, making him one of the top American actors and singers of that era.^[172]

In 1942 Robeson performed in the Frontier Films production of Native Land which was based on the La Follette Committee's investigation of the repression of labor organizations.^[173] The FBI labeled it "...obviously a Communist project."^[174]

In 1942, in Hollywood, Robeson participated in the anthology film Tales of Manhattan. His segment depicted black people's living conditions under the sharecropping system. Robeson was dissatisfied, calling it "very offensive to my people. It makes the Negro childlike and innocent and is in the old plantation hallelujah shouter tradition". He attempted to remove the film from distribution by buying up all its prints but this proved far too expensive. Robeson held a press conference, announcing that he would no longer act in Hollywood films because of the demeaning roles available to black actors and would gladly join others in picketing the film.^[175]

Robeson performed at the Polo Grounds to support the USSR in the war, where he met two emissaries from the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee, Solomon Mikhoels and Itzik Feffer (NKVD informant.^[176]

[edit] The Broadway Othello (1943-1945)

Paul Robeson with Uta Hagen in the Theatre Guild production of Othello (1943-4).

Robeson reprised his role of Othello at the Shubert Theatre in 1943 under the direction of Margaret Webster.^{[citation needed]} He became the first African-American to play the role with a white supporting cast on Broadway where it was immensely popular.^{[citation needed]} He addressed a meeting of Major League Baseball (MLB) club owners and MLB Commissioner Landis in a failed attempt to have them admit black players.^[177] Stage actress Uta Hagen played Desdemona, and José Ferrer played Iago. He toured North America with the show until 1945^{[citation needed]} and received a Donaldson Award^[178] and was awarded the and a Spingarn medal by the NAACP for his distinguished achievements in the performing arts and his humanitarian endeavors.^{[citation needed]}

Onset of Cold War (1946–1948)[link]

In 1946, he opposed a move by the Canadian government to deport thousands of Japanese Canadians.^{[citation needed]}

In July 1946, as Chairman of the Council on African Affairs, he telegraphed President Truman on the lynching of four African Americans in Georgia, demanding that the federal government "take steps to apprehend and punish the perpetrators ... and to halt the rising tide of lynch law."^[179]

Following the rally, he led a delegation to the White House to present a legislative and educational program aimed at ending mob violence; demanding that lynchers be prosecuted and calling on Congress to enact a federal anti-lynching law. He then warned Truman that if the government did not do something to end lynching, "the Negroes will".^[180] Truman refused his request to issue a formal public statement against lynching, stating that it was not "the right time". Robeson also gave a radio address, calling on all Americans of all races to demand that Congress pass civil rights legislation.^[181]

On October 7, 1946, Robeson testified before the Tenney Committee that he was not a Communist Party member. He was never identified as an official member of any Communist organization.^[170] The CRC and the CAA was placed on the Attorney General's List of Subversive Organizations (AGLOSO).^[182]

Robeson sang and spoke in 1948 at an event organized by the Los Angeles Civil Rights Congress (CRC) and labor unions to launch a campaign against job discrimination, for passage of the federal Fair Employment Practices Act also known as Executive Order 8802, anti-lynching and anti-poll tax legislation, and citizens’ action to defeat the county loyalty oath climate.

In 1948, Robeson was preeminent in the campaign to elect Progressive Party presidential candidate Henry A. Wallace, who had served as Vice-President under Franklin D. Roosevelt. Wallace was running on an anti-lynching, pro-civil rights platform and had attracted a diverse group of voters including Communists, liberals and trade unionists. On the campaign trail, Robeson went to the Deep South, where he performed for "overflow audiences... in Negro churches in Atlanta and Macon."^[183]

Robeson's belief that the labor movement and trade unionism were crucial to the civil rights of oppressed people of all races became central to his political beliefs.^[184] Robeson's close friend, the union activist Revels Cayton, pressed for "black caucuses" in each union, with Robeson's encouragement and involvement.^[184]

In 1948, he opposed a bill calling for registration of Communist Party members and appeared before the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Questioned about his affiliation with the Communist Party, he refused to answer, stating "Some of the most brilliant and distinguished Americans are about to go to jail for the failure to answer that question, and I am going to join them, if necessary."^{[citation needed]} In 1949, he spoke in favor of the liberty of twelve Communists (including his long-time friend Benjamin Davis, Jr.) convicted under the Smith Act, which criminalized various left- and right-wing activities as seditious.^{[citation needed]}

Controversies and international travels (1949)[link]

In the spring of 1949 Robeson learned that the performances were canceled by booking agents at the FBI's behest. For the first time in his professional life, Robeson was without a US concert audience. His recordings were banned from radio and stores, so he had to go overseas to work.^[185] As a precondition to the renewal of his passport, he complied with a request from the State Department to sign a waiver to not make any "political or charitable appearances while on tour."^[186] Under continual heavy surveillance by the FBI and the CIA during this tour,^[187] he spoke at the Paris congress of the World Peace Council.^[188] The speech, although misquoted by the Associated Press,^[189] became a catalyst for his portrayal as an enemy of mainstream America.^[190] According to the original text of the speech, it was an anti-imperialistic statement,^[191] however over the wires came a declaration, attributed to Robeson, that America was a fascist nation and that it was ludicrous to believe that American Negroes would assist American armed forces due to generations of oppression.^[192] The reaction by the press in the US was nearly universal, and sometimes vitriolic, condemnation.^{[citation needed]} At the urging of the State Department, Roy Wilkins of the NAACP stated that regardless of lynchings, Black America would always serve in the armed forces.^[193]

Robeson arrived in Moscow in June, but, unable to find any of his Jewish friends, including Feffer, he let his feelings be known to Soviet authorities.^[194] Not willing to lose Robeson as a propagandist for the USSR,^[195] Soviet authorities retrieved Feffer from a Moscow prison.^[196] Feffer told him that the room was probably bugged, Mikhoels had been murdered, and, with insight, predicted his own fate to be a state execution.^[196] At an ensuing concert, Robeson paid tribute to Feffer and Mikhoels, singing the Yiddish song "Zog Nit Keynmol".^[196] Back in the US, Robeson denied that any persecution existed in the USSR, to keep the right wing of the US from taking the moral high ground.^[197] To prevent the USSR's reputation, he kept the meeting secret, except from his son, for the rest of his life.^[195]

This subsequent controversy over his Paris speech caused the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC) to seek Jackie Robinson's testimony on the subject.^[198] Robinson was reluctant to testify, in part because of Robeson's prior advocacy for the integration of professional baseball.^[199] Robinson did not testify to the veracity of Robeson's published remarks, but he advised that such thinking was 'silly'. Robinson's statement was used to politically isolate Robeson.^[200] Robeson declined to comment on Robinson personally, only saying that Robinson was entitled to his own opinion.^[201]

Days later, the announcement of a concert to support the CRC, to be headlined by Robeson and held near Peekskill, New York, provoked local papers to decry the use of their community to support such subversives.^[202] A small riot broke out prior to the concert, which was principally initiated by local residents of the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars.^[203] Robeson pronounced that Peekskill was a part of the "'anti-fascist struggle'" and the concert was rescheduled.^[204] The concert occurred without incident, while hundreds of New York State troopers patrolled the area.^[205] As concert attendees left, the mob bombarded them with rocks and randomly beat them, resulting in scores of injuries—some serious, as police watched.^[206] Under public pressure, the Governor of New York Thomas Dewey called a grand jury which promptly concluded the riots were a Communist plot "'to foment racial and religious hatreds.'"^[207] Criticism of Robeson became a durable consensus, even among liberals, that Robeson's pronouncements were anathema to America.^[208]

Blacklist and passport confiscation (1950-1955)[link]

A review of College Football: and All America Review defined it as "the most complete record on college football".^{[citation needed]} It omitted Robeson's name from its listing of the 1917 college All-American football team.^[209] Months later, NBC canceled Robeson's scheduled appearance on former First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt's television program.^[210] A spokesman for NBC declared either that, depending on sources, Robeson's appearance had not been approved by NBC headquarters,^[211] or Robeson would "never appear on NBC."^{[citation needed]} Press releases of the Civil Rights Congress objected that "censorship of Mr. Robeson's appearance on TV is a crude attempt to silence the outstanding spokesman for the Negro people in their fight for civil and human rights [and that our] basic democratic rights are under attack under the smoke-screen of anti-Communism." Protesters picketed NBC offices and protests arrived from numerous public figures, organizations and others.^{[citation needed]}

In 1950, the State Department denied Robeson a passport and issued a "stop notice" at all ports, effectively confining him within the US. Robeson was not even allowed to travel to Canada or Mexico, countries that US citizens could visit without a passport. Far from seeking to revoke his citizenship and deport him, FBI and state department records indicate that the US government believed that a blacklisted existence inside the US borders would offer Robeson less freedom of expression than his presence internationally.^[212] When Robeson and his lawyers met with officials at the State Department and asked why it was "detrimental to the interests of the United States Government" for him to travel abroad, they were told that "his frequent criticism of the treatment of blacks in the United States should not be aired in foreign countries"—it was a `family affair'."^[213] When Robeson inquired about being re-issued a passport, the State Department declined, citing Robeson's refusal to sign a statement guaranteeing "not to give any speeches while outside the U.S."

In 1951 an article titled "Paul Robeson - the Lost Shepherd" was published in The Crisis, the official magazine of the NAACP, under the pseudonym "Robert Alan", described as "a well known New York journalist",^[214] although Paul Jr. suspected it was authored by Earl Brown.^[215] J. Edgar Hoover and the United States State Department arranged for the article to be printed and distributed in Africa^[216] in order to defame Robeson's reputation and reduce his and Communists popularity in colonial countries.^[217] Another article by Wilkins denounced Robeson as well as the CPUSA in terms consistent with the anti-Communist FBI propaganda.^[218]

On December 17, 1951 Robeson presented to the United Nations an anti-lynching petition, "We Charge Genocide".^[219] The document asserted that the US federal government, by its failure to act against lynching in the US, was "guilty of genocide" under Article II of the UN Genocide Convention.

In 1952 Robeson was awarded the International Stalin Prize by the USSR.^[220] Unable to travel to Moscow, Robeson accepted the award in New York.^[221] In April 1953, shortly after Stalin's death, Robeson penned To You Beloved Comrade, praising Stalin as dedicated to peace and a guide to the world: "Through his deep humanity, by his wise understanding, he leaves us a rich and monumental heritage."^[222] Robeson's opinion on the USSR kept his passport out of reach and stopped his return to the entertainment industry and the civil rights movement.^[223] In Robeson's opinion, the USSR was the guarantee of political balance in the world.^[224]

The famed African-American singer and his wife were thus associated with the Communist Party and party front groups, and Robeson was publicly condemned for his beliefs.^[225]

In a symbolic act of defiance against the travel ban, labor unions in the US and Canada organized a concert at the International Peace Arch on the border between Washington state and the Canadian province of British Columbia.^[226] Robeson returned to perform a second concert at the Peace Arch in 1953,^[227] and over the next two years two further concerts were scheduled. In this period, with the encouragement of his friend the Welsh politician Aneurin Bevan, Robeson recorded a number of radio concerts for supporters in Wales.

End of McCarthyism (1956-1957)[link]

In 1956, Robeson was called before HUAC after he refused to sign an affidavit affirming that he was not a Communist. In response to questions concerning his alleged party membership, Robeson first insisted that the Communist Party was a legal party and invited its members to join him in the voting booth, then he invoked the Fifth Amendment and refused to respond. Robeson refused to discuss Stalin, calling it "a question for the Soviet Union", instead lambasting committee members on civil rights issues and the enslavement and exploitation of blacks throughout American history. Asked why he had not remained in the USSR, he replied that "because my father was a slave and my people died to build this country, and I am going to stay here, and have a part of it just like you and no fascist-minded people will drive me from it! Is that clear?"

Campaigns were simultaneously launched in the US and UK to protest the passport ban. In the UK, The National Paul Robeson Committee was formed, sponsored by Members of Parliament as well as writers, scholars, actors, lawyers, trade union leaders and others. The Committee began a "Let Paul Robeson Sing" mass petition, which gathered signatures from tens of thousands of supporters. Over the next four years, many prominent figures in Britain argued for the restoration of his right to travel. The group held a conference and concert at St Pancras Town Hall, London headed by Cedric Belfrage, on May 26, 1957 with Robeson singing from New York over a telephone connection.^[228]

Nikita Khrushchev's denunciation of Stalinism at the 1956 Party Congress silenced Robeson on Stalin, though he continued to praise the USSR^[229] and in so doing imitated the defendants sent to their death in the Trial of Sixteen in 1936.^[230]

In 1956, Robeson left the US for the first time since the travel ban, performing concerts in two Canadian cities in March. That year Robeson, along with close friend W. E. B. Du Bois, compared the anti-Stalinist revolution in Hungary to the "same sort of people who overthrew the Spanish Republican Government" and supported the Soviet invasion and suppression of the revolt.^[231]

In 1957, Robeson was invited by Welsh miners to be the honored guest at the annual Eisteddfod Music Festival. An appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States to reinstate his confiscated passport had been rejected, but through the newly completed trans-Atlantic telephone hook-up between New York and Porthcawl, Wales, Robeson was able to sing to the 5,000 gathered there as he had earlier in the year to London. Journalist Gil Noble called the concert "perhaps the most emotional and moving in Robeson's long concert career."^{[citation needed]}

Because of the controversy surrounding him, Paul Robeson's recordings and films lost mainstream distribution and he was universally condemned in the mainstream U.S press. During the height of the Cold War it became increasingly difficult in the US to hear Robeson sing on commercial radio, buy his music or to see his films.

Due to his blacklisting within the mainstream media, the concert stage, theater, radio, film and the civil rights movement, Robeson became a virtual nonperson."^[232]

Later when his left-wing activism became controversial, accusations that he was a "'godless' Communist" were not accepted by his black churchgoing audiences, who felt he "personified the spirituals in his music". He never expressed "even the remotest allegiance to 'materialistic atheism'".^[233]

Passport restored (1958–1963)[link]

Comeback international tours (1958-1960)[link]

Robeson's autobiography, Here I Stand, was published by a British publishing company in 1958. As part of his "comeback", he gave two sold-out recitals that month in Carnegie Hall, New York City, which were released on LP.^[234] After the US Supreme Court ruled, in Kent v. Dulles, that the Secretary of State could not consider a person's political beliefs when responding to a passport request, Robeson's passport was restored in May 1958^[235] and Robeson soon left for London.^[236]

Robeson and Essie began traveling extensively, using London as their base. During this period Robeson was under constant surveillance by the CIA, MI6 and the State Department. In the United Kingdom, he found himself deluged with professional offers.

In August 1959 he left for Moscow where he received a tumultuous reception and needed a police escort at the airport.^[237] A crowd of eighteen thousand people filled the Lenin Stadium (Khabarovsk) to capacity on August 17 where Robeson sang classic Russian songs along with American standards. Robeson and Essie then flew to Crimea to spend time at Yalta resting, working with a documentary film crew and spending time with Nikita Khrushchev. Robeson also visited Young Pioneer camp Artek^[238] before returning to the UK.

On October 11, 1959 Robeson took part in a historic service at St.Paul's Cathedral, the first black performer to sing there. Four thousand people attended the evensong performance with hundreds overflowing onto the streets.^[239] The State Department had circulated negative literature about him through the media in India; one censored CIA memo suggested that Robeson's appearance could be used to thwart the desegregation of a swimming pool.^[240]

On a trip to Moscow, Robeson experienced bouts of dizziness and heart problems, and he was hospitalized for two months while Essie was diagnosed with operable cancer.^[241]

Robeson recovered and returned to the UK to fulfill his engagements. In 1958, he visited the National Eisteddfod in Ebbw Vale as the guest of the local MP Aneurin Bevan, revisited his ties to the black community in Cardiff's Butetown and gave performances throughout Europe. During his run at the Royal Shakespeare Company playing Othello in Tony Richardson's 1959 production at Stratford-upon-Avon, he befriended actor Andrew Faulds whose family hosted him in the nearby village of Shottery. Robeson inspired him to take up a career in politics after admonishing him for being apolitical.^[242] The production of Othello was geared towards Robeson's health concerns but gave him a lucrative seven month run and chance to participate in an updated version of the play. In 1960, in what would prove to be his final concert performance in Great Britain, Robeson sang with the Welsh Male Voice Choir, Côr Meibion Cwmbach, to raise money for the Movement for Colonial Freedom at the Royal Festival Hall.

Robeson embarked on a a two month concert tour of Australia and New Zealand in October 1960, with Essie, primarily to generate money,^[243] at the behest of Bill Morrow.^[244] After appearing at the Brisbane Festival Hall, they went to Auckland where Robeson first acknowledged that he needed money and then reaffirmed his support of Marxism,^[245] denounced the inequality faced by the Māori and efforts to denigrate their culture.^[246]

In a message to the Melbourne Peace Conference some time around December 1960/January 1961, Robeson said "...the people of the lands of Socialism want peace dearly".^[247]

Back in Australia, he was introduced to Faith Bandler who enlightened the Robesons concerning the deprivation endured by Australian Aborigines.^[248] Robeson became enraged and demanded the Australian government provide the Aborigines citizenship and equal rights.^[249] He attacked the view of the Aborigines as unsophisticated and uncultured,^{[citation needed]} and declared, "'there's no such thing as a backward human being, there is only a society which says they are backward.'" Robeson advocated for trade unions and supported their cause with impromptu performances, including the singing of Joe Hill at the Sydney Opera House construction site. He was given art and artifacts from Aborigine culture to signify trade union support for Aboriginal rights.^[250] The Robesons sought out the Aborigines as much as possible, and they became further enlightened to their treatment.^[251] Robeson, at the age of 62,^{[citation needed]} won adulation in all artistic phases of this, his final major concert tour.^{[citation needed]} Robeson left Australia as a respected, albeit controversial figure and his support for Aboriginal rights had a profound affect in Australia over the next decade.^[252]

Health breakdown (1961–1963)[link]

Back in London, he planned his US return to participate in the Civil Rights Movement, stopping off in Africa, China and Cuba along the way. Essie argued to stay in London, fearing that he'd be "killed" if he did and would be "unable to make any money" due to harassment by the US government. Robeson disagreed and made his own travel arrangements, stopping off in Moscow in March 1961.^[253]

In spring of 1961, Robeson again visited the USSR for the last time. During an uncharacteristically wild party in his Moscow hotel room, he locked himself in his bedroom and attempted suicide by cutting his wrists.^[254] Three days later, under Soviet medical care, he told his son that he felt extreme paranoia, thought that the walls of the room were moving and, overcome by a powerful sense of emptiness and depression, tried to take his own life.^[255]

Paul Jr. believed that his father's health problems stemmed from attempts by CIA and MI5 to "neutralize" his father.^[256][257] He remembered that his father had had such fears prior to his prostate operation.^[258] He said that three doctors treating Robeson in London and New York had been CIA contractors,^[256] and that his father's symptoms resulted from being "subjected to mind depatterning under MKULTRA", a secret CIA programme.^[259] Martin Duberman claimed that Robeson's health breakdown was probably brought on by a combination of factors including extreme emotional and physical stress, bipolar depression, exhaustion and the beginning of circulatory and heart problems. "[E]ven without an organic predisposition and accumulated pressures of government harassment he might have been susceptible to a breakdown".^[254]

Robeson stayed at the Barvikha Sanatorium until September 1961, when he left for London. There his depression reemerged, and after another period of recuperation in Moscow, he returned to London. Three days after arriving back he became suicidal and suffered a panic attack while passing the Soviet Embassy.^[260] He was admitted to The Priory hospital, where he underwent electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) and was given heavy doses of drugs for nearly two years, with no accompanying psychotherapy.^[261]

During his treatment at the Priory, Robeson was being monitored by the British MI5.^[262] Both intelligence services were well aware of Robeson's suicidal state of mind. An FBI memo described Robeson's debilitated condition, remarking that his "death would be much publicized" and would be used for Communist propaganda, necessitating continued surveillance.^[263] Numerous memos advised that Robeson should be denied a passport renewal which would ostensibly jeopardize his fragile health and his recovery process.^[254]

In August 1963, disturbed about his treatment, friends had him transferred to the Buch Clinic in East Berlin.^[264] Given psychotherapy and less medication, his physicians found him still "completely without initiative" and they expressed "doubt and anger" about the "high level of barbiturates and ECT" that had been administered in London. He rapidly improved, though his doctor stressed that "what little is left of Paul's health must be quietly conserved."^[265]

Withdrawal from public life (1963-1976)[link]

The Robeson House, Philadelphia

In 1963, Robeson returned to the US and for the remainder of his life lived in seclusion.^[266] He momentarily assumed a role in the civil rights movement,^[256] making a few major public appearances before falling seriously ill during a tour. Double pneumonia and a kidney blockage in 1965 nearly killed him.^[266] He lived in Harlem with his wife.

On January 15, 1965, Robeson gave the eulogy at the Harlem funeral of Lorraine Hansberry recalling her work at Freedomways and her contributions to civil rights. Robeson was also contacted by both Bayard Rustin and James L. Farmer, Jr. about the possibility of becoming involved with the mainstream of the Civil Rights movement.^[267] Due to Rustin's past anti-Communist stances, Robeson declined to meet with him. Robeson eventually met with Farmer but because he was asked to denounce Communism and the USSR in order to assume a place in the mainstream, Robeson adamantly declined.^[268]

After Essie died of cancer in December 1965,^[269] Robeson moved in with his son's family in an Upper West Side apartment in New York City^[270] and in 1968, settled at his sister's home in Philadelphia.^[271]

Retirement[link]

In 1968, in honor of Paul Robeson's 70th birthday, celebrations were held in in East Germany, at the Royal Festival Hall in London, and in Moscow. The black commission of the CPUSA celebration remarked that "the white power structure has generated a conspiracy of silence around Paul Robeson. It wants to blot out all knowledge of this pioneering Black American warrior..."^[272]

Despite Robeson's lengthy theater career, Brooks Atkinson, The New York Times theater critic from 1925 to 1960, included just a one-sentence reference to Robeson in his 1970 book Broadway, advertised as "an history of American theater".^[273][274] Atkinson chronicled African-American performers, Show Boat and Eugene O'Neill, but only mentions Robeson briefly in context with Othello. In the early 1970s, The New York Times and The New York Daily News both ran extensive pieces on black actors who played Othello with no mention of Robeson.^[273]

In these years Robeson was honored by accolades and celebrations, both in the US and internationally, including public arenas that had previously shunned him.^[275]

He saw few visitors aside from close friends and gave few statements apart from a few messages to support current civil rights and international movements, feeling that his record "spoke for itself".^[275] Though he had withdrawn from the public eye, close friends and family disputed rumors in the mainstream press that he was "broken" and "disillusioned".^[271] He spent his final, unapologetic years in Philadelphia.^[276]

In 1971, Actor's Equity created the Paul Robeson award to recognize the principles by which he lived.^[277] A sold-out performance was held at Carnegie Hall to salute his 75th birthday in 1973. Birthday greetings arrived from several world-wide prominent officials or organizations. He was unable to attend because of illness, but a taped message from him was played which said in part, "Though I have not been able to be active for several years, I want you to know that I am the same Paul, dedicated as ever to the worldwide cause of humanity for freedom, peace and brotherhood."^{[citation needed]}

Death and funeral[link]

On January 23, 1976 in Philadelphia, following complications of a stroke, Robeson died, at the age of 77.^[278][279] He lay in state in Harlem for two days as a "parade of humanity paid their respects".^[280] His funeral was held at Mother AME Zion Church in Harlem, where Robeson's brother Ben had been pastor for 27 years.^[281] Honorary pall bearers included Harry Belafonte and Pollard.^{[citation needed]} Bishop J. Clinton Hoggard performed the eulogy.^[282] Robeson was cremated and his ashes interred in the Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.^{[citation needed]}

Tributes and condolences came from around the world and from the US House of Representatives.^{[citation needed]} Coretta Scott King remarked that she "deplored 'America's inexcusable treatment' of a man who had had 'the courage to point out her injustices.'"^[281] The Amsterdam News eulogized him as "Gulliver among the Lilliputians [and his life would] always be a challenge and a reproach to white and Black America."^[283] His biographer, Martin Duberman wrote:

"The white [American] press, after decades of harassing Robeson, now tipped its hat to a 'great American,' paid its gingerly respect in editorials that ascribed the vituperation leveled at Robeson in his lifetime to the Bad Old Days of the Cold War, implied those days were forever gone, downplayed the racist component central to his persecution, and ignored the continuing inability of white America to tolerate a black maverick who refused to bend. The black [American] press made no such mistakes. It had never, overall, been as hostile to Robeson as the white [American] press, (though at some points in his career, nearly so)."^[281]

Legacy and honors[link]

Throughout 1976 memorials were held at Rutgers; The World Peace Council in Athens; Columbia University; Toronto; Shiloh Baptist Church in Washington, D.C.; and by Actor's Equity in Los Angeles.^[284] On October 8, 1976, Artist's Tribute to the Life of Paul Robeson, was held at Carnegie Hall, as a benefit for the Paul Robeson Archive. Sidney Poitier proclaimed, "When Paul Robeson died, it marked the passing of a magnificent giant whose presence among us conferred nobility upon us all..."^[284] Beginning in 1978, Robeson's films were finally shown on American television, with Show Boat debuting on cable television in 1983. Paul Robeson: Tribute to an Artist won an Academy Award for best short documentary in 1980.

Rutgers University named several of its facilities after Robeson.^[285] Pennsylvania State University named its cultural center after the artist. ^[286] In 1995, he was named to the College Football Hall of Fame.^[287]

The Paul Robeson Residence in Manhattan was declared a National Historic Landmark on December 8, 1976.^[288]

As of 2011^[update], Robeson's run of Othello was the longest of any Shakespeare play on Broadway, running for 296 performances.^{[citation needed]}

Robeson accepted honorary life membership of the Japanese Canadian Committee for Democracy and gave a concert in Salt Lake City, then home to the Japanese American Citizens League.^[289]

He was honored at the United Nations General Assembly for his efforts to end Apartheid in South Africa.^[290]

The centenary of Robeson's birth was commemorated around the world, a Lifetime Achievement Grammy Award,^[291] a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame,^[292] and he was honored at SOAS through the Paul Robeson House.^[293] Years later, an English Heritage Blue Plaque was erected at his former home in Hampstead,^[294] and he was featured on a US postage stamp, the 27th in the Black Heritage Series.^[295] In 2006 a tribute to Robeson was held at the SOAS.^{[citation needed]}

The Welsh people maintained their loyalty to Robeson and in Cardiff in 2001, the exhibition Let Paul Robeson Sing! was unveiled.^[296] American Jews continue to celebrate his memory as an ally.^[297]

The Robeson holdings in the archive of the Academy of the Arts of the German Democratic Republic, 1981

The first Paul Robeson Archive was established in 1965 at the Academy of Arts in East Berlin; five years previously, Robeson had been awarded an honorary doctorate by the Humboldt University of Berlin.^[298]

The Robeson Family Archives at Howard University.^[299] In 2010 Susan Robeson launched a project by Swansea University and the Welsh Assembly, to create an online learning resource in her grandfather's memory.^{[citation needed]}

In multiple areas of American life, Robeson demonstrated his ability to achieve in the largest competitions. He dominated in academics, in sports, in singing and in acting, both in person and on screen. Not content with that,^{[citation needed]} he demanded attention for his views on civil rights in America, Australia and South Africa, the labor movement,^[300][301] religious liberty for Jews and others and the dangers of Fascism. These achievements were unparalleled in American life, and were all the more incredible given the barriers of racism that he had to surmount.^[302]

Robeson brought Negro spirituals into the center of the American songbook and his renditions remain the standard for all later singers. This was just part of his rejection of the notion that African-American culture was anything but a treasure for all people.^{[303][citation needed]}

Robeson was one of the first African-American singer-activists. He was the first black artist to refuse to play to segregated audiences. Robeson's work was cited by Nelson Mandela and other post-colonial world leaders for influencing African Independence movements.^{[citation needed]} In the arts, James Earl Jones, Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte cited his film roles as the first to display dignity for black actors and pride in African heritage.^[304][305] In films such as Jericho (1937) and The Proud Valley (1940), he portrayed leading roles without the subservience typical at the time.^[306] Film industry figures and historians wrote of his influence as the first major black actor unwilling to play stereotypes.

While a consensus definition of Robeson's legacy has been debated,^[307] Robeson personified resistance to oppression: "The artist must take sides. He must elect to fight for freedom or slavery. I have made my choice. I had no alternative."^[308]

Filmography[link]

See also[link]

• The Communist Party USA and African-Americans

Notes[link]