Shawnee

Shawnee portraits
Total population
14,000 (7,584 enrolled)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Oklahoma[1]
Languages
Shawnee, English
Religion
traditional beliefs and Christianity
Related ethnic groups
Sac and Fox (Mesquakie)

The Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki,^[2] are an Algonquian-speaking people native to North America. Historically they inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania. Today there are three federally recognized Shawnee tribes: Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma, and Shawnee Tribe, all of which are headquartered in Oklahoma.

History[link]

Many thousands of years ago groups known as Paleo-Indians lived in what today is referred to as the American Midwest. These groups were hunter-gatherers who hunted a wide range of animals, including the megafauna, which became extinct following the end of the Pleistocene age. Scholars believe that Paleo-Indians were specialized, highly mobile foragers who hunted late Pleistocene fauna such as bison, mastodons, caribou, and mammoths.

Shawnee mound builder origins[link]

Fort Ancient Monongahela cultures by Herb Roe.

Some scholars believe that the Shawnee are descendants of the people of the prehistoric Fort Ancient culture of the Ohio country, although this is not universally accepted.^[3][4][5] Fort Ancient flourished from 1000 to 1650 among a people who predominantly inhabited land along the Ohio River in areas of southern modern-day Ohio, northern Kentucky and western West Virginia. The Fort Ancient culture was once thought to have been an expansion of the Mississippian culture. Scholars now believe it developed independently and was descended from the Hopewell culture (100 BCE – 500 CE), also a mound builder people.

The group of cultures collectively called Mound Builders were succeeding prehistoric societies in North America who constructed various styles of complex, massive earthworks: earthen mounds for burial, elite residential and ceremonial purposes. These included the Pre-Columbian cultures of the Archaic period; Woodland period (Adena and Hopewell cultures); and Mississippian period; dating from roughly 3000 BCE to the 16th century CE, and living in regions of the Great Lakes, the Ohio River valley, and the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries, extending into the Southeast of the present-day United States.^[6]

Serpent Mound, Peebles, Ohio.

Uncertainty surrounds the eventual fate of the Fort Ancient people. Most likely their society, like the Mississippian culture to the south, was severely disrupted by waves of epidemics from new infectious diseases carried by the very first Spanish explorers in the 16th century.^[7] After 1525 at the Madisonville-type site, the village's house size becomes smaller and fewer with evidence to be "a less horticulture-centered, sedentary way of life".^[8][7] There is a gap in the archaeological record between the most recent Fort Ancient sites and the oldest sites of the Shawnee, who occupied the area at the time of later European (French and English) explorers. It is generally accepted that similarities in material culture, art, mythology, and Shawnee oral history linking them to the Fort Ancients can be used to establish the shift of Fort Ancient society into historical Shawnee society.^[9]

The Shawnee traditionally considered the Lenape (or Delaware) their "grandfathers". The Algonquian nations of present-day Canada regarded the Shawnee as their southernmost branch. Along the East Coast, the Algonquian-speaking tribes were mostly located in coastal areas, from Quebec to the Carolinas. Algonquian languages have words similar to the archaic shawano (now: shaawanwa) meaning "south". However, the stem shaawa- does not mean "south" in Shawnee, but "moderate, warm (of weather)". In one Shawnee tale, Shaawaki is the deity of the south.

Shawnee after 1600[link]

Europeans reported encountering Shawnee over a widespread geographic area. The earliest mention of the Shawnee may be a 1614 Dutch map showing the Sawwanew just east of the Delaware River. Later 17th-century Dutch sources also place them in this general location. Accounts by French explorers in the same century usually located the Shawnee along the Ohio River, where they encountered them on forays from Canada and the Illinois Country.^[10]

According to one legend, the Shawnee were descended from a party sent by Chief Opechancanough, ruler of the Powhatan Confederacy 1618–1644, to settle in the Shenandoah Valley. The party was led by his son, Sheewa-a-nee.^[11] Edward Bland, an explorer who accompanied Abraham Wood's expedition in 1650, wrote that in Opechancanough's day, there had been a falling-out between the "Chawan" chief and the weroance of the Powhatan (also a relative of Opechancanough's family). He said the latter had murdered the former.^[12] Explorers Batts and Fallam in 1671 reported that the Shawnee were contesting the Shenandoah Valley with Iroquois in that year, and were losing. By the time European-American settlers began to arrive in the Valley (c. 1730), the Iroquois had departed. The Shawnee were then the sole residents of the northern part of the valley.

Sometime before 1670, a group of Shawnee migrated to the Savannah River area. The English based in Charles Town, South Carolina were contacted by these Shawnee in 1674. They forged a long-lasting alliance. The Savannah River Shawnee were known to the Carolina English as "Savannah Indians". Around the same time, other Shawnee groups migrated to Florida, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other regions south and east of the Ohio country.

Historian Alan Gallay speculates that the Shawnee migrations of the middle to late 17th century were probably driven by the Iroquois Wars that began in the 1640s. The Shawnee became known for their widespread settlements from modern Illinois and New York to Georgia. Among their known villages were Eskippakithiki, Sonnionto, and Suwanee, Georgia. Their language became a lingua franca for trade among numerous tribes. They became leaders among the tribes, initiating and sustaining pan-Indian resistance to European and Euro-American expansion.^[13]

Prior to 1754, the Shawnee had a headquarters at Shawnee Springs at modern-day Cross Junction, Virginia near Winchester. The father of the later chief Cornstalk held his court there. Two other Shawnee villages existed in the Shenandoah Valley: one at Moorefield, West Virginia, and one on the North River. In 1753, Shawnee to the west sent messengers inviting the Virginia people to leave the Shenandoah Valley and cross the Alleghenies. The Virginia Shawnee migrated west the following year,^[14][15] joining Shawnee on the Scioto River in the Ohio country.

After the Beaver Wars, the Iroquois claimed the Ohio Country as their hunting ground by right of conquest, and treated the Shawnee and Delaware who resettled there as dependent tribes. Some independent Iroquois bands from various tribes also migrated westward, where they became known in Ohio as the Mingo. These three tribes—the Shawnee, the Delaware, and the Mingo—then became closely associated with one another, despite the differences in their languages. The first two were Algonguian speaking and the third Iroquoian.

Sixty Years' War[link]

After the Battle of the Monongahela in 1755, many Shawnee fought as allies of their trading partners the French during the early years of the French and Indian War (aka Seven Years War).^[16] In 1758 they settled with the British colonists, signing the Treaty of Easton in 1758. When the British defeated the French in 1763, other Shawnee joined Pontiac's Rebellion against the British, which failed a year later.

The British issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763 during Pontiac's Rebellion, to draw a boundary line between the British colonies in the east and the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains. They were trying to settle points of conflict with the Indians and establish a reserve for them. The Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, however, extended that line westwards, giving the British a claim to what is now West Virginia and Kentucky. The Shawnee did not agree to this treaty: it was negotiated between British officials and the Iroquois, who claimed sovereignty over the land, although Shawnee and other Native American tribes also hunted there.

After the Stanwix treaty, Anglo-Americans began pouring into the Ohio River Valley for settlement. Violent incidents between settlers and Indians escalated into Dunmore's War in 1774. British diplomats managed to isolate the Shawnee during the conflict: the Iroquois and the Delaware stayed neutral. The Shawnee faced the British colony of Virginia with only a few Mingo allies. Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, launched a two-pronged invasion into the Ohio Country. Shawnee Chief Cornstalk attacked one wing but fought to a draw in the only major battle of the war, the Battle of Point Pleasant.

In the Treaty of Camp Charlotte, Cornstalk and the Shawnee were compelled to recognize the Ohio River boundary established by the 1768 Stanwix treaty. Many other Shawnee leaders refused to recognize this boundary, however. When the American Revolutionary War broke out in 1776, several Shawnee chiefs advocated joining the war as British allies, hoping to drive the colonists back across the mountains. The Shawnee were divided: Cornstalk led those who wished to remain neutral, while war leaders such as Chief Blackfish and Blue Jacket fought as British allies.

After the Revolution, in the Northwest Indian War between the United States and a confederation of Native American tribes, the Shawnee combined with the Miami into a great fighting force. After the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, most of the Shawnee bands signed the Treaty of Greenville the next year. They were forced to cede large parts of their homeland to the new United States. Other Shawnee groups rejected this treaty and migrated to Missouri, where they settled near Cape Girardeau.

Tecumseh's War and the War of 1812[link]

Tecumseh, by Benson Lossing in 1848 based on 1808 drawing.

The two principal adversaries in the conflict, Tecumseh and William Henry Harrison, had both been junior participants in the Battle of Fallen Timbers at the close of the Northwest Indian Wars in 1794. Tecumseh was not among the signers of the Treaty of Greenville that had ended the war and ceded much of present-day Ohio, long inhabited by the Shawnees and other Native Americans, to the United States. However, many Indian leaders in the region accepted the Greenville terms, and for the next ten years pan-tribal resistance to American hegemony faded.

In September 1809 William Henry Harrison invited the Pottawatomie, Lenape, Eel Rivers, and the Miami to a meeting in Fort Wayne. In the negotiations Harrison promised large subsidies and payments to the tribes if they would cede the lands he was asking for.^[17] After two weeks of negotiating, the Pottawatomie leaders convinced the Miami to accept the treaty as reciprocity to the Pottawatomie who had earlier accepted treaties less advantageous to them at the request of the Miami. Finally the Treaty of Fort Wayne was signed on September 30, 1809, selling the United States over 3,000,000 acres (approximately 12,000 km²), chiefly along the Wabash River north of Vincennes.^[17]

Tecumseh was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, and thereafter he emerged as a prominent political leader. Tecumseh revived an idea advocated in previous years by the Shawnee leader Blue Jacket and the Mohawk leader Joseph Brant, which stated that American Indian land was owned in common by all tribes, and thus no land could be sold without agreement by all. Tecumseh knew that such "broad consensus was impossible", but that is why he supported the position.^[18] Not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumseh's primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty, and he threatened to kill them all.^[18]

Tecumseh began to expand on his brother's teachings that called for the tribes to return to their ancestral ways, and began to connect the teachings with idea of a pan-tribal alliance. Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown.^[18]

This portrait of Harrison originally showed him in civilian clothes as the congressional delegate from the Northwest Territory in 1800.

Harrison was impressed by Tecumseh and even referred to him in one letter as "one of those uncommon geniuses."^[18] Harrison thought that Tecumseh had the potential to create a strong empire if he went unchecked. Harrison suspected that he was behind attempts to start an uprising, and feared that if he was able to achieve a larger tribal federation, the British would take advantage of the situation to press their claims to the Northwest.^[19]

In August 1810 Tecumseh and 400 armed warriors traveled down the Wabash River to meet with Harrison in Vincennes. The warriors were all wearing war paint, and their sudden appearance at first frightened the soldiers at Vincennes. The leaders of the group were escorted to Grouseland were they met Harrison. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate; he asked Harrison to nullify it and warned that Americans should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Tecumseh acknowledged to Harrison that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who signed the treaty if they carried out its terms, and that his confederation was rapidly growing.^[19] Harrison responded to Tecumseh that the Miami were the owners of the land and could sell it if they so choose. He also rejected Tecumseh's claim that all the Indians formed one nation, and each nation could have separate relations with the United States. As proof Harrison told Tecumseh that the Great Spirit would have made all the tribes to speak one language if they were to be one nation.^[20]

Tecumseh launched an "impassioned rebuttal", but Harrison was unable to understand his language. A Shawnee who was friendly to Harrison cocked his pistol from the side lines to alert Harrison that Tecumseh's speech was leading to trouble. Finally an army lieutenant who could speak Tecumseh's language warned Harrison that he was encouraging the warriors with him to kill Harrison. Many of the warriors began to pull their weapons and Harrison pulled his sword. The entire town's population was only 1,000 and Tecumseh's men could have easily massacred the town, but once the few officers pulled their guns to defend Harrison the warriors backed down.^[20] Chief Winnemac, who was friendly to Harrison, countered Tecumseh's arguments to the warriors and instructed them that because they had come in peace, they should return in peace and fight another day. Before leaving, Tecumseh informed Harrison that unless the treaty was nullified, he would seek an alliance with the British.^[21]

The Great Comet of 1811, as drawn by William Henry Smyth

A comet appeared in March 1811. The Shawnee leader Tecumseh, whose name (Tekoomsē) meant "Shooting Star" or "Panther Across The Sky",^[22] traveled throughout the Southeast where he told the Choctaw, Chickasaw, Muscogee, and many others that the comet signaled his coming. McKenney reported that Tecumseh would prove that the Great Spirit had sent him by giving them a sign. Shortly after Tecumseh left the Southeast, the sign arrived as promised in the form of an earthquake.

During the next year tensions began to rise quickly. Four settlers were murdered on the Missouri River and in another incident a boatload of supplies was seized by natives from a group of traders. Harrison summoned Tecumseh to Vincennes to explain the actions of his allies.^[23] In August 1811, Tecumseh met with Harrison at Vincennes, assuring him that the Shawnee brothers meant to remain at peace with the United States. Tecumseh then traveled to the south on a mission to recruit allies among the "Five Civilized Tribes." Most of the southern nations rejected his appeals, but a faction among the Creeks, who came to be known as the Red Sticks, answered his call to arms, leading to the Creek War, which also became a part of the War of 1812^[24] Tecumseh delivered many passionate speeches and convinced many to join his cause.

On December 11, 1811, the New Madrid Earthquake shook the Muscogee lands and the Midwest. While the interpretation of this event varied from tribe to tribe, one consensus was universally accepted: the powerful earthquake had to have meant something. The earthquake and its aftershocks helped the Tecumseh resistance movement by convincing, not only the Muscogee, but other Native American tribes as well, that the Shawnee must be supported.

The New Madrid Earthquake was interpreted by the Muscogee to support the Shawnees' resistance.

The Muscogee who joined Tecumseh's confederation were known as the Red Sticks. Stories of the origin of the Red Stick name varies, but one is that they were named for the Muscogee tradition of carrying a bundle of sticks that mark the days until an event occurs. Sticks painted red symbolize war.^[26]

Portraits of Pushmataha (left) and Tecumseh. These white Americans ... give us fair exchange, their cloth, their guns, their tools, implements, and other things which the Choctaws need but do not make ... They doctored our sick; they clothed our suffering; they fed our hungry ... So in marked contrast with the experience of the Shawnees, it will be seen that the whites and Indians in this section are living on friendly and mutually beneficial terms. —Pushmataha, 1811 – Sharing Choctaw History.[28] --------------------- Where today are the Pequot? Where are the Narragansett, the Mochican, the Pocanet, and other powerful tribes of our people? They have vanished before the avarice and oppression of the white man, as snow before the summer sun ... Sleep not longer, O Choctaws and Chickasaws ... Will not the bones of our dead be plowed up, and their graves turned into plowed fields? —Tecumseh, 1811 – The Portable North American Indian Reader.[29]

After Hull's surrender of Detroit, General William Henry Harrison was given command of the U.S. Army of the Northwest. He set out to retake the city, which was now defended by Colonel Henry Procter in conjunction with Tecumseh. A detachment of Harrison's army was defeated at Frenchtown along the River Raisin on January 22, 1813. Procter left the prisoners with an inadequate guard, who could not prevent some of his North American aboriginal allies from attacking and killing perhaps as many as sixty Americans, many of whom were Kentucky militiamen.^[30] The incident became known as the "River Raisin Massacre." The defeat ended Harrison's campaign against Detroit, and the phrase "Remember the River Raisin!" became a rallying cry for the Americans.

In May 1813, Procter and Tecumseh set siege to Fort Meigs in northern Ohio. American reinforcements arriving during the siege were defeated by the natives, but the fort held out. The Indians eventually began to disperse, forcing Procter and Tecumseh to return to Canada. A second offensive against Fort Meigs also failed in July. In an attempt to improve Indian morale, Procter and Tecumseh attempted to storm Fort Stephenson, a small American post on the Sandusky River, only to be repulsed with serious losses, marking the end of the Ohio campaign.

On Lake Erie, American commander Captain Oliver Hazard Perry fought the Battle of Lake Erie on September 10, 1813. His decisive victory ensured American control of the lake, improved American morale after a series of defeats, and compelled the British to fall back from Detroit. This paved the way for General Harrison to launch another invasion of Upper Canada, which culminated in the U.S. victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5, 1813, in which Tecumseh was killed. Tecumseh's death effectively ended the North American indigenous alliance with the British in the Detroit region. American control of Lake Erie meant the British could no longer provide essential military supplies to their aboriginal allies, who therefore dropped out of the war. The Americans controlled the area during the conflict.

Aftermath[link]

The Shawnee in Missouri became known as the "Absentee Shawnee". Several hundred members of this tribe left the United States together with some Delaware to settle in the eastern part of Spanish Texas. Although closely allied with the Cherokee led by The Bowl, their chief John Linney remained neutral during the 1839 Cherokee War. In appreciation, Texan president Mirabeau Lamar fully compensated the Shawnee for their improvements and crops when funding their removal north to Arkansaw Territory.^[31] The Shawnee settled close to present-day Shawnee, Oklahoma. They were joined by Shawnee from Kansas who shared their traditionalist views and beliefs.

In 1817, the Ohio Shawnee signed the Treaty of Fort Meigs, ceding their remaining lands in exchange for three reservations in Wapaughkonetta, Hog Creek (near Lima) and Lewistown, Ohio. They shared these lands with the Seneca.

Missouri joined the Union in 1821. After the Treaty of St. Louis in 1825, the 1,400 Missouri Shawnee were forcibly relocated from Cape Girardeau to southeastern Kansas, close to the Neosho River.

During 1833, only Black Bob's band of Shawnee resisted removal. They settled in northeastern Kansas near Olathe and along the Kansas (Kaw) River in Monticello near Gum Springs. The Shawnee Methodist Mission was built nearby to minister to the tribe. About 200 of the Ohio Shawnee followed the prophet Tenskwatawa and joined their Kansas brothers and sisters in 1826.

The main body followed Black Hoof, who fought every effort to force the Shawnee to give up their Ohio homeland. In 1831, the Lewistown group of Seneca–Shawnee left for the Indian territory (present-day Oklahoma). After the death of Black Hoof, the remaining 400 Ohio Shawnee in Wapaughkonetta and Hog Creek surrendered their land and moved to the Shawnee Reserve in Kansas.

In the 1853 Indian Appropriations Bill, Congress appropriated $64,366 for treaty obligations to the Shawnee such as annuities, education, and other services. An additional $2,000 was appropriated for the Seneca and the Shawnee together.^[32]

During the American Civil War, Black Bob's band fled from Kansas and joined the "Absentee Shawnee" in Oklahoma to escape the war. After the Civil War, the Shawnee in Kansas were expelled and forced to move to northeastern Oklahoma. The Shawnee members of the former Lewistown group became known as the "Eastern Shawnee".

The former Kansas Shawnee became known as the "Loyal Shawnee" (some say this is because of their allegiance with the Union during the war; others say this is because they were the last group to leave their Ohio homelands). The latter group was regarded as part of the Cherokee Nation by the United States because they were also known as the "Cherokee Shawnee". In 2000 the "Loyal" or "Cherokee" Shawnee finally received federal recognition independent of the Cherokee Nation. They are now known as the "Shawnee Tribe". Today, most of the members of the Shawnee nation still reside in Oklahoma.

Groups[link]

Before contact with Europeans, the Shawnee tribe consisted of a loose confederacy of five divisions which shared a common language and culture. The division names have been spelled in a variety of ways.^[33] The divisions are:

• Chillicothe (Principal Place), Chalahgawtha, Chalaka, Chalakatha;
• Hathawekela, Thawikila;
• Kispoko, Kispokotha, Kishpoko, Kishpokotha;
• Mekoche, Mequachake, Machachee, Maguck, Mackachack, etc.;
• Pekowi, Pekuwe, Piqua, Pekowitha.

In addition to the five divisions, the Shawnee can be divided into six clans or subdivisons.^[34] Each name group is common among each for the five divisions and each Shawnee belongs to a group.^[34] The six group names are:

• Pellewomhsoomi (Turkey name group)—represents bird life,
• Kkahkileewomhsoomi (Turtle name group)—represents aquatic life,
• Petekoθiteewomhsoomi (Rounded-feet name group)—represents carnivorous animals like the dog, wolf, or whose paws are ball-shaped or "rounded,"
• Mseewiwomhsoomi (Horse name group)—represents herbivorous animals as the horse and deer,
• θepatiiwomhsoomi (Raccoon name group)—represents animals having paws which can rip and tear like those of a raccoon and bear.
• Petakineeθiiwomhsoomi (Rabbit name group)—represents a gentle and peaceful nature.^[34]

Membership in a division was inherited from the father, unlike the matrilineal descent often associated with other tribes. Each division had a primary village where the chief of the division lived. This village was usually named after the division. By tradition, each Shawnee division had certain roles it performed on behalf of the entire tribe. By the time they were recorded in writing by European-Americans, these strong social traditions were fading. They remain poorly understood. Because of the scattering of the Shawnee people from the 17th century through the 19th century, the roles of the divisions changed.

Today there are three federally recognized tribes in the United States, all of which are located in Oklahoma:

• The Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma, consisting mainly of Hathawekela, Kispokotha, and Pekuwe;
• The Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma, mostly of the Mekoche division; and
• The Shawnee Tribe, formerly an official part of the Cherokee Nation, mostly of the Chaalakatha and Mekoche divisions.

As of 2008, there were 7584 enrolled Shawnee, with most living in Oklahoma.^[35]

Shawnee in Ohio and other states[link]

At least four bands of Shawnee reside in Ohio:

• The United Remnant Band of the Shawnee Nation^[36][37]
• the Blue Creek Band,
• the East of the River Shawnee,
• the Piqua Shawnee Tribe
• Ridgetop Shawnee – Kentucky – In 2009 and 2010, the State House of the Kentucky General Assembly recognized the Ridgetop Shawnee Tribe of Indians by passing, unopposed, House Joint Resolutions 15 or HJR-15 in 2009 and HJR-16 in 2010. ^{[38] [39]}.

These bands are not federally recognized, though some legal scholars dispute the formality of this recognition.^[40]

The Piqua Shawnee Tribe are officially recognized in Alabama by the Alabama Indian Affairs Commission in accordance to the Davis-Strong Act,^[41] and in Ohio by Ohio Senate Resolution 188, adopted February 26, 1991 and by the Ohio House of Representatives 119th General Assembly Resolution No. 83, adopted April 3, 1991 as presented to the Bureau of Indian Affairs Washington, D.C., and in Kentucky by Governor's Proclamation dated August 13, 1991.^[42]

Flags of the Shawnee[link]

• 

  Flag of the Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma

• 

  Flag of the Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma

• 

  Flag of the Shawnee Tribe

• URBFLAG1WEBSITE.jpg

  Flag of the Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band of Ohio

Coins of the Shawnee[link]

• 

  First coin issue of 2002—one dollar

• 

  Tecumseh commemorative dollar

Famous Shawnee[link]

• Cornstalk (1720–1777), led the Shawnee in Dunmore's War,
• Blue Jacket (1743–1810), also known as Weyapiersenwah, was an important predecessor to Tecumseh and a leader in the Northwest Indian War.
• Black Hoof (1740–1831), also known as Catecahassa, was a respected Shawnee chief who believed the Shawnee had to adapt to European-American culture to survive.
• Chiksika (1760–1792), Kispoko war chief and older brother of Tecumseh
• Tecumseh (1768–1813), Shawnee leader; with his brother Tenskwatawa attempted to unite the Eastern tribes against the expansion of European-American settlement.
• Tenskwatawa (1775–1836), Shawnee prophet and younger brother of Tecumseh
• Black Bob, 19th century leader and warrior
• Sat-Okh (1920–2003), Polish-Shawnee Canadian, fought in WWII, novelist
• Nas'Naga (born 1941), Shawnee U.S. novelist and poet.

See also[link]

• Shawnee language
• Battle of Tippecanoe Outdoor Drama

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Callender, Charles. "Shawnee", in Northeast: Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 15, ed. Bruce Trigger. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1978. ISBN 0-16-072300-0
• Clifton, James A. Star Woman and Other Shawnee Tales. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1984. ISBN 0-8191-3712-X; ISBN 0-8191-3713-8 (pbk.)
• Edmunds, R. David. The Shawnee Prophet. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1983. ISBN 0-8032-1850-8.
• Edmunds, R. David. Tecumseh and the Quest for Indian Leadership. Originally published 1984. 2nd edition, New York: Pearson Longman, 2006. ISBN 0-321-04371-5
• Edmunds, R. David. "Forgotten Allies: The Loyal Shawnees and the War of 1812" in David Curtis Skaggs and Larry L. Nelson, eds., The Sixty Years' War for the Great Lakes, 1754–1814, pp. 337–51. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-87013-569-4.
• Howard, James H. Shawnee!: The Ceremonialism of a Native Indian Tribe and its Cultural Background. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-8214-0417-2; ISBN 0-8214-0614-0 (pbk.)
• O'Donnell, James H. Ohio's First Peoples. Athens, Ohio: Ohio University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8214-1525-5 (paperback), ISBN 0-8214-1524-7 (hardcover).
• Sugden, John. Tecumseh: A Life. New York: Holt, 1997. ISBN 0-8050-4138-9 (hardcover); ISBN 0-8050-6121-5 (1999 paperback).
• Sugden, John. Blue Jacket: Warrior of the Shawnees. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 2000. ISBN 0-8032-4288-3.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Shawnee

Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Shawnee.

• Absentee Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma
• Shawnee Nation United Remnant Band, Ohio
• Shawnee History
• Shawnee Indian Mission
• "Shawnee Indian Tribe", Access Genealogy
• Treaty of Fort Meigs, 1817, Central Michigan State University
• Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma
• The Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma
• BlueJacket
• Piqua Shawnee Tribe
• Ridgetop Shawnee Tribe of Indians

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2007)

Erick Morillo

Erick Morillo (born 1971 in Cartagena de Indias, Colombia) is a Colombian-American DJ, music producer and record label owner. Having produced under a number of pseudonyms, including Ministers De la Funk, The Dronez, RAW, Smooth Touch, RBM, Deep Soul, Club Ultimate and Li'l Mo Ying Yang, Morillo is best known for his international work in house music, in particular for the label Strictly Rhythm, and the 1993 hit “I Like to Move It”, which he produced under the pseudonym Reel 2 Real, and which was featured in commercials, movies and ringtones, and his label Subliminal Records is one of the most renowned record labels on the house scene, particularly in the US.^{[citation needed]}

Early life and career[link]

Morillo was raised in Dominican Republic and Union City, New Jersey, where he attended grammar school at Saint Joseph and Michael’s School, a private Catholic school, graduating in 1985. He graduated from Emerson High School in Union City in 1989.^[1] His childhood musical influences include exposure to Latin rhythms, reggae, and hip hop.^{[citation needed]}

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Morillo decided to branch out musically, and became friends with a then-unknown singer-songwriter Marc Anthony, who introduced Morillo to his partner on the 1992 house anthem “Ride On The Rhythm”, Little Louie Vega, who advised Morillo to focus on vocals.^{[citation needed]}

Reel to Real and “I Like to Move It”[link]

Morillo created a new act, Reel 2 Real, which was signed by the label Strictly Rhythm. Morillo’s first release for Strictly Rhythm was “The New Anthem”, which fared well in the music charts and in clubs, and garnered Morillo considerable attention.^{[citation needed]}

Morillo would surpass this success with the 1993 hit “I Like to Move It”, latin house with ragga vocals by native Trinidad and Tobago rapper Mark Quashie (also known as “The Mad Stuntman”). “I Like to Move It” became an international smash, enjoying mainstream radio airplay, reaching #89 on the Hot 100, #5 on the UK Singles Chart, and made Morillo a millionaire. Both I Like To Move It and House Of Love (a song he released as part of Smooth Touch) hit #1 on the Hot Dance Music/Club Play chart, and Morillo became a world traveler, often traveling between Europe, where he would tape for MTV Europe, and The United States, where he would return for promotional work.^{[citation needed]}

In 1994, “I Like to Move It” was used in a series of promotional television advertisements for the Australian National Basketball League. It was a montage of various players slam dunking with the song played over the top of it, to highlight the game's fast pace. In the late 1990s, the song was used in adverts for the confectionery Chewits, with the lyrics changed from "I like to move it" to "I like to chew it". The song would later be used in DreamWorks' 2005 animated film Madagascar, making it a hit once again. The song was covered by the Crazy Frog that same year, and released both as a ringtone (with an accompanying ad) and on the album Crazy Frog Presents Crazy Hits.^{[citation needed]}

Reel 2 Real's other top 10 dance hits, which featured vocals by The Mad Stuntman, Barbara Tucker, Charlotte Small and Proyecto Uno. Estimates are that Morillo made over $2 million from Reel 2 Real’s two albums.^{[citation needed]}

From Reel 2 Real to Subliminal[link]

Fearing that his financial success from Reel 2 Real may have hurt both his creative drive and his street credibility. Morillo abandoned the Reel 2 Real alias in 1996, after which he spent a few years establishing himself as an underground DJ, of which he is one of the top-five highest-paid in the world.^{[citation needed]}

His desire to produce respectable house music, and to distance himself from Reel to Real’s pop music past resulted in the successful “Jazz It Up” which he produced under “The Erick Morillo Project”. He and Louie Vega collaborated as Lil’ Mo’ Ying Yang and released the 1995 single “Reach.” Morillo intended a third album for Reel to Real, but his relationship with the Mad Stuntman soured, which derailed the project.^{[citation needed]}

Finishing his relationship with Strictly Rhythm, Morillo took the advice of Strictly Rhythm owner Mark Finkelstein, whom Morillo calls “a fair person and a business mentor”, and decided to the launch the Double Platinum management company in 1997 with fellow DJs and producers Jose Nunez, Harry Choo Choo Romero, Carlos Sosa (aka “DJ Sneak”), and Junior Sanchez, and his own imprint, Subliminal Records. Its first single was 1998’s “Fun” which featured Chicago diva Dajae’s, which drew positive response via test pressings and buzz across the Atlantic. Dajae refused to sign the contract with Subliminal, and vocalist Jocelyn Brown was brought in to re-record the vocals. Brown’s collaboration with Subliminal is known as “Da Mob”, and their version of “Fun” became a #1 Billboard Hot Dance Music/Club Play hit. Soon after, however, DJ Sneak left the group for Toronto to start his own management company, and Junior Sanchez united with Roger S. to start one of their own. The remaining trio of Morillo, Romero and Nunez formed the finalized core of Subliminal, and are also known as the remix team The Dronez. With the Subliminal label, which is based in Weehawken, New Jersey, Morillo managed to find the balance between "underground" respectability and financial success. The trio won the Muzik Magazine Remixer of the Year award in 1999.^[3] In 2004, he released his first album under his real name, My World, which features collaborations with such artists as Sean “Diddy” Combs, who collaborated with Morillo on three tracks. The label has also spawned other labels, such as Sondos, Subliminal Soul, Bambossa and SUBUSA. The label was distributed by Strictly Rhythm until that label ceased operations in 2002. Today, Subliminal is independently distributed, although Strictly Rhythm reopened its doors in 2007.^{[citation needed]}

Club nights[link]

In the fall of 1999, Morillo completed a U. S. tour and his club night, dubbed “Subliminal night”, is credited with single-handedly resuscitating New York City’s ailing club scene^{[citation needed]}, a feat he accomplished by signing up Danny Tenaglia, Darren Emerson, Bob Sinclar, Derrick Carter, Mark Farina and Tony Humphries in guest spots. Morillo has also hosted various other club nights across the globe, such as his weekly “Sessions” parties in New York, the annual Crobar party in Miami(ULTRA), and his legendary Subliminal Sessions parties at Pacha in Ibiza, which was named "Best International Club" of 2002 and "Best Ibiza Party" of 2001 by Muzik magazine. Ibiza is also where Morillo was crowned "Best International DJ" in 2002 and "Best House DJ" in 1999 and 2001 at the Pacha Ibiza awards. He has been known to play up to 30 gigs a month in locations including Greece, Malta, Amsterdam, London, Madrid, Belfast, and Russia. According to Morillo, his most memorable job was on Ibiza’s White Isle after the September 11 attacks:^{[citation needed]}

"I was playing the closing party of the Space Terrace straight after September 11th. I ended the night with Frank Sinatra's “New York, New York”. People were crying and waving American flags, everybody was singing. It's my most emotional memory as a DJ."^{[citation needed]}

In addition to his MTV UK appearances, Morillo has also hosted MTV Ibiza for two years, and presented the UK’s Dancestar Awards and starred in a seven-part Channel 4 series documenting his world travels as a party DJ.^{[citation needed]}

SW4 Exclusive[link]

In the summer of 2012, Erick will play exclusively at SW4 Festival "London's Premier Electronic Music Festival" , this is his only UK festival gig this year.

Discography[link]

Singles and EPs[link]

• 1992 The New Anthem (Funky Budda) (Reel 2 Real)
• 1992 Muevelo (Reel 2 Real)
• 1992 Te Ves Buena (Reel 2 Real)
• 1993 I Like To Move It (Reel 2 Real)
• 1993 Latin Flavor (R.B.M.)
• 1993 Gettin' Me Hot (Platinum Crew)
• 1993 Carnival '93 (Club Ultimate)
• 1993 The Boy (R.B.M)
• 1993 Rhythmz (Deep Soul)
• 1993 Unbe (R.A.W.)
• 1993 House Of Love In My House (Smooth Touch)
• 1993 Go On Move (Reel 2 Real)
• 1995 Carnival '95 (Club Ultimate)
• 1995 Reach (Lil Mo' Yin Yang)
• 1995 Conway (Reel 2 Real)
• 1996 Dime Si Son Latinos (Reel 2 Real feat. Proyecto Uno)
• 1996 Mueve La Cadera (Reel 2 Real feat. Proyecto Uno)
• 1996 Jazz It Up (Reel 2 Real)
• 1996 Are You Ready For Some More (Reel 2 Real)
• 1997 Fun (Da Mob feat. Jocelyn Brown)
• 1997 Partay Feeling (B-Crew)
• 1997 Tripping (Smooth Touch)
• 1998 It's All Good (Da Mob feat. Jocelyn Brown)
• 1998 Distortion (Pianoheadz)
• 1999 Believe (Ministers De-La-Funk feat. Jocelyn Brown)
• 2002 Come Make Me Over
• 2003 Dancin' (Erick Morillo feat. {Harry "Choo Choo" Romero & Jose Nunez)
• 2004 Refresher (Time Of Your Life)
• 2004 My World (Erick Morillo feat. P. Diddy)
• 2005 Break Down The Doors (Erick Morillo feat. Audio Bullys)
• 2005 What Do You Want (Erick Morillo feat. Terra Deva)
• 2005 Waiting In The Darkness (Erick Morillo feat. Leslie Carter)
• 2006 Jazz In Your Face
• 2006 Call Me (The Dronez feat. Shawnee Taylor)
• 2006 Tonite (MNM feat. Shawnee Taylor)
• 2006 Dance I Said (Erick Morillo feat. P. Diddy)
• 2007 Life Goes On (Richard Grey vs. Erick Morillo feat. Jose Nunez & Shawnee Taylor)
• 2008 Make A Move {Harry "Choo Choo" Romero feat. Erick Morillo & P. Diddy)
• 2008 Where Are You Now? (DJ DLG feat. Erick Morillo)
• 2009 Say The Word (Richard Grey feat. Erick Morillo feat. Maboo & Nicole Da Silva)
• 2009 I Get Lifted (Erick Morillo feat. (Deborah Cooper)
• 2010 I Feel Love (Ministers De-La-Funk feat. Duane Harden)
• 2010 Alive Markus Binapfl & Erick Morillo feat. Fiora
• 2011 Live Your Life (feat. Eddie Thoneick & Shawnee Taylor)
• 2011 Stronger (feat. Eddie Thoneick & Shawnee Taylor)
• 2012 Elephant (Alexandra Burke feat. Erick Morillo)

Remixes[link]

• 1993 Yolanda - Reality
• 1993 Whoomp There It Is - Tag Team
• 1995 One Moment In Time - Stex
• 1995 What I Need - Crystal Waters
• 1996 Keep It Up - Hipgrinders
• 1997 Dreams - Smokin' Beats
• 1997 Fly Life - Basement Jaxx
• 1998 She Wants You - Billie
• 1998 Found A Cure - Ultra Naté
• 1998 In My Life - Josè Nuñez
• 1998 Good Love - Richard F.
• 1998 Ain't No Mountain High Enough - Jocelyn Brown
• 1999 Don't Call Me Baby - Madison Avenue
• 1999 Bailamos - Enrique Iglesias
• 1999 Not Over You Yet - Diana Ross
• 1999 Red Alert - Basement Jaxx
• 1999 Big Love - Pete Heller
• 1999 Hold On - Josè Nuñez
• 2000 Welcome To The Jungle - Thick Dick
• 2000 My Only Love - Bob Sinclar
• 2000 Scream & Shout - The Committee
• 2000 I Feel For You - Bob Sinclar
• 2000 Brasil Over Zurich - Tanga Chick
• 2000 Sunday Shouting - Johnny Corporate
• 2000 I'm Your Baby Tonight - Whitney Houston
• 2001 Sexual Revolution - Macy Gray
• 2001 I'm So Crazy - Par-T-one
• 2001 Keep On Touchin' Me - Jaimy & Kenny D.
• 2001 Keep The Love - Money Chocolate
• 2001 Austin's Groove - Kid Crème
• 2001 You & Me - LL Cool J
• 2001 Close to My Heart (Ano Natsu no Mama de) - Misia
• 2001 Last Dance - Superfunk
• 2002 Air Race - Josè Nuñez
• 2002 Thrill Me - Junior Jack
• 2002 Lady - Modjo
• 2003 Born Too Slow - Crystal Method
• 2004 What Happened - Harry "Choo Choo" Romero
• 2005 Father - Anthony Rother
• 2010 Live Your Life - Erick Morillo & Eddie Thoneick feat. Shawnee Taylor
• 2011 Hello Good Morning - Diddy & Dirty Money
• 2012 King of Hearts - Cassie