Map of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

The sovereignty of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is disputed between the United Kingdom and Argentina. The United Kingdom claimed South Georgia in 1775,^[1][2] annexed the islands in 1908, and has exercised de facto control with the exception of a brief period during the Falklands War in 1982 when the islands were partially controlled by Argentina.^[3] The dispute started in 1927 when Argentina claimed sovereignty over South Georgia, and subsequently was expanded in scope with Argentina claiming the South Sandwich Islands in 1938.^[4] The islands have no indigenous population,^[5] and currently no permanent population.

History of the claims[link]

Origins of the British claim[link]

The South Georgia archipelago was first claimed for Great Britain by James Cook in January 1775, having been previously discovered by Anthony de la Roché.^[6] However, the British did little to enforce this claim until 1843, when Letters Patent were issued to provide for the government of the islands, which were to be governed as a Falkland Islands Dependency. These were revised in 1876 and 1892.

In 1908, following enquiries regarding the sovereignty of the area currently covered by the British Antarctic Territory from the Norwegian government, the British government stated that the islands were British, and issued Letters Patent to include "South Orkney, South Georgia and South Shetland islands, and Graham Land situated in the South Atlantic Ocean to the south of the 50th parallel of south latitude and lying between the 20th and 80th degrees of west longitude" as Falkland Islands Dependencies. It was made clear at this time that the association with the Falkland Islands was intended as an administrative convenience.^[7]

As it had been observed within the British government that a literal interpretation of this claim would include parts of the South American mainland, the letters patent were clarified on 28 March 1917, redefining the limits to exclude all territories north of 58°S and west of 50°W, but to otherwise include all land in this region. Though the Argentine government were given details of the 1908 letters patent (at their request), neither Argentina nor Chile objected to either claim.^[7]

Origins of the Argentine claim[link]

Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen, the first person born on South Georgia, pictured at the CAP whaling station at Grytviken in 1916

The Compañía Argentina de Pesca (CAP), an Argentine-registered whaling company run by Norwegian Carl Anton Larsen, was the first company to set up operations on South Georgia in 1904. This company founded the settlement of Grytviken and its employees (including Larsen himself) became the first permanent residents of the island. In 1905, the Argentine government authorised a weather station on the island.^[8]

In 1906, the CAP signed a lease with the Falkland Islands government,^[8] and following the 1908 annexation the company started to use British whaling licences and leases for land at Grytviken and Jason Harbour.^[9] Also in 1908, the CAP started looking to the South Sandwich Islands for the expansion of their business.^[10] Larsen adopted British citizenship in 1910. Argentina's first explicit claim to South Georgia was made in 1927 and to the South Sandwich Islands in 1938.^[4]

Later developments[link]

Following the Argentine claims, the UK repeatedly (in 1947, 1951, 1953 and 1954) offered to take the matter to the International Court of Justice in the Hague but this was turned down by Argentina. When Britain took the issue to the court unilaterally in 1955, Argentina declined to cooperate, citing a lack of jurisdiction.^[9] The British divided the Falkland Islands dependencies in 1962, in accordance with the newly-signed Antarctic Treaty. Those areas south of 60°S became the British Antarctic Territory, while the remainder - South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands - retained their previous status.^[11]

Falklands War[link]

Argentina established a military base, Corbeta Uruguay, on Thule Island at the far south of the South Sandwich Islands in November 1976. When this base was discovered by the British that December, the British protested diplomatically, and sent a task force (Operation Journeyman) to protect the Falkland Islands from potential invasion.^[12]

On 19 March 1982, a group of 50 Argentines posing as scrap metal merchants landed at Leith Harbour on South Georgia aboard the ARA Bahía Buen Suceso and hoisted the Argentine flag.^[13][14][15] The British government responded by sending HMS Endurance with 22 Royal Marines to expel the Argentines, but they were held off to avoid increasing the tension. Further Argentine troops, led by Lieutenant Alfredo Astiz (known as the "blond angel of death") were landed and the British set up a station to monitor the activities there. Argentine forces invaded the Falkland Islands on 2 April 1982 and took Grytviken the following day, leaving 44 marines.^[16] Despite seizing Grytviken and Leith, the Argentines were not able to take the entire island and several British Antarctic Survey field camps remained in the hands of the United Kingdom throughout the length of the war.

In response to the Argentine invasion, the British launched Operation Corporate (the recapture of the Falkland Islands) of which Operation Paraquet was part. Royal Marines retook Grytviken in two hours on 25 April 1982 using intelligence from the SBS who had infiltrated the island, following an attack on the ARA Santa Fe by Royal Naval helicopters.^[16][17] The garrison at Leith Harbour surrendered the following day, and Corbeta Uruguay surrendered on 20 June 1982. It was demolished that December.

Current status[link]

Grytviken in 1989

Britain has administered South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands separately from the Falklands since the islands were made a British dependent territory in their own right in 1985.^[18] The status of the territory was altered by the British Overseas Territories Act 2002, and the terminology now used is British overseas territory.

Argentina considers the islands to be part of the Islas del Atlántico Sur department of Tierra del Fuego Province. The claim to South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is written into the 1994 Argentine constitution alongside the claim to the Falkland Islands.^[19]

Current claims[link]

Claims by Argentina[link]

Argentina claims that:

• Argentina has, since 1927, protested every British action that it has known about that contradicted Argentine sovereignty of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.^{[citation needed]}

Claims by the United Kingdom[link]

The United Kingdom claims that:

• The first landing on South Georgia was under Captain Cook in 1775.^[3]
• The United Kingdom annexed South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands in 1908.^[3]
• Whaling stations on the islands (including the CAP) operated under British licence.^[3]
• The islands have been administered continuously by Britain since 1908, with the exception of "a short period of illegal Argentine occupation in 1982".^[3]

References[link]

See also[link]

• Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands

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A sandwich is handheld and portable. This one is made with salami.

A sandwich is a food item, typically consisting of two or more slices of bread with one or more fillings between them,^[1] or one slice of bread with a topping or toppings, commonly called an open sandwich.^[2][3] Sandwiches are a widely popular type of lunch food, typically taken to work, school, or picnics to be eaten as part of a packed lunch. They generally contain a combination of salad vegetables, meat, cheese, and a variety of sauces or savoury spreads. The bread can be used as it is, or it can be coated with any condiments to enhance flavour and texture. They are widely sold in restaurants and cafes. Several examples of unconventional sandwiches include tacos, burritos, and pizza.

The sandwich is the namesake of John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich.

History[link]

English sandwiches, crustless on a plate

Sandwich with fried egg, tomato and cucumber

The ancient Jewish sage Hillel the Elder is said to have wrapped meat from the Paschal lamb and bitter herbs between two pieces of old-fashioned soft matzah, flat, unleavened bread, during Passover in the manner of a modern "wrap" sandwich made with flatbread.^[4] Flat breads of only slightly varying kinds have long been used to scoop or wrap small amounts of food en route from platter to mouth throughout Western Asia and northern Africa. From Morocco to Ethiopia to India, bread is baked in flat rounds, contrasting with the European loaf tradition.

During the Middle Ages in Europe, thick slabs of coarse and usually stale bread, called "trenchers", were used as plates.^[5] After a meal, the food-soaked trencher was fed to a dog or to beggars at the tables of the wealthy, and eaten by diners in more modest circumstances. Trenchers were the precursors of open-face sandwiches.^[6] The immediate cultural precursor with a direct connection to the English sandwich was to be found in the Netherlands of the 17th century, where the naturalist John Ray observed^[7] that in the taverns beef hung from the rafters "which they cut into thin slices and eat with bread and butter laying the slices upon the butter"— explanatory specifications that reveal the Dutch belegde broodje, open faced sandwich, was as yet unfamiliar in England.

Initially perceived as food men shared while gaming and drinking at night, the sandwich slowly began appearing in polite society as a late-night meal among the aristocracy. The sandwich's popularity in Spain and England increased dramatically during the 19th century, when the rise of an industrial society and the working classes made fast, portable, and inexpensive meals essential.^[8]

It was at the same time that the sandwich finally began to appear outside of Europe. In the United States, the sandwich was first promoted as an elaborate meal at supper. By the early 20th century, as bread became a staple of the American diet, the sandwich became the same kind of popular, quick meal as was already widespread in the Mediterranean.^[8]

Etymology[link]

The first written usage of the English word appeared in Edward Gibbon's journal, in longhand, referring to "bits of cold meat" as a "Sandwich".^[9] It was named after John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, an 18th-century English aristocrat, although he was neither the inventor nor sustainer of the food. It is said that he ordered his valet to bring him meat tucked between two pieces of bread, and because Montagu also happened to be the Fourth Earl of Sandwich, others began to order "the same as Sandwich!"^[10][6] It is said that Lord Sandwich was fond of this form of food because it allowed him to continue playing cards, particularly cribbage, while eating without getting his cards greasy from eating meat with his bare hands.^[6]

The rumour in its familiar form appeared in Pierre-Jean Grosley's Londres (Neichatel, 1770), translated as A Tour to London 1772;^[11] Grosley's impressions had been formed during a year in London in 1765. The sober alternative is provided by Sandwich's biographer, N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests Sandwich's commitments to the navy, to politics and the arts mean the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his desk.

Before being known as sandwiches, the food seems to simply have been known as "bread and meat" or "bread and cheese".^[6]

In India[link]

When the British first introduced the sandwich in India, the Indians called them double roti (डबल रोटी). This term has today become the broad term for all type of leavened bread even not put in a sandwich arrangement.

Usage[link]

In the United States, a court in Boston, Massachusetts ruled that "sandwich" includes at least two slices of bread.^[1] and "under this definition, this court finds that the term "sandwich" is not commonly understood to include burritos, tacos, and quesadillas, which are typically made with a single tortilla and stuffed with a choice filling of meat, rice, and beans."^[12] The issue stemmed from the question of whether a restaurant that sold burritos could move into a shopping centre where another restaurant had a no-compete clause in its lease prohibiting other "sandwich" shops.

In Spain, where the word sandwich is borrowed from the English language,^[13] it refers to a food item made with English sandwich bread.^[14] It is otherwise known as a bocadillo.

The verb to sandwich has the meaning to position anything between two other things of a different character, or to place different elements alternately,^[15] and the noun sandwich has related meanings derived from this more general definition. For example, an ice cream sandwich consists of a layer of ice cream between two layers of cake or cookie.^[16] Similarly, Oreos and Custard Creams are described as sandwich cookies because they consist of a soft filling between layers of cookie.^[17]

The word "butty" is often used in Northern areas of the United Kingdom as a synonym for "sandwich," particularly in the name of certain kinds of sandwiches such as a chip butty, bacon butty, or sausage butty. "Sarnie" is a similar colloquialism, as is the Australian English colloquialism "sanger".

Sandwich basics[link]

Sandwiches generally consist of a bread, a spread and a filling. In the most technical sense of the word, Pizza can be considered a sandwich (although not in the typical sense).^[18] Bread serves primary as an edible container for the food inside, it can also provide the bulk and nutrients, regardless of the type, any bread used for a sandwich should ideally be used fresh. The spread serves three main purposes, it prevents the bread from soaking up the filling causing it to become soggy, it adds flavour as well as moisture to the sandwich^[19] .

Types of sandwiches[link]

Sandwiches consist of two basic types, hot and cold^[20][21] .

Examples of sandwiches[link]

The following represent common varieties of sandwiches.^[22]

• Peanut butter and jelly sandwich
• Club Sandwich
• Sloppy Joe
• Reuben
• Monte Cristo
• Grilled Cheese
• BLT
• Muffuletta
• Dagwood
• Po' boy
• Pilgrim
• French Dip
• Philadelphia Cheesesteak
• Submarine sandwich

Gallery[link]

• 

  Club sandwich

• 

  Croque monsieur French ham and cheese.

• 

  Peanut butter and jelly sandwich

• 

  A Philly cheese steak, a type of submarine sandwich

• 

  Reuben sandwich

• 

  Smoked meat sandwich

• 

  French bread sandwich with fries

• 

  Example of a large sandwich. Weight approx. 2 pounds (1 kg), total.

• 

  Sandwich making

• 

  Shawarma sandwich

• 

  A cucumber sandwich with chips and cake

See also[link]

Food portal

• List of sandwiches
• namesake

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sandwich

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Sandwich

• The British Sandwich Association

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Leo Terram Propriam Protegat"  (Latin) "Let the Lion protect his own land" or "May the Lion protect his own land"
Anthem: "God Save the Queen"
Region map
Capital		King Edward Point (Grytviken) 54°17′S 36°30′W / 54.283°S 36.5°W / -54.283; -36.5
Official language(s)		English (de facto)
Government		British Overseas Territory
-	Monarch	H.M. Queen Elizabeth II
-	Commissioner	Nigel Haywood
Area
-	Total	3,903 km2  1,507 sq mi
Population
-	2006 estimate	30
-	Density	0.005/km2 (n/a) 0.013/sq mi
Currency		Pound sterling (GBP)
Time zone		GST (UTC−2)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		GS
Internet TLD		.gs

South Georgia Island

Central South Georgia: Cumberland Bay; Thatcher Peninsula with King Edward Cove (Grytviken); Allardyce Range with the summit Mt. Paget (NASA imagery)
Map by James Cook (1777, South-up)
Geography
Location	Antarctic
Highest elevation	2,934 m (9,626 ft)
Highest point	Mt Paget
Country
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
Demographics
Population	30 (as of 2006)
Ethnic groups	Britons

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (SGSSI) is a British overseas territory in the southern Atlantic Ocean. It is a remote and inhospitable collection of islands, consisting of South Georgia and a chain of smaller islands, known as the South Sandwich Islands. South Georgia is 167.4 kilometres (104 mi) long and 1.4 to 37 km (0.9 to 23.0 miles) wide^[1] and is by far the largest island in the territory. The South Sandwich Islands lie about 520 kilometres (320 mi) southeast of South Georgia.^[1] The total land area of the territory is 3,903 square kilometres (1,507 sq mi).^[2]

There is no native population on the islands; the present inhabitants are the British Government Officer, Deputy Postmaster, scientists, and support staff from the British Antarctic Survey who maintain scientific bases at Bird Island and at the capital, King Edward Point, as well as museum staff at nearby Grytviken.

The United Kingdom claimed sovereignty over South Georgia in 1775 and the South Sandwich Islands in 1908. In 1908 the United Kingdom annexed both South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The territory of "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands" was formed in 1985; previously it had been governed as part of the Falkland Islands Dependencies. Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927 and claimed the South Sandwich Islands in 1938.

Argentina maintained a naval station, Corbeta Uruguay on Thule Island in the South Sandwich Islands, from 1976 until 1982 when it was closed by the Royal Navy. The Argentine claim over South Georgia contributed to the 1982 Falklands War, during which Argentine forces briefly occupied the island. Argentina continues to claim sovereignty over South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands.

History[link]

South Georgia[link]

The Island of South Georgia is said to have been first sighted in 1675 by Anthony de la Roché, a London merchant, and was named Roche Island on a number of early maps. It was sighted by a commercial Spanish ship named León operating out of Saint-Malo on 28 June or 29 June 1756.^[3] It has been confused with Pepys Island, discovered by Dampier and Cowley in 1683, but this proved to be a "phantom" island.

Captain James Cook circumnavigated the island in 1775 and made the first landing. He claimed the territory for the Kingdom of Great Britain, and named it "the Isle of Georgia" in honour of King George III. British arrangements for the government of South Georgia were first established under the 1843 British Letters Patent.

In 1882–1883, a German expedition for the First International Polar Year was stationed at Royal Bay on the southeast side of the island. The scientists of this group observed the transit of Venus and recorded waves produced by the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.

Throughout the 19th century, South Georgia was a sealers' base as well as a whalers' base beginning in the 20th century, until whaling ended in the 1960s. A Norwegian, Carl Anton Larsen, established the first land-based whaling station and first permanent habitation at Grytviken in 1904. It operated through his Argentine Fishing Company, which settled in Grytviken.^[4][5] The station remained in operation until 1965.

Whaling stations operated under leases granted by the (British) Governor of the Falkland Islands. The seven stations, all on the north coast with its sheltered harbours were, starting from the west:

• Prince Olav Harbour (from 1911–1916 factory ship and small land-based station 1917–1931)
• Leith Harbour (1909–1965)
• Stromness (from 1907 factory ship, land-based station 1913–1931, repair yard to 1960/1961)
• Husvik (from 1907 factory ship, land-based station 1910–1960, not in operation 1930–1945)
• Grytviken (1904–1964)
• Godthul (1908–1929, only a rudimentary land base, main operations on factory ship)
• Ocean Harbour (1909–1920)

The whaling stations tryworks were unpleasant and dangerous places to work. One was called "a charnel house boiling wholesale in vaseline" by an early 20th century visitor. Its "putrid vapors [resembled] the pong of bad fish, manure, and a tanning works mixed together," wrote Tim Flannery, who noted one bizarre peril: "A rotting whale could fill with gas to bursting. ejecting a fetus the size of a motor vehicle with sufficient force to kill a man."^[6]

With the end of the whaling industry, the stations were abandoned. Apart from a few preserved buildings such as the museum and church at Grytviken, only their decaying remains survive.

The church at Grytviken

A panorama view of South Georgia; taken by Frank Hurley during the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition

From 1905, the Argentine Meteorological Office cooperated in maintaining a meteorological observatory at Grytviken under the British lease requirements of the whaling station until these changed in 1949.

In 1908 the United Kingdom issued a further Letters Patent to establish constitutional arrangements for its possessions in the South Atlantic. The Letters Patent covered South Georgia, the South Orkneys, the South Shetlands, the South Sandwich Islands, and Graham Land. (The claim was extended in 1917 to include a sector of Antarctica reaching to the South Pole.)

In 1909 an administrative centre and residence were established at King Edward Point on South Georgia, near the whaling station of Grytviken. A permanent local British administration and resident Magistrate exercised effective possession, enforcement of British law, and regulation of all economic, scientific and other activities in the territory, which was then governed as the Falkland Islands Dependencies.

In about 1912, what is according to some accounts the largest whale ever caught, a blue whale of 33.58 metres (110 ft), was landed at Grytviken.^[7][8]

In April 1916, Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition became stranded on Elephant Island, some 800 miles (1,300 km) southwest of South Georgia. Shackleton and five companions set out in a small boat to summon help, and on 10 May, after an epic voyage, they landed at King Haakon Bay on South Georgia's south coast. While three stayed at the coast, Shackleton and the two others, Tom Crean and Frank Worsley, went on to cover 22 miles (35 km) overland to reach help at Stromness whaling station. The remaining 22 members of the expedition, who had stayed on Elephant Island, were subsequently rescued. In January 1922, during a later expedition, Shackleton died on board ship while moored in King Edward Cove, South Georgia. He is buried at Grytviken. The ashes of another noted Antarctic explorer, Frank Wild, were interred next to Shackleton in 2011.

Argentina claimed South Georgia in 1927.^[9]

Historical and modern settlements of South Georgia Island

During World War II the Royal Navy deployed an armed merchant vessel to patrol South Georgian and Antarctic waters against German raiders, along with two four-inch shore guns (still present) protecting Cumberland Bay and Stromness Bay, manned by volunteers from among the Norwegian whalers. The base at King Edward Point was expanded as a research facility in 1949/1950 by the British Antarctic Survey, which until 1962 was called the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey.

The Falklands War was precipitated on 19 March 1982 when a group of Argentinians, posing as scrap metal merchants, occupied the abandoned whaling station at Leith Harbour on South Georgia. On 3 April the Argentine troops attacked and occupied Grytviken. Among the commanding officers of the Argentine Garrison was Alfredo Astiz, a Captain in the Argentine Navy who, years later, was convicted of felonies committed during the Dirty War in Argentina.

The island was recaptured by British forces on 25 April in Operation Paraquet. In 1985 South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands ceased to be administered as a Falkland Islands Dependency and became a separate territory. The King Edward Point base, which had become a small military garrison after the Falklands war, returned to civilian use in 2001 and is now operated by the British Antarctic Survey.

South Sandwich Islands[link]

Captain James Cook discovered the southern eight islands of the Sandwich Islands Group in 1775, although he lumped the southernmost three together, and their status as separate islands was not established until 1820 by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.^[10] The northern three islands were discovered by Bellingshausen in 1819. The islands were tentatively named "Sandwich Land" by Cook, although he also commented that they might be a group of islands rather than a single body of land. The name was chosen in honour of the 4th Earl of Sandwich, 1st Lord of the Admiralty. The word "South" was later added to distinguish them from the "Sandwich Islands", now known as the Hawaiian Islands.

The United Kingdom formally annexed the South Sandwich Islands through the 1908 Letters Patent, grouping them with other British-held territory in Antarctica as the Falkland Islands Dependencies.

Argentina claimed the South Sandwich Islands in 1938, and challenged British sovereignty in the Islands on several occasions. From 25 January 1955, through mid-1956 Argentina maintained the summer station Teniente Esquivel at Ferguson Bay on the southeastern coast of Thule Island. Argentina maintained a naval base (Corbeta Uruguay) from 1976 to 1982, in the lee (southern east coast) of the same island. Although the British discovered the presence of the Argentine base in 1978, protested and tried to resolve the issue by diplomatic means, no effort was made to remove them by force until after the Falklands War. The base was removed on 20 June 1982.

On 10 February 2008, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake had its epicentre 205 km (127 mi) SSE of Bristol Island.^[11] On 30 June 2008 at 06:17:53 UTC, a 7.0 magnitude earthquake struck the region. Its epicentre was at 58.160S 21.893W, 283 km (176 mi) ENE (73 degrees) of Bristol Island.^[12]

Geography[link]

CIA map of the Islands

South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are a collection of islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. Most of the islands, rising steeply from the sea, are rugged and mountainous. At higher elevations the islands are permanently covered with ice and snow.

South Georgia Group[link]

The South Georgia Group (Spanish: Georgias del Sur) lies about 1,390 kilometres (864 mi) east-southeast of the Falkland Islands, at 54°–55°S, 36°–38°W. It comprises South Georgia Island itself (by far the largest island in the territory), and the islands that immediately surround it and some remote and isolated islets to the west and east-southeast. It has a total land area of 3,756 km² (1,450 sq mi), including satellite islands (but excluding the South Sandwich Islands which form a separate island group).

Islands in the South Georgia Group[link]

South Georgia Island (San Pedro in Spanish), lies at 54°15′S 36°45′W / 54.25°S 36.75°W / -54.25; -36.75Coordinates: 54°15′S 36°45′W / 54.25°S 36.75°W / -54.25; -36.75 and has an area of 3,528 km² (1,362 sq mi). It is mountainous and largely barren. Eleven peaks rise to over 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) high, their slopes furrowed with deep gorges filled with glaciers; the largest is Fortuna Glacier. The highest peak is Mount Paget in the Allardyce Range at 2,934 metres (9,626 ft).

Geologically, the island consists of gneiss and argillaceous schists, with no trace of fossils, showing that the island is, like the Falkland Islands, a surviving fragment of some greater land-mass now vanished, most probably indicating a former extension of the Andean system.

Smaller islands and islets off the coast of South Georgia Island include:

View of Grytviken.

• Annenkov Island
• Bird Island
• Cooper Island
• Grass Island
• Pickersgill Islands
• Welcome Islands
• Willis Islands
• Trinity Island

The following remote rocks are also considered part of the South Georgia Group:

• Shag Rocks 185 km (115 mi) west-northwest of South Georgia Island
• Black Rock 169 km (105 mi) west-northwest of South Georgia Island and 16 km (9.9 mi) southeast of the Shag Rocks
• Clerke Rocks 56 km (35 mi) east-southeast of South Georgia Island

South Sandwich Islands[link]

NASA satellite photograph of Montagu Island

The South Sandwich Islands (Spanish name: Islas Sandwich del Sur) comprise 11 mostly volcanic islands (excluding tiny satellite islands and offshore rocks), with some active volcanoes. They form an island arc running north-south in the region 56°18'–59°27'S, 26°23'–28°08'W, between about 350 miles (560 km) and 500 miles (800 km) southeast of South Georgia.

The northernmost of the South Sandwich Islands form the Traversay Islands and Candlemas Islands groups, while the southernmost make up Southern Thule. The three largest islands—Saunders, Montagu and Bristol—lie between the two. The Islands' highest point is Mount Belinda (1,370 m/4,495 ft) on Montagu Island.

The South Sandwich Islands are uninhabited, though a permanently manned Argentine research station was located on Thule Island from 1976 to 1982 (for details, see "History" section above). There are automatic weather stations on Thule (Morrell) Island and Zavodovski. To the northwest of Zavodovski Island is the Protector Shoal, a submarine volcano.

The following table lists the South Sandwich Islands from north to south:

A series of six passages separates each of the islands or island groups in the chain. They are, from north to south: Zavodovski I.—Traverse passage—Visokoi I.—Brown's passage—Candlemas Is.—Shackleton's passage—Saunders I.—Larsen's passage—Montagu I.—Biscoe's passage—Bristol I.—Forster's passage—Southern Thule. Nelson Channel is the passage between Candlemas and Vindication Is.

Climate[link]

NASA satellite image of South Georgia Island covered with snow.

The South Sandwich Islands conspire with air currents to make wave patterns in clouds.

The climate is classified as polar, and the weather is highly variable and harsh. Typical daily maximum temperatures in South Georgia at sea level are around 0 °C (32 °F) in winter (August) and 8 °C (46.4 °F) in summer (January). Winter minimum temperatures are typically about −5 °C (23 °F) and rarely dip below −10 °C (14 °F). Annual precipitation in South Georgia is about 1,500 mm (59.1 in), much of which falls as sleet or snow, which is possible in any month. Inland, the snow line in summer is at an altitude of about 300 m (984 ft).

Westerly winds blow throughout the year interspersed with periods of calm—indeed, in 1963, 25% of winds were in the calm category at King Edward point, and the mean wind speed of around 8 knots is around half that of the Falkland Islands. This gives the eastern side of South Georgia (leeward side) a more pleasant climate than the exposed western side. The prevailing weather conditions generally make the islands difficult to approach by ship, though the north coast of South Georgia has several large bays which provide good anchorage.

Sunshine, as with many South Atlantic Islands, is low, at just 21.5% of possible, translating into around 1000 hours annually, however, a large part of this is due to the local topography. A study around 1960^[13] showed sunshine recording instruments were obscured entirely during June, and significantly in other months. It was estimated theoretical sunshine exposure minus obstructions would be around 14% at Bird Island, and 35% at King Edward point—or in hourly terms ranging from around 650 hours in the West to 1500 hours in the East, illustrating the effect the Allardyce range has in breaking up cloud cover.

During mountain wind conditions, the winds blow straight up the western side and straight down the eastern side of the mountains and become much warmer and drier; this produces the most pleasant conditions when temperatures can occasionally rise over 20 °C (68 °F) on summer days. The highest recorded temperature was 28.8 °C (83.8 °F) at Grytviken.^[14] and 26.3 °C (79.3 °F) at nearby King Edward point, both on the sheltered East side of the Islands. Conversely, the highest recorded temperature at Bird Island on the windward Western side is a mere 14.5 °C (58.1 °F). As one might expect, the sheltered eastern side can also record lower winter temperatures—the absolute minimum for Grytviken being −19.4 °C (−2.9 °F), King Edward Point −18.9 °C (−2.0 °F), but Bird Island just −11.4 °C (11.5 °F)

The seas surrounding South Georgia are cold throughout the year due to the proximity of the Antarctic Current. They usually remain free of pack ice in winter, though thin ice may form in sheltered bays, and icebergs are common.^[15] Sea temperatures drop to 0 °C (32 °F) in late August and rise to around 4 °C (39.2 °F) only in early April.

The South Sandwich Islands are much colder than South Georgia, being further south and more exposed to cold outbreaks from the Antarctic continent. They are also surrounded by sea ice from the middle of May to late November (even longer at their southern end).^[16] Recorded temperature extremes at South Thule Island have ranged from −29.8 °C (−21.6 °F) to 17.7 °C (63.9 °F).

Government[link]

Executive power is vested in The Queen and is exercised by the Commissioner, a post held by the Governor of the Falkland Islands. The current Commissioner is Nigel Haywood, who became Commissioner on 16 October 2010. A Senior Executive Officer (Martin Collins) deals with policy matters and is Director of SGSSI Fisheries, responsible for the allocation of fishing licences. An Executive Officer (Richard McKee) deals with administrative matters relating to the territory. There is also an Environmental Officer (Darren Christie). The Financial Secretary and Attorney General of the territory are appointed ex officio similar appointments in the Falkland Islands' Government.

As there are no permanent inhabitants on the islands, there is no legislative council and no elections are held. The UK Foreign Office manages the foreign relations of the territory. Since 1982 the territory celebrates Liberation Day on 14 June.

The constitution of the territory (adopted 3 October 1985), the manner in which its government is directed, and the availability of judicial review were discussed in a series of litigations in 2001 to 2005; see in particular Regina v. Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (Appellant) ex parte Quark Fishing Limited [2005] UKHL 57.^[20] Although its government is entirely directed by the UK Foreign Office, it was held that its decisions under that direction could not be challenged as if they were in law decisions of a UK government department; thus the European Convention on Human Rights did not apply.

Economy[link]

As there are no native inhabitants, economic activity in South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands is limited. The territory has revenues of £3.9 million, 90% of which is derived from fishing licences (2002 figures).^[21] Other sources of revenue are the sale of postage stamps and coins, tourism and customs and harbour dues.^{[citation needed]}

Fishing[link]

Fishing takes place around South Georgia and in adjacent waters in some months of the year, with fishing licences sold by the territory for Patagonian toothfish, cod icefish and krill. Fishing licences bring in millions of pounds a year, most of which is spent on fishery protection and research. All fisheries are regulated and managed in accordance with the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) system.

In 2001 the South Georgia government was cited by the Marine Stewardship Council for its sustainable Patagonian toothfish fishery, certifying that South Georgia met the MSC's environmental standards. The certificate places limits on the timing and quantity of Patagonian toothfish that may be caught.^[22]

Tourism[link]

Tourism has become a larger source of income in recent years, with many cruise ships and sailing yachts visiting the area (the only way to visit South Georgia is by sea, since no airstrips currently exist on the Islands). The territory gains income from landing charges and the sale of souvenirs. Cruise ships often combine a Grytviken visit with a trip to the Antarctic Peninsula.

Charter yacht visits usually begin in the Falkland Islands, last between four and six weeks, and enable guests to visit remote harbours of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Sailing vessels are now required to anchor out and can no longer tie up to the old whaling piers on shore. One exception to this is the recently upgraded/repaired yacht berth at Grytviken. All other jetties at former whaling stations lie inside a 200 m (656 ft) exclusion zone; and berthing, or putting ropes ashore, at these, is forbidden. When visiting South Georgia, yachts are normally expected to report to the Government Officer at King Edward Point in the first instance, before moving round the island. [Capt. Ken Whittaker, Master, FPV "Pharos SG"^{[clarification needed]}].

The island has featured in the Warren Miller video Storm.

Postage stamps[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

A large source of income from abroad also comes from the issue of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands postage stamps which are produced in the UK.

A reasonable issue policy (few sets of stamps are issued each year) along with attractive subject matter (especially whales) makes them popular with topical stamp collectors.

There are only four genuine first day cover sets from 16 March 1982 in existence. They were stamped at the South Georgia Post Office; all those in circulation were stamped elsewhere and sent out, but the only genuine ones were kept at the Post Office on South Georgia. These four sets were removed during the Falklands War by a member of staff of the British Antarctic Survey in the few moments the Argentinians allowed them to gather their belongings. Everything else was burnt, but these four sets were saved and brought to the UK by Robert Headland, BAS.

Currency[link]

The pound sterling is the official currency of the islands, and the same notes and coins are used as in the United Kingdom. For more information on British currency in the wider region see Pound sterling in the South Atlantic and the Antarctic.

Flora and fauna[link]

Southern Giant Petrel on South Georgia Island

120,000 King Penguins (Aptenodytes patagonicus) on Salisbury Plain.

King Penguins at St Andrews Bay, South Georgia Island, 1996.

Plants[link]

The parts of the islands that are not permanently covered in snow or ice are part of the Scotia Sea Islands tundra ecoregion. Native vegetation on South Georgia is limited to grasses, mosses, lichens, ferns and a few small flowering plants. A number of introduced species have become naturalised; many of these were introduced by whalers in cattle fodder, and some are considered invasive.^[23] There are no trees or shrubs.

Birds[link]

South Georgia supports many sea birds, including albatross, a large colony of King Penguins and penguins of various other species, along with petrels, prions, shags, skuas, gulls and terns. There is one songbird which is unique to the archipelago, the South Georgia Pipit, and a duck, the South Georgia Pintail. Both South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands have been identified as Important Bird Areas (IBA) by BirdLife International.^[24]

Mammals[link]

Wikispecies has information related to: South Georgia Island nonmarine fauna

Seals are frequent on the islands, and whales may be seen in the surrounding waters. There are no native land mammals, though reindeer, brown rats and mice have been introduced through the activities of man. The latter have destroyed tens of millions of ground-nesting birds’ eggs and chicks, and scientists plan to eradicate the rats over four years starting 2011. It will be by far the largest rodent eradication attempt in the world to date.^[25][26][27]

Reindeer were introduced to South Georgia in 1911 by Norwegian whalers for meat and for sport hunting. In February 2011 the authorities announced that, due to the reindeer's detrimental effect on native species and the threat of their spreading to presently pristine areas, a complete cull would take place, leading to the eradication of reindeer from the island.^[28]

Marine ecosystem[link]

The seas around South Georgia have a high level of biodiversity. In a recent study (2009–11), South Georgia has been discovered to contain one of the highest levels of biodiversity among all the ecosystems on Earth.^[29] The marine inhabitants endemic to this ecosystem outnumber (in respect to species) and surpass well-known regions such as the Galápagos or Ecuador in respect to biodiversity.^[30] This marine ecosystem is thought to be vulnerable because its low temperatures mean that it can only repair itself very slowly.^[31] In order to protect marine biodiversity, on 23 February 2012 the territory's government created the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area, the world largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km².^[32][33][34]

Wandering Albatross at South Georgia Island

Antarctic Pearlwort at St. Andrews Bay, South Georgia

South Georgia glacier and penguin colony

Military[link]

HMS Endurance docked at Portsmouth

After the Falklands War in 1982, a full-time British military presence was maintained at King Edward Point on South Georgia. This was scaled down during the 1990s, and the last detachment left South Georgia in March 2001, when the new station was built and occupied by the British Antarctic Survey.

The main British military facility in the region is at RAF Mount Pleasant and the adjacent Mare Harbour naval base on East Falkland. Other than that, a handful of British naval vessels patrol the region. They visit South Georgia a few times each year, sometimes deploying small patrols of infantry. Flights by RAF C-130 Hercules and Vickers VC10 aircraft occasionally patrol the territory.

A Royal Navy destroyer or frigate and a Royal Fleet Auxiliary vessel carry out the Atlantic Patrol Task (South) mission in the surrounding area.

HMS Endurance, the British Royal Navy ice patrol ship, operated in the South Georgia area during part of most southern summer seasons until her near loss due to flooding in 2008. She carried out hydrological and mapping work as well as assisting with scientific fieldwork for the British Antarctic Survey, film and photographic units, and youth expedition group BSES Expeditions. Until a final decision on the fate of Endurance is made, the Royal Navy has chartered a Norwegian icebreaker, renamed the HMS Protector, to act as replacement for three years.^[35]

See also[link]

	Geography portal
	South America portal
	United Kingdom portal

• Bibliography of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
• Index of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands-related articles
• British Overseas Territories
• List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands
• South Orkney Islands
• South Shetland Islands

Notes[link]

References[link]

• George Forster, A Voyage Round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years 1772, 3, 4 and 5 (2 vols.), London, 1777.
• R. K. Headland, The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press, 1984. ISBN 0-521-25274-1.

External links[link]

Find more about South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

Government

• South Georgia government website

General information

• South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands entry at The World Factbook
• South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands

Other

• South Georgia Association website
• South Georgia Heritage Trust
• Live picture from the South Georgia webcam
• Operation Paraquat
• Argentine invasion of South Georgia
• South Georgia Wiki
• Constitution of South Georgia

Geographic locale v t e South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands General Coat of arms · Commissioner · Flag · Foreign relations · History · Languages · List of South Georgians · Operation Paraquet · South Georgia Museum · .gs · Sovereignty · Invasion of South Georgia Settlements and whaling stations Grytviken (King Edward Point) · Godthul · Husvik · Leith Harbour · Ocean Harbour · Prince Olav Harbour · Rosita Harbour · Stromness · Corbeta Uruguay South Georgia Islands Annenkov Island · Bird Island · Clerke Rocks · Cooper Island · Grass Island · Kupriyanov Islands · Pickersgill Islands · Saddle Island · Shag Rocks · South Georgia · Welcome Islands · Willis Islands  · Trinity Island  · Grassholm  · Black Rocks  · Black Rock South Sandwich Islands Bellingshausen · Bristol · Candlemas · Cook · Leskov · Montagu · Saunders · Thule · Vindication · Visokoi · Zavodovski · Traversay Islands Landmarks Allardyce Range  · Fortuna Glacier  · Gold Harbour · Larsen Harbour · Mount Belinda · Mount Paget · Peggotty Bluff  · Salisbury Plain · Salvesen Range · Southern Thule · Thatcher Peninsula  · Grace Glacier  · Lucas Glacier  · Bay of Isles  · Point Abrahamsen  · Sheep Point  · Stromness Bay  · Cumberland Bay  · Possession Bay  · Sheer Point  · Busen Point v t e British Overseas Territories and Crown dependencies Overseas territories Anguilla Bermuda British Antarctic Territory British Indian Ocean Territory British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Gibraltar Montserrat Pitcairn Islands Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Turks and Caicos Islands Crown dependencies Guernsey1 Jersey Isle of Man Sovereign base areas Akrotiri and Dhekelia 1 includes Alderney and Sark v t e Outlying territories of European countries Territories under European sovereignty but closer to or on continents other than Europe (see inclusion criteria for further information) Denmark Greenland France Clipperton Island French Guiana French Polynesia Guadeloupe Martinique Mayotte New Caledonia Réunion Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna French Southern and Antarctic Lands Île Amsterdam Île Saint-Paul Crozet Islands Kerguelen Islands Adélie Land Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean Italy Pantelleria Pelagie Islands Lampedusa Lampione Linosa Netherlands Aruba Caribbean Netherlands Bonaire Saba Sint Eustatius Curaçao Sint Maarten Norway Bouvet Island Peter I Island Queen Maud Land Portugal Azores Madeira Spain Canary Islands Ceuta Melilla Plazas de soberanía Islas Chafarinas Peñón de Alhucemas Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera United Kingdom Anguilla Bermuda British Virgin Islands Cayman Islands Falkland Islands Montserrat Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha Turks and Caicos Islands British Antarctic Territory British Indian Ocean Territory Pitcairn Islands South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands v t e Peri-Antarctic countries and overseas territories Argentina Australia (Heard Island and McDonald Islands Macquarie Island) Bouvet Island Chile Falkland Islands French Southern and Antarctic Lands (Kerguelen Islands) New Zealand (New Zealand Subantarctic Islands) South Africa (Prince Edward Islands) South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands "Peri-Antarctic" (meaning "close to the Antarctic") does not include territorial claims on Antarctica itself.