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Chinese cuisine
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A Chinese painting of an outdoor banquet. The painting is a Song Dynasty remake of a Tang Dynasty original.

Chinese cuisine is any of several styles originating from regions of China, some of which have become increasingly popular in other parts of the world – from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. The history of Chinese cuisine stretches back for many centuries and produced both change from period to period and variety in what could be called traditional Chinese food, leading Chinese to pride themselves on eating a wide range of foods. Major traditions include Anhui, Cantonese, Fujian, Hunan, Jiangsu, Shandong, Szechuan, and Zhejiang cuisines.^[1]

Eight Culinary Traditions of China[link]

Chinese dishes may be categorized as one of the Eight Culinary Traditions of China, also called the "Eight Regional Cuisines" and the "Eight Cuisines of China". They are as follows:

• Hui: Anhui
• Yue (Cantonese): Guangdong
• Min: Fujian
• Xiang: Hunan (Can include Xiangjiang Region, Dongting Lake and Xiangxi styles)
• Su (aka Huaiyang Cuisine): Jiangsu
• Lu: Shandong (Include Jinan, Jiaodong styles, etc.)
• Chuan: Sichuan
• Zhe: Zhejiang (Can include Hangzhou, Ningbo, and Shaoxing styles)

Regional cuisines[link]

This section requires expansion.

Chinese fried rice

A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine, but perhaps the best known and most influential are Guangdong (Cantonese) cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Jiangsu cuisine and Sichuan cuisine.^[2][3][4] These styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as available resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. One style may favour the use of lots of garlic and shallots over lots of chilli and spices, while another may favour preparing seafood over other meats and fowl. Jiangsu cuisine favours cooking techniques such as braising and stewing, while Sichuan cuisine employs baking, just to name a few.^[2] Hairy crab is a highly sought after local delicacy in Shanghai, as it can be found in lakes within the region. Beijing Roast Duck (otherwise known as 'Peking Duck') is another popular dish well known outside of China.^[2] Based on the raw materials and ingredients used, the method of preparation and cultural differences, a variety of foods with different flavours and textures are prepared in different regions of the country. Many traditional regional cuisines rely on basic methods of preservation such as drying, salting, pickling and fermentation.^[5]

Chuan (Sichuan)[link]

Szechuan cuisine, also called Sichuan cuisine, is a style of Chinese cuisine originating in the Sichuan Province of southwestern China famed for bold flavors, particularly the pungency and spiciness resulting from liberal use of garlic and chili peppers, as well as the unique flavour of the Sichuan peppercorn (花椒, huājiāo) and zhitianjiao(指天椒, zhǐtiānjiāo). Peanuts, sesame paste and ginger are also prominent ingredients in Szechuan cooking.

Hui (Anhui)[link]

Anhui cuisine (Chinese: 徽菜 or 安徽菜, Ānhuīcài) is one of the Eight Culinary Traditions of China. It is derived from the native cooking styles of the Huangshan Mountains region in China and is similar to Jiangsu cuisine. But it emphasizes less on seafood and more on a wide variety of local herbs and vegetables. Anhui province is particularly endowed with fresh bamboo and mushroom crops.

Lu (Shandong)[link]

Shandong Cuisine is commonly and simply known as Lu cuisine. With a long history, Shandong Cuisine once formed an important part of the imperial cuisine and was widely promoted in North China. However, it isn't so popular in South China (including the more embracing Shanghai).

Shandong Cuisine is featured by a variety of cooking techniques and seafood. The typical dishes on local menu are braised abalone, braised trepang, sweet and sour carp, Jiuzhuan Dachang and Dezhou Chicken. Various Shandong snacks are also worth trying.

Min (Fujian)[link]

A bowl of Fujian thick soup, or geng (羹, gēng)

Fujian cuisine is a Fujian coastal region.^[1] Woodland delicacies such as edible mushrooms and bamboo shoots are also utilized.^[1] Slicing techniques are valued in the cuisine and utilized to enhance the flavor, aroma and texture of seafood and other foods.^[1] Fujian cuisine is often served in a broth or soup, with cooking techniques including braising, stewing, steaming and boiling.^[1]

Su (Jiangsu, Huaiyang cuisine)[link]

Jiangsu cuisine, also known as Su (Cai) Cuisine for short, is one of the major components of Chinese cuisine, which consists of the styles of Yangzhou, Nanjing, Suzhou and Zhenjiang dishes. It is very famous all over the world for its distinctive style and taste. It is especially popular in the lower reach of the Yangtze River.

Typical courses of Jiangsu cuisine are Jinling salted dried duck (Nanjing's most famous dish), crystal meat (pork heels in a bright, brown sauce), clear crab shell meatballs (pork meatballs in crab shell powder, fatty, yet fresh), Yangzhou steamed Jerky strips (dried tofu, chicken, ham and pea leaves), triple combo duck, dried duck, and Farewell My Concubine (soft-shelled turtle stewed with many other ingredients such as chicken, mushrooms and wine).

Yue (Hong Kong and Guangdong)[link]

Dim sum, literally "touch your heart", is a Cantonese term for small hearty dishes.^[2] These bite-sized portions are prepared using traditional cooking methods such as frying, steaming, stewing and baking. It is designed so that one person may taste a variety of different dishes. Some of these may include rice rolls, lotus leaf rice, turnip cakes, buns, shui jiao-style dumplings, stir-fried green vegetables, congee porridge, soups, etc. The Cantonese style of dining, yum cha, combines the variety of dim sum dishes with the drinking of tea. Yum cha literally means 'drink tea'.^[2] Cantonese style is the unique and charm dishes, which enjoy a long history and a good reputation both at home and abroad. It is common with other parts of the diet and cuisine in Chinese food culture. Back in ancient times, and the Central Plains on Lingnan Yue Chu family has close contacts. With the changes of dynasty historically, many people escaped the war and crossed the Central Plains, the increasing integration of the two communities. Central Plains culture gradually moved to the south. As a result, their food production techniques, cookware, utensils and property turned into a rich combination of Agriculture, which is the origin of Cantonese food. Cantonese cuisine originated in the Han.

Xiang (Hunan)[link]

Hunan cuisine is well known for its hot spicy flavor,^[6] fresh aroma and deep color. Common cooking techniques include stewing, frying, pot-roasting, braising, and smoking. Due to the high agricultural output of the region, there are varied ingredients for Hunan dishes.

Xinjiang[link]

The cuisine of Xinjiang reflects the region's many ethnic groups and refers particularly to Uyghur cuisine. Signature ingredients include roasted mutton, kebabs, roasted fish and rice. Because of the Islamic population, the food is predominantly halal.

Zhe (Zhejiang)[link]

Zhejiang cuisine (Chinese: 浙菜 or 浙江菜, Zhèjiāngcài), one of the Eight Culinary Traditions of China, derives from the native cooking styles of the Zhejiang region. The dishes are not greasy, having but instead a fresh, soft flavor with a mellow fragrance.

The cuisine consists of at least four styles, each of which originates from different cities in the province:

• Hangzhou style, characterized by rich variations and the use of bamboo shoots
• Shaoxing style, specializing in poultry and freshwater fish
• Ningbo style, specializing in seafood
• Shanghai style, a combination of different Zhe styles, very famous for its dimsum

Other[link]

Many other regions with unique dishes and styles are represented in China, including Hakka, Macau, Hainan, Taiwan, and Northeast cuisines.

Staple foods[link]

Rice[link]

Rice is a major staple food for people from rice farming areas in southern China.^{[citation needed]} It is most commonly eaten in the form of steamed rice. Rice is also used to produce beers, wines and vinegars. Rice is one of the most popular foods in China and is used in many many dishes.

Noodles[link]

Misua noodle making in Lukang, Taiwan

Chinese noodles come dry or fresh in a variety of sizes, shapes and textures and are often served in soups or fried as toppings. Some varieties, such as Shou Mian (寿面, literally noodles of longevity), are symbolic of long life and good health according to Chinese tradition.^[2]

Soybeans[link]

Tofu is made of soybeans and is another popular product that supplies protein.^[5]

Wheat[link]

In wheat farming areas in Northern China, people largely rely on flour-based food, such as noodles, breads, dumplings and steamed buns.^[2]

Vegetables[link]

Some common vegetables used in Chinese cuisine include bok choy (Chinese cabbage), Chinese Spinach (dao-mieu), On Choy, Yu Choy, and gailan (guy-lahn).

Herbs[link]

Herbs were important to the Chinese people, especially during the Han Dynasty.^{[citation needed]}

Seasonings[link]

When it comes to sauces, China is home to soy sauce, which is made from fermented soya beans and wheat. Oyster sauce, transparent rice vinegar, Chinkiang black rice vinegar, fish sauce and fermented tofu (furu) are also widely used. A number of sauces are based on fermented soybeans, including Hoisin sauce, ground bean sauce and yellow bean sauce. Spices and seasonings such as fresh root ginger, garlic, scallion, white pepper, and sesame oil are widely used in many regional cuisines. Sichuan peppercorns, star anise, cinnamon, fennel, and cloves are also used.^[7] To provide extra flavors to dishes, many Chinese cuisines also contain dried Chinese mushrooms, dried baby shrimps, dried tangerine peel,^[8] and dried Sichuan chillies as well.

Desserts[link]

Deep-fried mantou, a popular Chinese dessert, served with sweetened condensed milk

Panfried water chestnut cake (馬蹄糕), a type of Chinese gao dessert

Chinese desserts are sweet foods and dishes that are served with tea, along with meals^[9] or at the end of meals in Chinese cuisine.^{[citation needed]} Bings are baked wheat flour based confections, and include moon cake Red bean paste pancake and sun cakes. Chinese candies and sweets, called táng^[9] are usually made with cane sugar, malt sugar, honey, nuts and fruit. Gao or Guo are rice based snacks that are typically steamed^[9] and may be made from glutinous or normal rice. Ice cream is commonly available throughout China.^[9] Another cold dessert is called baobing, which is shaved ice with sweet syrup.^[9] Chinese jellies are known collectively in the language as ices. Many jelly desserts are traditionally set with agar and are flavored with fruits, though gelatin based jellies are also common in contemporary desserts. Chinese dessert soups typically consist of sweet and usually hot soups^[9] and custards.

Drinks[link]

Tea[link]

Longjing tea, also known as Dragon Well tea, is a variety of roasted green tea from Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, China, where it is produced mostly by hand and has been renowned for its high quality, earning the China Famous Tea title.

As well as with dim sum, many Chinese drink their tea with snacks such as nuts, plums, dried fruit (in particular jujube), small sweets, melon seeds, and waxberry.^[2] China was the earliest country to cultivate and drink tea which is enjoyed by people from all social classes.^[10] Tea processing began after the Qin and Han Dynasties.^[10] Chinese tea is often classified into several different categories according to the species of plant from which it is sourced, the region in which it is grown, and the method of production used. Some of these are green tea, oolong tea, black tea, scented tea, white tea, and compressed tea. There are four major tea plantation regions in China. They are Jiangbei, Jiangnan, Huanan and the southwestern region.^[10] Well known types of green tea include Longjing, Huangshan, Mao Feng, Bilochun, Putuofeng Cha, and Liu'an Guapian.^[11] China is the world’s largest exporter of green tea.^[11] One of the most ubiquitous accessories in modern China, after a wallet or purse and an umbrella, is a double-walled insulated glass thermos with tea leaves in the top behind a strainer.

Liquor[link]

Yellow wine has a long history in China, where the unique beverage is produced from rice and ranges between 10–15% alcohol content.^[2] The most popular brands include Shaoxing Lao Jiu, Shaoxing Hua Diao and Te Jia Fan.^[2] Wheat, corn and rice are used to produce Chinese liquor which is clear and aromatic, containing approximately 60% alcohol. This also has a long history in China, with production believed to date back to the Song Dynasty.^[2] Some popular brands of liquor include Er guo tou, Du Kang, Mao Tai, Lu Zhou Te Qu and Wu Liang Ye.^[2]

Herbal drinks[link]

Chinese herb tea, also known as medicinal herbal tea, is a kind of tea-soup made from purely Chinese medicinal herbs.^{[citation needed]}

Milk[link]

Chinese in earlier dynasties evidently drank milk and ate dairy products, although not necessarily from cows, but perhaps koumiss (fermented mare's milk). After the Tang dynasty there emerged a line dividing Asia into two groups, those who depend on milk products (India, Tibet, Central Asians) and those who reject those foods. Chinese depend on soy, as more efficient way of supporting density, and to differentiate themselves from border nomads. Most Chinese until recently have avoided milk, partly because pasturage for milk producers in a monsoon rice ecology is not economic, partly because milk products became negatively associated with horse riding, milk drinking nomadic tribes. There may even be a biological bias. A certain number of people in any ethnic group are lactose intolerant. In addition, human beings, like other mammals, after they are weaned, stop producing lactase enzymes (needed to digest milk) unless they drink milk. Lactose intolerance is then partly cultural, partly biological.^[12]

But this non-dairy tradition has undergone some change as a result of the Occidentalization of China. For example, it has been suggested that, in the early 20th century Shanghai, “Western food, and in particular identifiably nourishing items like milk, became a symbol of a neo-traditional Chinese notion of family.” ^[13]

Styles[link]

In most dishes in Chinese cuisine, food is prepared in bite-sized pieces, ready for direct picking up and eating. In traditional Chinese cultures, chopsticks are used at the table. Traditional Chinese cuisine is also based on opposites, whereby hot balances cold, pickled balances fresh and spicy balances mild.^{[citation needed]}

Recent trends[link]

According to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, the number of undernourished people in the country has fallen from 386.6 million in 1969–1971 to 150.0 million in 2001–2003.^{[14][verification needed]} Prior to the increased industrialization and modernization following the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 (and the late 1950s famine), a typical Chinese peasant would have eaten meat or animal products (including fish and eggs) and most meals would have consisted of rice accompanied with green vegetables, with protein often coming from foods like peanuts and soy products.^{[citation needed]} Fats and sugar were luxuries not eaten on a regular basis by most of the population. With increasing wealth, Chinese diets have become richer over time, consuming more meats, fats, and sugar.

Variations[link]

Where there are historical immigrant Chinese populations, the style of food has evolved and been adapted to local tastes and ingredients, and modified by the local cuisine, to greater or lesser extents. This has resulted in a number of forms of fusion cuisine, often very popular in the country in question, and some of these, such as ramen (Japanese Chinese) have become popular internationally. These include:

See also[link]

	China portal
	Food portal

References[link]

External links[link]

• Chinese cuisine at the Open Directory Project
• BBC TWO Chinese food made easy

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Li Bai
Li Bai chanting a poem, by Liang K'ai (13th century)
Born	701 Sui Ye, Tang dynasty, China.
Died	762 Dangtu
Occupation	Poet
Nationality	Chinese
Period	Tang dynasty, Shanxi Province, China

Li Bai (Chinese: 李白; pinyin: Lǐ Bái and/or Lǐ Bó, 701 – 762, also well known as Li Po, among other transliterations) was a major Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty poetry period. Regarded as one of the greatest poets of the Tang Dynasty, often called China's "golden age" of poetry, Li Bai was both a prolific and a profound poet, as well as one who stretched the rules of versification of his time. Around a thousand yet existing poems are attributed to him.^[1] Thirty-four of his poems are included in the popular anthology Three Hundred Tang Poems.

In the area of Chinese cultural influence, Li Bai's poetry has been much esteemed from his lifetime through the present day. His influence also extends to the West through many translations, adaptations, and much inspiration.

Name variants[link]

Li (李) is the family name, or surname; however, he has been and is known by various names. His given name is written with a Chinese character (白), which is romanized variously as Po, Bo, Bai, Pai, and other variants. Even in Hanyu Pinyin there is ambiguity, as Bái is the common variant and Bó the literary variant. His style name, also known as courtesy name, was Tài Bái (太白), literally "Great White," a reference to the planet Venus. Thus, combining the family name with the style name, his name appears in variants such as Li Tai Bo, Li Tai Bai, Li T'aipo, and others^[2]). Less commonly in English, he also may be known by the pseudonym (hao), Qīnglián Jūshì (青蓮居士), meaning Householder of the Azure Lotus, or the nicknames Poet Transcendent (simplified Chinese: 诗仙; traditional Chinese: 詩仙; pinyin: Shīxiān), Wine Immortal (Chinese: 酒仙; pinyin: Jiǔxiān), Banished Transcendent (Chinese: 謫仙人; pinyin: Zhéxiānrén), Poet Knight-Errant (simplified Chinese: 诗侠; traditional Chinese: 詩俠; pinyin: Shīxiá, or "Poet-Hero"). In works in which the English transliteration is derived through Japanese, his name may be given as Ri Haku. All of these variants, and more, with or without hyphenation, have been historically attested to.

Life[link]

The two "Books of Tang", The Old Book of Tang and The New Book of Tang remain the primary sources of bibliographical material on Li Bai.^[3] Other sources include internal evidence from poems by or about Li Bai, and certain other sources.

Background and birth[link]

The year of Li Bai's birth is generally considered to be 701. He was born somewhere in Central Asia.^[4] Apparently, his family had originally dwelt in what is now southeastern Gansu, and later moved to Jiangyou, near modern Chengdu in Sichuan province, when he was perhaps five years old. Two accounts given by contemporaries Li Yangbing (a family relative) and Fan Chuanzheng stated that his family was originally from what is now southeastern Gansu. Li's ancestry is traditionally traced back to Li Gao, the founder of the state of Western Liang.^[5] Evidence suggests that during the Sui Dynasty, his ancestors, then commoners, most likely as the result of some act of crime, were forced into a form of exile from their original home in what is now Gansu to some location further west.^[6] During their exile, the Li family lived in Suiye (Suyab, now an archeological site in present-day Kyrgyzstan) and perhaps also in Tiaozhi (simplified Chinese: 条枝; traditional Chinese: 條枝; pinyin: Tiáozhī), a state centered near modern Ghazni, Afghanistan.^[7] These areas were on the ancient Silk Road, and the Li family were likely merchants.^[8]

While she was pregnant with him, Li Bai's mother had a dream of a great white star falling from heaven. This seems to have contributed to the idea of his being a banished immortal (one of his nicknames).^[9] That the Great White Star was synonymous with Venus, helps to explain his style name, "Tai Bai".

Early years[link]

In 705, when Li Bai was four years old, his father secretly moved his family to Sichuan, near Chengdu, where he spent his childhood.^[10] There is currently a monument commemorating this in Zhongba Town, Jiangyou, Sichuan province.

The young Bai read extensively, including Confucian classics such as The Classic of Poetry (Shijing) and the Classic of History (Shujing), as well as various astrological and metaphysical materials which the Confucians tended to eschew.^[10] He also engaged in other activities, such as taming wild birds and sword play.^[10] Apparently, he became accomplished in the martial arts; this autobiographical quote by Li Bai helps to illustrate the wild life that he led in the Sichuan of his youth:

When I was fifteen, I was fond of sword play, and with that art I challenged quite a few great men.

—Li Bai ^[11]

Before he was twenty years of age, Li had fought and killed several men, apparently for reasons of chivalry, in accordance with the knight-errant tradition (youxia).^[10]

In 720, he was interviewed by Governor Su Ting, who considered him a genius. Though he expressed the wish to become an official, he never took the civil service examination.

On the way to Chang'an[link]

The China of Li Bai and Du Fu

In his mid-twenties, about 725, Li Bai left Sichuan, sailing down the Yangzi River, through Dongting Lake, to Nanjing, beginning his days of wandering. He then went back up-river, to Yunmeng, in what is now Hubei, where his marriage to the granddaughter of a retired Prime Minister, Xu Yushi, seems to have formed but a brief interlude.^[12] During the first year of his trip, he met celebrities and gave away much of his wealth to needy friends.

In 730, Li Bai stayed in the Zhongnan Mountain near the capital Chang'an (Xi'an), and tried but failed to secure a position. He sailed down the Yellow River, stopped by Luoyang, and visited Taiyuan before going home.

In 735, Li Bai was in Shanxi, where he intervened in a court martial against Guo Ziyi, who was later, after becoming one of the top Tang generals, to repay the favour, during the An Shi disturbances.^[9]

By perhaps 740, he had moved to Shandong. It was in Shandong, at this time, that he became one of the group known as the "Six Idlers of the Bamboo Brook", an informal group dedicated to literature and wine.^[9]

He wandered about the area of Zhejiang and Jiangsu, eventually making friends with a famous Daoist priest, Wu Yun.^[9]

In 742, Wu Yun was summoned by the Emperor to attend the imperial court, where his praise of Li Bai was great.^[9]

At Chang'an[link]

Wu Yun's praise of Li Bai led the Emperor to summon Li to the court in Chang'an, as well, where he met the Emperor of China, Ming Huang (born Li Longji and also known as Emperor Xuanzong). His personality fascinated the aristocrats and common people alike, including another Taoist (and poet) He Zhizhang who bestowed upon him the nickname "the Transcendent dismissed from the Heaven", or "Immortal Exiled from Heaven".^[9] Indeed, after an initial audience, where he was questioned upon his political views the Emperor was so impressed that he held a big banquet in his honor. At this banquet the Emperor was said to show his favor, even to the extent of personally seasoning his soup for him.^[9][13]

Emperor Ming Huang found employment for him as a translator, as Li Bai knew at least one non-Chinese language.^[9] Ming Huang eventually gave him a post at the Hanlin Academy, which served to provide scholarly expertise and poetry for the Emperor.

When the emperor ordered Li Bai to the palace, he was often drunk, but quite capable of performing on the spot.

Li Bai wrote several poems about the Emperor's beautiful and beloved Yang Guifei, the favorite royal consort.^[14] Once, while drunk, Li Bai had gotten his boots muddy, and Gao Lishi, the most politically powerful eunuch in the palace, was asked to assist in the removal of these, in front of the emperor. Gao, took offense at being asked to perform this menial service, and later managed to persuade Yang Guifei to take offense at Li's poems concerning her.^[14]

At the persuasion of Yang Guifei and Gao Lishi, Ming Huang reluctantly, but politely, and with large gifts of gold and silver, sent Li Bai away from the royal court.^[15]

More wandering[link]

After leaving the court, Li Bai formally became a Taoist, making a home in Shandong, but wandering here and there for the next ten some years, writing poems.^[15]

He met Du Fu in the autumn of 744, and again the following year. These were the only occasions on which they met. A dozen of Du Fu's poems to or about Li Bai survive, while only one from Li Bai to Du Fu remains.

War and exile[link]

Riders on Horseback, Northern Qi Dynasty, the general area of the rebel heartland, although of an earlier date.

At the end of 756, the An Lushan disorders burst across the land. The Emperor eventually fled to Sichuan; then, later, during the confusion, the Crown Prince opportunely declared himself the head of government. As the An Shi disturbances continued, Li Bai became an adviser to one of Ming Huang's sons, who was far from the top of the primogeniture list, yet nevertheless apparently made his own bid for the imperial power. Upon the defeat of the Prince's forces, Li Bai escaped, but was later captured, imprisoned in Jiujiang, and sentenced to death. Through the intervention of the by then famous and powerful Army General Guo Ziyi, whom he had a couple of decades earlier saved from a court martial, and who offered to exchange his official rank for Li Bai's life;^[15] thus, his death sentence was commuted to exile in remote Yelang, in Yunnan,^[15] towards which he proceeded quite slowly, writing poems along the way. He was subsequently pardoned before he ever reached Yelang.^[15]

Return and wandering[link]

When Li received the news of his imperial reprieve he then returned down the river to Jiangxi, passing on the way through Baidicheng, still writing poetry: his poem "Departing from Baidi in the Morning" records this stage of his travels. Although he did not cease his wandering lifestyle, he generally confined his travels to Nanjing and two cities in Anhui, Xuancheng and Li Yang (in modern Zhao County).^[15] Eventually, in 762, his relative Li Yangbing became magistrate of Dangtu, and Li Bai went to stay with him there.^[15]

Death[link]

The new emperor, Daizong named Li Bai the Registrar of the Left Commandant's office in 762. However, by the time that the imperial edict arrived in Dangtu, Anhui, Li Bai was already dead.

There is a long and sometimes fanciful tradition regarding his death, from uncertain sources, that Li Bai drowned after falling from his boat when he tried to embrace the reflection of the moon in the Yangtze River, something later believed by Herbert Giles.^[15] However, the actual cause appears to have been natural enough, although perhaps related to his hard-living lifestyle. Nevertheless, the legend that Li Bai died trying to embrace the reflection of the moon has entered Chinese culture, and is considered to be synonymous to an illusion.^[16]

There is a memorial to Li Bai, just west of Ma'anshan.

Works[link]

The only surviving calligraphy in Li Bai's own handwriting, titled Shangyangtai (Going Up To Sun Terrace), located at the Palace Museum in Beijing, China.^[17]

Criticism of Li Bai's works has focused on his strong sense of the continuity of poetic tradition, his glorification of alcoholic beverages (and, indeed, frank celebration of drunkenness), his use of persona, the fantastic extremes of some of his imagery, his violations of formal poetic rules – and his ability to combine all of these with a seemingly effortless virtuosity in order to produce inimitable poetry.

Calligraphy[link]

Li Bai has been known to be a skilled calligrapher,^[18] though there is only one surviving piece of Li Bai's work in his own handwriting that exists today.^[17] The piece is titled Shangyangtai (Going Up To Sun Terrace), a 38.1 cm by 28.5 cm long scroll; the calligraphy is housed in the Palace Museum in Beijing, China.^[18]

Edited works[link]

Although many of Li Bai's poems have survived, even more have been lost. From the editorial perspective, some difficulty exists regarding variant textual versions of his poems. One of the earliest endeavors at editing Li Bai's work was by his relative Li Yangbing, to whom Li Bai finally entrusted his manuscripts.

Poetic tradition[link]

Li Bai had a strong sense of himself as being part of a poetic tradition. Burton Watson, comparing him to Du Fu, says his poetry, "is essentially backward-looking, that it represents more a revival and fulfillment of past promises and glory than a foray into the future."^[1] Watson adds, as evidence, that of all the poems attributed to Li Bai, about one sixth are in the form of yue fu, or, in other words, reworked lyrics from traditional folk ballads.^[19] As further evidence, Watson cites the existence of a fifty-nine poem collection by Li Bai entitled Gu Feng, or In the Old Manner, which is, in part, tribute to the poetry of the Han and Wei dynasties.^[20] His admiration for certain particular poets is also shown through specific allusions, for example to Qu Yuan or Tao Yuanming, and occasionally by name, for example Du Fu.

A more general appreciation for history, is shown on the part of Li Bai in his poems of the huaigu genre,^[21] or meditations on the past, wherein following "one of the perennial themes of Chinese poetry," "the poet contemplates the ruins of past glory."^[22]

Wine[link]

Chinese rice wine

Many of the Classical Chinese poets were associated with drinking wine, or more precisely, alcoholic beverages, such as choujiu, baijiu, or even grape wine. In fact, Li Bai was part of the group of Chinese scholars during his time in Chang'an, called the "Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup", as mentioned in a poem by fellow poet Du Fu. However, Li Bai is of special note in this respect. As John C. H. Wu put it, "[w]hile some may have drunk more wine than Li [Bai], no-one has written more poems about wine."^[23] Or as Burton Watson put it, "[n]early all Chinese poets celebrate the joys of wine and white liquor, but none so tirelessly and with such a note of genuine conviction as Li [Bai]."^[24]

Due to his championship of drunkenness together with his wandering life-style, Li Bai's poetry has been criticized on moral grounds.^{[by whom?]}

One of Li Bai's most famous titles is Waking From Drunkenness on a Spring Day (春日醉起言志. A translation by Arthur Waley):^[25] is as follows:

Waking From Drunkenness on a Spring Day 春日醉起言志

處世若大夢, Life in the world is but a big dream;

胡爲勞其生. I will not spoil it by any labour or care

所以終日醉, so saying, I was drunk all the day,

頹然臥前楹. lying helpless at the porch in front of my door

覺來盼庭前, when I awoke, I blinked at the garden-lawn;

一鳥花間鳴. a lonely bird was singing amid the flowers

借問此何時, I asked myself, had the day been wet or fine?

春風語流鶯. the Spring wind was telling the mango-bird

感之欲嘆息, moved by its song I soon began to sigh,

對酒還自傾. and, as wine was there, I filled my own cup

浩歌待明月, wildly singing I waited for the moon to rise;

曲盡已忘情. when my song was over, all my senses had gone

Fantastic imagery[link]

An important characteristic of Li Bai's poetry "is the fantasy and note of childlike wonder and playfulness that pervade so much of it."^[20] Burton Watson attributes this to a fascination with the daoshi, Taoist recluses who practiced alchemy and austerities in the mountains, in the aim of becoming xian, or immortal beings.^[20] There is a strong element of Taoism in his works, both in the sentiments they express and in their spontaneous tone, and "many of his poems deal with mountains, often descriptions of ascents that midway modulate into journeys of the imagination, passing from actual mountain scenery to visions of nature deities, immortals, and 'jade maidens' of Taoist lore."^[20] Watson sees this as another affirmation of Li Bai's affinity with the past, and a continuity with the traditions of the Chuci and the early fu.^[24] Watson finds this "element of fantasy" to be behind Li Bai's use of hyperbole and the "playful personifications" of mountains and celestial objects.^[24]

Use of persona[link]

Li Bai also wrote a number of poems from various viewpoints, including the personae of women. For example, he wrote several poems in the Zi Ye, or "Lady Midnight" style, as well as Han folk-ballad style poems.

Technical virtuosity[link]

Li Bai is well known for the technical virtuosity of his poetry and the mastery of his verses.^[1] In terms of poetic form, "critics generally agree that Li [Bai] produced no significant innovations....In theme and content also, his poetry is notable less for the new elements it introduces than for the skill with which he brightens the old ones."^[1]

Burton Watson comments on Li Bai's famous poem, which he translates "Bring the Wine": "...like so much of Li [Bai]'s work, it has a grace and effortless dignity that somehow make it more compelling than earlier treatment of the same."^[26]

Li Bai especially excelled in the gushi form, or "old style" poems, a type of poetry allowing a great deal of freedom in terms of the form and content of the work. An example is his poem "蜀道難", translated by Witter Bynner as "Hard Roads in Shu." Shu is a poetic term for Sichuan, the destination of refuge that Emperor Xuanzong considered fleeing to escape the approaching forces of the rebel General An Lushan. Watson comments that, this poem, "employs lines that range in length from four to eleven characters, the form of the lines suggesting by their irregularity the jagged peaks and bumpy mountain roads of Sichuan depicted in the poem."^[1]

Li Bai was also noted as a master of the cut-verse, or jueju.^[27]

Li Bai was noted for his mastery of the lushi, or "regulated verse", the formally most demanding verse form of the times: however, he was especially noted for his successful violations of its strict rules.^[28]

Influence[link]

Spring Evening Banquet at the Peach and Pear Blossom Garden with quoted text by Li Bai, painted by Leng Mei, late 17th/early 18th cent. National Palace Museum, Taipei