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Japanese cuisine
日本料理 |
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Japanese cuisine (nihon ryōri (日本料理?) or washoku (和食?))[1] strictly speaking denotes traditional-style Japanese food[2], before Westernization began in the Meiji Era (1868-)[3].
This article will in general employ the more stringent, traditional sense of "Japanese food". Some of Japanese dishes in this sense that are well known outside the country are sushi and sashimi, tempura, and buckwheat noodles (soba).
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Some of the less formal kinds of foods that foreigners typically associate with Japanese food may not fall under this washoku definition in this strict sense. This will be explained with specific examples under this subsection.
Western-style dishes developed in, or significantly modified in Japan, such as tonkatsu (pork cutlet) and other deep-fried dishes, curry rice are referred to as yōshoku, and discussed in its own article. These, alongside Chinese-influenced dishes such as ramen will be surveyed in brief under #Foreign-influenced food.
donburi, a combo of an entrée on a big bowl of rice, is another familiar category of dishes, but in Japan these are standard fare served at the shokudō or "Japanese style cafeteria/cheap restaurant"[4]. (heroes and subs might be an apt comparison). They actually have a shallow history, and though unadon (kabayaki eel bowl) and tendon(ja) (tempura bowl) that go back to the late Edo Period, the Oyakodon (chicken-egg combo bowl) is a Meiji era innovation, with other tamagotoji (卵とじ, lit. "egg sealed"?) [5]) donburi dishes following suit in later years.
Okonomiyaki (pancake with ingredient mixed into the batter) is also considered non-traditional, since they are 20th century creations flavored with a form of Worcestershire sauce. It also tends to be regarded as a yatai (food stand) type of food as well.
Menus such as yakitori (skewered grilled chicken and other kabobs) and oden were once frequently peddled at night-time outdoor yatai stands, though increasingly served indoors, sometimes in eateries that specialize in those foods, or at izakaya that offer wider menus.
Thes standard food offerings served at the cafeteria (shokudō, often called taishū shokudō (大衆食堂, "popular cafeteria"?) to distinguish from corporate cafeterias), or yatai or izakaya are not considered Japanese cuisine at a "proper restaurant"; to put it another way, the people who are dedicated to making these kinds of foods may not be referred to as an itamae the term for a Japanese cuisine chef.
breakfast at an inn, featuring grilled
mackerel, Kansai style
dashimaki egg, tofu in
kaminabe (paper pot)
Japanese cuisine is based on combining the staple food which is steamed white rice or gohan (御飯?) with one or several okazu (おかず?) or main dishes and side dishes. This may be accompanied by a clear or miso soup and some tsukemono (pickles).
The phrase ichijū-sansai (一汁三菜, "one soup, three sides"?) refers to the makeup of a typical meal served, but has roots in classic kaiseki and honzen cuisine. The term is also used to describe the first course served in standard kaiseki cuisine nowadays[6].
Rice is served in its own small bowl (chawan), and course item is placed on its own small plate (sara) or bowl (hachi) for each individual portion. This is done even at home. It contrasts with the Western-style dinners at home, where each individual takes helpings from the large tureens and plates of food presented at the middle of the dining table. Japanese style traditionally abhors different flavored dishes touching each other on a single plate, so different dishes are given their own individual plates as mentioned, or are partitioned using leaves, etc. This is why in take-out sushi the tamagoyaki egg vs. fish, or Blue-backed fish vs. white-fleshed fish are carefully separated. Placing okazu on top of rice and "soiling" it is also frowned upon by old-fashioned etiquette[7]. Of course, old rules are no longer being observed by the modern-day family.
The small rice bowl or chawan (lit. "tea bowl"?), which doubles as a word for the large tea bowls in tea ceremonies. Thus in common colloquy the drinking cup is referred to as yunomi-jawan or yunomi for the purpose of distinction.
kaiseki appetizers on legged tray
In the olden days among the nobility, each course of a full-course Japanese would be brought on serving trays called zen, which were originally platformed trays. In the modern age, faldstool trays or stackup type legged trays may still be seen used in zashiki, i.e. tatami-mat rooms, for large banquets or at a ryokan type inn. Some restaurants might use the suffix -zen (膳) as a classier though dated synonym to the more familiar -teishoku (定食?), since the latter basically is a term for a combo meal served at a taishū shokudō(ja), akin to a diner[8].
Emphasis is placed on seasonality of food or shun (旬?)[2][9], and dishes are designed to herald the arrival of the four seasons or calendar months.
Much like the haiku poem, traditional Japanese cuisine strives to make a presentation of the seasonality (shun).
Seasonality means taking advantage of the "bounty of the mountains" (e.g. bamboo shoots in spring, chestnuts in the fall) as well as the "bounty of the sea" as they come into season. The hatsu-gatsuo or the first catch of skipjack tunas that arrives with the Kuroshio Current has traditionally been greatly prized.
If something becomes available rather earlier than usual, the first crop or early catch is called hashiri[10].
Use of (inedible) tree leaves and branches as decor is also characteristic of Japanese cuisine. Maple leaves are often floated on water to exude coolness or ryō (涼?), sprigs of nandina are popularly used. The haran (Aspidistra) and sasa bamboo leaves were often cut into shapes, and placed underneath or used as separators.
A characteristic of traditional Japanese food is the sparing use of meat (mammal meat), oils and fats, and dairy products[11]. Use of soy sauce, miso, and umeboshi makes them high in salt content, though there are low-sodium versions of these available nowadays.
As Japan is an island nation surrounded by an ocean its people have always taken advantage of the abundant seafood supply[12]. It is the opinion of some food scholars that the Japanese diet always relied mainly on "grains with vegetables or seaweeds as main, with fowl meat secondary, and mammal meat in slight amounts," even before the advent of Buddhism which placed an even stronger taboo[13]. The eating of "four-legged creatures" (四足, yotsuashi?) was spoken of as taboo[14], unclean, or something to be avoided by personal choice through the Edo Period[15]. But under this definition Whale meat and suppon (terrapin) would not be regarded as taboo four-legged meat.
(* Meat-eating never went completely out of existence in Japan, the touchy subject of which needs be discussed under Meat-eating practice in Japan(ja). Eating wild game, as opposed to domesticated livestock, tended to be regarded as acceptable, and slaughtered hare is counted using the measure word wa (羽?), normally used for birds.)
Traditional Japanese food, generally speaking, is not prepared using a lot of food oils. An exception is deep fried types of preparation was introduced during the Edo Period due to influence from Western foods (once called Nanban ryōri (南蛮料理?)) and Chinese foods [16], and became commonplace with the availability of oil due to increased productivity[16]. Examples of these such as Tempura, aburaage, satsumaage[16] are now part of established traditional Japanese cuisine. Words such as tempura or hiryōzu (synonyous with ganmodoki) are said to be of Portuguese origin.
Also, certain homey or rustic sort of traditional Japanese foods such as kinpira, hijiki, kiriboshi daikon usually involves stir frying in some oil before stewing in soy sauce flavoring. Some standard osōzai or ''obanzai''(ja) dishes feature stir fried Japanese greens with age or chirimenjako(ja).
Traditional Japanese food is typically flavored using a combination of dashi, soy sauce, sake and mirin, vinegar, sugar, and salt. These are typically the only flavorings used when grilling or braising an item. During cooking, a modest number of herbs and spices are used as a hint or accent, or as a means to remove fishy or gamy odor, and include ginger, and takanotsume (鷹の爪?) red pepper. This contrasts conceptually with e.g., barbecue or stew where a blend of seasonings is before and during cooking.
Only after a main dish has completed its cooking are spice elements as minced ginger, and various pungent herbs are added as a garnish, called tsuma. In some underseasoned dishes, a dollop of wasabi, and grated daikon, or Japanese mustard are provided as condiment. A sprig of mitsuba, a piece of yuzu rind floated on soups are called ukimi. Minced shiso leaves and myoga often serve as yakumi, or a type of condiment to go with tataki of katsuo or soba. Minced or crumpled Nori and flakes of aonori are seaweeds used as an herb of sorts.
Garlic is considered forbidden. A stricter version of this, instituted upon monks in training, etc., is known as gokun(ja) (五葷, "five smelly onions"?). [citation needed]
In the aformentioned stock phrase ichijū-sansai (一汁三菜, "one soup, three sides"?), the word sai (菜?) has the basic meaning of "vegetable", but secondarily means any accompanying dish[17] including fish or meat. It figures in the Japanese word for appetizer, zensai (前菜?); main dish, shusai (主菜?); or sōzai (惣菜?) (formal synonym for okazu - considered somewhat of a housewife's term[18]).
Some restaurants offer tsukidashi (つきだし?)[19] or otōshi(ja) (お通し?)[19], a starter snack of sorts equivalent to the amuse-bouche or hors-d'oeuvre[19], but it has been reported some establishments include this in the bill almost like a mandatory cover charge.
The ohitashi(ja) is boiled green-leaf vegetables bunched and cut to size, steeped in dashi broth[20][21], eaten with dashes of soy sauce. Another item is sunomono (酢の物, lit "vinegar item"?), which could be made with wakame seaweed[22], or be something like a kōhaku namasu (紅白なます, "red white namasu"?)[23] made from thin toothpick slices of daikon and carrot. The so-called vinegar that is blended with the ingredient here is often sanbaizu(ja) (三杯酢, "three cupful/spoonful vinegar"?)[22] which is a blend of vinegar, mirin, and soy sauce. A tosazu(ja) (土佐酢, "Tosa vinegar"?) adds katsuo dashi to this. Note sparing use of oil, compared with Western salads.
An aemono(ja) (和え物?) is another group of items, describable as a sort of "tossed salad" or "dressed" (though aemono also includes thin strips of squid or fish sashimi (itozukuri) etc. similarly prepared). One types are gomaae (胡麻和え?)[24] where usually vegetables such as green beens are tossed with white or black sesame seeds ground in a suribachi mortar bowl, flavored additionally with sugar and soy sauce. shiraae (白和え?) adds tofu (bean curd) in the mix[24]. A aemono(ja) (ぬた?) is tossed with vinegar-white miso mix[24], and uses wakegi[24] [scallion]] and bakagai(ja) (和え物?) clam (Mactra sinensis) as standard.
Different cooking techniques are applied to each of the three okazu; they may be raw (sashimi), grilled, simmered (sometimes called boiled), steamed, deep-fried, vinegared, or dressed. This Japanese view of a meal is reflected in the organization of Japanese cookbooks: Chapters are devoted to cooking techniques as opposed to ingredients. There may also be chapters devoted to soups, sushi, rice, noodles, and sweets.
battered and deep fried seafood or vegetables,
Tempura
Below are listed some of the most common.
- Grilled and pan-fried dishes (yakimono (焼き物)), stewed/simmered dishes (nimono (煮物)), stir-fried dishes (itamemono (炒め物)), steamed dishes (mushimono (蒸し物)), deep-fried dishes (agemono (揚げ物)), sashimi, soups (suimono (吸い物) and shirumono (汁物)), pickled, salted, and dressed foods (tsukemono (漬け物), aemono (和え物), sunomono (酢の物)), chinmi
Main article:
Honzen ryōriDuring the Muromachi period after the shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in the 14th century, there developed and overly excessive formal system of meal-serving, known as (Honzen ryōri (本膳料理?))[2]. It would begin with the shiki-sankon (式三献, "triple round of drinks"?)[25], the remnant of which is the san san kudo exchanged between the groom in the bride in traditional Japanese weddings. A typical pattern is shichigosan (七五三, "7-5-3"?), which may refer to three trays bearing with 7, 5, and 3 dishes[25], though there seems to be different interpretations, and others have suggested this indicates the triple round of drinks, followed by 5 rounds, then by 7 trays[2]. The meals for guests are served on sanpō (三方?), where the tray (technically called oshiki (折敷?)) is supported underneath by a boxlike frame with three of the sides hollowed by large holes. A quadruple-holed tray-set would be reserved for the Imperial house[2]. (This is somewhat surprising, since the four-holed tray, considered unlucky, was used in later samurai society only to bring the seppuku sword to the person sentenced to harakiri).
Honzen has mostly fallen out of practice in the post-World War II period[2].
Kaiseki (懐石?), closely associated with tea ceremony (Chanoyu), is a high form of hospitality through cuisine. The style is minimalist, extolling the aesthetics of wabi-sabi. Like the tea ceremony, appreciation of the diningware and vessels is part of the experience. In the modern standard form, the first course consists of ichijū-sansai (one soup, three dishes), followed by the serving of sake accompanied by dish(es) plated on a square wooden bordered tray of sorts called hassun (八寸?). Sometimes another element called shiizakana (強肴?) is served to complement the sake, for guests who are heavier drinkers.
The tea ceremony kaiseki is often confounded with another Kaiseki (会席料理?), which is an outgrowth of meals served at a gathering for haiku and renga composition, which turned into a term for sumptuous sake-accompnied banquet, or shuen (酒宴?)[6].
Strictly vegetarian food is rare since even vegetable dishes are flavored with the ubiquitous dashi stock, usually made with katsuobushi (dried skipjack tuna flakes). An exception is shōjin ryōri (精進料理), vegetarian dishes developed by Buddhist monks. However, the advertised shōjin ryōri at public eating places includes some non-vegetarian elements.
In regards to vegetarianishm, it is worth mentioning Fucha ryōri(ja) (普茶料理?), introduced from China by the Ōbaku sect (a sub-sect of Zen Buddhism), and which some sources still regard as part of "Japanese cuisine"[2]. The sect in Japan was founded by the priest Ingen (d. 1673), and is headquartered in Uji, Kyoto. The Japanese name for the common green bean takes after this priest who allegedly introduced the New World crop via China. An interesting aspect of the Fucha ryōri practiced at the temple is the wealth of modoki ryōri (もどき料理, "mock foods"?), one example being mock-eel, made from strained tofu, with nori seaweed used expertly to mimic the black skin[26]. The secret ingredient used is grated gobo (burdock) roots[27][28].
Main article:
Japanese riceRice has been the staple food for the Japanese historically. Its fundamental importance is evident from the fact that the word for cooked rice gohan and meshi, also stands for a "meal."[29].
It used to be rice was consumed for almost every meal. But there has been a shift in dietary habits, so that a large segment of the population will have bread for breakfast, and have noodles (especially ramen, and even instant cup-o-noodles) for lunch.
Rice (gohan, 御飯)
- Japanese rice is short grain and becomes sticky when cooked. Most rice is sold as hakumai ("white rice"), with the outer portion of the grains (nuka) polished away. Unpolished rice (genmai) is considered less delicious by most people, but its popularity has been increasing recently because gemmai is more nutritious and healthier than hakumai.
- Rice is processed and prepared in many different ways. Some popular processed rice products are listed below, while a list of popular ways to use rice can be found here.
okayu, sake, wagashi, senbei, mochi, donburi (どんぶり, "bowl") and sushi.[30]
Japanese noodles often subsitute a rice-based meal. Soba (thin, grayish-brown noodles containing buckwheat flour) and udon (thick wheat noodles) are the main traditional noodles.
Japanese noodles, such as soba and udon, are eaten as a standalone, and usually not with a side dish, in terms of general custom. It may have toppings, but they are called gu (具?). But the fried battered shrimp tempura sitting in a bowl of tempura-soba would be referred to as "the shrimp" or "the tempura", and not so much be referred to as a topping (gu). The identical toppings, if served as a dish to be eaten with plain white rice could be called okazu, so these terms are context-sensitive.
Hot noodles are usually served in a bowl already steeped in their broth and are called kakesoba or kakeudon. Cold soba arrives unseasoned and heaped atop a zaru or seiro, and are picked up with a chopstick and dunk in its dip sauce. The broth is soy-dashi-mirin type of mix, the dip is similar but more concentrated (heavier on soy sauce).
In the simple form, yakumi (condiments and spices) such as shichimi, nori, finely chopped scallions, wasabi, etc. are added to the noodles, besides the broth/dip sauce.
Udon may also be eaten in kama-age style, piping hot straight out of the boiling pot, and eaten with plain soy sauce and sometimes with raw egg also.
Noodles (men-rui, 麺類)
- Noodles often take the place of rice in a meal. They are featured in many soup dishes, or served chilled with a sauce for dipping.
- Japanese-style sweets (wagashi, 和菓子), old-fashioned Japanese-style sweets (dagashi, 駄菓子), Western-style sweets (yōgashi, 洋菓子), sweets bread (kashi pan, 菓子パン).
See also the List of Japanese dishes#Sweets and snacks (okashi (お菓子), oyatsu (おやつ)) of sweets.
Sake is a rice wine that typically contains 12%~20% alcohol and is made by multiple fermentation of rice. At traditional meals, it is considered an equivalent to rice and is not simultaneously taken with other rice-based dishes. Side dishes for sake are particularly called sakana or otsumami.
Shōchū is a spirit most commonly distilled from barley, sweet potato, or rice. Shōchū is produced everywhere in Japan. Its production in Japan started in Kyūshū.[31]
Japan has incorporated imported food from across the world (mostly from Asia, Europe and to a lesser extent the Americas), and have historically adapted many to make them their own.
Japan today abounds with home-grown, loosely western-style food. Many of these were invented in the wake of the 1868 Meiji restoration and the end of national seclusion, when the sudden influx of foreign (in particular, western) culture led to many restaurants serving western food, known as yōshoku (洋食), a shortened form of seiyōshoku (西洋食) lit. Western cuisine, opening up in cities. Restaurants that serve these foods are called yōshokuya (洋食屋), lit. Western cuisine restaurants.
Many yōshoku items from that time have been adapted to a degree that they are now considered Japanese and are an integral part of any Japanese family menu. Many are served alongside rice and miso soup, and eaten with chopsticks. Yet, due to their origins these are still categorized as yōshoku as opposed to the more traditional washoku (和食), lit. Japanese cuisine.
Japanese cuisine offers a vast array of regional specialties known as kyōdo ryōri (郷土料理), many of them originating from dishes prepared using traditional recipes with local ingredients. Mainly, there are Kanto region food and Kansai region food. Kanto region foods taste very strong. For example the dashi-based broth for serving udon noodles is heavy on dark soy sauce, similar to soba broth. On the other hand Kansai region foods are lightly seasoned, with clear udon noodles made with light soy sauce.[32]
- See also: List of Japanese ingredients, Category:Japanese ingredients
The following is a list of ingredients found in Japanese cuisine:
Many types of seafood are part of Japanese cuisine. Only the most common are in the list below. Includes freshwater varieties:
The traditional Japanese table setting has varied considerably over the centuries, depending primarily on the type of table common during a given era. Before the 19th century, small individual box tables (hadoken, 箱膳) or flat floor trays were set before each diner. Larger low tables (chabudai, ちゃぶ台) that accommodated entire families were gaining popularity by the beginning of the 20th century, but these gave way to western style dining tables and chairs by the end of the 20th century.
Traditional Japanese table setting is to place a bowl of rice on your left and to place a bowl of miso soup on your right side at the table. Behind these, each okazu is served on its own individual plate. Based on the standard three okazu formula, behind the rice and soup are three flat plates to hold the three okazu; one to far back left, one at far back right, and one in the center. Pickled vegetables are often served on the side but are not counted as part of the three okazu. Chopsticks are generally placed at the very front of the tray near the diner with pointed ends facing left and supported by a chopstick rest, or hashioki.[32]
Tables and Sitting Many restaurants and homes in Japan are equipped with Western style chairs and tables. However, traditional Japanese low tables and cushions usually found on tatami, mats made of straw, floors are still very common. Tatami mats can be easily damaged and are hard to clean, thus shoes or any type of footwear are always taken off when stepping on tatami floors. ("japanese table manners," 2008) When dining in a traditional tatami room, sitting upright on the floor is common. In a casual setting, men usually sit with their feet crossed and women sit with both legs to one side. Only men are supposed to sit cross-legged. The formal way of sitting for both genders is kneeled-down known as the seiza style. To sit in a seiza position, one kneels on the floor with their legs folded under the thighs and the buttocks are rested on the heels of feet. (Lin ) (“dining out in Japan”, 1997)
When dining out in a restaurant, the host will guide you to your seat and it is polite to wait to be seated. The honored or eldest guest will usually be seated at the center of the table farthest from the entrance. In the home, the most important guest is also seated farthest away from the entrance. If there is an alcove or tokonoma in the room, the guest is seated in front of it. The host sits next to or closest to the entrance. ("japanese table manners," 2008) (“dining out in Japan”, 1997)
Itadakimasu and Gochisosama In Japan, it is customary to say itadakimasu, いただきます (literally "I [humbly] receive") before starting to eat a meal ("Japanese table manners," 2008). When saying itadakimasu, both hands are put together in front of the chest or on the lap. Itadakismasu is preceded by complimenting the appearance of food. The Japanese attach as much importance to the aesthetic arrangement of the food as its actual taste. Before touching the food, it is polite to compliment the host on his artistry.(Lewis, 2000) Remember also to wait for the honored or eldest guest at the table to start eating before you do(Lin). Another customary and important etiquette is to say gochisōsama deshita, ごちそうさまでした (literally "It was a feast") to the host after the meal and the restaurant staff when leaving ("Japanese table manners," 2008).
Hot towel Before eating, most dining places will provide either a hot or cold towel or a plastic-wrapped wet napkin (an oshibori). This is for cleaning hands before eating (and not after). It is rude to use them to wash the face or any part of the body other than the hands though some Japanese men use their oshibori to wipe their faces in less formal places. Accept oshibori with both hands when a server hands you the towel. When finished, fold or roll up your oshibori and place it on the table. It is impolite to use oshibori towels to wipe any spills on the table.
Bowls The rice or the soup is eaten by picking up the bowl with the left hand and using chopsticks with the right, or vice versa if you are left-handed. Traditionally, chopsticks were held in the right hand and the bowl in the left – in fact, Japanese children were taught to distinguish left from right as "the right hand holds the chopsticks, the left hand holds the bowl" – but left-handed eating is acceptable today. Bowls may be lifted to the mouth, but should not be touched by the mouth except when drinking soup. The Japanese customarily slurp ramen soup. It is considered polite because it shows the chef that you are enjoying your meal. Other reasons for the Japanese slurping is that it allows them to eat the hot noodles quickly so the noodles don’t get too soft and also because it is thought to improve the flavor of the dish. ("Is it considered," 2010)(Burn, 2010)
Soy sauce Soy sauce is not usually poured over most foods at the table; a dipping dish is usually provided. Soy sauce is, however, meant to be poured directly onto tofu and grated daikon dishes, and in the raw egg when preparing tamago kake gohan ("egg on rice"). In particular, soy sauce should never be poured onto rice or soup. It's considered rude to waste soy sauce so moderation should be used when pouring into dishes.
Chopsticks The proper usage of chopsticks is the most important table etiquette in Japan. Chopsticks are never left sticking vertically into rice, as this resembles incense sticks (which are usually placed vertically in sand) during offerings to the dead. This may easily offend some Japanese people. Using chopsticks to spear food or to point is also frowned upon and it is considered very bad manners to bite chopsticks. Other important chopsticks rules to remember include the following: ("Japanese table manners," 2008)
- Hold your chopsticks towards their end, and not in the middle or the front third.
- When you are not using your chopsticks and when you are finished eating, lay them down in front of you with the tip to left.
- Do not pass food with your chopsticks directly to somebody else's chopsticks. Only at funerals are the bones of the cremated body given in that way from person to person.
- Do not move your chopsticks around in the air too much, nor play with them.
- Do not move around plates or bowls with chopsticks.
- To separate a piece of food into two pieces, exert controlled pressure on the chopsticks while moving them apart from each other.
Communal dish When taking food from a communal dish, unless they are family or very close friends, one should turn the chopsticks around to grab the food; it is considered more sanitary. Alternatively, one could have a separate set of chopsticks for communal dishes.
Sharing If sharing food with someone else, move it directly from one plate to another. Never pass food from one pair of chopsticks to another, as this recalls passing bones during a funeral.
Eat what is given It is customary to eat rice to the last grain. Being a picky eater is frowned on, and it is not customary to ask for special requests or substitutions at restaurants. It is considered ungrateful to make these requests especially in circumstances where you are being hosted, as in a business dinner environment. After eating, try to move all your dishes back to the same position they were at the start of the meal. This includes replacing the lids on dishes and putting your chopsticks on the chopstick holder or back into their paper slip. ("japanese table manners," 2008) Good manners dictate that you respect the selections of the host.
Drinking Even in informal situations, drinking alcohol starts with a toast (kanpai, 乾杯) when everyone is ready. Do not start drinking until everybody is served and has finished the toast ("japanese table manners," 2008). It is not customary to pour oneself a drink; rather, people are expected to keep each other's drinks topped up. When someone moves to pour your drink you should hold your glass with both hands and thank them.
In Japanese tradition some dishes are strongly tied to a festival or event. These dishes include:
In some regions every 1st and 15th day of the month people eat a mixture of rice and azuki (azuki meshi (小豆飯), see Sekihan).
Foods from other countries vary in their authenticity. In Tokyo, it is quite easy to find restaurants serving authentic foreign cuisine. However, in most of the country, in many ways, the variety of imported food is limited; for example, it is rare to find pasta that is not of the spaghetti or macaroni varieties in supermarkets or restaurants; bread is very rarely of any variety but white; and varieties of imported breakfast cereals are limited to flakes or granola.
Japanese rice is usually used instead of imported rice (in dishes from Thailand, India, Italy, etc.) or including it in as a side dish to dishes that do not usually feature it, such as steak or omelets.
Curry, which was originally imported from India into Japan by the British in the Meiji era, was first adopted by the Imperial Japanese Army, eventually leading to its presence in Japanese cuisine. Japanese curry is unlike Indian or any other forms of curry. Unique Japanese ingredients include apples and honey. Even Japanese curry branded as Indian curry is quite different. For instance, some Japanese "Indian-style" curries contain beef and pork, making them unacceptable to most Hindus, Jains, Jews and Muslims.
Japanese versions of curry powder and sauces can be found in many foods, among them curry udon, curry bread, and curry tonkatsu.
Chinese-style wheat noodles served in a meat stock broth known as ramen have become extremely popular over the last century.
Chinese food is the most popular foreign cuisine throughout Japan. It is closely followed by Korean barbecue and Italian pasta.[36]
Hamburger chains include McDonald's, Burger King, First Kitchen, Lotteria and MOS Burger. Many chains developed uniquely Japanese versions of American fast food such as the teriyaki burger, kinpira rice burger, fried shrimp burgers, and green tea milkshakes.
"Italian" restaurants tend to only have pizza and pasta on their menus. The cheaper Italian places in Japan tend to serve more Americanized versions of Italian foods, which often vary wildly from the versions found in Italy or in other countries. For pizza delivery, Pizza Hut and Domino's can easily be found in major cities, although the menus are localized. Corn, mayonnaise, and seafood toppings are popular. In sit-down restaurants, the vast majority of pizzas have crusts that are thinner and crispier, and have far less cheese and other toppings than in the U.S.
Many Italian dishes are changed, however high-class Japanese chefs have preserved many Italian seafood dishes that are forgotten in other countries. These include pasta with prawns, lobster (a specialty known in Italy as pasta all'aragosta), crab (an Italian specialty; in Japan it is served with a different species of crab), and pasta with sea urchin sauce (sea urchin pasta being a specialty of the Puglia region).
Many countries have imported portions of Japanese cuisine. Some may adhere to the traditional preparations of the cuisines, but in some cultures the dishes have been adapted to fit the palate of the local populace.
In Canada, Japanese cuisine has become quite popular in all medium and major cities, so that it is very unusual not to find one or more Japanese restaurants in cities above 100,000 population. Sushi, sashimi, and instant ramen are highly popular at opposite ends of the income scale, with instant ramen being a common low-budget meal. Sushi and sashimi takeout began in Toronto and Vancouver, but is now common throughout Canada. The largest supermarket chains all carry basic sushi and sashimi, and Japanese ingredients and instant ramen are readily available in most supermarkets. Most mid-sized mall food courts feature fast-food teppan cooking. Izakaya restaurants have gained a surge of popularity.
Japanese cuisine is an integral part of food culture in Hawaii as well as in other parts of the United States. Popular items are sushi, sashimi and teriyaki. Kamaboko, known locally as fish cake, is a staple of saimin, a noodle soup invented in and extremely popular in the state. Sushi, long regarded as quite exotic in the west until the 1970s, has become a popular health food in parts of North America, Western Europe and Asia.
In Mexico, certain Japanese restaurants have created what is known as "Sushi Mexicano", in which spicy sauces and ingredients accompany the dish or are integrated in sushi rolls. The habanero and serrano chiles have become nearly standard and are referred to as chiles toreados, as they are fried, diced and tossed over a dish upon request. A popular sushi topping, "Tampico", is made by blending chiles, mayonnaise, and crab imitation. Cream cheese and avocado is usually added to makizushi. Kamaboko is popular street food in South Korea, where it is known as eomuk (어묵) or odeng (오뎅). It is usually boiled on a skewer in broth and sold from street restaurant carts where they can be eaten with alcoholic beverage, especially soju. In the winter, deep-fried eomuk-on-a-stick (known alternatively as "hot-bar") is a popular treat.
Taiwan has adapted many Japanese food items. Taiwanese versions of tempura, only barely resembling the original, is known as 天婦羅 or 甜不辣 (tianbula) and is a famous staple in night markets in northern Taiwan. Taiwanese versions of oden is known locally as oren (黑輪) or 關東煮 Kwantung stew, after the Kansai area.
Ramen, of Chinese origin, has been exported back to China in recent years where it is known as ri shi la mian (日式拉麵, "Japanese lamian"). Popular Japanese ramen chains serve ramen alongside distinctly Japanese dishes such as tempura and yakitori, something which would be seen as odd in Japan. Ramen has gained popularity elsewhere in part due to the success of the Wagamama chain, although they are quite different from Japanese ramen. Instant ramen, invented in 1958, has now spread throughout the world. Skewered versions of oden is a common convenience store item in Shanghai where it is known as aódiǎn (熬点).
In Australia, sushi is considered a very popular lunch/snack option with one or two sushi bars in every shopping center. It would be hard to find a metropolitan area where it is not available, with some major supermarkets stocking pre-packaged options. There are also many casual 'food court' restaurants that cook fast food such as soft shell crab udon, tempura, and many other dishes. Also found are a great variety of 'sushi train' restaurants for a fun dining experience. In the city and surrounding suburbs there are many Japanese restaurants for formal dining.
In Brazil, Japanese food is widespread due to the large Japanese-Brazilian population living in the country, which represents the largest Japanese community living outside Japan. Over the past years, many restaurant chains such as Koni Store[37] have opened, selling typical dishes such as the popular temaki. Brazilians are particularly fond of yakisoba, which is readily available in all supermarkets, and often included in non-Japanese restaurant menus.
In 2009, France had 10 Japanese convenience stores, located in an area between Lyon, Montpellier, and Paris. The stores, originally intended for a Japanese clientele, saw an increase in French customers in a five year period leading to 2009. In 2009 French clients consisted of 40% of all clients and 50% of all sales. Many French customers buy "sushi kits." Some convenience stores offer specific products to attract new customers. The manager of one shop in Paris, Kanae, said that French consumers buy fewer products at a time than Japanese consumers, but buy goods more often.[38]
- ^ Shinmura 1976 Kōjien, Kindaichi 1974's dictionary both gloss washoku as nihon ryōri
- ^ a b c d e f g Heibonsha 1964, encyclopedia, vol. 17, 355-6, article on Nihon ryōri by Toshio Yanagihara 柳原敏雄 (1912-1991) (general); Tekishū Motoyama 本山荻舟 (1881-1958) (history)
- ^ Morimoto, Hinonishi & Sakamoto 1958, fūzoku dictionary, 1958, p.392. quote:"広く西洋料理といえば、南蛮料理、紅毛料理といわれる明治維新以前の西洋料理も含むのであるが、狭い意味で西洋料理、または洋食といえば、日本料理を和食というのに対し、維新以後普及した西洋料理を指した言葉である。"
- ^ Rowthorn, Chris (2006). Lonely Planet Kyoto City Guide. 農山漁村文化協会. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=LR_Qj8x-iT4C&pg=PA116. , p.116
- ^ Andoh 2012, p.125 calls this "egg drop soup"
- ^ a b 読売新聞大阪本社 (2005). 雑学新聞. PHP研究所. ISBN 978-4-569-64432-5. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=iuANkSnZ8e0C&pg=PA158. , p.158, explains that in the tea kaiseki, the
- ^ Kondo (2010) (preview). 日本の作法としきたり: 四季の行事と冠婚葬祭、その由来と常識 (Nihon no saho to shikitari: shiki no gyoji to kankon sosai, sono yurai to joshiki). PHP研究所. ISBN 978-4-569-77764-1. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=gszX4_Z15-sC&pg=PA185. , p.185
- ^ Shinmura 1976 Kōjien dict. defines teishoku as fare served at shokudō (食堂, "dining hall"?) or ryōriten (料理店, "restaurant"?), which is somewhat vague (shokudō can mean a diner type restaurant or a corporate lunch hall); but e.g. Ishikawa, HIroyoshi (石川弘義) (1991) (snippet). Taishū bunka jiten. Kōbundō. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=6mYxAQAAIAAJ. defines it as fare served at teishoku shokudō (定食食堂, "teishoku dining hall"?), etc., a diner-like establishment.
- ^ "A Day in the Life: Seasonal Foods", The Japan Forum Newsletter No.14 September 1999.
- ^ Hepburn 1988 dictionary "hashiri: The first fruits, or first caught fish of the season"
- ^ Ehara, Ayako (1999). "School Meals and Japan's Changing Diet" (snippet). Japan echo (Japan Echo Inc.) 26. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=YXlDAAAAYAAJ. , quote: "Relatively alien to the traditional Japanese diet were meat, oil and fats, and dairy products.."
- ^ Heibonsha 1964, vol. 17, p.355, "Nihon ryori", section by Toshio Yanagihara(ja).
- ^ Heibonsha 1964, vol. 17, p.356, "Nihon ryori", section by Motoyama: "日本人の食料はもともと穀類を中心として菜藻を主とし、鳥肉がこれにつぎ、獣肉はわすがであったが、仏教渡来後.."
- ^ Cawthorin 1997, p.7}}
- ^ Morimatsu, Yoshiaki (森末義彰) (1957). 風俗辞典. 東京堂出版. http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=8nGxAAAAIAAJ. "天武天皇三年に牛・馬。犬・猿,鶏の肉を食べゐこと古禁じてから肉食が演じ、江戸時代になっても四足・二足を食べない家が多かった。もっとも野獣の肉は食用に供した。"
- ^ a b c Fukuta, Ajio (福田アジオ) (1999). Nihon minzoku daijiten(日本民俗大辞典). 1. Yoshikawa Kobunkan (吉川弘文館). http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=qGgQAQAAMAAJ. , p.16 安土,桃山時代から江戸時代にかけて南蛮料理や中国料理の影響と油の生産増大に伴い、油揚や天麩羅,素揚,薩摩撝など副食物として
- ^ Shinmura 1976 Kōjien
- ^ Shinmura 1976 Kōjien under okazu says "formerly a ladies' term (婦人語)"
- ^ a b c Hamano 2010,p.64
- ^ Andoh 2012, p.20 "spinach steeped in broth"; p.63 "(spinach) blanched and then marinated" in smoky broth.
- ^ Shimbo 2000, p.237, "Ohitashi literally means 'dipped item,' although the dressing is actually poured over the leaf vegetables.
- ^ a b Shimbo 2000, p.147 "wakame and cucumber in sanbaizu dressing (sunomono)"; p.74 "sanbaizu" recipe
- ^ Tsuji, Fisher & Richil 2006,p.429
- ^ a b c d Tsuji, Fisher & Richil 2006,p.241-253
- ^ a b Rath 2010, Chap. 3, Ceremonial Banquets, p.61-; 66-
- ^ "腹が鳴るなり万福寺 黄檗宗大本山万福寺（宇治市）". ひびき紀行. Asahi Shimbun. September 3, 2011. http://www.asahi.com/kansai/travel/hibiki/OSK201109030034_02.html. Retrieved May-2012.
- ^ Nagatomo, Akiko (長友麻希子) (September 3, 2011). "普茶料理". 「京都」×（もっと）ワかる. Industry and Tourism Bureau, City of Kyoto. http://kanko.city.kyoto.lg.jp/wakaru/gastronomy/entertainment/basis/file07.html. Retrieved May-2012.
- ^ Andoh 2010, p.188- gives a recipe.
- ^ Kiple & Ornelas 2001, p. 1176
- ^ Japanese rice, retrieved January 8, 2010
- ^ "What is Shochu?". http://cocktailtimes.com/dictionary/shochu.shtml. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
- ^ a b Introduction to Japanese Food, retrieved January 8, 2010
- ^ Davidson, Alan (2003). Seafood of South-East Asia: a comprehensive guide with recipes. Ten Speed Press. p. 34. ISBN 1-58008-452-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=8nhfSFs79fUC&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ Tsuji, Shizuo; M.F.K. Fisher (2007). Japanese Cooking: A Simple Art (25 ed.). Kodansha International. pp. 280–281. ISBN 978-4-770-03049-8.
- ^ Mente, Boye Lafayette De (2007). Dining Guide to Japan: Find the Right Restaurant, Order the Right Dish, and. Tuttle Publishing. p. 70. ISBN 4-8053-0875-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=OT8OSoiYyagC&pg=PA70&dq=tachi-gui+soba%E3%80%80station#v=onepage&q=tachi-gui%20soba%E3%80%80station&f=false.
- ^ http://www.flavorandfortune.com/dataaccess/article.php?ID=42 Off the Menu - Chinese Food in Japan and about Yokohama's Chinatown
- ^ Kugel, Seth (2008-11-09). "Rio de Janeiro: Koni Stores". The New York Times. http://travel.nytimes.com/2008/11/09/travel/09Bites.html?scp=1&sq=Koni%20Stores&st=cse. Retrieved 2010-05-05.
- ^ Audibert, Louise. "Après les restaurants, les supérettes japonaises." Le Monde. 7 April 2009. Practique, Pg. 24. Retrieved on 21 December 2011.
- ^ "Japanese cuisine to be nominated for UNESCO world heritage list". Mainichi Daily News. 18 February 2012. http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/news/20120218p2g00m0dm006000c.html. Retrieved 19 February 2012.
- (language dictionaries)
- (encyclopedias and topical dictionaries)
- (Cuisine titles)
- Cwiertka, Katarzyna Joanna (2006) (preview), Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power And National Identity, Reaktion Books, ISBN 978-1-861-89298-0, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=oK-7LOlWNpEC
- Rath, Eric C. (2010) (preview), Food and Fantasy in Early Modern Japan, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-26227-0, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=_m6g_8Aw_IsC
- (cookbooks)
- Andoh, Elizabeth (2010) (preview), Kansha: Celebrating Japan's Vegan and Vegetarian Traditions, Random House Digital, Inc., ISBN 978-1-580-08955-5, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=kMzb3AkDbcUC&pg=PA188
- Andoh, Elizabeth (2012) (preview), Washoku: Recipes from the Japanese Home Kitchen, Random House Digital, Inc., ISBN 978-030-781355-8, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=lziyA6pHdxEC&pg=PA191
- Shimbo, Hiroko (2000) (preview), The Japanese Kitchen: 250 Recipes in a Traditional Spirit, Harvard Common Press, ISBN 978-155-832177-9, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=43puKgiAK2YC&pg=PA237
- Tsuji, Shizuo; Fisher, M.F.K. (2006) (preview), 風俗辞典(Fūzoku Jiten), Kodansha International, ISBN 978-4-770-03049-8, http://books.google.co.jp/books?id=fby2Er0seMMC&pg=PA241
- (monograms)
- (guides)
