Gondwana

Sunday, 20 January 2013

Gondwana - Buenos Aires en Vivo [Por Consola] Recital Entero

verde amarillo y rojo---GONDWANA --chile

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Alabama
Alabama (ⁱ/ˌæləˈbæmə/) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 23rd-most populous of the 50 United States. Alabama ranks second in the area of its inland waterways.
From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature until the 1960s, while urban interests and African Americans were under-represented. Following World War II, Alabama experienced growth as the economy of the state transitioned from agriculture to diversified interests in heavy manufacturing, mineral extraction, education, and technology. In addition, the establishment or expansion of multiple military installations, primarily those of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force, added to state jobs.

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Americas
The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World.
In the English language, the Americas refers to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, whereas America, in current usage, usually refers to the United States of America.
The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.

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Antarctic Peninsula
The Antarctic Peninsula is the northernmost part of the mainland of Antarctica. At the surface, it is the biggest, most prominent peninsula in Antarctica as it extends 1300 km from a line between Cape Adams (Weddell Sea) and a point on the mainland south of Eklund Islands. Beneath the ice sheet covering the Antarctic Peninsula, it consists of a string of bedrock islands that are separated by deep channels whose bottoms lie at depths considerably below current sea level and are joined together by a grounded ice sheet. Tierra del Fuego, the southern most tip of South America, lies only about 1000 km away across the Drake Passage.
The Antarctic Peninsula is currently dotted with numerous research stations and has multiple claims of sovereignty. The peninsula forms part of disputed and overlapping claims by Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom. None of these claims have international recognition and the respective countries do not currently actively pursue enforcement.
The first sighting of Antarctic Peninsula is disputed but apparently occurred in 1820. The most likely first sighting of the Antarctic mainland, which was also the Antarctic Peninsula, was probably during an expedition of the Russian Imperial Navy that was captained by Thaddeus von Bellinghausen. The party did not recognize what they thought was an icefield covered by small hillocks as the mainland on 27 January 1820. Edward Bransfield and William Smith were the first to chart a part of the Antarctic Peninsula just three days later on the 30 January 1820. The location was later to be called Trinity Peninsula, the extreme northeast portion of the peninsula. The next confirmed sighting was by John Biscoe who named the northern part of the Antarctic Peninsula, Graham Land, in 1832.

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Antarctica
Antarctica

This map uses an orthographic projection, near-polar aspect. The South Pole is near the center, where longitudinal lines converge.
Antarctica (ⁱ/æntˈɑrtɨkə/ or /ænˈtɑːktɨkə/) is Earth's southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km² (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages at least 1 mile (1.6 km) in thickness.
Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89 °C (−129 °F). There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted organisms survive there, including many types of algae, animals (for example mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades), bacteria, fungi, plants, and protista. Vegetation where it occurs is tundra.

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Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīrat al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب Ǧazīrat al 'Arab‎) is a land mass situated north-east of Africa. Also known as Arabia or the Arabian subcontinent, it is the world's largest peninsula and covers 3,237,500 km² (1,250,000 mi²). The area is an important part of the Asian continent and plays a critical geopolitical role of the Middle East and Arab World due to its vast reserves of oil and natural gas. The peninsula formed as a result of the rifting of the Red Sea between 56-23 million years ago, and is bordered by the Red Sea to the west, the Persian Gulf to the northeast, and the Indian Ocean to the southeast.
The Arabian Peninsula is located in the Asia continent and bounded by (clockwise) the Persian Gulf on the northeast, the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman on the east, the Arabian Sea on the southeast and south, the Gulf of Aden on the south, the Bab-el-Mandeb strait on the southwest, and the Red Sea on the southwest and west. The northern portion of the peninsula merges with the Syrian Desert with no clear border line, although the northern boundary of the Arabian Peninsula is generally considered to be the northern borders of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.

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Argentina
Argentina ⁱ/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.

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Deccan Traps
The Deccan Traps are a large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau of west-central India (between 17°–24°N, 73°–74°E) and one of the largest volcanic features on Earth. They consist of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt that together are more than 2,000 m (6,562 ft) thick and cover an area of 500,000 km² (193,051 sq mi) and a volume of 512,000 km³ (123,000 cu mi). The term "trap", used in geology for such rock formations, is derived from the Swedish word for stairs and refers to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region.
The Deccan Traps formed between 60 and 68 million years ago, at the end of the Cretaceous period. The bulk of the volcanic eruption occurred at the Western Ghats (near Mumbai) some 65 million years ago. This series of eruptions may have lasted less than 30,000 years in total.
The original area covered by the lava flows is estimated to have been as large as 1.5 million km², approximately half the size of modern India. The Deccan Traps region was reduced to its current size by erosion and plate tectonics; the present area of directly observable lava flows is around 512,000 km² (197,684 sq mi).

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Drake Passage
The Drake Passage or Mar de Hoces—Sea of Hoces—is the body of water between the southern tip of South America at Cape Horn, Chile and the South Shetland Islands of Antarctica. It connects the southwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean (Scotia Sea) with the southeastern part of the Pacific Ocean and extends into the Southern Ocean. The passage receives its English language name from the 16th century English privateer Sir Francis Drake. Drake's only remaining ship, after having passed through the Strait of Magellan, was blown far South in September 1578. This incident implied an open connection between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Half a century earlier, after a gale had pushed them South from the entrance of the Strait of Magellan, the crew of the Spanish navigator Francisco de Hoces thought they saw a land's end and possibly inferred this passage in 1525. For this reason, some Spanish and Latin American historians and sources call it Mar de Hoces after Francisco de Hoces.
The first recorded voyage through the passage was that of the Eendracht, captained by the Dutch navigator Willem Schouten in 1616, naming Cape Horn in the process.

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East Antarctica
East Antarctica, also called Greater Antarctica, constitutes the majority (two-thirds) of the Antarctic continent, lying on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains. It is the coldest, windiest, driest and most isolated land mass on Earth, and includes a number of high mountains.
Almost completely covered in thick, permanent ice, East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Kemp Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Princess Elizabeth Land, Wilhelm II Land, Queen Mary Land, Wilkes Land, Adélie Land, George V Land, Oates Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere, a fact that has suggested the name. The name has been in existence more than 90 years (Balch, 1902; Nordenskjöld, 1904), but its greatest use followed the International Geophysical Year (1957–58) and explorations disclosing that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional separation of East Antarctica and West Antarctica. The name was approved in the United States by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1962. East Antarctica is generally higher than West Antarctica, and is considered the coldest place on Earth.

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Famatina
Famatina is a town in the province of La Rioja, Argentina. It has 6,371 inhabitants as per the 2001 census [INDEC], and is the only municipality in the Famatina Department. Located in fertile valley between Sierra de Famatina and Sierra de Velasco Famatina's economy revolve around jojoba and olive agriculture and tourism.
The town developed from a pre-Hispanic settlement in the Inca Empire, and whose indigenous inhabitants have been recognised as Diaguitas. The site of Famatina was first explored by Spaniards in 1592 when Juan Ramírez de Velazco arrived during his search for gold.
Osisko Mining Corporation, based in Montreal, Canada, signed an agreement in August 2011 with La Rioja’s state mining corporation “Energia y Minerales Sociedad del Estado”(ESME) to develop the Famatina gold project. This project would cover an area of 40 km² in the Famatina Mountain Range. Osisko agreed to pay US$ 500 000 to ESME within 15 days of the signing and invest $US 10 million within the first year of exploration . The terms also stated the division of profits from the project; 70% for Osisko, 30% for ESME.

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Florida
Florida (ⁱ/ˈflɒrɪdə/) is a state in the southeastern United States, bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Florida is the 22nd most extensive, the 4th most populous, and the 8th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state capital is Tallahassee, its largest city is Jacksonville, and the South Florida metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan area in the southeastern U.S.
Much of Florida is situated on a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Florida. Its geography is marked by a coastline, by the omnipresence of water and the threat of hurricanes. Florida has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States, encompassing approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km), and is the only state to border both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Much of the state is at or near sea level and its terrain is characterized by sedimentary soils. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south. Its symbolic animals like the American alligator, Florida panther and the manatee, can be found in the Everglades, one of the most famous national parks in the world.

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Horn of Africa
The Horn of Africa (Amharic: የአፍሪካ ቀንድ^?, Arabic: القرن الأفريقي‎, Somali: Geeska Afrika, Tigrinya: ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ^?) (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes Somali Peninsula; shortened to HOA) is a peninsula in East Africa that juts hundreds of kilometers into the Arabian Sea and lies along the southern side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the easternmost projection of the African continent. Referred to in ancient and medieval times as Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers"), the Horn of Africa denotes the region containing the countries of Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia and Somalia.
It covers approximately 2,000,000 km² (770,000 sq mi) and is inhabited by roughly 100 million people (Ethiopia: 85 million, Somalia: 9.3 million, Eritrea: 5.2 million, and Djibouti: 0.86 million). Regional studies on the Horn of Africa are carried out, among others, in the fields of Ethiopian Studies as well as Somali Studies.
The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer. It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley, a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates. Most of the region is mountainous which arose through faults resulting from the Rift Valley, with the highest peaks in the Semien Mountains of northwestern Ethiopia.^{[citation needed]}

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India
India (ⁱ/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.

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Indian Plate
The India Plate or Indian Plate is a tectonic plate that was originally a part of the ancient continent of Gondwana from which it split off, eventually becoming a major plate. About 55 to 50 million years ago (contested), it fused with the adjacent Australian Plate. It is today part of the major Indo-Australian Plate, and includes most of South Asia and a portion of the basin under the Indian Ocean, including parts of South China and Eastern Indonesia, and extending up to but not including Ladakh, Kohistan and Balochistan.
140 million years ago the Indian Plate formed part of the supercontinent Gondwana together with modern Africa, Australia, Antarctica, and South America. Gondwana broke up as these continents drifted apart with different velocities, a process which led to the opening of the Indian Ocean.

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Isthmus of Panama
The Isthmus of Panama, also historically known as the Isthmus of Darien, is the narrow strip of land that lies between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, linking North and South America. It contains the country of Panama and the Panama Canal. Like many isthmuses, it is a location of great strategic value.
The Isthmus was formed some three million years ago during the Pliocene epoch. This major geological event separated the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and caused the creation of the Gulf Stream.
Vasco Núñez de Balboa heard of the South Sea from the natives while sailing along the Caribbean coast. On 25 September 1513 he saw the Pacific. In 1519 the town of Panamá was founded near a small indigenous settlement on the Pacific coast. After the discovery of Peru it developed into an important port of trade and became an administrative centre. 1671 the Welsh pirate Henry Morgan crossed the Isthmus of Panamá coming from the Caribbean and destroyed the city. Afterwards the town was relocated some kilometers to the west at a small peninsula. The ruins of the old town Panamá la Vieja are preserved, and were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1997.

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Kerguelen Plateau
The Kerguelen Plateau ( /ˈkɜrɡələn/, /kərˈɡeɪlən/) is an underwater volcanic large igneous province (LIP), also the microcontinent and submerged continent in the southern Indian Ocean. It lies about 3,000 km to the southwest of Australia and is nearly three times the size of Japan. The plateau extends for more than 2,200 km in a northwest-southeast direction and lies in deep water.
The plateau was produced by the Kerguelen hotspot, starting with or following the breakup of Gondwana about 130 million years ago. There is a small portion of the plateau that breaks sea level, forming the Kerguelen Islands, Heard Island and McDonald Islands. Intermittent volcanism continues on Heard and McDonald islands.
Symmetrically located across the Indian Ocean ridge and due west of Australia, is the Broken Ridge underwater volcanic plateau which was at one time contiguous with the Kerguelen Plateau prior to rifting by the mid-ocean ridge.
To the north of Broken Ridge lies the linear Ninety East Ridge which continues almost due north into the Bay of Bengal and is considered to be a hotspot track.

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Madagascar
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara [republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥], French: République de Madagascar) is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (the fourth-largest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by human settlement.
Initial human settlement of Madagascar occurred from 350 BCE and 550 CE by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into eighteen or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

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Mawson Sea
Mawson Sea is an area of the sea along the Queen Mary Land coast of East Antarctica between the Shackleton Ice Shelf in the west and Vincennes Bay in the east. West of it, on the western side of Shackleton Ice Shelf, is the Davis Sea. To the east is Bowman Island and Vincennes Bay.
Two important glacier debouche into the Mawson Sea: Scott Glacier, and Denman Glacier. Calving of Denman Glacier into the Mawson Sea gives rise to the periodically appearing Pobeda Ice Island.
It was named in honor of Australian Antarctic explorer Douglas Mawson.
"Mawson Sea". Geographic Names Information System, U.S. Geological Survey. http://geonames.usgs.gov/pls/gnispublic/f?p=gnispq:5:::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:9591. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
Coordinates: 65°00′S 105°00′E / 65°S 105°E / -65; 105

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New Caledonia
Coordinates: 21°15′S 165°18′E / 21.25°S 165.30°E / -21.25; 165.30
New Caledonia (French: Nouvelle-Calédonie) is a special collectivity of France located in the southwest Pacific Ocean, 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) east of Australia and about 20,000 kilometres (12,000 mi) from Metropolitan France. The archipelago, part of the Melanesia subregion, includes the main island of Grande Terre, the Loyalty Islands, the Belep archipelago, the Isle of Pines and a few remote islets. The Chesterfield Islands in the Coral Sea are also part of New Caledonia. Locals refer to Grande Terre as "Le Caillou", the rock.
New Caledonia has a land area of 18,576 square kilometres (7,172 sq mi). The population (2011 estimate) is 256,275. The capital of the territory is Nouméa.
The earliest traces of human presence in New Caledonia date back to the Lapita period. The Lapita were highly skilled navigators and agriculturists with influence over a large area of the Pacific.
The British first sighted New Caledonia on September 4, 1774, during the second voyage of Captain James Cook. He named the territory New Caledonia, as the north-east of the island reminded him of Scotland. The west coast of Grande Terre was approached by Jean-François de Galaup, comte de Lapérouse in 1788, shortly before his disappearance, and the Loyalty Islands were first visited in 1796. From then until 1840, only a few sporadic contacts with the archipelago were recorded. Contacts became more frequent after 1840, because of the interest in sandalwood from New Caledonia.

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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.

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Northern Hemisphere
Coordinates: 45°0′0″N 0°0′0″E / 45°N 0°E / 45; 0
The Northern Hemisphere is the half of a planet that is north of its equator—the word hemisphere literally means “half sphere”. It is also that half of the celestial sphere north of the celestial equator. Earth's northern hemisphere contains most of the planet's land, and roughly 90% of its human population. See also Arctic, Temperate zone, Tropics, Seasons and Climate
Due to the Earth's axial tilt, winter lasts from the winter solstice (typically December 22) to the vernal equinox (typically March 20), while summer lasts from the summer solstice (typically June 21) through to the autumnal equinox (typically September 21).
The Arctic is the region north of the Arctic Circle. Its climate is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow. The Arctic experiences some days in summer when the Sun never sets, and some days during the winter when it never rises. The duration of these phases varies from one day for locations right on the Arctic Circle to several months near the North Pole.

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Seychelles
Seychelles (ⁱ/seɪˈʃɛlz/ say-SHELZ; French: [sɛʃɛl]), officially the Republic of Seychelles (French: République des Seychelles; Creole: Repiblik Sesel), is an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some 1,500 kilometres (932 mi) east of mainland Africa, northeast of the island of Madagascar.
Other nearby island countries and territories include Zanzibar to the west, Mauritius, Rodrigues, Agalega and Réunion to the south, Comoros and Mayotte to the southwest. Seychelles, with an estimated population of 86,525, has the smallest population of any African state. It also has the highest Human Development Index in Africa.
Scholars assume that Austronesian seafarers, and later Maldivian and Arab traders were the first to visit the uninhabited Seychelles. Remains of Maldivian mariner presence from the 12th century were found in Silhouette Island. The earliest recorded sighting by Europeans took place in 1502 by the Portuguese Admiral Vasco da Gama, who passed through the Amirantes and named them after himself (islands of the Admiral).

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Siberia
Coordinates: 60°0′N 105°0′E / 60°N 105°E / 60; 105
Siberia (/saɪˈbɪəriə/; Russian: Сиби́рь, tr. Sibir'; IPA: [sʲɪˈbʲirʲ] ( listen)) is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th to 19th centuries.
Encompassing much of the Eurasian Steppe, the territory of Siberia extends eastward from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins, and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and the national borders of Mongolia and China. Siberia makes up about 77% of Russia's territory (13.1 million square kilometres), but has only 28% (40 million people) of Russia's population.
Some sources say that the word Siberia originates from the Turkic for "sleeping land". Another version is that this name was the ancient tribal name of the Sabirs, Turkic nomads later assimilated to Siberian Tatars. The modern usage of the name appeared in the Russian language after the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.

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Southern Hemisphere
Coordinates: 45°0′0″S 0°0′0″E / 45°S 0°E / -45; 0
The Southern Hemisphere is the part of Earth that lies south of the equator. The word hemisphere (from the Greek word σφαιρα (sphere) +ημι (half)) literally means 'half ball' or "half sphere". It is also that half of the celestial sphere south of the celestial equator.
The Southern Hemisphere contains all or parts of four continents (Antarctica, Australia, most parts of South America and southern half of Africa), four oceans (South Atlantic, Indian, South Pacific, and Southern) and most of Oceania. Several islands off the Asian continental mainland are also in the Southern Hemisphere. Due to the tilt of Earth's rotation relative to the Sun and the ecliptic plane, summer is December to March and winter is June to September. September 22 or 23 is the vernal equinox and March 20 or 21 is the autumnal equinox.

Climates in the Southern Hemisphere overall tend to be slightly milder than those in the Northern Hemisphere at similar latitudes except in the Antarctic which is colder than the Arctic. This is because the Southern Hemisphere has significantly more ocean and much less land. Water heats up and cools down more slowly than land.

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Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean (also known as the Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean, and the South Polar Ocean) comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60°S latitude and encircling Antarctica. It is usually regarded as the fourth-largest of the five principal oceanic divisions. This ocean zone is where cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic mix with warmer subantarctic waters.
Geographers disagree on the Southern Ocean's northern boundary or even its existence, with many considering the waters part of the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans instead. Others regard the Antarctic Convergence, an ocean zone which fluctuates seasonally, as separating the Southern Ocean from other oceans, rather than the 60th parallel.Australian authorities regard the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia.
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) has not yet ratified its 2000 definition of the ocean as being south of 60°S. Its latest published definition of oceans dates from 1953; this does not include the Southern Ocean. However, the more recent definition is used by the IHO and others.

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Tanzania
Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E / -6.307; 34.854 Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( /ˌtænzəˈniːə/ Swahili: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern border lies on the Indian Ocean.
Tanzania is a state composed of 26 regions (mikoa), including those of the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar. The head of state is President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, elected in 2005. Since 1996, the official capital of Tanzania has been Dodoma, where Parliament and some government offices are located. Between independence and 1996, the main coastal city of Dar es Salaam served as the country's political capital. Today, Dar es Salaam remains the principal commercial city of Tanzania and the de facto seat of most government institutions. It is the major seaport for the country and its landlocked neighbours.

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University of Leeds
Coordinates: 53°48′26″N 1°33′6″W / 53.80722°N 1.55167°W / 53.80722; -1.55167
The University of Leeds (informally Leeds University, or simply Leeds) is a British Redbrick university located in the city of Leeds, West Yorkshire, England. Originally named the Yorkshire College of Science and later simply the Yorkshire College, it incorporated the Leeds School of Medicine and became part of the federal Victoria University alongside Owens College (which eventually became the University of Manchester) and University College Liverpool (which became the University of Liverpool). In 1904, a royal charter was granted to the University of Leeds by King Edward VII.
The University is a member of the Russell Group of research-intensive universities, of which the university's Vice-Chancellor Prof Michael Arthur is the current Chairman, and the N8 Group for research collaboration. The university is also a founding member of the Worldwide Universities Network, the Association of Commonwealth Universities, the European University Association, the White Rose University Consortium, the Santander Network and CDIO and is also affiliated to the Association of MBAs, EQUIS and Universities UK.

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West Antarctica
West Antarctica, or Lesser Antarctica, one of the two major regions of Antarctica, is the part of the continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere including the Antarctic Peninsula.
Lying on the Pacific Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains, West Antarctica comprises the Antarctic Peninsula (with Graham Land and Palmer Land) and Ellsworth Land, Marie Byrd Land and King Edward VII Land and offshore islands such as Adelaide Island, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf on the Weddell Sea, and the Ross Ice Shelf on the Ross Sea. West Antarctica is separated from the main land mass of the continent by the icy waters of the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea, and resembles a giant peninsula that stretches roughly from the South Pole towards the southern tip of South America.
The name has existed for more than 100 years (Balch, 1902; Nordenskiöld, 1905), but its greatest use followed the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) and explorations disclosing that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional separation of West Antarctica and East Antarctica. The name was approved by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1962.

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Yemen
The Republic of Yemen (Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-Yamanīyah), commonly known as Yemen ⁱ/ˈjɛmən/ (Arabic: اليَمَن‎ al-Yaman), is a country located in Western Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern end of the Arabian Peninsula. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea to the west, and Oman to the east. Yemen is considered one of the poorest countries in the Arab world. Its capital and largest city is Sana'a. Yemen's territory includes over 200 islands, the largest of which is Socotra, about 415 km (258 mi) to the south of mainland Yemen, off the coast of Somalia. It is the only state in the Arabian Peninsula to have a purely republican form of government. Approximately 53% of Yemenis are Sunnis, while 45% are Zaydi Shias.
One etymology derives Yemen from yamin, meaning "on the right side", as the south is on the right when facing the sunrise. Another derives Yemen from yumn, meaning "felicity", as the region is fertile. The Romans called it Arabia Felix (Happy Arabia) as opposed to Arabia Deserta (Deserted Arabia), which was their term for northern Arabia.

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Eduard Suess
Eduard Suess (August 20, 1831, London – April 26, 1914, Vienna) was a geologist who was an expert on the geography of the Alps. He is responsible for hypothesising two major former geographical features, the supercontinent Gondwana (proposed 1861) and the Tethys Ocean.
Born in London to a Lutheran Saxon merchant and his Jewish wife, when he was three his family relocated to Prague, then to Vienna when he was 14. Interested in geology at a young age, he published his first paper (on the geology of Carlsbad, now in the Czech Republic) when he was 19.
By 1857 he was a professor of geology at the University of Vienna, and from there he gradually developed views on the connection between Africa and Europe; eventually he came to the conclusion that the Alps to the north were once at the bottom of an ocean, of which the Mediterranean was a remnant. While not quite correct (mostly because plate tectonics had not yet been discovered — he used the earlier geosyncline theory), this is close enough to the truth that he is credited with postulating the earlier existence of the Tethys Ocean, which he named in 1893. He claimed in 1885 that there had once been land bridges connecting South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica. He named this ancient broken continent Gondwanaland.

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Gondi people
The Gondi (Gōndi) or Gond people are people in central India, spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra (Vidarbha), Chhattisgarh, northern Andhra Pradesh, and Western Orissa. With over four million people, they are the largest tribe in Central India.
Gond or Rajgond are same tribes. The term Raj Gond ,was widly used in 1940's but has now become almost obsolete, probably because of the political eclipse of the Gond Rajas.
The Gondi language is related to Telugu and other Dravidian languages. About half of Gonds speak Gondi languages, while the rest speak Indo-Aryan languages including Hindi.
For many years during the British colonial period of India the Gonds were considered to have performed human sacrifices, although this notion was later discredited.

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Gondwana - Felicidad

Gondwana - Felicidad Gondwana from Chile is one of the best reggae bands today....

published: 20 Sep 2007

author: Dubwise4u

Gondwana - Verde Amarillo y Rojo

...

published: 15 Jul 2011

author: Principe LLerena

Gondwana Mi Princesa

Video Gondwana...

published: 14 Aug 2006

author: brahamlias

Gondwana - Ignorancia

Gondwana - Ignorancia...

published: 26 Dec 2006

author: pitufona

Gondwana - Dime

...

published: 06 Aug 2009

author: MrAnawdnog

Gondwana - Sentimiento Original

Gondwana - Sentimiento Original Más Vídeos en www.irie.tk...

published: 28 May 2006

author: irietk

Gondwana-Smile Souling

Si te gusta la imagen de fondo, puedes descargarte el Wallpaper (papel tapiz) desde aqui: ...

published: 03 Mar 2011

author: r3ptilektrik0

Gondwana - Buenos Aires en Vivo [Por Consola] Recital Entero

Gondwana - En vivo en Buenos Aires (Completo)...

published: 23 Dec 2011

author: Ignacio Armellini

Gondwana - Antoina

vSee Music Videos www.bvmtv.com that you CAN'T See on You Tube! +Live Chat +Comment + Embe...

published: 22 Apr 2009

author: BVMRastaTV

GONDWANA - NADIE COMO TU

REGGAE...

published: 02 Feb 2007

author: player6440

verde amarillo y rojo---GONDWANA --chile

...

published: 08 Feb 2010

author: infesth

Gondwana - Armonia de Amor

Gondwana la mejor banda de reggae chileno Armonia de amor cantada por Quique neira......

published: 23 Nov 2006

author: NeoZet

Gondwana - Festival de Viña 2001 (completo)

...

published: 03 Aug 2011

author: medisenmaestro

GONDWANA // PIENSAME - VIDEO OFICIAL

Buscá la música de Gondwana en I-Tunes: itunes.apple.com GONDWANA es sin dudas, la banda m...

published: 15 Dec 2011

author: BARCAMUSICA

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photo: Creative Commons / Gage Skidmore

Actress Angelina Jolie on the Salt panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic Con in San Diego, California.

Angelina Jolie likes being sexy

m&c;

18 Jan 2013

Angelina Jolie likes being a sex symbol. The Oscar-winning actress is regarded as one of the world's most beautiful women and she enjoys being told she looks good as it's important to feel sexy ... ....(size: 1.0Kb)

photo: AP / Sergei Chuzavkov

Ukraine's Prime Minister and presidential candidate Yulia Tymoshenko speaks to the media in Kiev, Ukraine, Sunday, Feb. 7, 2010.

Ukraine Government Plans to Charge Ex-Premier With Murder

The New York Times

19 Jan 2013

MOSCOW — The government of President Viktor F. Yanukovich of Ukraine said Friday that it planned to bring murder charges against his political rival, the jailed former prime minister, Yulia V. Tymoshenko, in connection with the 1996 assassination of a member of Parliament. Connect With Us on Twitter. Follow @nytimesworld for international breaking news and headlines. Twitter List. Reporters and Editors ... He said that Ms ... Ms ... Ms ...   ... ....(size: 8.0Kb)

photo: US Army / Staff Sgt. Michael R. Noggle

File - Senegalese and Malian soldiers train with U.S. special forces in Mali during a military training engagement, May 11, 2010 in Bamako, Mali as part of Exercise Flintlock 10.

Al-Qaeda in the Heart of Africa

Antiwar

18 Jan 2013

“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction” is Newton’s third law of physics. Its counterpart in geopolitics is “blowback,” when military action in one sphere produces an unintended and undesirable consequence in another. September 11, 2001, was blowback. George H.W. Bush had sent an army of half a million to hurl Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait, a triumph ... bases in Saudi Arabia ... Patrick J....(size: 5.8Kb)

photo: AP / SITE Intel Group

This image from video provided by the SITE Intel Group made available Thursday Jan. 17, 2013, purports to show militant militia leader Moktar Belmoktar.

Mokhtar Belmokhtar: Algeria's Link To Al Qaeda

Skynews

18 Jan 2013

He's known as Mr Marlboro because of his cigarette smuggling. The French intelligence service calls him "The Uncatchable".. The truth is Mokhtar Belmokhtar and his fellow North African Jihadists are rapidly emerging as Europe's most potent strategic threat.. Born in central Algeria in 1972 he grew obsessed with Jihadi ideology in his teens. At 19 he volunteered to fight alongside the mujahedeen in Afghanistan . ... "He is very cold ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)

photo: WN / Imran Nissar

File - A beggar woman shielding her children from the sun in Srinagar, India, on July 09 2012.

Oxfam says world's rich could end poverty

Al Jazeera

20 Jan 2013

The world's 100 richest people earned enough money last year to end world extreme poverty four times over, according to released by international rights group and charity Oxfam. The $240 billion net income of the world's 100 richest billionaires would have ended poverty four times over, according to the London-based group's report released on Saturday ... [...] We're anti-poverty agency ... You don't normally hear us talking about wealth ... ....(size: 18.5Kb)

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C'garh proposes to set up fast-track courts for rape cases

Zeenews

20 Jan 2013

Raipur ... "While talking to a delegation of Akhil Bharatiya Gondwana Gond Mahasabha (ABGGM), Chief Minister said the state government has decided to send the proposal to Chief Justice to set up fast-track courts in each district," a government official said in a statement here today ... The Chief Minister also said the accused in rape cases should be given stringent punishment as early as possible ... PTI ... First Published ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)

Customer Wins 25 Nights Stay At Gondwana Lodges

All Africa

19 Jan 2013

... the winner of the Gondwana Card competition....(size: 0.2Kb)

Southern star

Irish Times

19 Jan 2013

You can travel to the Antarctic in affordable comfort - there is no need to rough it like Shackleton, writes LOUISE HEALY . Few places on Earth juxtapose as many conflicting images of beauty as the Antarctic ... Seeing it today it’s hard to believe that about 200 million years ago Antarctica was joined with Australia, Africa, South America, India and New Zealand in the supercontinent of Gondwana ... It was dreamlike architecture ... ....(size: 10.6Kb)

Meet on livelihood for Gadhchiroli tribals begins today

The Times of India

17 Jan 2013

NAGPUR. Academicians from all over the country will assemble at Gadchiroli's Gondwana University to discuss on ways to bring tribals in the area into mainstream by developing certain livelihood options for them ... The proposed STRC will help us do this as we will have experts from IIT-B and RGSTC guiding us," said Namdeo S Kokode, director of the Board of College and University Development, Gondwana University ... TALKING POINTS ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)

Interest high in five-day science conference

Otago Daily Times

17 Jan 2013

Nearly 300 researchers from about 35 countries will converge on Dunedin this weekend to take part in an international science conference ... The ''life on the edge'' theme acknowledges the ''growing pressure from changing climate, extractive use and human populations on the distinctive climates, biotas and human settlement patterns'' which had unfolded since the breakup of the ancient supercontinent Gondwana, congress organisers said ... ....(size: 2.7Kb)

History in a pink jacket

The Hindu

13 Jan 2013

Journalistically speaking, life’s been good for Shubhranshu Choudhary, founder of CGNet Swara mobile news and author of Let’s Call him Vasu ... The book itself reads like fiction ... He says, “Adivasis are very timid ... Balagopal, who says ... People from all over the Gondwana region that in addition to Chhattisgarh includes parts of Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh call in to give or listen to news ... Keywords....(size: 5.4Kb)

Chhattisgarh girls' hostel superintendent arrested for forcing minor girl into sex acts

The Times of India

12 Jan 2013

RAIPUR. Within days after sensational case of sexual assault on minor girls at a tribal hostel came to light in Kanker district, another case of similar nature has surfaced in Chhattisgarh ... They also complained to the Gondwana samaj, a local body of tribes' community ... Gondwana community leaders alleged that she enjoyed considerable clout in the administration and among other influential people ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)

All ground covered

Sydney Morning Herald

11 Jan 2013

... its vast history before, during and after its Gondwana days, and its unique biology - to explain what we see, experience and exploit now....(size: 0.8Kb)

Politics hot up over minor girls' rape in Chhattisgarh, Jogi demands CBI probe

The Times of India

10 Jan 2013

RAIPUR ... Two days ago, former chief minister Ajit Jogi had presented before the media at Kanker a woman, who had claimed that her daughter had died due to pregnancy related complications in August last year after she took some local medicines for abortion ... Later, local BJP Member of Parliament Sohan Potai, BJP legislator Sumitra Markole and Gondwana Samaj president Narayan Singh Gora visited the family at their village ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)

Raising day, Road Safety Week programmes keep Gadchiroli cops busy

The Times of India

06 Jan 2013

NAGPUR ... The 'Maharashtra Raising Day' programme also kicked off in the district on January 2 with the vice-chancellor of Gondwana University Vijay Ainchwar addressing the gathering at police headquarters ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)

Bidding adieu

The Times of India

04 Jan 2013

The world didn't end in 2012, but this 'doomsday' year did and it was bid adieu in style by the city's la-di-da brigade, who had gathered at the Gondwana Club....(size: 1.2Kb)

Bruce Lindsay's Best Releases of 2012

All About Jazz

02 Jan 2013

By BRUCE LINDSAY, Bruce Lindsay. CD/DVD Reviewer since 2008 Bruce is the author of the blog Delicious Hot Disgusting Cold, and the photoseries "It's Not How It Sounds". Recent articles (455 total) Dice Factory Tell Slightly Peculiar bi-polAr World Without Form. The year of 2012 proved once again that jazz remains a wonderfully diverse and diverting art form. Here are 10 of my favorite albums, in no particular order ... (Gondwana Records) ... ....(size: 2.7Kb)

Fog disrupts rail operations, 24 trains delayed

Zeenews

01 Jan 2013

Train operation was delayed with many trains including Sachkhand Express, Gondwana Express, Awadh Assam Express, Bhubaneswar Rajdhani and Mahananda Express running more than 10 ......(size: 1.0Kb)

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This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2011)

This article is about the supercontinent. For other uses, see Gondwana (disambiguation).

Gondwana
Historical continents
Type	Geological supercontinent
Today part of	Africa South America Australia India Arabia Antarctica Balkans
Smaller continents	Atlantica India Australia Antarctica Zealandia
Tectonic plate	African Plate Antarctic Plate Indo-Australian Plate South American Plate
v t e

A global paleogeographic reconstruction of the Earth during the Late Triassic, approximately 220 Mya, showing Gondwana breaking away from Laurasia in the north

In paleogeography, Gondwana ( /ɡɒndˈwɑːnə/),^[1]^[2] originally Gondwanaland, was the southernmost of two supercontinents (the other being Laurasia) that later became parts of the Pangaea supercontinent. It existed from approximately 510 to 180 million years ago (Mya). Gondwana is believed to have sutured between ca. 570 and 510 Mya, thus joining East Gondwana to West Gondwana.^[3] It separated from Laurasia 200-180 Mya (the mid Mesozoic era) during the breakup of Pangaea, drifting further south after the split.^[4]

Gondwana included most of the landmasses in today's Southern Hemisphere, including Antarctica, South America, Africa, Madagascar and the Australian continent, as well as the Arabian Peninsula and the Indian subcontinent, which have now moved entirely into the Northern Hemisphere.

The continent of Gondwana was named by Austrian scientist, Eduard Suess, after the Gondwana region of central northern India (from Sanskrit gondavana "forest of the Gonds"), from which the Gondwana sedimentary sequences (Permian-Triassic) are also described.

The adjective Gondwanan is in common use in biogeography when referring to patterns of distribution of living organisms, typically when the organisms are restricted to two or more of the now-discontinuous regions that were once part of Gondwana, including the Antarctic flora. For example, the Proteaceae, a family of plants known only from southern South America, South Africa and Australia, are considered to have a "Gondwanan distribution". This pattern is often considered to indicate an archaic, or relict, lineage.

1 Formation
2 Pangaea
3 Climate
4 Breakup
- 4.1 Mesozoic
- 4.2 Cenozoic
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Formation [link]

Orogens and Kuungan Orogens.

The assembly of Gondwana was a protracted process. Several orogenies led to its final amalgamation 550–500 Mya at the end of the Ediacaran, and into the Cambrian.^[3] These include the Brasiliano Orogeny, the East African Orogeny, the Malagasy Orogeny, and the Kuunga Orogeny. The final stages of Gondwanan assembly overlapped with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean between Laurentia and western Gondwana. During this interval the Cambrian explosion occurred.

Gondwana was formed from the following earlier continents and microcontinents, among others, colliding in the following orogenies:

Azania: much of central Madagascar, the Horn of Africa and parts of Yemen and Arabia. (Named by Collins and Pisarevsky (2005): "Azania" was a Greek name for the East African coast.)
The Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block of central Africa.
Neoproterozoic India: India, the Antongil Block in far eastern Madagascar, the Seychelles, and the Napier and Rayner Complexes in East Antarctica.
The Australia/Mawson continent: Australia west of Adelaide and a large extension into East Antarctica.
Other blocks which helped to form Argentina and some surrounding regions, including a piece transferred from Laurentia when the west edge of Gondwana scraped against southeast Laurentia in the Ordovician.^[5]^[6] This is the Famatinian block (named after Famatina in northwest Argentina) and it formerly continued the line of the Appalachians southwards.^[7]

Reconstruction showing final stages of assembly of Gondwana, 550 Mya.

One of the major sites of Gondwanan amalgamation was the East African Orogeny (Stern, 1994), where these^[which?] two major orogenies are superimposed on each other. The East African Orogeny at ~650–630 Mya affected a large part of Arabia, north-eastern Africa, East Africa and Madagascar. Collins and Windley (2002) propose that in this orogeny Azania collided with the Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block.^[8]

The later Malagasy orogeny at ~550–515 Mya affected Madagascar, eastern East Africa and southern India. In it Neoproterozoic India collided with the already combined Azania and Congo–Tanzania–Bangweulu Block, suturing along the Mozambique Belt.^[9]

At the same time, in the Kuunga Orogeny Neoproterozoic India collided with the Australia/Mawson continent.

Pangaea [link]

Other large continental masses, including the core cratons of North America (the Canadian Shield or Laurentia), Europe (Baltica), and Siberia were added over time to form the supercontinent Pangaea by Permian time. When Pangea broke up (mostly during the Jurassic), two large masses, Gondwana and Laurasia, were formed. The re-formed Gondwanan continent was not precisely the same as that which existed before Pangaea formed; for example, most of Florida and southern Georgia and Alabama are underlain by rocks that were originally part of Gondwana but that were left attached to North America when Pangea broke apart.^[10]

Climate [link]

During the late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near the south pole to near the equator. Across much of Gondwana, the climate was mild. During the Mesozoic, the world was on average considerably warmer than today. Gondwana was then host to a huge variety of flora and fauna for many millions of years. The laurel forest of Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand have a number of other related species of the laurissilva de Valdivia, through the connection of the Antarctic flora as gymnosperms and deciduous angiosperm Nothofagus. Corynocarpus laevigatus is called the bay of New Zealand, Laurelia novae-zelandiae belongs to the same genus Laurelia. The sempervirens tree niaouli, it grows in Australia, New Caledonia and New Zealand. New Caledonia and New Zealand ecoregion are separated by continental drift from Australia 85 million years ago. The islands still retain plants and animals that originated in Gondwana and spread to the southern hemisphere continents later. But there is strong evidence of glaciation during Carboniferous to Permian time, especially in South Africa.

Breakup [link]

Mesozoic [link]

Nothofagus is a plant genus that illustrates Gondwanan distribution, having descended from the supercontinent and existing in current day Australia, New Zealand, New Caledonia and Chile. Fossils have also recently been found in Antarctica.^[11]

Gondwana began to break up in the early-Jurassic (about 184 Mya) accompanied by massive eruptions of basalt lava, as East Gondwana, comprising Antarctica, Madagascar, India and Australia, began to separate from Africa. South America began to drift slowly westward from Africa as the South Atlantic Ocean opened, beginning about 130 Mya during the Early Cretaceous, and resulting in open marine conditions by 110 Mya. East Gondwana then began to separate about 120 Mya when India began to move northward.

The Madagascar block, and a narrow remnant microcontinent presently occupied by the Seychelles Islands, were broken off India; elements of this breakup nearly coincide with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. The India–Madagascar–Seychelles separations appear to coincide with the eruption of the Deccan basalts, whose eruption site may survive as the Réunion hotspot.

Australia began to separate from Antarctica perhaps 80 Mya (Late Cretaceous), but sea-floor spreading between them became most active about 40 Mya during the Eocene epoch of the Paleogene Period.

New Zealand probably separated from Antarctica between 130 and 85 Mya.

Cenozoic [link]

As the age of mammals went underway, the continent of Australia-New Guinea began gradually to separate and move north (55 Mya), rotating about its axis to begin with, and thus retaining some connection with the remainder of Gondwana for about 10 million years.

About 45 Mya, the Indian Plate collided with Asia, buckling the crust and forming the Himalayas. At about the same time, the southernmost part of Australia (modern Tasmania) finally separated from Antarctica, letting ocean currents flow between the two continents for the first time. Antarctica became cooler and Australia became drier because ocean currents circling Antarctica were no longer directed around northern Australia into the subtropics.

The separation of South America from West Antarctica some time during the Oligocene, perhaps 30 Mya also caused climate changes. Immediately before this, South America and East Antarctica were not connected directly, but the many microplates of the Antarctic Peninsula remained near southern South America acting as "stepping stones" allowing continued biological interchange and stopped oceanic current circulation. But when the Drake Passage opened, there was now no barrier to force the cold waters of the Southern Ocean north, to be exchanged with warmer tropical water. Instead, a cold circumpolar current developed and Antarctica became what it is today: a frigid continent that locks up much of the world's fresh water as ice. Sea temperatures dropped by almost 10°C, and the global climate became much colder.

By about 15 Mya, the collision between New Guinea (on the leading edge of the Australian Plate) and the southwestern part of the Pacific Plate pushed up the New Guinea highlands, causing a rain shadow effect which drastically changed weather patterns in Australia, drying it out.

Later, South America was connected to North America via the Isthmus of Panama, cutting off a circulation of warm water and thereby creating the Arctic^{[citation needed]}, as well as allowing the Great American Faunal Interchange.

The Red Sea and East African Rift are modern examples of the continuing dismemberment of Gondwana.

Notes [link]

^ "gondwana". Dictionary.com. Lexico Publishing Group. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/gondwana. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
^ "Gondwanaland". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gondwana. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
^ ^a ^b Buchan, Craig (November 7–10, 2004). "Paper No. 207-8 - Linking Subduction Initiation, Accretionary Orogenesis And Supercontinent Assembly". 2004 Denver Annual Meeting. Geological Society of America. http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_78645.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
^ Houseman, Greg. "Dispersal of Gondwanaland". University of Leeds. http://homepages.see.leeds.ac.uk/~eargah/Gond.html. Retrieved 21 Oct 2008.
^ Rapalini, AE (2001). "The Assembly of Southern South America in the Late Proterozoic and Paleozoic: Some Paleomagnetic Clues". Spring Meeting 2001. American Geophysical Union. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001AGUSM..GP32D03R. Retrieved 2010-01-18.
^ Rapalini, AE (1998). "Syntectonic magnetization of the mid-Palaeozoic Sierra Grande Formation: further constraints on the tectonic evolution of Patagonia". Journal of the Geological Society 155 (1): pp. 105–114. DOI:10.1144/gsjgs.155.1.0105.
^ http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/219.abstract Laurentia-Gondwana collision: the origin of the Famatinian-Appalachian Orogenic Belt (a review)
^ Collins, Alan S; Windley, Brian F (May 2002). "The Tectonic Evolution of Central and Northern Madagascar and Its Place in the Final Assembly of Gondwana". The Journal of Geology 110 (3): pp. 325–339. DOI:10.1086/339535.
^ Grantham, G.H.; Maboko, M.; Eglington, B.M. (2003). "A review of the evolution of the Mozambique Belt and implications for the amalgamation and dispersal of Rodinia and Gondwana". Proterozoic East Gondwana: supercontinent assembly and breakup. Geological Society. pp. 417–418. ISBN 1-86239-125-4. http://books.google.ca/books?id=4B8nrDVjaCgC&pg=PA417.
^ "Gondwana Remnants In Alabama And Georgia: Uchee Is An 'Exotic' Peri-Gondwanan Arc Terrane, Not Part Of Laurentia". ScienceDaily. February 4 2008. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080204212810.htm. Retrieved October 2011.
^ H.M. Li and Z.K. Zhou (2007) Fossil nothofagaceous leaves from the Eocene of western Antarctica and their bearing on the origin, dispersal and systematics of Nothofagus. Science in China. 50(10): 1525-1535.

References [link]

Cattermole, Peter John (2000). Building Planet Earth: Five Billion Years of Earth History. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-58278-0. OCLC 317422973.
Collins, Alan S; Pisarevsky, Sergei A (August 2005). "Amalgamating eastern Gondwana: The evolution of the Circum-Indian Orogens". Earth-Science Reviews 71 (3–4): pp. 229–270. DOI:10.1016/j.earscirev.2005.02.004.
Cowen, Richard (2000). History of Life (3rd ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Science. ISBN 978-0-632-04444-3. OCLC 41572551.
Encarnacion, J; Fleming, Thomas H.; Elliot, David H.; Eales, Hugh V. (1996). "Synchronous emplacement of Ferrar and Karoo dolerites and the early break-up of Gondwana". Geology 24 (6): pp. 535–538. DOI:10.1130/0091-7613(1996)024<0535:SEOFAK>2.3.CO;2.
Lowrie, William (1997). Fundamentals of Geophysics. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-46164-1. OCLC 35651121. Also ISBN 978-0-521-46728-5.
Meert, JG (2003-02-06). "A synopsis of events related to the assembly of eastern Gondwana". Tectonophysics 363 (1): pp. 1–40. DOI:10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00629-7.
Stern, RJ (May 1994). "ARC Assembly and Continental Collision in the Neoproterozoic East African Orogen: Implications for the Consolidation of Gondwanaland". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 22: pp. 319–351. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.001535.

External links [link]

Geological supercontinents	Historical continents

Afro-Eurasia-America Gondwana Laurasia Pangaea Pannotia Rodinia Columbia Kenorland Nena Ur Vaalbara	Arctica Asiamerica Atlantica Avalonia Baltica Cimmeria Congo craton Euramerica Kalaharia Kazakhstania Laurentia North China Siberia South China East Antarctica India

Submerged continents	Possible future supercontinents	Mythical and theorized continents

Kerguelen Plateau Zealandia	Pangaea Ultima Amasia Novopangaea	Atlantis Kumari Kandam Lemuria Meropis Mu Terra Australis

See also Regions of the world

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Contents

Formation [link]

Pangaea [link]

Climate [link]

Breakup [link]

Mesozoic [link]

Cenozoic [link]

See also [link]

Notes [link]

References [link]

Further reading [link]

External links [link]

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