Coordinates: 51°30′26″N 0°02′48″W / 51.5071°N 0.0466°W / 51.5071; -0.0466

Shadwell
Shadwell  Shadwell shown within Greater London
OS grid reference	TQ355805
London borough	Tower Hamlets
Ceremonial county	Greater London
Region	London
Country	England
Sovereign state	United Kingdom
Post town	LONDON
Postcode district	E1
Dialling code	020
Police	Metropolitan
Fire	London
Ambulance	London
EU Parliament	London
UK Parliament	Poplar and Limehouse
London Assembly	City and East
List of places: UK • England • London

Shadwell is an inner-city district situated within the London Borough of Tower Hamlets located on the north bank of the Thames between Wapping to the south and Ratcliff to the east. It is located 3 miles (4.8 km) east of Charing Cross and forms part of the East End of London.

History[link]

Etymology[link]

In the 13th century, the area was known as Scadflet and Shatfliet^[1] – derived from the Anglo-Saxon fleot, meaning a shallow creek or bay – the land was a low lying marsh, until drained (by order of Act of Parliament, after 1587) by Cornelius Vanderdelf.^[2] A spring, issuing from near the south wall of the churchyard was dedicated to St Chad, and filled a nearby well.^[3] The origin of the name is therefore confused, being associated with both the earlier use and the later well.

Origins[link]

In the 17th century, Thomas Neale became a local landowner, and built a mill and established a waterworks on large ponds, left by the draining of the marsh. The area had been virtually uninhabited and he developed the waterfront, with houses behind as a speculation.^[2] Shadwell became a maritime hamlet with roperies, tanneries, breweries, wharves, smiths, and numerous taverns, built around the chapel of St Paul's. Seventy-five sea captains are buried in its churchyard; Captain James Cook had his son baptised there.

Shadwell Basin bascule bridge. (January 2006)

By the mid-eighteenth century, Shadwell Spa was established, producing sulphurous waters, in Sun Tavern fields. As well as medicinal purposes, salts were extracted from the waters; and used by local calicoprinters to fix their dyes.^[4]

The modern area is dominated by the enclosed former dock, Shadwell Basin, whose construction destroyed much of the earlier settlement – by this time degenerated into slums.^[2] The basin once formed the eastern entrance to the then London Docks, with a channel leading west to St Katharine Docks. It is actually two dock basins - the south basin was constructed in 1828-32 and the north basin in 1854-8.

Unlike nearby Limehouse Basin, few craft larger than canoes can be seen on Shadwell Basin, which is largely used for fishing and watersports - and as a scenic backdrop to the modern residential developments that line it. The basin, however, is still connected to the Thames and the channel is spanned by a bascule bridge.

In the 19th century, Shadwell was home to a large community of foreign South Asian lascar seamen, brought over from British India by the East India Company. There were also Anglo-Indians, from intermarriage and cohabitation between lascar seamen and local girls. There were also smaller communities of Chinese and Greek seamen, who also intermarried and cohabited with locals.^[5][6]

Parish church[link]

St. Paul's Shadwell with St. James Ratcliffe, is traditionally known as the Church of Sea Captains. In 1656 the church was established as a Chapel of Ease, from St Dunstan's, at Stepney. In 1669, it was rebuilt as the Parish Church of Shadwell, and it was the last of five parish churches rebuilt after the Restoration. In 1820, it was again rebuilt as a 'Waterloo church'.

Captain James Cook was an active parishioner and John Wesley preached in the church from time to time. Isham Randolph of Dungeness, one of Thomas Jefferson's grandfathers and son of William Randolph, was married in St. Paul's church. Jefferson's boyhood home was named Shadwell after the parish.

Notable current and former residents of Shadwell[link]

Shadwell North Basin. (January 2006)

• Jane Randolph Jefferson (born 9 February 1721) – Mother of Thomas Jefferson
• Bob Crow (born 13 June 1961) – trade union leader
• Walter Pater (4 August 1839 – 30 July 1894) — essayist and critic
• Jah Wobble, lived there from early 1980s to mid-1990s^[7] — musician and writer

Education[link]

Specifically local schools include Blue Gate Fields and Bigland Green Primary schools; and Bishop Challoner secondary school.

Transport and locale[link]

Nearest places

• Limehouse
• Ratcliff
• Stepney
• Wapping
• Whitechapel

The nearest London Overground stations are Shadwell and Wapping and the Docklands Light Railway stations at Limehouse and Shadwell.

THCH Hop Festival[link]

In 2006 local Housing Association, Tower Hamlets Community Housing (THCH) built a new block of flats in Shadwell, adjacent to the existing flats at the corner of Cable Street and Devonport Street, called Thirza House. As part of the new development they built a hop garden.

Since 2007, THCH have held a Hop Festival every September in the hop garden to commemorate the hard work East Enders put in to harvest Kentish hops in the 19th and 20th centuries.

To accompany the Hop Festival, THCH have produced three souvenir booklets in 2008, 2010 and 2011 of photos of East Enders harvesting the hops and sitting outside their hop huts. The booklets are available free from THCH at their offices at 285 Commercial Road, Stepney, London E1 2PS.^[8]

In 2009 the Shadwell hops were harvested by the local residents and Brodies Brewery in Leyton used them to create a new beer called "Old Hopper's Brew". The beer sold out within a month.^[9]

The 2010 hop harvest by local residents and staff from Brodies Brewery took place on Monday 20 September 2010.

See also[link]

• Stepney Historical Trust

References[link]

External links[link]

• Description of old Shadwell
• St Paul's Church Shadwell
• Pictures from the 2007 THCH Hop Festival
• Pictures from the 2008 THCH Hop Festival
• Pictures from the 2009 THCH Hop Festival
• Pictures from the 2010 THCH Hop Festival
• Pictures from the 2011 THCH Hop Festival
• East Londoners Raise a glass to Local Brew - The Guardian - 22nd September 2010
• ITV London Tonight - Old Hoppers Brew 28 January 2010
• BBC Radio Kent - Shadwell Residents re-visit old Hop Farm 7 May 2011

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Gio Ponti (18 November 1891, Milan – 16 September 1979, Milan) was one of the most important Italian architects, industrial designers, furniture designers, artists, and publishers of the twentieth century.

Early life[link]

Ponti's parents were Enrico Ponti and Giovanna Rigone. He did military service during World War I in the Pontonier Corps with the rank of captain, from 1916 to 1918, receiving the Bronze Medal and the Italian Military Cross.

Gio Ponti graduated with a degree in Architecture in 1921 from the Politecnico di Milano University. Also in 1921, he married Giulia Vimercati; they eventually would have four children and eight grandchildren.

Architecture[link]

Ponti began his architectural career in partnership with Mino Fiocchi and Emilio Lancia from 1923 through 1927, and then through 1933 with Lancia only, as Studio Ponti e Lancia PL. In these years he was influenced by and associated with the Milanese neo-classical Novecento Italiano movement. Output of the time includes the 1925 house on Via Randaccio in Milan, the 1926 Bouilhet villa in Garches, Paris, the 1929 Monument to the Fallen with the Novecento architect Giovanni Muzio, the Casa Rasini apartment blocks in Milan, and the 1930 Domus Julia–Domus Fausta complex on Via Letizia.

Around 1933, Ponti ended his relationship with Lancia and teamed with two engineers, Antonio Fornaroli and Eugenio Soncini, to form Studio Ponti-Fornaroli-Soncini which would last until 1945. Their first major commission was the 1936 company headquarters for the Italian chemical firm Montecatini, followed by a number of other industrial and university commissions through the war years, offices for Fiat, and the Palazzo del Liviano for the University of Padua in which Ponti himself painted frescos.

Ponti in 1950 won the commission to design the 32-story Pirelli Tower in collaboration with Pier Luigi Nervi and Arturo Danusso. This was the second skyscraper built in Milan, and likely the climax of Ponti's entire career. Construction began in 1956.

In 1951, Ponti designed the master plan, and two individual block contributions, for the IINA l'Istituto Nazionale per le Assicurazione) Casa quarter housing project in Milan. In 1952 he went into partnership with the architect Alberto Rosselli (Studio Ponti-Fornaroli-Rosselli, P.F.R.: 1952-1976); after the death of Rosselli he continued to work with his longtime partner Antonio Fornaroli. From 1953 to 1957, he built the Hotel della Città et de la Ville and the Centro Studi Fondazione Livio e Maria Garzanti, in Forlì (Italy), by the assignment of Aldo Garzanti, a famous Italian publisher.

As the Pirelli Tower attracted more attention, international commissions came in to Ponti's office, for Caracas, Venezuela, ( Villa Planchart), Baghdad, Hong Kong, Eindhoven and the 1971 Denver Art Museum, and finally a series of Milanese churches: San Francesco in 1963, the church at Ospedale San Carlo in 1967, and the Taranto Cathedral in 1971.

Between 1960 and 1962 Ponti designed and realize the first Italian Hotel Design: the Parco dei Principi (Sorrento)

Industrial design[link]

In 1923 Ponti made his public debut at the first Biennial Exhibition of the Decorative Arts in Monza, which was followed by his involvement in organising the subsequent Triennial Exhibitions of Monza and Milan.

From 1923 to 1930 Ponti worked at the Manifattura Ceramica Richard Ginori, in Milan and Sesto Fiorentino, changing the company's whole output. Other industrial design work includes:

• a line of furnishings for the Rinascente department stores, under the name Domus Nova
• ceramic objects production: maiolica vases, porcelain, sanitaryware (like sinks and toilets (e.g. those created for Richard Ginori and Ideal Standard)
• chairs: among others, he worked for Cassina designing an angular armchair, named "Distex", and the very famous 1957 "Superleggera" (Superlight) chair, which was very strong but also so light that it could be lifted up by a child using just one finger. Also very famous is the "Due Foglie" sofa.
• glass bottles: he designed stylish, colourful glass bottles for various companies such as Venini.
• lamps: for companies such as Artemide, Fontana Arte, and Venini, he created two types of lamps: those provided with very shining, intense colours, and those with a minimalist aesthetic, simple and essential. Among the latter, one of the most famous is the "Billia" lamp, which looks modern today while it was designed for Fontana Arte]in 1931.

Other work[link]

In 1928 he founded Domus magazine. In 1941 he resigned as editor of Domus and set up Stile magazine, which he edited until 1947.^[1] In 1948 he returned to Domus, where he remained as editor until his death.

From 1936 to 1961 he worked as a professor on the permanent staff of the Faculty of Architecture at Politecnico di Milano University.

Awards[link]

In 1934 he was given the title of "Commander" of the Royal Order of Vasa in Stockholm. He also obtained the Accademia d'Italia Art Prize for his artistic merits, as well as a gold medal from the Paris Académie d'Architecture. Finally, he obtained an honorary Doctorate from the London Royal College of Art.^[2]

Gallery[link]

• SofaDueFoglie.png

  The "Due Foglie" Sofa

• Gio Superleggera.jpg

  The "Superleggera" chair

• 

  The Denver Art Museum, 1971

Bibliography[link]

• Ponti, Gio, "In Praise of Architecture", NY: F.W. Dodge Corporation, 1960. Library of Congress number 59-11727.
• Roccella, Graziella, Gio Ponti: Master of Lightness, Cologne: Taschen, 2009, ISBN 978-3-8365-0038-8
• Green, Keith Evan, Gio Ponti and Carlo Mollino: Post-war Italian Architects and the Relevance of Their Work Today , Lewiston/Queenston/Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 2006
• Romanelli, Marco, Licitra Ponti, Lisa (ed.), Gio Ponti. A World, Milan: Abitare Segesta, 2003
• Sherer, Daniel, “Gio Ponti: The Architectonics of Design,” Catalogue Essay for Retrospective Gio Ponti: A Metaphysical World, Queens Museum of Art, curated by Brian Kish, Feb. 15-May 20, 2001, 1-6.
• Sherer, Daniel, “Gio Ponti in New York: Design, Architecture, and the Strategy of Synthesis,” in Espressioni di Gio Ponti, ed. G. Celant. Catalogue essay for the Ponti Exhibition at the Triennale di Milano, May 6-July 24, 2011 (Milan: Electa, 2011), 35-45.
• La Pietra, Ugo, Gio Ponti, New York: Rizzoli International, 1996
• Licitra Ponti, Lisa, Gio Ponti, The Complete Work, 1928-1978, Cambridge (Mass.): MIT Press, 1990
• Universo, Mario, Gio Ponti designer: Padova, 1936-1941, Rome: Laterza, 1989
• Doumato, Lamia, Gio Ponti (Architecture series—bibliography), Monticello: Vance Bibliographies, 1981
• Fabrizio Mautone, Gio Ponti. La committenza Fernandes, Electa Napoli, 2009, ISBN 978-88-510-0603-7

References[link]

External links[link]

This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (August 2010)

• Gio Ponti's works on the Italian public Television - RAI
• INA Casa Harrar-Ponti by Giò Ponti in Rome (1951-55) (with drawings and photos)
• Giò Ponti Furniture Designs
• Gio Ponti's Architecture in Milano
• Gio Ponti on Olivari Design
• Gio Ponti's inventions on Architonic
• Gio Ponti realizes the Hotel Parco dei Principi (Sorrento)

John Sparkes (born 6 January 1954) is a Welsh comedian born in Swansea and is more commonly known on Welsh television as Barry Welsh, in the award-winning (Best Light Entertainment, Welsh Baftas, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2004) series Barry Welsh is Coming.

He starred in the sketch shows Naked Video (BBC2), Absolutely (Channel 4), Barry Welsh is Coming (ITV Wales), Pub Quiz and Jeff Global's Global Probe. He provides the voice of the Narrator and some other characters in the children's animated series Peppa Pig (which also features the voice of fellow Absolutely star Morwenna Banks), Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends, Shaun the Sheep and Mr. Elf and King Marigold in Ben and Holly's Little Kingdom. He also does the voice of Professor von Proton in The Big Knights, and did the voice of Fireman Sam in the 2003-2005 remakes.

Barry Welsh is Coming was broadcast only in Wales, as was Jeff Global's Global Probe (both ITV Wales productions) and Pub Quiz (BBC), in which he played the character Frank Hovis, originally devised for the Absolutely series. As well as playing Barry Welsh, the host of a chat show, Sparkes also plays other characters within the programme, such as pub singer Gwyn and Fishguard news reporter Hugh Pugh. Although the series ended in 2004, it did return in 2007 for a series of one-off specials broadcast throughout the year.

Sparkes also starred in the sketch show Naked Video, where he played Siadwell, the geeky bed-sit poet who wore an anorak and glasses. The character also appeared when Sparkes was part of the BBC Radio 4 comedy programme 'Bodgers Banks & Sparkes'.

He is also the voice of Fireman Sam and other characters in the 2004 animated series The New Adventures of Fireman Sam.

Currently, Sparkes is writing and presenting three ongoing television series for ITV Wales called "Great Pubs of Wales." He also voices the unseen character of archivist Goronwy, in a section on Wallace and Gromit's World of Invention showing on BBC One. He writes and presents Ghost Story in which he spends the night alone with a camcorder in haunted houses around Wales. He has co-written and presented Doug Strong's Special Places, a factual comedy series for ITV Wales and ITV Central.

External links[link]

• John Sparkes at the Internet Movie Database
• Biography on Absolutely.biz

The Steve Harvey Show (also known as Steve Harvey) is an American sitcom that aired for six seasons from August 25, 1996 to February 17, 2002 on The WB Television Network. It was created by Winifred Hervey and directed by Stan Lathan.

Synopsis[link]

Steve Hightower (Steve Harvey) is a has-been 1970s funk legend who is now a music teacher/Vice-principal at Booker T. Washington High School on Chicago's West Side. Budget cutbacks meant Steve also had to teach drama and art, much to his surprise. Cedric Robinson (Cedric the Entertainer) is a coach at the high school, and Steve's long-time best friend. The principal of Booker T. Washington High is Steve's former classmate, Regina Grier (Wendy Raquel Robinson), who Steve affectionately calls "Piggy", due to the fact that she was overweight as an adolescent.

Steve seemingly meets his match in a pair of his students: Romeo Santana (Merlin Santana), a stylish, popular, self-absorbed ladies' man, and the equally vacuous Stanley Kuznocki, nicknamed Bullethead (William Lee Scott).

In 1997, the show introduced a new character, a secretary named Lovita Jenkins (Terri J. Vaughn), a woman who is fundamentally good in nature, but nonetheless, considerably unrefined in terms of disposition. Cedric and Lovita begin dating, and eventually marry and produce a child. The show also featured a succession of young actresses who served as female foils to Romeo and Bullethead; the longest-lasting of these was Lori Beth Denberg as the overachieving, socially inept Lydia Gutman. Rapper The Lady of Rage also had a recurring role as Coretta Cox, a physically massive, brutish teenaged girl in romantic pursuit of Romeo. She would also call Bullethead a "broke Brad Pitt" whenever he annoyed her.

Steve was part of a fictional singing group called "Steve Hightower and the High Tops," who would temporarily reunite to perform on occasion (the spelling of "High Tops" appears on a promotional poster that hangs on Steve's wall). The members consisted of Steve, T-Bone (played by T.K. Carter, later by Don 'D.C.' Curry), Pretty Tony (played by Ronald Isley of The Isley Brothers), and Clyde (played by Jonathan Slocumb). Two of their signature songs (performed several times on the show) were "When the Funk Hits the Fan," and "Break Me Off a Piece of That Funk." Though Cedric was not an original member of the group, he usually sang with them on several events.

A few other recurring characters throughout the series included Cedric's grandmother named "Grandma Puddin'" (played by Cedric the Entertainer) and Regina's boyfriend, former NFL star Warrington Steele (played by Dorien Wilson). Kenan Thompson and Kel Mitchell appeared in several episodes as "Junior" and "Vincent." Wayne Wilderson portrayed Byron, a "bougie" type character who was a TV producer and a member of the Onyx Club (a professional men's group that Steve and Cedric tried to join). Dwayne Adway played Jordan Maddox, a professional basketball player who was briefly married to Regina before dying during their honeymoon. Ernest Lee Thomas made a couple of appearances as the Reverend who eulogized Maddox, and who married Cedric and Lovita.

Running gags[link]

There were a few recurrent gags throughout the series. For instance, Lovita had several relatives named after products or items (her brother's name was Duracell; she had cousins named "Kinko", "Bruschetta," "Clinique," and "Camay").

Steve also made several references to his well known hot spot "The Nasty Kitty" and his favorite working girl, Bubblicious, even though the strip club is never seen. Steve's topical humor of popular culture was also another recurring gag. One example of these jokes: "When I see that woman, I'm like Shaq doing Shakespeare- I just don't know how to act!". Another recurring gag on the show was despite being a one-time famous musician in the universe of the show, Steve was always mistaken for being other famous musicians. For example, in an episode guest starring Jerry Springer, he refers to him as "That Cop from the Village People." Another episode featured singer Teena Marie, who when Steve went to introduce himself to see if she'd remember him, answers "Oh Yes! Lionel! How are you? Give my best to the rest of The Commodores." (This was in obvious reference to singer Lionel Richie).

Though Regina blossomed into a beautiful, stylish lady, she sometimes displayed her insecurities, and was highly competitive (always displayed childlike exuberance whenever she won a trophy by yelling her signature catch phrase "Bam! In your face!", and once cheated Steve in a game of Scrabble because he played it better than she). In addition, the romantic tension between Steve and Regina eventually blossomed into a relationship.

A very well known gag was Cedric's story about being from Willacoochee, Georgia, where he was raised in a one bedroom shack. The story was never finished, the scene would change or someone would interrupt him. Cedric's love for decking out his Hyundai, which was never seen in the show, was another running gag, as well as offering to take Lovita out to dinner whenever he had a two-for-one coupon at the Sizzler restaurant.

Occasional gags referenced Bullethead's trailer park lifestyle, and Romeo's numerous names (he has used the names Romeo Miguel Jesus Pele Rojas Alejandro Santana). In one episode, he wrote all of his names on paper but never prepared his assignment, resulting in an "F." Lydia almost always displayed an obsession for her classmate/alleged lover, Arthur Rabinowitz (whom Steve referred to as "that polite Jewish boy that does his taxes"), and for her favorite entertainer, Barbra Streisand; however, she had total disdain for classmates "Heather the cheerleader" and "Jennifer the cheerleader". One other gag was that teachers would refer to a student (amongst themselves) due to a condition or appearance ("Helmet Boy" for wearing a special helmet in gym class; "Au Natural Girl" for having a strong body odor, and "Firestarter" for one kid who kept setting items on fire).

Cast[link]

Main cast[link]

• Steve Harvey – Steven "Steve" Hightower
• Cedric the Entertainer – Cedric Jackie Robinson
• Merlin Santana – Romeo Santana
• William Lee Scott – Stanley "Bullethead" Kuznocki
• Wendy Raquel Robinson – Principal Regina Grier-Maddox
• Terri J. Vaughn – Lovita Alizé Jenkins-Robinson (1997–2002)
• Tracy Vilar – Sophia Ortiz (1996–1997)
• Netfa Perry – Sara (1996–1997)
• Ariyan A. Johnson – Aisha (1997–1998)
• Lori Beth Denberg – Lydia Liza Guttman (1998–2002)

Recurring cast[link]

• Kel Mitchell – Vincent (1996–1999)
• Kenan Thompson – Junior (1996–1999)
• T. K. Carter – T-Bone (1996–1999)
• Ronald Isley – Pretty Tony (1996–2001)
• Jonathan Slocumb – Clyde (1996–2001)
• The Lady of Rage – Coretta "The Ox" Cox (1997–2000; credited during season 4 episodes as "Robin Yvette")
• Wayne Wilderson – Byron (1998–2001)
• Dorien Wilson – Warrington Steele (1998–1999)
• Samm Levine – Arthur Rabinowitz (2001)
• Don "D.C." Curry – T-Bone (1999–2001)
• Dwayne Adway – Jordan Maddox (2000)

Special guest appearances[link]

• Teena Marie
• Jerry Springer
• Bow Wow
• Jermaine Dupri
• Teddy Riley
• Snoop Dogg
• Sean Combs
• Kim Fields
• Isabel Sanford
• Judge Greg Mathis
• Antonio Fargas
• Busta Rhymes
• Brian McKnight
• Nikki Cox
• Boris Kodjoe
• Gabrielle Union
• Bumper Robinson

Seasonal ratings in the United States[link]

Series end[link]

In 2001, Harvey decided to pursue other projects. He wished to end the show after the fifth season, but at the insistence of the WB network, reluctantly filmed a 13-episode sixth season.^[7]

The series ended with Regina mulling over a job offer to be a principal at a private school in California. Steve, who doesn't want Regina to go, acts supportive despite his feelings. Regina ends up taking the job; with encouragement from Lydia, Bullethead, and Romeo, Steve decides to go after her to reveal his true feelings. Lydia, Romeo and Bullethead have all graduated by the series' finale. Meanwhile, Cedric and Lovita win the lottery and Lovita goes into labor (Terri J. Vaughn's real-life pregnancy was written into the show that season).

Death of Merlin Santana[link]

On November 9, 2002, nine months after the series ended, Merlin Santana was shot and killed while sitting in his car in South Los Angeles, California. He was 26 years old. The reason for his death is that one of the killers' girlfriend falsely stated that Santana tried to rape her. The airing of The Steve Harvey Show immediately following Santana's death was dedicated to his memory.

Syndication[link]

The series was first distributed to syndication to WB and UPN affiliates in the United States by Columbia TriStar Domestic Television in September 2001, and remained airing in broadcast syndication in some U.S. markets on various local stations (such as WCIU and Me-TV in Chicago) as late as 2008.

The series aired on BET until March 2009, and was on TBS in the United States until September 24, 2011, UK Channel Trouble. It was broadcast on Ion Television until March 16, 2009. TBS missed most of the first inning of Game 6 of the 2008 American League Championship Series, with viewers getting a rerun of The Steve Harvey Show instead. TBS picked up the game just prior to the last out in the bottom of the first, with announcer Chip Caray apologizing to viewers for "technical difficulties." TBS acknowledged there was a problem with one of their routers used in the broadcast transmission of the relay of the telecast from Atlanta.^[8][9]

DVD release[link]

In 2003, Sony Pictures released The Best of the Steve Harvey Show, Vol. 1, on Region 1 DVD. The disc features five episodes of the series.^[10]

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• The Steve Harvey Show at the Internet Movie Database
• The Steve Harvey Show at TV.com

Paul the Apostle
Ananias of Damascus restores the sight of Saint Paul. A 1631 painting by Pietro Cortona.
Apostle to the Gentiles
Born	ca. AD 5[1] in Tarsus in Cilicia[2] (south-central Turkey)
Died	ca. AD 67[3] in Rome[3]
Honored in	All Christianity
Major shrine	Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls
Feast	January 25 (The Conversion of Paul) February 10 (Feast of Saint Paul's Shipwreck in Malta) June 29 (Feast of Saints Peter and Paul) November 18 (Feast of the dedication of the basilicas of Saints Peter and Paul)
Attributes	Sword
Patronage	Missions; Theologians; Gentile Christians;

Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"),^[3] also known as Saul of Tarsus,^[4] is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant,^[5][6] due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.

According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem.^[7] While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.^[8]

Along with Simon Peter and James the Just he was one of the most prominent early Christian leaders.^[9] Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are traditionally attributed to Paul. His authorship of seven of the fourteen is questioned by modern scholars.^[6][10] Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not "works of the law".^[6] Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.

Paul's conversion dramatically changed the course of his life. Through his missionary activity and writings he eventually transformed religious belief and philosophy around the Mediterranean Basin. His leadership, influence and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped the God of Israel, adhered to the "Judaic moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the ritual and dietary teachings of the Law of Moses, that these laws and rituals had either been fulfilled in the life of Christ or were symbolic precursors of Christ, all on the basis of Paul's teachings of the life and works of Jesus Christ and his teaching of a New Covenant (or "new testament")^[11] established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's death.^[12]

Sources[link]

Conversion of Saint Paul, a fresco by Michelangelo.

The main source for historical information about Paul's life is the material found in several of his epistles and the Book of Acts. However, these epistles contain comparatively little information about Paul's past. The Book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his (alleged) execution in Rome.^[13] Scholars such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox^[14] dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles.^[15][16] Paul's own account of his background is found particularly in Galatians. According to some scholars, the Acts account of Paul visiting Jerusalem^{[Acts 11:27-30]} contradicts the account in Paul's letters.^{[13][page needed]} Some scholars consider Paul's accounts to be more reliable than those found in Acts.^[17]

Roman Citizenship[link]

The idea that Paul is a Roman citizen derives from the Book of Acts. In the letters of Paul, such a claim is never made. Marcus J. Borg and John Dominic Crossan wrote "Luke insists that Paul was a Roman citizen, but Paul himself does not mention the claim, he in fact seems to negate it."^[18] Paul appears to negate such a claim by stating that he had suffered three beatings by the rod, which was a punishment forbidden upon Roman citizens.^[19] However, the fact that he is able to appeal to Caesar, recorded in Acts 25:11, for his final sentencing leads many scholars to believe that he was indeed a Roman citizen.^[20] Without Roman citizenship, Paul would not have had this right.

Names[link]

His given name was Saul (Hebrew: שָׁאוּל, Modern Sha'ul Tiberian Šāʼûl ; "asked for, prayed for"), perhaps after the biblical king Saul, a fellow Benjamite and the first king of Israel. In Ancient Greek: Σαούλ (Saul), Σαῦλος (Saulos), and Παῦλος (Paulos), in Latin Paulus or Paullus, in Hebrew: שאול התרסי‎ Šaʾul HaTarsi (Saul of Tarsus)^[21]

In the book of Acts, when he had the vision that led to his conversion on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him "Saul, Saul",^[22] in the Hebrew tongue,^[23] and later, in a vision to Ananias of Damascus, "the Lord" referred to him as "Saul, of Tarsus".^[24] When Ananias came to restore his sight, he called him "Brother Saul".^[25]

In Acts 13:9, the author indicates a name change by saying "...Saul, (who also is called Paul,)..."^[26] and thereafter refers to him as Paul. He is called Paul in all other Bible books where he is mentioned.

Prior to conversion[link]

Paul claimed to be "of the stock of Israel, of the tribe of Benjamin, an Hebrew of the Hebrews; as touching the law, a Pharisee."^[Phil. 3:5] But the Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's "sister's son" is mentioned in Acts 23:16. Acts also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".^[Acts 23:6] Paul refers to his mother in Romans 16:13 as among those at Rome.

Acts identifies Paul as from the Mediterranean city of Tarsus (in present-day south-central Turkey), well known for its intellectual environment^{[Acts 21:39]}.

Although born in Tarsus, Paul was raised in Jerusalem^[Acts 26:4] "at the feet of Gamaliel"^[Acts 22:3], a leading authority in the Sanhedrin in the mid 1st century AD. Gamaliel once gave some advice to the Sanhedrin in Acts 5:34-39, to "refrain" from slaying the disciples of Jesus. This is in great contrast to the rashness of his student Saul, who zealously persecuted the "saints". ^{[Acts 9:13; 26:10]}

Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the "church of God" prior to his conversion. (Galatians 1:13–14; Philippians 3:6; Acts 8:1–3) As a young man, he cooperated in the killing of the proto-martyr, Stephen, standing by and guarding the clothes of the witnesseses while Stephen was stoned. (Acts 7:58; 8:1; 22:20)

Conversion and mission[link]

Paul's conversion can be dated to 31 – 36^[27][28][29] by his reference to it in one of his letters.^[13] According to the Acts of the Apostles, his conversion (or metanoia) took place on the road to Damascus, where he claimed to have experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus, after which he was temporarily blinded.^{[Acts 9:1-31] [22:1-22] [26:9-24]} Luke, the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned of his conversion from Paul, from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.^[30]

Post-conversion testimony[link]

In the opening verses of Romans 1, Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic claim and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ:

• Paul describes himself as
  • a servant of Christ Jesus
  • called to be an apostle
  • set apart for the gospel of God
• Paul describes Jesus as
  • having been promised by God "beforehand" through his prophets in the holy Scriptures
  • being the Son of God
  • having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh")^[31]
  • having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead
  • being Jesus Christ our Lord
  • the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."

Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority ^[2:16-26] of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.^[9-11]

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by a personal revelation of Jesus Christ.^{[Gal 1:11-16]} Paul claimed independence from the Jerusalem community^[17] (possibly in the Cenacle), but was just as quick to claim agreement with it on the nature and content of the gospel.^{[Gal 1:22-24]} What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his concept of who the messiah was, particularly what he'd perceived as the absurdity of accepting a crucified messiah^{[citation needed]}. Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.^[32]

Early ministry[link]

The house believed to be of Ananias of Damascus in Damascus.

Bab Kisan, believed to be where Paul escaped from persecution in Damascus.

After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus.^[33] Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death ^{[2Cor. 11:32]}. Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus.^{[Gal. 1:17][34]} Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually travelled to Mt. Sinai for meditations in the desert.^[35][36][37] He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.^{[Gal. 1:13-24]}

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ.^{[Gal. 1:11-12]} Paul claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community^[17] and yet appeared eager to bring material support to Jerusalem from the various budding Gentile churches that he planted. In his writings, Paul persistently used the persecutions he claimed to have endured, in terms of physical beatings and verbal assaults, to claim proximity and union with Jesus and as a validation of his teaching.

Paul's narrative in Galatians states that 14 years after his conversion he went again to Jerusalem.^{[Gal. 2:1-10]} It is not completely known what happened during these 'unknown years', but both Acts and Galatians provide some partial details.^[38] At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch. ^{[Acts 11:26]}

When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46,^[39] Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community.^[40] According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."^[Ac. 11:26]

First missionary journey[link]

The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey,^{[Acts 13-14]} led initially by Barnabas,^[41] takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician^{[Ac 13:8-12]} who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.^[42]

They sail to Perga in Pamphylia. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian Antioch. On Sabbath they go to the synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from the Septuagint^[43] to assert that Jesus was the promised Christos who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them talk more next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles. ^{[Ac 13:13-48]}

Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.^[44]

Second missionary journey[link]

Saint Paul delivering the Areopagus sermon in Athens, by Raphael, 1515. This sermon addressed early issues in Christology.^[45][46]

Paul leaves for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49,^[47] after the meeting of the Jerusalem council where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's birthplace), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening their faith daily. ^[Acts 16:5]

In Philippi, certain men were not happy about the liberation of their soothsaying servant girl, who had been possessed with a spirit of divination,^[48] and they turned the city against the missionaries and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas were able to escape but remained; this event led to the conversion of the jailor.^[49] They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.

Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth.^[13] The reference in Acts to proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio inscription).^[13] Paul met Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet the Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.^[50]

Third missionary journey[link]

Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center for early Christianity, and stayed there for almost 3 years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity into the hinterlands.^[51] Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city.^[13] During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote 4 letters to the church in Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.^[30]

Then Paul went through Macedonia into Achaea, and as he was getting ready to leave for Syria, he changed his plans because of Jews who had made a plot against him and had to go back through Macedonia. At this time it is likely that Paul visited Corinth for three months (56–57).^[13] In Romans 15:19 Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca,^[52] which lay in the northern part of modern Albania, but was at that time a division of the Roman province of Macedonia, .^[53]

Paul and his companions visited other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.^[54][55]

Journey to Rome and beyond[link]

After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict with some Asian Jews. The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and imprisonment in Caesarea for about a year and a half. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul was to stand trial for his alleged crimes. Acts states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial. It does not state what happened after this time, but some sources claim that Paul was freed by Nero and continued to preach in Rome even though that seems unlikely based on Nero's historical relationship with Early Christians. It is possible that Paul also traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain.^[56] See the Arrest and death section below.

Among the writings of early Christians, Clement of Rome said that Paul was "Herald (of the Gospel of Christ) in the West," and that "he had gone to the extremity of the west."^[57][58] Chrysostom indicated that Paul preached in Spain: "For after he had been in Rome, he returned to Spain, but whether he came thence again into these parts, we know not."^[59] Cyril of Jerusalem said that Paul, "fully preached the Gospel, and instructed even imperial Rome, and carried the earnestness of his preaching as far as Spain, undergoing conflicts innumerable, and performing Signs and wonders".^[60] The Muratorian fragment mentions "the departure of Paul from the city [of Rome] [5a] (39) when he journeyed to Spain."^[61]

Council of Jerusalem[link]

Paul on chapel

Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to 50,^[13] described in Acts 15:2 and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in Galatians 2:1.^[13] The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised.^[62] At this meeting, Paul claims in his letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. See also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity.

Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both.^[63] For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief^{[Acts 11:27-30]} apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only).^{[Gal. 1:18-20][63]} F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit to Jerusalem.^[64]

Incident at Antioch[link]

Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch.^[65]

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?"^{[Gal. 2:11-14]} Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.^[66]

The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia^[67] states: "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." In contrast, L. Michael White's From Jesus to Christianity claims: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."^[68]

The primary source for the Incident at Antioch is Paul's letter to the Galatians.

Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles[link]

This table is adapted from White, From Jesus to Christianity.^[63] Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.

Arrest and death[link]

Saint Paul arrested, early 1900s Bible illustration.

Saint Paul's beheading. Painting by Enrique Simonet in 1887.

Paul arrived in Jerusalem in 57 with a collection of money for the community there.^[13] Acts reports that he was warmly received. But Acts goes on to recount how Paul was warned by James and the elders that he was gaining a reputation for being against the Law, 'teaching all the Jews living among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs'.(Acts 21, 21) Paul underwent a purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations against him for not following their law. Paul caused a stir when he appeared at the Temple, and he escaped being killed by the crowd by being taken into Roman custody.^[13] When a plot to kill Paul on his way to an appearance before the Jews was discovered, he was transported by night to Caesarea. He was held as a prisoner there for two years, until a new governor reopened his case in 59.^[13] When the governor suggested that he be sent back to Jerusalem for further trial, Paul was constrained to "appeal unto Caesar", as was his right as a Roman.^[13] Acts recounts that on the way to Rome Paul was shipwrecked on "Melita" (Malta),^{[13] [Acts 28:1]} where he was met by Publius^[Acts 28:7] and the islanders, who showed him "unusual kindness".^[Acts 28:2] He arrived in Rome c 60 and spent two years under house arrest.^{[13][Acts 28:16]}

Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop.^[72] Paul was not a bishop of Rome nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there (Acts 28:14-15). Also Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome (Romans 1:1,7,11-13; 15:23-29). However, Paul would have played an important role in the life of the early church at Rome.

Neither the Bible nor other sources say how or when Paul died, but Ignatius, probably around 110 AD, writes that he was martyred.^[73] According to Christian tradition, Paul, was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero around the mid-60s at Tre Fontane Abbey (English: Three Fountains Abbey).^[74] By comparison, tradition states that Peter, who was not a Roman citizen, was given the more painful death of being crucified upside-down.^[75]

In June 2009, Pope Benedict announced excavation results concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings are consistent with the traditional claim that the tomb is Paul's.^[76]

Writings[link]

Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. Seven of these – Romans, 1st Corinthians, 2nd Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1st Thessalonians and Philemon – are almost universally accepted as being actually written by Paul. Scholars generally agree that four others were not written by Paul, those being 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews.^{[citation needed]} As to the remaining three – Ephesians, Colossians and 2nd Thessalonians – scholars are almost evenly divided.^[77] Of those written by Paul, all except Galatians appear to have been dictated through a secretary, who would paraphrase^{[dubious – discuss]} the message, as was the practice among 1st-century scribes.^[77][78] The epistles were circulated in the Christian community and read aloud by church members along with other works. Paul's epistles were viewed from early times as scripture and later established as Canon of Scripture. Critical scholars regard Paul's epistles, which were written between 50 and 62 AD,^{[citation needed]} to be the earliest books of the New Testament. They are referenced as early as c. 96 by Clement of Rome.^[79]

Authorship[link]

Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th century (Blaffer Foundation Collection, Houston, Texas).

Paul's letters are largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper^{[1 Cor. 11:17-34]} and the crucifixion and resurrection.^{[1 Cor. 15]} His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse,^{[1 Cor. 7:10-11] [9:14]} raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.

Of the fourteen letters attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews (no relation to the Gospel according to the Hebrews), which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.

The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned^[80] on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians.^[81] Ephesians is a very similar letter to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in 1 Cor. 7:8-9. Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past.^[82] The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. It has to be noted, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.^[81]

Russian Orthodox icon of the Apostle Paul, 18th century (Iconostasis of Transfiguration Church, Kizhi Monastery, Karelia, Russia).

Saint Paul, Byzantine ivory relief, 6th – early 7th century (Musée de Cluny)

The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings; Defenders of the authenticity note, that they were then probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the letters were finished, Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them.^[81] Secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it.^[83] They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. However, according to Roman law there was nothing deserving of death against him.^[81] Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission^{[citation needed]}.

2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with some^{[citation needed]} noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility of Paul requesting one of his companions to write the letter for him under his instructions.^[81]

Atonement[link]

Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement.^[84] Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection.^[84] His death was an expiation as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood peace is made between God and man.^[84] By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining as a free gift a new, justified status of sonship.^[84]

Relationship with Judaism[link]

Some scholars^[who?] see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a "Pharisee" and student of Gamaliel), others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while still others^[who?] see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (see for example Circumcision controversy in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity.

Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent.^[13] He wrote that the faith of Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent.^[13] He argued that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws.^[13] Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.

E. P. Sanders' publications^[85] have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul"^[86] and N.T. Wright,^[87] the Anglican Bishop of Durham. Wright, noting a difference between Galatians and Romans, the latter being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former, contends that works are not insignificant but rather proof of attaining the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith)^{[Rom. 2:13ff]} and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.

World to come[link]

According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime.^[88] He states that Paul expected that Christians who had died in the mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.^[88]

Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive.^{[1 Thes. 4:16ff]} This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay.^[89] The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness^{[2 Thess. 2:3]} whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

Role of women[link]

A verse in the first letter to Timothy, 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman"), traditionally attributed to Paul, is often used as the main biblical authority for prohibiting women from becoming ordained clergy and or holding certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity, though Paul's authorship of this letter is debated. The Letter to Timothy is also often used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership.^[90]

1st Timothy 2:9 In like manner also, that women adorn themselves in modest apparel, with shamefacedness and sobriety; not with broided hair, or gold, or pearls, or costly array;
10 But (which becometh women professing godliness) with good works.
11 Let the woman learn in silence with all subjection.
12 But I suffer not a woman to teach, nor to usurp authority over the man, but to be in silence.
13 For Adam was first formed, then Eve.
14 And Adam was not deceived, but the woman being deceived was in the transgression.
15 Notwithstanding she shall be saved in childbearing, if they continue in faith and charity and holiness with sobriety.

— Authorized Version

The KJV translation of this passage seems^{[clarification needed]} to be saying that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis-à-vis men.^[91] Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those Catholic churches that prohibit female priests, permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other females. Any interpretation of this portion of Scripture must wrestle with the theological, contextual, syntactical, and lexical difficulties embedded within these few words.^[92] Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk finds evidence in Paul’s letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that Romans 16 is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who was (according to some scholars) an Apostle. Kirk points to recent studies that have led "many scholars" to conclude that the passage in 1 Corinthians 14 ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul’s original letter to the Corinthians. Other scholars such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, claim that Paul's restriction on women speaking in 1Corinthians 14 is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case of prohibiting asking questions or chatting and is not a general prohibition on any woman speaking since in 1Corinthians 11 Paul affirms the right of women to prophesy.^[93] Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is Galatians 3:28: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, male nor female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (italics added). In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome."^[94]

The conversion on the way to Damascus, by Caravaggio.

Homosexuality[link]

All three of the verses in the New Testament that purportedly contain explicit references to homosexuality are contained within letters attributed to Paul (Romans 1:26-27, 1Corinthians 6:9-10, and 1Timothy 1:8-11): it is argued that his statements condemn homosexuals and homosexual behavior. Porneia appears a number of times in Paul's letters, always with arsenokoitais. Yale University professor John Boswell argues in his book "Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality" that 'arsenokoitai' in 1 Corinthians 6:9 and 1 Timothy 1:10 refers specifically to male prostitution; various writers have presented countering arguments.^[95][96][97]

Influence on Christianity[link]

This section relies largely or entirely upon a single source. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources. Discussion about the problems with the sole source used may be found on the talk page. (August 2011)

Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author.^[6] Paul declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.^[13]

Lord's Supper[link]

Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the Lord's supper, a rite traditionally identified as the Christian Eucharist.

Eastern tradition[link]

In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge.^[13] The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.

Western tradition[link]

Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.^[13]

In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone.^[13] John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.^[13]

Modern theology[link]

In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.^[13]

Church tradition[link]

Statue of Saint Paul in Damascus.

Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.

1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:^[98]

"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."

Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation."^[99]

Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. The San Paolo alle Tre Fontane church was built on the location where the execution was believed to have taken place. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year).^[100] The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed.^{[2 Tim. 4:13]} A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ad Catacumbas by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History, writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.

Paul, who was quite possibly martyred in Rome, has long been associated with that city and its church. Paul is the patron saint of London.

The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is celebrated on January 25.^[101]

Literary analysis[link]

Facial composite of Paul by experts of the LKA NRW, Germany.

British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts.

Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bear his literary and theological marks.^[102] Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.^[103]

F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.

Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic ^[104] and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this.

Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributed the origins of Christian antisemitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.^[105]

Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great.^[106] Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa."^[107] Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in Romans 16:11 where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman."

Alan Segal, Daniel Boyarin, Christopher R. A. Jones regard Paul's accounts of his conversion experience and his ascent to the heavens as the earliest first person accounts we have of the visionary experiences of a Merkabah mystic in Jewish or Christian literature.^{[citation needed]} Conversely, Timothy Churchill has argued that Paul's Damascus road encounter does not fit the pattern of Merkabah.^[108]

Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus."^[109] Christian anarchists, such as Leo Tolstoy^[110] and Ammon Hennacy^[111], take a similar view.

F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato, sometimes even using the same metaphors and language.^[112] For example, in Phaedrus, Plato has Socrates saying that the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly."^[113] These words are echoed by Paul in 1 Corinthians 13:12.

Howard Brenton's 2005 play "Paul" takes a skeptical view of his conversion.^{[citation needed]}

See also[link]

Saints portal

References[link]

Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (April 2012)

Notes[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Aulén, Gustaf. Christus Victor (SPCK 1931)
• Brown, Raymond E. An Introduction to the New Testament. Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2.
• Brown, Raymond E. The Church the Apostles left behind(Chapman 1984)
• Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' Bulletin John Rylands Library 58 (1976) 283–305
• Bruce, F.F., Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free (ISBN 0-8028-4778-1)
• Conzelmann, Hans, the Acts of the Apostles—a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles (Augsburg Fortress 1987)
• Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible. London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
• Davies, W. D. Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970. ISBN 0-281-02449-9
• Dunn, James D.G., 1990, Jesus, Paul and the Law Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25095-5
• Dunn, James D. G., Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels (Grand Rapids (MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011).
• Hanson, Anthony T. Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology. Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3
• Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9
• Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kündereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166-172.
• Irenaeus, Against Heresies, i.26.2
• Maccoby, Hyam. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity. New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0-06-015582-5.
• Kim, Yung Suk. A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1-60899-793-0
• MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon Philadelphia: Westminster Press.
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0-8146-5173-9
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8
• Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, Paul: A Critical Life (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5
• Ogg, George. “Chronology of the New Testament.” Matthew Black, ed. ‘’Peake's Commentary on the Bible.’’ Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6
• Rashdall, Hastings, The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology (1919)
• Ruef, John, Paul's First letter to Corinth (Penguin 1971)
• Sanders, E.P., Paul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)
• Segal, Alan F. Paul, the Convert, (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.
• Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World (Harvard University Press 1986).
• Horrell, David G. "An Introduction to the Study of Paul." T&T Clark Approaches to Biblical Studies. 2nd edition. London: T&T Clark, 2006

Further reading[link]

• Bart D Ehrman. Peter, Paul and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend; 304 pages, Oxford University Press (March, 2008)
• Bart D. Ehrman. The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings; 608 pages, Oxford University Press (July, 2011); ISBN 978-0-19-975753-4
• Hyam MacCoby. The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity; 238 pages, Barnes & Noble Books (1998); ISBN 978-0-7607-0787-6
• Hans Joachim Schoeps. Paul: The Theology of the Apostle in the Light of Jewish Religious History (Library of Theological Translations); 34 pages, Lutterworth Press (July, 2002); ISBN 978-0-227-17013-7
• Pinchas Lapide, Peter Stuhlmacher. Paul: Rabbi and Apostle; 77 pages, Augsburg Publishing House; (December 1984)
• Pinchas Lapide, Leonard Swidler, Jurgen Moltmann. Jewish Monotheism and Christian Trinitarian Doctrine; 94 pages, Wipf & Stock Publishers (May, 2002)

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Paul of Tarsus

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Paul of Tarsus

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Paul of Tarsus

Look up Pauline conversion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• St Paul on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Saul of Tarsus (known as Paul, the Apostle of the Heathen)
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus
• Catholic Perspective on Paul
• Documentary film on Apostle Paul
• Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul, 1911
• Maps of Paul's three missionary journeys and final captive journey
• Novena to Saint Paul Apostle
• Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.
• Representations of Saint Paul
• "Saint Paul, the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009.
• The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber
• The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28
• Works by or about Paul the Apostle in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
• Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora Biblical Archaeology Review