Figure skating is an Olympic sport in which individuals, pairs, or groups perform spins, jumps, footwork and other intricate and challenging moves on ice skates. Figure skaters compete at various levels from beginner up to the Olympic level (senior), and at local, national, and international competitions. The International Skating Union (ISU) regulates international figure skating judging and competitions. Figure skating is an official event in the Winter Olympic Games. In languages other than English and Russian, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as "artistic skating".
Major international competitions are sanctioned by the ISU. These include the Winter Olympic Games, the World Championships, the World Junior Championships, the European Championships, the Four Continents Championships, and the Grand Prix series (senior and junior).
The sport is also associated with show-business. Major competitions generally include exhibitions at the end in which the top-placing skaters perform non-competitive programs for the audience. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice skating exhibitions or shows which run during the competitive season and the off-season.
Figure skaters competing at the highest level of international competition are not "professional" skaters. They are sometimes referred to as amateurs although they do receive some money. The term "professional" in skating refers not to skill level but eligibility status. A professional skater is one who is not eligible for ISU competitions and the Olympics. Professional skaters may range from former Olympic and World champions who have ended their competitive career to skaters with little or no international competitive experience.
Olympic sports in figure skating comprise the following disciplines:[1]
- Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as "ladies" in ISU rulebooks), wherein skaters perform jumps, spins, step sequences, spirals, and other elements in their programs.
- Pair skating teams consist of a woman and a man. Pairs perform elements specific to the discipline such as throw jumps, in which the man 'throws' the woman into a jump; lifts, in which the woman is held above the man's head in one of various grips and positions; pair spins, in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; death spirals; and other elements such as side-by-side jumps and spins in unison.
- Ice dancing is again for couples consisting of a woman and a man skating together. Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on intricate footwork performed in close dance holds, in time with the music. Ice dance lifts must not go above the shoulder.
The four disciplines of men's singles, ladies' singles, pair skating and ice dancing will also appear as part of a team event for the first time at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[2] Other disciplines of figure skating include:
- Synchronized skating (formerly known as precision) for mixed-gender groups of 12 to 20 skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations. The basic formations include wheels, blocks, lines, circles, and intersections. The close formations and need for the team to stay in unison add to the difficulty of the footwork performed by the skaters in these elements.
- Compulsory figures, in which skaters use their blades to draw circles, figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice, and are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the circles. Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions but were eliminated from those events in 1990. Today figures are rarely taught or performed. The United States was the last country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level figures championship was held in 1999.
- Moves in the field (known in the United Kingdom as field moves), which have replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills in the context of fluid free skating movements instead of being constrained to artificially precise circles.
- Fours, a discipline that is to pairs as pairs is to singles. A team of four skaters, consisting of two men and two women, perform singles and pairs elements in unison, as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters.
- Theatre on ice, also known as "ballet on ice" in Europe. This is a form of group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of props and theatrical costuming.
- Adagio skating, a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters perform many acrobatic lifts but few or none of the other elements which competitive pairs must perform.
- Special figures, the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice, common in the early days of skating.
- Acrobatic skating, also known as "Acrobatics on ice" or "Extreme Skating", is a combination of circus arts, technical artistic gymnastics skills, and figure skating.
Jumps are one of the most important elements of figure skating.
Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed. Under-rotations or using the incorrect edge will lower the jump's score. The judges also look at height, speed, and ice coverage.
Jumps can be rotated in clockwise or counterclockwise direction. Most skaters are counterclockwise jumpers. For clarity, all jumps will be described for a skater jumping counter-clockwise.
There are six jumps in figure skating that count as jump elements. All six are landed on one foot on the right back outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished. The two categories of jumps are toe jumps and edge jumps.
Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and include (in order of difficulty from easiest to hardest):
- Toe loops take off from the back outside edge of the left or right foot and are launched by the opposite toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the back inside edge of the right foot);
- Flips, which take off from the back inside edge of the right or left foot and are launched by the opposite toe pick;
- Lutzes, which take off from the back outside edge of the right or left foot and are launched by the opposite toe pick.
Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include:
- Salchows, which take off from either the left or right back inside edge. Allowing the edge to come round, the opposite leg helps launch the jump into the air and land on one foot;
- Loops (also known as Rittberger jumps) take off from either the left or right back outside edge and land on the same edge;
- Axels, which are the only rotating jump to take off from a forward edge. Because they take off from a forward edge, they include one-half extra rotations and are considered the hardest jump of the six. The axel jump will take a skater the longest to learn. The jump harness is a good thing to use before attempting the axel jump on the ice.
The number of rotations performed in the air for each jump determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quadruple (known commonly as a "quad"). Senior-level male single skaters perform mostly triple and quadruple jumps in competition. Triple jumps other than the Axel are commonly performed by female single skaters. Only one female skater, Miki Ando, has been credited with a quadruple jump in international competition.
In addition to jumps performed singly, jumps may also be performed in combination or in sequence. For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge in between jumps. Because of this, the only two jumps that can be performed as the second or third jump in a combination are toe loops and loops, because they take off from the right back outside edge.
To use other jumps on the back end of a combination, connecting jumps such as a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a left back inside edge) can be used, enabling the skater to put a salchow or flip at the end of the combination. In contrast, jump sequences are sets of jumps, which may involve steps or changes of edge between the jumps.
There are also a number of other jumps that are usually performed only as single jumps and in elite skating are used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences. These include the half toe loop (ballet jump), half loop, half flip, walley jump, split jump (there are two kinds of split jump, Russian split, performed in a position that is similar to that of a straddle split and ladies split performed in the position of the more traditional split, facing the direction of your front leg), waltz jump, inside Axel, and one-foot Axel.
-
-
A pair team after the woman has been thrown: Jessica Miller rotates in the air.
-
Spins are a required element in most figure skating competitions, and they exist in all four Olympic disciplines. There are three basic spin positions in figure skating – the sit spin, the camel spin, and the upright spin. There are a number of variations.
Camel spin variations include:
- catch-foot camel variation
- layover camel variation
- doughnut camel variation
Sit spin variations include:
- pancake sitspin variation
- clam sit spin variation
- broken leg variation
Upright spin variations include:
- layback variation
- Biellmann variation
- haircutter variation
- layover layback variation
- pearl variation
There are many different interpretations of these spins and skaters who create new ones may have the element named after them. They may also receive points for creativity. During a spin, the skater rotates on the round part of the blade, called the front rocker, just behind the toe pick (the ball of the foot). Spins may be performed individually or in a sequence combining different types of spins. A spin may be executed on the back rocker of the blade during a change of edge spin. For example, a back scratch spin will flip edges to a forward inside edge. This feature of a spin will change the level of a spin. Spins may be performed on either foot. Like jumping, skaters mostly rotate in the counterclockwise direction, but there are some skaters who rotate in the clockwise direction. Some skaters are able to rotate in both directions. For skaters who rotate in a counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a forward spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a back spin.
Spins can be entered on the ice or through a jump or sequence of jumps known as star jumps. Spins that are entered through a jump are calling flying spins. Flying spins include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Flying spins may go from a forward spin to a back spin. A flying spin can also be performed as part of a spin sequence.
In pair skating, spins may be performed side by side with both partners doing the same spin or combination spin at the same time. Additionally, in pairs and in ice dancing, there are pair and dance spins, during which both skaters rotate around the same axis while holding onto each other.
-
-
Side by side basic camel spins
-
-
A dance spin with the woman in a camel position and the man in a sit position.
A one arm overhead lift in pair skating
Lifts are a required element in pair skating and ice dancing. Pairs lifts differ from dance lifts most notably in that dancers are not allowed to lift their partners above their shoulders.
Dance lifts are differentiated by the skating involved. There are seven kinds of lifts approved for ISU competitions. They are separated into short lifts and long lifts. There are many positions the lifting and the lifted partner can take to improve the difficulty of the lift. Each position must be held for at least three seconds to count and is permitted only once a program.
Unlike dance lifts, pair lifts are grouped by the holds involved. In ISU senior level competition, the man must rotate more than one times, but fewer than three a half. In competitive pair skating, lifts must travel across the ice to be included in the technical elements score while stationary lifts are included in choreography. There are five different groups of pairs lifts, differentiated by the holds involved. Legal holds are Armpit holds, Waist holds, Hand to hip holds, and Hand to hand. There are two kinds of hand to hand lifts: press lifts and lasso lifts. The lasso lifts are considered the most difficult pair lifts. The judges look at speed, ice coverage, the quality of the lady's position, position changes, and the man's stability and cleanness of turns throughout. Skaters may also raise their score by having a difficult entry such as in spiral or spread eagle position, a difficult exit, or other feature such as stopping and/or changing the direction of rotation.
Twist lifts are a form of pair lifts, where the lifted partner is thrown into the air, twists, and is caught by the lifted partner. The lady may do a split before the twist, called a split twist. This is not mandatory, but it increases the grade of execution of the element if each leg is separated by at least a 45° angle from the body axis. The lady must be caught by her waist in the air. She lands on the backward outside edge. The man also ends the lift on one foot. Judges also look at the height of the element. Skaters may raise their score by performing turns, steps or other moves before the element, the lady holding her arms over her head, or delayed rotation.
In both pairs and dance, lifts that go on longer than allowed receive deductions.
Synchronized skating teams are also allowed to perform lifts in the free skating portion of the senior division only. Lifts can be pair lifts (such as in a dance lift) or a group lift with two or more skaters lifting another skater. In a pair lift, no more than one arm may be fully extended above the head at any time. Acrobatic lifts are not allowed. To gain additional points, teams will sometimes rotate and/or move lifts across the ice.
Skaters performing parallel mirror spread eagles. He is on an inside edge and she is on an outside edge.
Step sequences are a required element in all four Olympic disciplines. The pattern can be straight line, circular, or serpentine. The step sequence consists of a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes. Additionally, steps and turns can be used as transitions between elements.
The various turns, which skaters can incorporate into step sequences, include:
-
Three turns, so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral "3".
-
Bracket turns, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket ("}").
-
Mohawks, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.
-
Rockers, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.
-
Counters, one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.
-
Twizzles, traveling multi-rotation turns on one foot
Choctaws are the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters. Other movements that may be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and spread eagles. An Ina Bauer is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.
A spiral is an element in which the skater moves across the ice on a specific edge with the free leg held at hip level or above. Spirals can be performed while skating forwards or backwards, and are distinguished by the edge of the blade used and the foot on they are standing on also know as the skating leg. A spiral sequence is one or more spiral positions and edges done in sequence.
Judges look at the depth, stability, and control of the skating edge, speed and ice coverage, extension, and other factors. Some skaters are able to change edges during a spiral, i.e. from inside to outside edge. Spirals performed on a "flat" are generally not considered as true spirals.
There are many different spiral positions. The leg can be held to the front of the body, to the side, or behind. If the leg is held by the skater's hand, it is considered a supported spiral. If it is not held, it is considered an unsupported spiral. If the skate blade is held, it is considered a catch-foot position. The best known catch-foot position is the Biellmann position.This position can also be maintained during a Biellmann spin.
Spiral sequences are required in ladies skating and pair skating.
-
A basic outside edge spiral position with the free leg held unsupported behind the body.
-
A basic outside edge pair spiral position with the free legs held unsupported behind the body
-
An inside edge spiral in a catch-foot position.
-
A pair outside edge spiral in a catch-foot position.
The International Skating Union (ISU) is the governing body for international competitions in figure skating, including the World Championships and the figure skating events at the Winter Olympic Games.
In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two programs, the short program, in which the skater must complete a list of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the free skate, also known as the long program, in which the skaters have slightly more choice of elements. Under both the 6.0 system and the ISU Judging System, the judges consider the "complete package" when evaluating performances, i.e. The best jumper is not always placed first if the judges consider another skater's speed, spins, etc., to outweigh the difference in jumping execution.[3] Ice dancing competitions formerly consisted of three phases: one or more compulsory dances; an original dance to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a free dance to music of the skaters' own choice. Beginning in the 2010–11 season, the compulsory and original dances were merged into the short dance.
Lyrics are allowed only in ice dancing. In single and pair skating, the voice may be used as an instrument but no words are permitted. However, the judges do not always penalize violations. Florent Amodio included words in his long program music at the 2011 World Championships but not enough judges voted to penalize it.[4]
Skating was formerly judged for "technical merit" (in the free skate), "required elements" (in the short program), and "presentation" (in both programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0, the latter being the highest. These marks were used to determine a preference ranking, or "ordinal", separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The highest placing individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.[5]
In 2004, in response to the judging controversy during the 2002 Winter Olympics, the ISU adopted the International Judging System (IJS), which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the 2006 Winter Olympics. The new system is often informally referred to as the Code of Points, however, the ISU has never used the term to describe their system in any of their official communications.
Under the new system, points are awarded individually for each skating element, and the sum of these points is the total element score (TES). Competitive programs are constrained to have a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element and determines its base value. The technical specialist uses instant replay video to verify things that distinguish different elements; e.g., the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. The decision of the technical specialist determines the base value of the element. A panel of twelve judges then each award a mark for the quality and execution of the element. This mark is called the grade of execution (GOE) that is an integer from −3 to +3. The GOE mark is then translated into another value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then processed with a computerized random selection of nine judges, then discarding the high and low value, and finally averaging the remaining seven. This average value is then added to (or subtracted from) the base value to get the total value for the element.[6]
The program components score (PCS) awards points to holistic aspects of a program or other nuances that are not rewarded in the total element score. The components are:
- skating skills (SS),
- transitions (TR),
- performance/execution (PE),
- choreography (CH),
- interpretation (IN).
The only exception is the compulsory dance, which has no choreography or transition marks because the steps are preset. A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Judges award each component a raw mark from 0 to 10 in increments of 0.25, with a mark of 5 being defined as "average". For each separate component, the raw marks are then selected, trimmed, and averaged in a manner akin to determining a grade of execution. The trimmed mean scores are then translated into a factored mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the discipline, competition segment, and level. Then the five (or four) factored marks are added to give the final PCS score.
The total element score and the program components score are added to give the total score for a competition segment (TSS). A skater's final placement is determined by the total of their scores in all segments of a competition. No ordinal rankings are used to determine the final results.
There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no "professional league". Well-known professional competitions in the past have included the World Professional Championships (held in Landover, Maryland), the Challenge Of Champions, the Canadian Professional Championships and the World Professional Championships (held in Jaca, Spain).
The Ice Skating Institute (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few "qualifying" competitions, although some districts hold Gold Competitions for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The Gay Games have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and sexual orientations.
A skater/couple's world standing (WS) is calculated based on results over the current and preceding two seasons. Competitors receive points based on their final placement at an event and the event's weight. The following events receive points:[7]
- ISU Championships (World, European, Four Continents, and World Junior Championships) and Olympic Winter Games: The best result by points per season, the best two results by points over the three seasons.
- ISU Grand Prix of Figure Skating and Final (senior and junior): The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.
- International senior calendar competitions: The two best results by points per season, the best four results by points over the three seasons.
Following the current season's World Championships, the results from the earliest season are deleted. A new partnership starts with zero points – there is no transfer of WS points if a pair or ice dancing couple split up and form a new partnership. For pairs, either senior or junior Grand Prix events are considered (they can compete at both levels in one season).
These standings do not necessarily reflect a skater/couple's capabilities. Due to limits on entries to events (no more than three from each country), and varying competition in each country, skaters from some countries may find it more difficult to qualify to compete at major events. Thus, a skater with a lower SB but from a country with few high-level skaters may qualify to a major event while a skater with a much higher SB but from a country with more than three high-level skaters may not be sent. As a result, it is possible for a skater who regularly scores higher to end up with a much lower world standing.
A skater/couple's season's world ranking is calculated similarly to overall world standing but is based on the results on the results of the ongoing season only.[7]
A skater/couple's season's best (SB) is the highest score they have achieved within a particular season. There may be SB for combined total and segment scores (short program/dance, free skating/free dance). Each skater or couple's best combined total appears on a list of season's bests.[8] The list may be used to help determine assignments to the following season's Grand Prix series. Only scores achieved at select international competitions are considered. Scores from national competitions and certain international events are excluded.
There are also personal best (PB) scores, i.e. the highest scores a skater or couple has achieved over their entire career, in terms of combined total and segment scores. However, PB scores are not completely comparable if achieved in different seasons because the ISU modifies requirements and rules between seasons. In different seasons, there may be different requirements to achieve a certain level or different elements may be required. New elements may become allowed (for example, two quads in the short program were permitted starting in the 2010–11 season). There may be a change in point values. For example, the values of quads were increased after the 2010 Olympics and a second step sequence in men is no longer assigned a level. As a result, the ISU now places more weight on SB.
Main article:
Figure skateFigure skates differ from hockey skates most visibly in having a set of large, jagged teeth called toe picks (also called "toe rakes") on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws. Typically, high-level figure skaters are professionally fitted for their boots and blades at a reputable skate shop in their area.
Ice dancers' blades are about an inch shorter in the rear than those used by skaters in other disciplines, to accommodate the intricate footwork and close partnering in dance. Dancers' blades also do not have the large toe pick used for jumping. Hard plastic skate guards are used when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice. The guard protects the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade. Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn.
Complementary ice dancing costumes
For practice skating, figure skaters often wear leggings, tight fitting, flexible pants. They may also wear a skirt with skin-colored tights or a dress. The typical uniform for ice dancing takes more of a ballet approach including a black leotard with a skirt and beige tights. In competition, girls and women may wear a dress, typically with matching attached briefs. Most of these dresses especially at the Olympic level are intricate handmade pieces that are beaded with great detail. The attire must correspond to their program music and embody the essence of the melody. Women may wear trousers in competition since 2004,[9] although dresses remain more popular. Women generally wear opaque flesh-coloured leggings or tights under dresses and skirts, which may extend to cover their skates. Men must wear trousers. They are not allowed to wear tights.
Competition dresses/costumes for skaters of both genders can be theatrical and heavily beaded or trimmed, and can cost thousands of dollars if designed by a top-level costumemaker. Although the use of flesh-colored fabric means the costumes are often less revealing than they may appear, there have been repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of "excessive nudity" or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.[10] Many skaters also wear theatrical make up and hairstyles during competitions. Matching costumes are not required in pair skating and ice dancing.
Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps in a controlled manner. The ice rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely attached to two walls of the rink. A set of pulleys ride on the cable. The skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it. That cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above. The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope. The skater can then practice the jump, with the coach assisting with the completion.
While people have been ice skating for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century. A Treatise on Skating (1772) by Englishman Robert Jones, is the first known account of figure skating. Competitions were then held in the "English style" of skating, which was stiff and formal and bears little resemblance to modern figure skating. American skater Jackson Haines, considered the "father of modern figure skating", introduced a new style of skating in the mid-1860s. This style, which incorporated free and expressive techniques, became known as the "international style." Although popular in Europe, Haines' style of skating was not widely adopted in the United States until long after his death.[11]
The International Skating Union was founded in 1892. The first European Championship was held in 1891, and the first World Championship was held in 1896 and won by Gilbert Fuchs. Only men competed in these events. In 1902, a woman, Madge Syers, entered the World competition for the first time, finishing second. The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, but established a separate competition for "ladies" in 1906. Pair skating was introduced at the 1908 World Championships, where the title was won by Anna Hübler & Heinrich Burger. The first Olympic figure skating competitions also took place in 1908.[12]
On March 20, 1914 an international figure skating championship was held in New Haven, Connecticut. This was the ancestor of both the United States and Canadian National Championships. However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by World War I.
In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by Sonja Henie, who turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater. Henie also set the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.[13] The top male skaters of this period included Gillis Grafström and Karl Schäfer.
Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by World War II. After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the United States and Canada began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport. Dick Button, 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.
The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952.[12] In its first years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters. The first World title holders were Jean Westwood & Lawrence Demmy.
On February 15, 1961, the entire U.S. figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of Sabena Flight 548 in Brussels, Belgium en route to the World Championships in Prague. This tragedy sent the U.S. skating program into a period of rebuilding.
At the same time, the Soviet Union rose to become a dominant power in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pair skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until 2006, a Soviet or Russian pair won gold in pair skating, often considered one of the longest winning streaks in modern sports history.[14][15][16] The 1967 World Championships was the last event held in an outdoor rink.[17]
Compulsory figures formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating, which meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters. As television coverage of skating events became more important, so did free skating. Beginning in 1968, the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of figures, and in 1973, the short program was introduced. With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increasing athleticism in the free skating. By the 1980s, some skaters began practicing quadruple jumps. Jozef Sabovcik of Czechoslovakia landed a quad toe loop at the 1986 European Championships which was recognized at the event but then ruled invalid three weeks later due to a touchdown with his free foot.[18] At the 1988 World Championships, Kurt Browning of Canada landed the first quad toe loop which has remained ratified.[19] Although it was expected that quads would soon become an important part of men's skating, it was a number of years before this happened.[18] Japan's Midori Ito landed the first triple axel by a woman. Figures were eliminated entirely from competition in 1990.
Television also played a role in removing the restrictive amateur status rules that once governed the sport. To retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, in 1995 the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.
Figure skating is a very popular part of the Winter Olympic Games.[citation needed] Countries who have produced many successful skaters in recent decades include Russia and the former Soviet Union, the United States, Canada, Germany and Japan. The sport is currently experiencing a surge in popularity in East Asia, particularly in Japan, China and South Korea, as well as in the Nordic countries such as Norway, Finland, and Sweden.[citation needed] Training opportunities in South Asia are limited due to a scarcity of skating rinks. India had only four major indoor ice rinks as of 2011, but there were plans for ten more to be built, mostly in malls, over the following five years.[20]
On April 6, 2011, the International Olympic Committee officially confirmed the approval of a team event, to be introduced at the 2014 Winter Olympics.[2] The elimination of the compulsory dance provided space for the team event.[21] Each team will be composed of a men's and ladies single skater, a pair, and an ice dancing team. Ten teams may compete, with five eliminated after the short program.[22] In December 2011, the International Skating Union released details of the qualifying system and the competition.[23]
Figure skating is one of the most popular spectator sports in America. In the 1993 National Sports Study II, considered by the Associated Press as the largest study of spectator sport popularity in America, ladies' figure skating was the 2nd most popular spectator sport in America, just behind NFL football out of over 100 sports surveyed.[24] The 1993 study found that three figure skaters – Dorothy Hamill, Peggy Fleming, and Scott Hamilton[25] were among the eight most popular athletes in the United States, out of over 800 athletes surveyed.[26] In fact, Dorothy Hamill was statistically tied with Mary Lou Retton as the most popular athlete in America.
During the height of the Tonya Harding scandal in 1994, the first night of the ladies' figure skating competition in the 1994 Winter Olympics achieved higher TV Nielsen ratings than that year's Super Bowl and was the most watched sports television program of all-time, to that date.[27]
The International Skating Union has imposed minimum age requirements on skaters which have changed from time to time, with the current requirements set in 1996.[28] In order to compete at Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents or the Olympics, skaters must be 15 before July 1 of the preceding year, while for other senior international competitions, skaters must have turned 14. To be eligible for junior-level events, a skater must be 13 but cannot have turned 19 before July 1. Male pair skaters and ice dancers cannot have turned 21.[28][29] The ISU's rules apply to international events. Many countries have no age requirements for domestic non-ISU competitions, thus, some skaters compete at the senior level nationally while not eligible for international competition. A skater must meet the age requirement before it becomes July 1 in their place of birth. For example, Adelina Sotnikova was born a few hours into July 1, 1996 in Moscow and consequently, was not eligible to compete at Junior Worlds until 2011 and senior Worlds until 2013.[30]
The age requirements have faced criticism.[31] During the 2005–2006 season, Mao Asada was age-eligible to compete at the Grand Prix Final, where she claimed the title, but she was not permitted to compete at the Olympics. The United States was forced to send to the 2008 World Championships skaters who had placed 5th and 7th at nationals because Mirai Nagasu and Rachael Flatt were too young. Flatt missed the cutoff by three weeks[28] and Russian champion Adelina Sotnikova missed it by a few hours.[30] The ISU has strictly enforced the rules in recent years.[28] However, American pair skater Natasha Kuchiki was allowed to compete at the 1990 World Championships when she was two years too young and American single skater Tara Lipinski, who was 13 at the time the 1996 rules were introduced, was grandfathered into remaining eligible for future events, along with other skaters who had already competed at the World Championships.
As in gymnastics, skating has experienced controversy surrounding possible age falsification. On February 14, 2011, questions emerged surrounding nine Chinese skaters. The Associated Press found that birthdates listed on the Chinese skating association's website suggested five female skaters, Sui Wenjing, Zhang Dan, Yu Xiaoyu, Geng Bingwa, and Xu Binshu, were younger than their stated ages, and four male skaters, Han Cong, Zhang Hao, Jin Yang, and Gao Yu, were older.[28] The dates disappeared from the website by February 15.[32] On February 17, the ISU said there were no discrepancies for Zhang Dan, Zhang Hao, and Xu Binshu between the birthdates listed on their passports, ISU registration forms and the Chinese Olympic Committee's website.[32] Athletes in China sometimes face pressure to falsify their age.[33]
Skaters may represent a country of which they are not yet a citizen in most competitions, except the Olympics which require citizenship.
Each country may send one to a maximum of three entries per event, thus, even if a skater has a high season's best, he or she may not be sent to major events if their country has many good skaters in a discipline. Some skaters have tried to circumvent this by switching to another country. In response, the ISU introduced rules barring a skater from 24 months or more of international competition from the date of his or her last event for the previous country. The previous country may block the skater for longer if he or she has competed at a major event like the Olympics.
For pair skaters and ice dancers, this may be reduced to one year to reduce the difficulty of finding a new partner but only if the skater obtains a release from his or her previous skating federation. Even if a skater has dual citizenship, the previous federation may block him or her for 24 months or more from the date of his or her last ISU Championships (Worlds, Europeans, Four Continents, Junior Worlds) or 12 months if he competed in some other international competition.[34]
Skaters may lose their Olympic eligibility if they perform in an unsanctioned show or competition.
Beginning in the 2010–11 season, skaters were required to meet minimum scores in order to compete at the World, European, or Four Continents Championships. In the 2011–12 season, different minimum scores were introduced to the Grand Prix series.
Figure skating is an expensive sport.[35][36][37] This is particularly due to the costs of ice time and coaching. In October 2004, a U.S. Figure Skating article estimated the annual expense at $9,000-$10,000 for pre-juvenile, $18,000 for juvenile, $35,000-$40,000 for novice, and said junior and senior levels were somewhat more expensive.[35] Michael Weiss said his family faced combined costs of around $70,000 every year for him and his sister (a junior skater).[37] Swiss skater Stéphane Lambiel said his costs were around 100,000 Swiss francs per season.[38] In 2011, it was reported that American Alissa Czisny's expenses were in the mid-five-figure range,[36] while World champion Patrick Chan's expenses were $150,000 (Canadian dollars).[39]
Prize money is relatively low compared to other sports.[40] A men's or ladies' singles skater who won the 2011 World Championships earned $45,000 (USD),[41] about 1.8% to 2.5% of the $1,800,000-$2,400,000 USD for winners of the tennis US Open and Australian Open.[42][43] A couple who won the pairs or ice dancing title split $67,500.[41] A winner of the senior Grand Prix Final in December 2011 earned $25,000 USD.[44] Some national associations provide funding to some skaters.[45] Many skaters take part-time jobs.[46] In Germany, many elite skaters choose to join the army to fund their skating.[47] In Italy, some skaters join sports group of police agencies, such as the Polizia Penitenziaria's Fiamme Azzurre (Carolina Kostner, Anna Cappellini, Luca Lanotte)[48][49] or Polizia di Stato's Fiamme Oro (Federica Faiella, Paolo Bacchini).[50] Some competitive skaters depend on income from shows.[51][52] Certain shows are unsanctioned, i.e. skaters may lose their competitive eligibility if they take part. In some cases, skaters may feel pressure to compete through injury in order to be allowed to perform in a show.[51]
Competitive skaters generally do not wear helmets or other protective gear. There is a risk of head injuries, particularly in pair skating as a result of falls from lifts.[53][54] Although pair skaters are most susceptible, serious head injuries can occur in all disciplines, including ice dancing.[55] Partners have accidentally slashed each other;[56][57] this has sometimes occurred when partners drift too close during side-by-side camel spins. Several female pair skaters have suffered head/face injuries during this element, including Elena Berezhnaya,[58] Jessica Dubé,[59] Mandy Wötzel,[60] and Galina Maniachenko (Efremenko).[61] Single and pair skaters may develop serious damage to their hips after many years of practicing jumps and throws.[62] Foot,[63][64] knee, and back injuries may affect all four disciplines. In rare cases, intensive training of spins may result in subtle concussions (Lucinda Ruh).[65]
Injuries have also been sustained by skaters from different teams when there are many skaters practicing on the ice.[66] Midori Ito collided with Laetitia Hubert at the 1991 World Championships, while Oksana Baiul and Tanja Szewczenko collided at the 1994 Olympics, but all went on to compete. On practice sessions with multiple skaters on the ice, the skater whose music is playing conventionally has right of way. In addition, pairs and ice dancers skating as a unit have right of way over those skating separately as changing course is more difficult for a couple.
Eating disorders are reportedly common in figure skating.[67][68][69]
- In 1937, Sonja Henie appeared in the film Thin Ice. Figure skating has been the focus of several later Hollywood films, including The Cutting Edge and its sequels, The Cutting Edge: Going for the Gold, The Cutting Edge 3: Chasing the Dream, Ice Princess, Ice Castles, Ice Angel, Go Figure, and Blades of Glory, among others.
- ^ Figure skating at Olympic.org, accessed September 4, 2006.
- ^ a b Grohmann, Karolos (2011-04-06). "Sochi 2014 winter Games to have six new events". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2012-01-01. http://uk.reuters.com/article/2011/04/06/uk-olympics-sochi-events-idUKTRE7353FI20110406.
- ^ Longman, Jere (1997-02-16). "Kwan's Slips Open Door For a Younger Champion". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/16/sports/kwan-s-slips-open-door-for-a-younger-champion.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
- ^ Flade, Tatiana (2011-04-28). "Chan takes World title with record score". GoldenSkate. http://www.goldenskate.com/2011/04/chan-takes-world-title-with-record-score/. Retrieved 2011-04-29.
- ^ The 6.0 System at usfigureskating.org, accessed September 4, 2006.
- ^ ISU Judging System for Figure Skating and Ice Dancing 2004/5, accessed September 4, 2006.
- ^ a b http://www.isu.org/vsite/vnavsite/page/directory/0,10853,4844-130267-131575-nav-list,00.html ISU Communication 1629
- ^ ISU Judging System Statistics
- ^ Mittan, Barry (2004-12-05). "Slovak Pair Tests New ISU Costume Rules". Skate Today. http://www.skatetoday.com/2004/12/05/slovak-pair-tests-new-isu-costume-rules/.
- ^ "The 1999 Official USFSA Rulebook.", SSR 19.00. USFSA, 1998.
- ^ "U.S. Figure Skating History". U.S. Figure Skating. http://www.usfigureskating.org/About.asp?id=101. Retrieved 2006-09-04.
- ^ a b "Some Key Dates in ISU History". International Skating Union. http://www.isu.org/vsite/vcontent/page/custom/0,8510,4844-130844-132152-20256-74409-custom-item,00.html. Retrieved 2006-09-05.
- ^ Hunt, Paul. "100 Greatest Female Athletes: Sonja Henie". CNN Sports Illustrated. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/siforwomen/top_100/4/. Retrieved 2006-09-05.
- ^ Shen-Zhao set record in pairs short program
- ^ Shen, Zhao capture pairs skating gold
- ^ Russian skating slump hits home hard
- ^ Stevenson, Alexandra (2011). "2011 European Championships Preview". IceSkatingIntnl.com. http://www.iceskatingintnl.com/archive/results_euros/2011%20Euro%20Preview.htm. Retrieved March 31, 2011.
- ^ a b "The quad: Skating's evolution is for more revolution". CBS Sports. 1999-12-02. http://www.cbssports.com/u/wire/stories/0,1169,1675967_10946,00.html. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
- ^ "A Quadruple Jump on Ice". The New York Times. Associated Press. 1988-03-26. http://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/26/sports/a-quadruple-jump-on-ice.html?pagewanted=print. Retrieved 2007-10-14.
- ^ "Ice rink comes up in Gurgaon ; 10 more across country in 5 Years". The Economic Times. 2011-12-08. Archived from the original on 2011-12-08. http://www.webcitation.org/63lq8nxMS.
- ^ Sarkar, Pritha (2012-03-29). "Figure skating-New team event at Sochi Olympics will begin early". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/03/29/figure-skating-olympics-team-idUSL3E8ET8WL20120329.
- ^ Hersh, Philip (2011-04-06). "Team figure skating, women's ski jumping new Olympic events". Chicago Tribune. http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/sports_globetrotting/2011/04/team-figure-skating-event-womens-ski-jumping-new-olympic-events.html. Retrieved 2011-04-06.
- ^ "Qualification Systems for the 2014 Olympic Winter Games in Sochi". International Skating Union. 2011-12-30. http://www.isu.org/vsite/vnavsite/page/directory/0,10853,4844-205151-222374-nav-list,00.html?id=986. Retrieved 2011-01-01.
- ^ . http://www.seattlepi.com/archives/1993/9309080111.asp. [dead link]
- ^ http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/1996/mar/21/stars-on-ice-as-nice-as-the-kids-next-door/
- ^ Inside Edge: A Revealing Journey into the Secret World of Figure Skating By Christine Brennan; Scribner
- ^ Brennan, Christine (2008-01-23). "TV ratings slip as figure skating loses its edge". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/brennan/2008-01-23-skating_N.htm.
- ^ a b c d e "China eyed over 9 athletes' ages". Associated Press (ESPN). 2011-02-14. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://sports.espn.go.com/oly/figureskating/news/story?id=6120559.
- ^ "International Skating Union Constitution and General Regulations 2010 as accepted by the 53rd Ordinary Congress, June 2010: Age limits for Single & Pair Skating / Ice Dance (page 102)". International Skating Union. 2010. http://www.isu.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,4844-203191-220414-166536-0-file,00.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-22.
- ^ a b Vaytsekhovskaya, Elena (2010-12-13). "Елена Буянова: "Сотникова намного лучше, чем была я" [Elena Buianova: "Sotnikova is much better than I was"]" (in Russian). sport-express.ru. http://winter.sport-express.ru/figureskating/reviews/10001/. Retrieved 2010-12-19.
- ^ Brennan, Christine (2008-01-25). "Age requirement could keep stars from rising". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/columnist/brennan/2008-01-24-young-skaters_N.htm.
- ^ a b "ISU: No discrepancies for Olympic silver medalists". Associated Press (google.com). 2011-02-17. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5j4GEDj5gBpSv1hcT67QaoD1AiUCw?docId=79bbf8696c674852841dcb029126c77d. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
- ^ "改年齡在中國體壇才能生存 [Changing age to survive in Chinese sports]" (in Chinese). xinhuanet.com. February 17, 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-07-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20110718131201/http://big5.xinhuanet.com/gate/big5/www.js.xinhuanet.com/xin_wen_zhong_xin/2011-02/17/content_22085600.htm. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
- ^ "International Union Constitution and General Regulations 2010" (PDF). http://www.isu.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,4844-203191-220414-166536-0-file,00.pdf.
- ^ a b Bodmer, Doris (October 2004). "What Does It Cost to Skate Competitively?". U.S. Figure Skating: Focus for Parents. http://www.usfigureskating.org/content.asp?menu=parents&id=388. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
- ^ a b Gerstner, Joanne C. (2011-03-26). "It Isn’t Over Until She Says". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/27/sports/27skating.html. Retrieved 2011-03-26.
- ^ a b Brannen, Sarah S.; Meekins, Drew (2011-09-20). "The Inside Edge: The new quad king". Icenetwork. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20110920&content_id=24957686&vkey=ice_news. Retrieved 2011-09-20.
- ^ Golinsky, Reut (2012-04-02). "Stéphane Lambiel: "If I wanted to compete I would compete"". Absolute Skating. http://absoluteskating.com/index.php?cat=interviews&id=2012lambiel.
- ^ Clarey, Christopher (2011-04-28). "Embracing the Risks of Figure Skating Pays Off for Chan". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/29/sports/29iht-RINK29.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2011-09-09.
- ^ Hersh, Philip (2011-10-28). "The bottom line: Lysacek, U.S. Skating both losing in dispute between them". The Chicago Tribune. http://www.chicagotribune.com/sports/globetrotting/chi-the-bottom-line-lysacek-us-skating-both-losing-in-dispute-between-them-20111028,0,4970070.column. Retrieved 2011-10-28.
- ^ a b "ISU World Figure Skating Championships 2011 - Preview". International Skating Union. April 23, 2011. http://www.isu.org/vsite/vcontent/content/transnews/0,10869,4844-128590-19728-18885-313315-3787-4771-layout160-129898-news-item,00.html.
- ^ "US Open: Prize Money". usopen.org. http://www.usopen.org/en_US/about/history/prizemoney.html?promo=subnav. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
- ^ "Caroline Wozniacki should not be ranked No. 1: Martina Navratilova". Associated Press (National Post). 2012-01-23. Archived from the original on 2012-01-24. http://sports.nationalpost.com/2012/01/23/caroline-wozniacki-should-not-be-ranked-no-1-martina-navratilova/.
- ^ "Preview of 2011 Grand Prix Final in Quebec". International Skating Union. 2011-12-07. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20111207&content_id=26115228&vkey=ice_pressrelease. Retrieved 2011-12-07.
- ^ "Funding". U.S. Figure Skating. http://www.usfsa.org/Athletes.asp?id=325.
- ^ Brannen, Sarah S. (May 31, 2012). "Workin' for a livin': Skaters take part-time jobs". Ice Network. http://www.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20120531&content_id=32547848&vkey=ice_news.
- ^ Kany, Klaus-Reinhold (2011-07-13). "European News: Aliona Savchenko and Robin Szolkowy and More: Summer Updates". IFS Magazine. Archived from the original on 2012-01-03. http://www.ifsmagazine.com/articles/582-european-news-aliona-savchenko-and-robin-szolkowy-and-more.
- ^ "Cappellini-Lanotte verso la qualificazione olimpica, attesa per Carolina". Polizia Penitenziaria. March 2009. Archived from the original on 2012-01-04. http://www.polizia-penitenziaria.it/notizie.asp?id=2096.
- ^ "Isu Grand Prix, anche Anna e Luca sul podio". Polizia Penitenziaria. October 2011. Archived from the original on 2012-01-04. http://www.polizia-penitenziaria.it/notizie.asp?id=3842.
- ^ "Pattinaggio di figura". Polizia di Stato. 2011-02-04. Archived from the original on 2012-01-04. http://www.poliziadistato.it/articolo/20989/.
- ^ a b Kany, Klaus-Reinhold (2012-01-24). "Wounded Savchenko and Szolkowy in tough spot". Ice Network. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20120124&content_id=26455774&vkey=ice_news.
- ^ Berlot, Jean-Christophe (2011-12-02). "Amodio, Meite seek prominence in different ways". Ice Network. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20111202&content_id=26082034&vkey=ice_news. Retrieved 2011-12-02.
- ^ Loosemore, Sandra (1999-10-17). "Falls, injuries often come in pairs". CBS Sports. http://www.cbssports.com/u/ce/multi/0,1329,1490799_10946,00.html. Retrieved 2012-01-12.
- ^ Beiser, H. Darr (2010-12-21). "Skater Binnebose back on the ice, teaching after brain surgery". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/2010-12-21-j-paul-binnebose-skater_N.htm.
- ^ Bőd, Titanilla (2010). "Nóra Hoffmann: "We’ve gone through really tough times"". AbsoluteSkating.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://absoluteskating.com/interviews/2010norahoffman.html.
- ^ Rosewater, Amy (2010-09-29). "Bates sidelined after injuring Achilles in practice". icenetwork.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20100929&content_id=15212632&vkey=ice_news.
- ^ Brannen, Sarah S. (2011-02-12). "Denney, Barrett out of Four Continents". IceNetwork.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://web.icenetwork.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20110212&content_id=16625346&vkey=ice_news.
- ^ Longman, Jere (1997-03-19). "Russian's Comeback In Pairs Is Stunning". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/19/sports/russian-s-comeback-in-pairs-is-stunning.html. Retrieved 2010-06-06.
- ^ "Skaters recover from slash, ready to defend title". CTV. 2008-01-16. http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20080116/figure_skaters_080116/20080116?hub=CTVNewsAt11. Retrieved 2011-04-17.
- ^ Longman, Jere (1998-02-04). "OLYMPICS: NAGANO 1998; Taking Life and Its Scars and Pains". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1998/02/04/sports/olympics-nagano-1998-taking-life-and-its-scars-and-pains.html?pagewanted=all.
- ^ "Galina Efremenko". International Skating Union. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.isuresults.com/bios/isufs00000157.htm.
- ^ Falcon, Mike (2002-09-06). "Tara Lipinski skates past DVT". USA Today. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/spotlighthealth/2002-09-06-lipinski_x.htm.
- ^ Walston, Sharon (2002-04-02). "The Figure Skater and Ganglion Cysts of the Ankle". Golden Skate. Archived from the original on 2008-08-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20080807164547/http://www.goldenskate.com/articles/2001/040202.shtml.
- ^ Janowicz, Rachel A. (April 2006). "How To Evaluate Figure Skating Injuries". Podiatry Today. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.podiatrytoday.com/article/5374.
- ^ Kutiakose, Sabina (2012-02-07). "Dr. Investigates Figure Skating Dangers". NBC Connecticut. http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/news/local/Dr-Investigates-Figure-Skating-Dangers-138801459.html. Retrieved 2012-02-09.
- ^ Mittan, Barry (2001-12-03). "Albena Denkova and Maxim Staviski: Bulgarian Dancers Triumph Over Injuries to Reach Top Ten". GoldenSkate.com. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.goldenskate.com/2001/12/bulgarian-dancers-triumph-over-injuries-to-reach-top-ten/.
- ^ Coker, Lesleyann (2010-01-20). "Jenny Kirk on Figure Skating's Eating Disorder Epidemic (Part I)". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lesleyann-coker/jenny-kirk-on-figure-skat_b_430032.html.
- ^ Coker, Lesleyann (2010-01-21). "Jenny Kirk on Figure Skating's Eating Disorder Epidemic (Part II)". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 2012-01-12. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lesleyann-coker/jenny-kirk-on-figure-skat_b_431698.html.
- ^ Macur, Juliet (2010-02-16). "New Muscles and Pounds Boost an American Ice Dancer’s Outlook". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/17/sports/olympics/17icedancers.html?_r=1. Retrieved 2010-12-22.
- Evaluation of Errors in Figures, 6th edition. USFSA, 1964.
- Figure Skating: Championship Techniques. John Misha Petkevich, 1989. ISBN 0-452-26209-7.
- Single Figure Skating. Josef Dĕdič, 1974.
- Benjamin T. Wright, Skating in America.
- Michael Boo, The Story of Figure Skating. ISBN 0-688-15821-8.
- Johnson, Susan A.: "And Then There Were None". Skating, March/April 1991.
- Smith, Beverley. Figure Skating: A Celebration. ISBN 0-7710-2819-9.
- Robert S. Ogilvie, Competitive Figure Skating:A Parent's Guide. ISBN 0-06-015375-X.
- Rossano, George. Mechanics of Lifts.
- ISU Regulations
- ISU Crystal Reports official skaters' bios.
- Washington Post: All You Need to Know About Figure Skating
- ISU Judging System Summary
- ISU Judging Systems
- How the ISU Judging System Works
- History of ice skates
- Figure skating firsts
- U.S. Figure Skating – Glossary of Terms
- History on Ice!, a video about the history of figure skating produced by the Minnesota Historical Society
|
Figure skating
|
|
| Disciplines |
|
|
| Competition programs |
|
|
| Elements |
|
Required elements
|
|
|
|
Jumps
|
|
|
|
Spins
|
|
|
|
Moves in the field
|
|
|
|
Connecting elements
|
|
|
|
| Other |
|
|
| Historical interest |
|
|
| Lists |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Summer sports |
|
|
| Winter sports |
|
|
| Former Olympic sports |
|
|
| Part of the 2016 program |
|
|
| Demonstration sports |
|
|
|
|
|
![[cam] Yuna Kim FS - Les Miserables (2013 Korea Figure Skating Championships)](http://web.archive.org./web/20130128200536im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/xD-wLLUgx0M/default.jpg "[cam] Yuna Kim FS - Les Miserables (2013 Korea Figure Skating Championships)")
.jpg)
