Offices of the Quartet in Jerusalem

Part of a series on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Arab–Israeli conflict
Israeli–Palestinian peace process
Israel with the West Bank, Gaza Strip and Golan Heights:    Israel    West Bank · Gaza Strip, Golan Heights
Negotiating parties
Israel · Palestinians
History
Camp David Accords · Madrid Conference
Oslo Accords / Oslo II · Hebron Protocol
Wye River / Sharm el-Sheikh Memoranda
2000 Camp David Summit · Taba Summit
Road Map · Annapolis · State of Palestine
Primary negotiation concerns
Final borders · Israeli settlements · Refugees (Jewish · Palestinian Arab) · Security concerns
Status of Jerusalem · Water
Secondary negotiation concerns
Antisemitic incitements
Israeli West Bank barrier · Jewish state
Palestinian political violence
Places of worship
Current leaders
Palestine Mahmoud Abbas · Salam Fayyad Israel Shimon Peres · Benjamin Netanyahu
International brokers
Diplomatic Quartet (United Nations · United States · European Union · Russia)
Arab League (Egypt · Jordan) · United Kingdom · France
Other proposals
One-state solution (Isratine) · Two-state solutions (Arab Peace Initiative · Geneva Accord · Allon Plan · Elon Peace Plan · Lieberman Plan) · Three-state solution Israeli unilateral plans: Disengagement · Realignment
Peace-orientated projects: Peace Valley · Middle East economic integration
Major projects, groups and NGOs
Peace-oriented projects · Peace Valley · Alliance for Middle East Peace · Peres Center for Peace
v t e

The Quartet on the Middle East, sometimes called the Diplomatic Quartet or Madrid Quartet or simply the Quartet, is a foursome of nations and international and supranational entities involved in mediating the peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Quartet are the United Nations, the United States, the European Union, and Russia. The group was established in Madrid in 2002, recalling Madrid Conference of 1991, as a result of the escalating conflict in the Middle East. Tony Blair is the Quartet's current Special Envoy.

History and main sessions[link]

The initiative to establish the Quartet evolved following the outbreak of the Second Intifada in September 2000 and the futile cease-fire attempts that followed. On October 25, 2001, representatives of the EU, UN and the US and Russian governments met Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat and jointly expressed support for his policy of implementing cease-fire and security reforms in the Palestinian Authority.^[1] During the Israeli incursions into Palestinian areas in April 2002, the representatives of the same four entities met in Madrid and again called for implementation of cease-fire agreements brokered by the US government before. In the same meeting, they also agreed to transform their quadripartite cooperation into a permanent forum for follow-up of the Israeli-Palestinian peace process.^[2]

The Quartet's meetings have been held on the following dates:

• May 2, 2002
• July 16, 2002 - proclaimed the Road Map for the two states solution.
• September 17, 2002
• December 20, 2002
• February 19, 2003
• June 22, 2003
• September 26, 2003
• December 11, 2003
• May 4, 2004
• July 7–8, 2004
• September 22, 2004
• March 1, 2005
• April 14, 2005
• May 9, 2005
• June 23, 2005
• September 20, 2005
• October 28, 2005
• December 5, 2005
• January 26, 2006
• March 30, 2006
• May 9, 2006
• June 17, 2006
• September 20, 2006
• November 15, 2006
• December 22, 2006
• February 2, 2007
• February 21, 2007
• March 21, 2007
• May 30, 2007
• June 27, 2007
• July 20, 2007
• September 23, 2007
• November 26, 2007
• December 18, 2007
• May 2, 2008
• June 24, 2008
• September 26, 2008
• November 9, 2008
• June 26, 2009
• September 24, 2009
• March 19, 2010
• May 11, 2010
• June 21, 2010
• August 20, 2010
• May 20, 2011
• July 11, 2011 - convened in order to find a formula for restarting bilateral negotiations; ended without any results.
• August 16, 2011 - condemned settlement expansion in Ariel and East Jerusalem.^[3]
• September 23, 2011 - issued a new schedule for resumption of negotiations between the Israeli government and the Palestinian Authority, which called for completing negotiations by end of 2012.^[4]

Special Envoys[link]

James Wolfensohn, the former president of the World Bank, was appointed Special Envoy for Israel's disengagement from Gaza in April 2005.^[5] He stepped down the following year because of restrictions in dealing with the Islamic militant group Hamas and the withholding of money from the Palestinian Authority, risking its collapse.^[6]

Tony Blair announced that he had accepted the position of the official envoy of the Quartet, the same day he resigned as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and as a Member of Parliament on 27 June 2007.^[7] The approval came after initial objections by Russia.^[8] The United Nations is overseeing the finances and security of his mission.^[9]

Peace efforts and actions[link]

Tony Blair has periodically travelled to the Middle East following his appointment as Special Envoy. On a trip there in March 2008, he met with Israeli leaders to discuss recent violence. A planned meeting between Israeli and Palestinian businessmen was postponed due to recent fighting.^[10] In May 2008 Tony Blair announced a new plan for peace and for Palestinian rights, based heavily on the ideas of the Peace Valley plan.^[11]

In an August 2009 interview, Tony Blair said he would like to see Hamas and Hezbollah included in peace talks but under the right conditions, that religious leaders should be more involved in the peace process, and that resolving the conflict could be easier than it was in Northern Ireland.^[12]

In a speech given in Israel on August 24, 2010, Tony Blair sharply criticised the campaign of "delegitimization" being carried out by enemies of Israel and proponents of the Palestinians, which refuses to grant Israel its legitimate right to its own point of view and self-defense. "Don't apply rules to the Government of Israel that you would never dream of applying to your own country," he said. He characterized such double standards and prejudice as being an "affront to humanity" which "it is a democratic duty to counter."^[13]

Representatives[link]

•  United Kingdom — Special envoy of the Quartet Tony Blair

•  United Nations — Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
•  European Union — High Representative Baroness Ashton of Upholland
•  United States — Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton
•  Russia — Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov

See also[link]

• Road map for peace
• Russia and the Arab-Israeli conflict

References[link]

External links[link]

• Office of the Quartet Representative
• US Mission to the UN archive of press releases pertaining to the Middle East
• UN News Focus: Middle East archive of Middle East Quartet statements
• Joint Statement by the Quartet, upon meeting in London, 1 March 2005
• Joint Statement by the Quartet, upon meeting in Moscow, 19 March 2010
• Middle East Quartet Statements U.S. State Department
• President Welcomes Quartet Principals to White House, press release from meeting of the Quartet Principals on 20 December 2002
• "Tony Blair's UN Role May Conflict with New Job with JP Morgan Chase" by Matthew Russell Lee, Inner City Press, January 10, 2008

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2011)

Middle East
The Middle East is often centered on the Arabian peninsula.
Countries	18–38 (varying definitions)
Languages	Middle East: Arabic, Aramaic, Azerbaijani, French, Greek, Hebrew, Kurdish, Persian, Turkish Greater Middle East: Arabic, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Balochi, Dari, French, Greek, Georgian, Hebrew, Kurdish, Pashto, Persian, Somali, Berber, Tigrinya, Turkish, Urdu
Time Zones	UTC +3:30 (Iran) to UTC +2:00 (Egypt) (traditional definition)
Largest Cities	In rank order: Cairo, Tehran, Baghdad, Riyadh, Jeddah

The Middle East or Mideast is a region that encompasses Western Asia and all of or part of Northern Africa, depending on the context. The term is considered to be Eurocentric and used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the derived noun is Middle-Easterner.

The history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, and throughout its history, the Middle East has been a major centre of world affairs. When discussing ancient history, however, the term Near East is more commonly used. The Middle East is also the historical origin of major religions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Middle East generally has an arid and hot climate, with several major rivers providing for irrigation to support agriculture in limited areas. Many countries located around the Persian Gulf have large quantities of crude oil. In modern times the Middle East remains a strategically, economically, politically, culturally and religiously sensitive region.^{[clarification needed]} The Middle East's expected economic growth rate is at about 4.1% for 2010 and 5.1% in 2011.^[1]

Etymology[link]

The term "Middle East" may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office.^[2] However, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902^[3] to 'designate the area between Arabia and India'.^[4][5] During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, a rivalry which would become known as The Great Game. Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf.^[6][7] He labeled the area surrounding the Persian Gulf as the Middle East, and said that after the Suez Canal, it was the most important passage for Britain to control in order to keep the Russians from advancing towards British India.^[8] Mahan first used the term in his article "The Persian Gulf and International Relations," published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal.

The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar; it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. Naval force has the quality of mobility which carries with it the privilege of temporary absences; but it needs to find on every scene of operation established bases of refit, of supply, and in case of disaster, of security. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, and the Persian Gulf.^[9]

Mahan's article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20 article series entitled "The Middle Eastern Question," written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include "those regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India."^[10] After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term.^[11]

Until World War II, it was customary to refer to areas centered around Turkey and the eastern shore of the Mediterranean as the "Near East", while the "Far East" centered on China,^[12] and the Middle East then meant the area from Mesopotamia to Burma, namely the area between the Near East and the Far East.^{[citation needed]} In the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term "Middle East" gained broader usage in Europe and the United States, with the Middle East Institute founded in Washington, D.C. in 1946, among other usage.^[13]

Criticism and usage[link]

1957 American film about the Middle East

Many^[who?] have criticized the term Middle East because of its implicit Eurocentrism.^[14][15] In contemporary English-language academic & media venues, the term is used by both Europeans and non-Europeans.

The description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, "Near East" was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while "Middle East" referred to Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, and the Caucasus. In contrast, "Far East" referred to the countries of East Asia (e.g. China, Japan, Formosa, Korea, Hong Kong, etc.) Some critics usually advise using an alternative term, such as "Western Asia", which is the official designation used by the UN.

With the disappearance of the Ottoman Empire in 1918, "Near East" largely fell out of common use in English, while "Middle East" came to be applied to the re-emerging countries of the Islamic world. However, the usage of "Near East" was retained by a variety of academic disciplines, including archaeology and ancient history, where it describes an area identical to the term Middle East, which is not used by these disciplines (see Ancient Near East).

The first official use of the term "Middle East" by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, which pertained to the Suez Crisis. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles defined the Middle East as "the area lying between and including Libya on the west and Pakistan on the east, Syria and Iraq on the North and the Arabian peninsula to the south, plus the Sudan and Ethiopia."^[12] In 1958, the State Department explained that the terms "Near East" and "Middle East" were interchangeable, and defined the region as including only Egypt, Syria, Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar.^[16]

The Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous. It instructs:

Use Middle East unless Near East is used by a source in a story. Mideast is also acceptable, but Middle East is preferred.^[17]

At the United Nations, the numerous documents and resolutions about the Middle East are in fact concerned with the Arab–Israeli conflict, in particular the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and, therefore, with the four states of the Levant. The term Near East is occasionally heard at the UN when referring to this region.^{[citation needed]}

Translations[link]

There are terms similar to Near East and Middle East in other European languages, but since it is a relative description, the meanings depend on the country and are different from the English terms generally. In German the term Naher Osten (Near East) is still in common use (nowadays the term Mittlerer Osten is more and more common in press texts translated from English sources, albeit having a distinct meaning) and in Russian Ближний Восток or Blizhniy Vostok, Bulgarian Близкия Изток, Polish Bliski Wschód or Croatian Bliski istok (meaning Near East in all the four Slavic languages) remains as the only appropriate term for the region. However, some languages do have "Middle East" equivalents, such as the French Moyen-Orient, Swedish Mellanöstern, Spanish Oriente Medio or Medio Oriente, and the Italian Medio Oriente.^[18]

Perhaps because of the influence of the Western press, the Arabic equivalent of Middle East (Arabic: الشرق الأوسط ash-Sharq al-Awsaṭ), has become standard usage in the mainstream Arabic press, comprehending the same meaning as the term “Middle East” in North American and Western European usage. The designation, Mashriq, also from the Arabic root for east, also denotes a variously defined region around the Levant, the eastern part of the Arabic-speaking world (as opposed to the Maghreb, the western part).^[19] The Persian equivalent for Middle East is خاورمیانه (Khāvar-e miyāneh).

Territories and regions[link]

Traditional definition of the Middle East[link]

Country, with flag	Area		Population	Density		Capital	GDP nominal	Per capita	Currency	Government	Official languages
	km	sq mi		/km	/sq mi
Bahrain	665	257	656,397	987	2,560	Manama	$26.970 billion (2008)	$34,605 (2008)	Bahraini Dinar	Constitutional monarchy	Arabic
Cyprus	5,936	2,2922	838,897 (2011)2	90	230	Nicosia	$24.949 billion (2011)	$30,570 (2011)	Euro	Presidential republic	Greek, Turkish
Gaza Strip (not recognized)	360	140	1,376,289	3,823	9,900	Gaza	$770 million (2009)	$3,100 (2009)	Egyptian pound, Israeli new sheqel	Autonomous republic (officially); Theocratic dictatorship (de facto)	Arabic
Egypt	1,002,450	387,050	77,498,000	74	190	Cairo	$442.640 billion (2008)	$5,898 (2008)	Egyptian pound	Military junta	Arabic
Iran	1,648,195	636,372	71,208,000	42	110	Tehran	$819.799 billion (2008)	$11,250 (2008)	Iranian rial	Islamic republic	Persian
Iraq	437,072	168,754	31,001,816	70.93	183.7	Baghdad	$202.3 billion (2008)	$6,500 (2008)	Iraqi dinar	Parliamentary republic	Arabic, Kurdish
Iraqi Kurdistan (not fully sovereign)	40,643	15,692	4,690,939 (2010)	115	300	Arbil	NA	NA	Iraqi dinar	Parliamentary democracy	Kurdish, Arabic, Neo-Aramaic
Israel	20,770	8,020	7,465,000	290	750	Jerusalem	$200.630 billion (2008)	$28,206 (2008)	Israeli new sheqel	Parliamentary democracy	Hebrew, Arabic
Jordan	92,300	35,600	6,407,085	58	150	Amman	$32.112 billion (2008)	$5,314 (2008)	Jordanian dinar	Constitutional monarchy	Arabic
Kuwait	17,820	6,880	3,100,000	119	310	Kuwait City	$137.190 billion (2008)	$39,849 (2008)	Kuwaiti dinar	Constitutional monarchy	Arabic
Lebanon	10,452	4,036	4,224,000	354	920	Beirut	$58.576 billion (2010)	$14,988 (2010)	Lebanese pound	Republic	Arabic (official), French
Northern Cyprus (not recognized)	3,355	1,295	294,906	86	220	Nicosia	$3.9 billion (2008)	$16,158 (2008)	Turkish lira	Republic	Turkish
Oman	212,460	82,030	3,200,000	13	34	Muscat	$66.889 billion (2008)	$24,153 (2008)	Omani Rial	Absolute monarchy	Arabic
Palestinian Authority (not fully sovereign)	5,860	2,260	2,235,000	432	1,120	Ramallah	$12.95 billion (2009)	$2,900 (2009)	Israeli new sheqel	Autonomous republic (elections not held since 2006)	Arabic
Qatar	11,437	4,416	793,341	69	180	Doha	$94.249 billion (2008)	$85,867 (2008)	Qatari Riyal	Absolute monarchy	Arabic
Saudi Arabia	1,960,582	756,985	23,513,330	12	31	Riyadh	$593.385 billion (2008)	$23,834 (2008)	Riyal	Absolute monarchy	Arabic
Syria	185,180	71,500	22,505,000	93	240	Damascus	$105.238 billion (2010)	$5,043 (2010)	Syrian pound	Presidential republic	Arabic
Turkey1	783,562	302,535	78,785,548	91	240	Ankara	$1.028 trillion[20] (2008)	$13,920[20][21] (2008)	Turkish lira	Parliamentary democracy	Turkish
United Arab Emirates	82,880	32,000	5,432,746	30	78	Abu Dhabi	$184.984 billion (2008)	$38,830 (2008)	UAE dirham	Federal Constitutional monarchy	Arabic
Yemen	527,970	203,850	23,701,257	35	91	Sanaá	$55.433 billion (2008)	$2,412 (2008)	Yemeni rial	Semi-presidential republic	Arabic
Source: International Monetary Fund, April 24, 2009, PPP GDP 2008 World Bank, July 1, 2009, PPP GDP 2008 Notes: 1 The figures for Turkey includes Eastern Thrace, which is not a part of Anatolia. 2 Cyprus figures do not include Northern Cyprus.

Greater Middle East[link]

Country, with flag	Area (km²)		Population	Density (per km²)		Capital	GDP (Total)	Per capita	Currency	Government	Official and national languages
	km2	sq mi		/km2	/sq mi
Afghanistan1	647,500	250,000	31,889,923	46	120	Kabul	$21.340 billion (2008)	$758 (2008)	Afghan afghani	Islamic republic	Persian, Pashto
Algeria	2,381,740	919,590	33,333,216	14	36	Algiers	$233.098 billion (2008)	$6,698 (2008)	Algerian dinar	Semi-presidential republic	Arabic (official), Berber (national)
Armenia	29,800	11,500	3,262,200	111.7	289	Yerevan	$18.715 billion (2008)	$5,272 (2008)	Armenian dram	Semi-presidential republic	Armenian
Azerbaijan	86,600	33,400	8,621,000	97	250	Baku	$74.734 billion (2008)	$8,620 (2008)	Azerbaijani manat	Semi-presidential republic	Azerbaijani
Comoros	2,235	863	798,000	275	710	Moroni	$772 million (2009)	$1,159 (2009)	Comorian franc	Federal republic	Comorian, Arabic, French
Djibouti	23,200	9,000	496,374	34	88	Djibouti	$1.877 billion (2008)	$2,392 (2008)	Djiboutian franc	Parliamentary republic	Arabic, French, Somali, Afar
Eritrea	117,600	45,400	4,401,009	37	96	Asmara	$3.739 billion (2008)	$747 (2008)	Nakfa	Provisional government	Tigrinya, Arabic
Georgia	20,460	7,900	4,630,841	99.3	257	Tbilisi	$21.812 billion (2008)	$4,957 (2008)	Georgian lari	Semi-presidential republic	Georgian
Kazakhstan	2,724,900	1,052,100	15,217,711	5.4	14	Astana	$177.545 billion (2008)	$11,416 (2008)	Kazakhstani tenge	Semi-presidential republic	Kazakh, Russian
Kyrgyzstan	199,900	77,200	5,356,869	26	67	Bishkek	$11.580 billion (2008)	$2,180 (2008)	Kyrgyzstani som	Semi-presidential republic	Kyrgyz, Russian
Libya	1,759,540	679,360	6,036,914	3	7.8	Tripoli	$90.251 billion (2008)	$14,533 (2008)	Libyan dinar	Provisional: National Transitional Council	Arabic (official), Berber (national)
Mauritania	1,030,700	398,000	3,291,000	70	180	Nouakchott	$6.221 billion (2008)	$2,052 (2008)	Ouguiya	Islamic republic	Arabic (official), Berber, Wolof
Morocco	710,850	274,460	33,757,175	70	180	Rabat	$136.728 billion (2008)	$4,349 (2008)	Moroccan dirham	Constitutional monarchy	Berber, Arabic (both official)
Pakistan	880,940	340,130	169,300,000	206	530	Islamabad	$439.558 billion (2008)	$2,738 (2008)	Pakistani rupee	Islamic republic	Urdu, English
Somalia	637,661	246,202	9,925,640 [22]	13	34	Mogadishu	$7.890 billion	$795[23]	Somali shilling	Semi-presidential republic	Somali (official), Arabic
Sudan	1,886,068	728,215	30,894,000	14	36	Khartoum	$87.885 billion (2008)	$2,305 (2008)	Sudanese pound	Presidential republic	Arabic, English
Tajikistan	143,100	55,300	7,215,700	45	120	Dushanbe	$13.041 billion (2008)	$2,019 (2008)	Somoni	Semi-presidential republic	Tajik
Tunisia	163,610	63,170	10,102,000	62	160	Tunis	$82.226 billion (2008)	$7,962 (2008)	Tunisian dinar	Semi-presidential republic	Arabic
Turkmenistan	488,100	188,500	5,110,023	9.9	26	Ashgabat	$30.091 billion (2008)	$5,710 (2008)	Turkmenistani manat	Presidential republic	Turkmen
Uzbekistan	447,400	172,700	27,372,000	59	150	Tashkent	$71.501 billion (2008)	$2,629 (2008)	Uzbekistani som	Semi-presidential republic	Uzbek
Western Sahara  Morocco	266,000	103,000	513,000	1.9	4.9	El Aaiun (controlled by Morocco)			Moroccan dirham		Arabic and Berber (both official under Morocco's cosntitution), Hassaniya (recognized by Morocco's constitution)
Source: International Monetary Fund, April 24, 2009, PPP GDP 2008 World Bank, July 1, 2009, PPP GDP 2008 Notes: 1 Afghanistan is often considered Central Asian[24][25]

History[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2011)

The Temple Mount in Jerusalem

The Kaaba, located in Mecca

The Middle East lies at the juncture of Eurasia and Africa and of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. It is the birthplace and spiritual center of religions such as Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Manichaeism, Yezidi, Druze, Yarsan and Mandeanism, and in Iran, Mithraism, Zoroastrianism, Manicheanism, and the Bahá'í Faith. Throughout its history the Middle East has been a major center of world affairs; a strategically, economically, politically, culturally, and religiously sensitive area.

The worlds earliest civilizations, Mesopotamia (Sumer, Akkad, Assyria and Babylonia) and ancient Egypt, originated in the Fertile Crescent and Nile Valley regions of the ancient Near East. These were followed by the Hittite, Greek and Urartian civilisations of Asia Minor, Elam in pre Iranian Persia, as well as the civilizations of the Levant (such as Ebla, Ugarit, Canaan, Aramea, Phoenicia and Israel), Persian and Median civilizations in Iran, North Africa (Carthage/Phonecia) and the Arabian Peninsula (Magan, Sheba, Ubar). The Near East was first largely unified under the Neo Assyrian Empire, then the Achaemenid Empire followed later by the Macedonian Empire and after this to some degree by the Iranian empires (namely the Parthian and Sassanid Empires), the Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. However, it would be the later Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages, or Islamic Golden Age which began with the Arab conquest of the region in the 7th century AD, that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant Islamic ethnic identity that largely (but not exclusively) persists today. The Mongols, the Turkish Seljuk and Ottoman empires, the Safavids and the British Empire would also later dominate the region.

The modern Middle East began after World War I, when the Ottoman Empire, which was allied with the Central Powers, was defeated by the British Empire and their allies and partitioned into a number of separate nations, initially under British and French Mandates. Other defining events in this transformation included the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the eventual departure of European powers, notably Britain and France by the end of the 1960s. They were supplanted in some part by the rising influence of the United States from the 1970s onwards.

In the 20th century, the region's significant stocks of crude oil gave it new strategic and economic importance. Mass production of oil began around 1945, with Saudi Arabia, Iran, Kuwait, Iraq, and the United Arab Emirates having large quantities of oil.^[26] Estimated oil reserves, especially in Saudi Arabia and Iran, are some of the highest in the world, and the international oil cartel OPEC is dominated by Middle Eastern countries.

During the Cold War, the Middle East was a theater of ideological struggle between the two superpowers and their allies: NATO and the United States on one side, and the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact on the other, as they competed to influence regional allies. Of course, besides the political reasons there was also the "ideological conflict" between the two systems. Moreover, as Louise Fawcett argues, among many important areas of contention, or perhaps more accurately of anxiety, were, first, the desires of the superpowers to gain strategic advantage in the region, second, the fact that the region contained some two thirds of the world's oil reserves in a context where oil was becoming increasingly vital to the economy of the Western world [...]^[27] Within this contextual framework, the United States sought to divert the Arab world from Soviet influence. Throughout the 20th and into the 21st century, the region has experienced both periods of relative peace and tolerance and periods of conflict and war.

Demographics[link]

Ethnic groups[link]

Various ethnic and religious types present in the Middle East, 19th century

The Middle East is today home to numerous long established ethnic groups, including; Arabs, Turks, Persians, Jews/Israelis, Kurds, Assyrians (Chaldo-Assyrians), Arameans-Syriacs, Egyptian Copts, Armenians, Azeris, Maltese, Circassians, Greeks, Turcomans, Shabaks, Yazidis, Mandeans, Georgians, Roma, Gagauz, Berbers, Mhallami and Samaritans.

Migration[link]

According to the International Organization for Migration, there are 13 million first-generation migrants from Arab nations in the world, of which 5.8 reside in other Arab countries. Expatriates from Arab countries contribute to the circulation of financial and human capital in the region and thus significantly promote regional development. In 2009 Arab countries received a total of 35.1 billion USD in remittance in-flows and remittances sent to Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon from other Arab countries are 40 to 190 per cent higher than trade revenues between these and other Arab countries.^[28]

Non-Arab Middle Eastern countries such as Turkey, Israel and Iran are also subject to important migration dynamics.

A fair proportion of those migrating from Arab nations are from ethnic and religious minorities facing racial and or religious persecution and are not necessarily ethnic Arabs, Iranians or Turks. Large numbers of Kurds, Jews, Assyrians, Greeks and Armenians as well as many Mandeans have left nations such as Iraq, Iran, Syria and Turkey for these reasons during the last century. In Iran, many religious minorities such as Christians, Baha'i and Zoroastrians have left since the Islamic Revolution of 1979.

Religions[link]

The Middle East is very diverse when it comes to religions, many of which originated there. Islam in its many forms is by far the largest religion in the Middle East, but other faiths that originated there, such as Judaism and Christianity, are also well represented. There are also important minority religions like Bahá'í, Yazdânism, Zoroastrianism, Mandeanism, Druze, Yarsan, Yazidism and Shabakism, and in ancient times the region was home to Mesopotamian Religion, Canaanite Religion, Manicheanism, Mithraism and various Monotheist Gnostic sects.

Languages[link]

The five top languages, in terms of numbers of speakers, are Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Berber, and Kurdish. Arabic and Berber represent the Afro-Asiatic language family. Persian and Kurdish belong to the Indo-European language family. And Turkish belongs to Turkic language family. About 20 minority languages are also spoken in the Middle East.

Arabic (with all its dialects) is the most widely spoken and/or written language in the Middle East, being official in all North African and in most West Asian countries. It is also spoken in some adjacent areas in neighbouring Middle Eastern non-Arab countries. It is a member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic languages.

Persian is the second most popular. While it is confined to Iran and some border areas in neghbouring countries, the country is one of the region's largest and most populous. It belongs to the Indo-Iranian branch of the family of Indo-European languages.

The third-most widely spoken language, Turkish, is largely confined to Turkey, which is also one of the region's largest and most populous countries, but it is present in areas in neighboring countries. It is a member of the Turkic languages, which have their origins in Central Asia.

Other languages spoken in the region include Semitic languages such as Hebrew and Mesopotamian Aramaic dialects spoken mainly by Assyrians and Mandeans. Also to be found are Armenian, Azerbaijani, Berber which is spoken across North Africa, Circassian, smaller Iranian languages, Kurdish, smaller Turkic languages (such as Gagauz), Shabaki, Yazidi, Roma, Georgian, Greek, and several Modern South Arabian languages such as Geez. Maltese is also linguistically and geographically a Middle Eastern language.

English is commonly taught and used as a second language, especially among the middle and upper classes, in countries such as Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Iran, Iraq, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.^[29][30] It is also a main language in some of the Emirates of the United Arab Emirates.

French is taught and used in many government facilities and media in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and Lebanon. It is taught in some primary and secondary schools of Egypt, Israel and Syria. Urdu is widely spoken by migrant communities in many Middle Eastern countries, such as Saudi Arabia (where 20-25% of the population is South Asian), the United Arab Emirates (where 50-55% of the population is South Asian), Israel, and Qatar, which have large numbers of Pakistani immigrants. The largest Romanian-speaking community in the Middle East is found in Israel, where as of 1995^[update] Romanian is spoken by 5% of the population.^[31][32][33] Russian is also spoken by a large portion of the Israeli population, because of emigration in the late 1990s.

Economy[link]

Middle Eastern economies range from being very poor (such as Gaza and Yemen) to extremely wealthy nations (such as Qatar, UAE and Saudi Arabia). Overall, as of 2007^[update], according to the CIA World Factbook, all nations in the Middle East are maintaining a positive rate of growth.

According to the World Bank's World Development Indicators database published on July 1, 2009, the three largest Middle Eastern economies in 2008 were Turkey ($ 794,228,000,000), Saudi Arabia ($ 467,601,000,000) and Iran ($ 385,143,000,000) in terms of Nominal GDP.^[34] In regards to nominal GDP per capita, the highest ranking countries are Qatar ($93,204), the UAE ($55,028), Kuwait ($45,920) and Cyprus ($32,745).^[35] Turkey ($ 1,028,897,000,000), Iran ($ 839,438,000,000) and Saudi Arabia ($ 589,531,000,000) had the largest economies in terms of GDP-PPP.^[20] When it comes to per capita (PPP)-based income, the highest-ranking countries are Qatar ($86,008), Kuwait ($39,915), the UAE ($38,894), Bahrain ($34,662) and Cyprus ($29,853). The lowest-ranking country in the Middle East, in terms of per capita income (PPP), is the autonomous Palestinian Authority of Gaza and the West Bank ($1,100).

The economic structure of Middle Eastern nations are different in the sense that while some nations are heavily dependent on export of only oil and oil-related products (such as Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Kuwait), others have a highly diverse economic base (such as Cyprus, Israel, Turkey and Egypt). Industries of the Middle Eastern region include oil and oil-related products, agriculture, cotton, cattle, dairy, textiles, leather products, surgical instruments, defence equipment (guns, ammunition, tanks, submarines, fighter jets, UAVs, and missiles). Banking is also an important sector of the economies, especially in the case of UAE and Bahrain.

With the exception of Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, Lebanon and Israel, tourism has been a relatively undeveloped area of the economy, in part because of the socially conservative nature of the region as well as political turmoil in certain regions of the Middle East. In recent years, however, countries such as the UAE, Bahrain, and Jordan have begun attracting greater number of tourists because of improving tourist facilities and the relaxing of tourism-related restrictive policies.

Unemployment is notably high in the Middle East and North Africa region, particularly among young people aged 15–29, a demographic representing 30% of the region’s total population. The total regional unemployment rate in 2005, according to the International Labor Organization, was 13.2%,^[36] and among youth is as high as 25%,^[37] up to 37% in Morocco and 73% in Syria.^[38]

Gallery[link]

This video over Central Africa and the Middle East was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on board the International Space Station.

This video over the Sahara Desert and the Middle East was taken by the crew of Expedition 29 on board the International Space Station.

A pass beginning over Turkmenistan, east of the Caspian Sea to south-eastern China, just north-west of Hong Kong.

See also[link]

History List of conflicts in the Middle East History of the Middle East Timeline of Middle Eastern History

Regions Greater Middle East Near East Fertile Crescent Central Asia

Middle East portal Asia portal Africa portal Geography portal Issues Waithood Orientalism State feminism (section: Middle East)

Organizations, programs, and media

• Middle East Institute
• Middle East Studies Association of North America
• Middle East Youth Initiative
• Maayan Middle East poetry magazine
• Strategic Foresight Group

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Adelson, Roger (1995). London and the Invention of the Middle East: Money, Power, and War, 1902-1922.. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06094-7. 
• Anderson, R., Seibert, R., & Wagner, J. (2006). Politics and Change in the Middle East (8th ed.). Prentice-Hall. 
• Barzilai, Gad.,Klieman Aharon.,Shidlo Gil (1993). The Gulf Crisis and its Global Aftermath. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08002. 
• Barzilai, Gad. (1996). Wars, Internal Conflicts and Political Order. State University of New York Press. ISBN 0-7914-2943-1. 
• Beaumont, Peter, Gerald H. Blake, J. Malcolm Wagstaff (1988). The Middle East: A Geographical Study. David Fulton. ISBN 0-470-21040-0. 
• Goldschmidt Jr., Arthur (1999). A Concise History of the Middle East. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-0471-7. 

External links[link]

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