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![Libyan Civil War _Chris Parker_Symphony[ HD ]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130216025102im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/N4V2pJqEBd4/default.jpg "The Libyan civil war (also referred to as the Libyan revolution , was an armed conflict in the state of Libya, fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust his government. The war was preceded by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday, 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces that fired on the crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council. In August, rebel forces began a coastal offensive, taking back territory lost weeks before and ultimately capturing the capital city of Tripoli, while Gaddafi evaded capture and loyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign. On 16 September 2011, the National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government. Muammar Gaddafi remained at large until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed attempting to escape from Sirte. The National Transitional Council")
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2011 Sabha clashes
The 2011 Sabha clashes were a series of clashes between forces loyal to Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and rebel anti-Gaddafi forces for control of the desert oasis city of Sabha and a part of the Libyan civil war which took place during June 2011.
Sabha is a city of around 210,000 people located by an oasis in the Libyan Desert and is home to an important military base. Much of its population are migrants from Chad, Niger, and Sudan. These migrants had been brought to Libya by Gaddafi in the 1980s and given employment and stipends by the regime to ensure their support. In addition, the city is home to a large number of members of the Qadhadhfa tribe, to which Gaddafi belongs. As a result, the city was regarded as a stronghold of pro-Gaddafi sentiment as the anti-regime protests that began across Libya in February 2011 turned into civil war. As the conflict progressed, however, many of the migrants went north to fight against the rebels, draining Gaddafi's major base of support in the city. Those who remained behind were mostly armed young locals and members of the Awlad Suleiman tribe. The Awlad Suleiman bear strong resentment against the regime. Shortly after Gaddafi seized power, members of the tribe were accused of plotting to overthrow him. Many tribesmen were executed and imprisoned as a result.
wn.com/2011_Sabha_clashes -
Abu Salim prison
Coordinates: 32°50′0″N 13°10′26″E / 32.833333°N 13.17389°E / 32.833333; 13.17389
Abu Salim prison is a top security prison in Tripoli, Libya which was often described as notorious for mistreatment and human rights abuses by human rights activists and other observers before the overthrow of the government of 40 years standing in 2011.
Amnesty International has called for an independent inquiry into deaths that occurred there on 29 June 1996, an incident which some have referred to as the Abu Salim prison massacre.Human Rights Watch believes that 1,270 prisoners were killed. HRW also calls the prison a "site of egregious human rights violations." Human Rights Watch also stated in a report that they were unable to independently verify the allegations of a massacre. The claims cited by Human Rights Watch are based on the testimony of a single former inmate, Hussein Al Shafa’i, who stated that he did not witness a prisoner being killed: "I could not see the dead prisoners who were shot..." The figure of over 1200 killed was arrived at by Al Shafa’i allegedly calculating the number of meals he prepared when he was working in the prison's kitchen. Al Shafa'i stated "I was asked by the prison guards to wash the watches that were taken from the bodies of the dead prisoners..."
wn.com/Abu_Salim_prison -
African Union
The African Union (abbreviated AU in English, and UA in its other official languages) is a union consisting of 54 African states. The only all-African state not in the AU is Morocco. Established on 9 July 2002, the AU was formed as a successor to the Organisation of African Unity (OAU). The most important decisions of the AU are made by the Assembly of the African Union, a semi-annual meeting of the heads of state and government of its member states. The AU's secretariat, the African Union Commission, is based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Among the objectives of the AU's leading institutions are:
The African Union is made up of both political and administrative bodies. The highest decision-making organ is the Assembly of the African Union, made up of all the heads of state or government of member states of the AU. The Assembly is chaired by Yayi Boni, president of Benin, elected at the 18thordinary meeting of the Assembly in January 2012. The AU also has a representative body, the Pan African Parliament, which consists of 265 members elected by the national parliaments of the AU member states. Its president is Idriss Ndele Moussa.
wn.com/African_Union -
Ajdabiya
Ajdabiya /ˌɑːdʒdəˈbiːə/ (Arabic: أجدابيا Ağdābiyā, Italian: Agedábia), previously known as Agedabia or Ajdabya, is a town in and capital of the Al Wahat District in northeastern Libya. It is some 150 kilometres (93 mi) south of Benghazi. From 2001 to 2007 it was part of and capital of the Ajdabiya District. The town is divided into three Basic People's Congresses: North Ajdabiya, West Ajdabiya and East Ajdabiya.
During the Libyan civil war, the city changed hands several times between rebels and pro-Gaddafi forces. Many civilians fled from the fighting, with one March 2011 report describing the city as a "ghost town." Libyan rebels appeared to have regained control indefinitely in late March after international airstrikes crippled Muammar Gaddafi's forces, in the first major turnaround for an uprising that a week earlier appeared on the verge of defeat.
Ajdabiya is situated in central northern Libya near the Mediterranean Sea coast at the eastern end of the Gulf of Sidra. It is located on an arid plain about 6.4 kilometres (4.0 mi) from the sea and is approximately 850 kilometres (530 mi) from the Libyan capital of Tripoli and 150 kilometres (93 mi) from Libya's second largest city, Benghazi. The city is the site of an important crossroads between the coastal road from Tripoli to Benghazi and inland routes south to the oasis at Jalu and east to Tobruk and the border with Egypt. Ajdabiya lies close to the Sabkhat Ghuzayyil a large dry region below sea level.
wn.com/Ajdabiya -
Al Oroba Street
Coordinates: 32°45′50.08″N 21°44′57.74″E / 32.7639111°N 21.7493722°E / 32.7639111; 21.7493722
Al Oroba Street (Arabic: شارع العروبه ) (ratio to Al Oroba Arab Emirates) is one of the main streets of the city of Bayda in Libya as the length of the street, 7.5 km and is divided into five sections: Al Oroba 1 to Al Oroba Street 5. Street is going through several neighborhoods Al Oroba inspired neighborhood Alcaoh Andalusia, will also meet in the street Al Oroba many of the main streets: Omar Mukhtar Street, or what is known as Street Hospital and Liberty Avenue and Victory Street.
Is one of the commercial streets in the city as spread by the shops and is crowded throughout the day for being the first major street in the city and the Green Mountain, as evidenced at different periods of the year, especially in the periods before Ramadan and the feasts of the many branches in the market.
wn.com/Al_Oroba_Street -
Arab League
The Arab League (Arabic: الجامعة العربية al-Jāmiʻa al-ʻArabiyya), officially called the League of Arab States (Arabic: جامعة الدول العربية Jāmiʻat ad-Duwal al-ʻArabiyya), is a regional organisation of Arab states in North and Northeast Africa, and Southwest Asia (Middle East). It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Egypt, Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Yemen joined as a member on 5 May 1945. The Arab League currently has 22 members (including Syria, whose participation was suspended in November 2011). The main goal of the league is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries."
Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific and social programs designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes, and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter which sets out the principles for economic activities in the region.
wn.com/Arab_League -
Bamako
Bamako is the capital and largest city of Mali, with a population of 1.8 million (2009 Census, provisional). In 2006, it was estimated to be the fastest growing city in Africa and sixth fastest in the world. It is located on the Niger River, near the rapids that divide the upper and middle Niger valleys in the southwestern part of the country.
Bamako is the nation's administrative center. The city proper is a cercle in its own right. Bamako's river port is located in nearby Koulikoro, along with a major regional trade and conference center. Bamako is the seventh largest West African urban center after Lagos, Abidjan, Kano, Ibadan, Dakar, and Accra. Locally manufactured goods include textiles, processed meat and metal goods. There is commercial fishing on the Niger River.
The name Bamako comes from the Bambara word meaning "crocodile river".
The area of the city has been continuously inhabited since the Palaeolithic era for more than 150,000 years. The fertile lands of the Niger River Valley provided the people with an abundant food supply and early kingdoms in the area grew wealthy as they established trade routes linking across west Africa the Sahara and leading to northern Africa and Europe. The early inhabitants traded gold, ivory, Kola nuts and salt. By the 11th century the Empire of Ghana became the first kingdom to dominate the area. Bamako had become a major market town, and a centre for Islamic scholars, with the establishment of two universities and numerous mosques in medieval times.
wn.com/Bamako -
Bani Walid
Bani Walid /ˈbæniː wɑˈliːd/ (Arabic: بني وليد Banī Walīd) is a town in Libya, in the Misrata District. The city is located on either side of the wadi Merdum, and is surrounded by the Libyan desert.
Prior to 2007 it was the capital of Bani Walid District. Bani Walid has an airport, Bani Walid airport. Under the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, it was divided into two Basic People's Congresses: Dahra - Bani Walid (الظهرة – بني وليد), and Zaytouna - Bani Walid (الزيتونة – بني وليد).
It is the home to the Warfalla tribe, the only city in which only one tribe resides. A campus of Misrata University is located in Bani Walid.
In the Libyan civil war, after the anti-Gaddafi forces captured Tripoli in August and Sabha in September, Bani Walid, along with Sirte, was one of two final strongholds held by forces loyal to the ousted Gaddafi regime.
There were clashes between anti-Gaddafi forces surrounding the city and Gaddafi loyalists defending it throughout September and early October; the city was finally taken on 17 October.
wn.com/Bani_Walid -
Battle of Ajdabiya
The Battle of Ajdabiya was an armed battle in and near the city of Ajdabiya that took place as part of the Libyan civil war. It was fought between anti-government rebels and military forces loyal to the Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi. Following the Second Battle of Brega, in which pro-Gaddafi forces captured the town, Ajdabiya was the only major rebel-held city left en route to the rebel capital of Benghazi. The battle for Ajdabiya had been cited as a potential turning point in the conflict on which the fate of the whole rebellion against the Gaddafi government may be decided. On 26 March 2011, Libyan rebels, backed by extensive allied air raids, seized control of the frontline oil town of Ajdabiya from Colonel Muammar Gaddafi's forces. During the first phase of the battle, pro-Gaddafi forces seized the strategic road junction leading to Benghazi and Tobruk, and captured most of the city. The city centre remained in rebel hands, but was surrounded by pro-government forces and cut off from outside assistance. After the second phase, anti-Gaddafi forces recaptured the road junction and cleared loyalist forces from the city, sending them retreating down the Libyan Coastal Highway towards Sirte.
wn.com/Battle_of_Ajdabiya -
Battle of Bani Walid
The Battle of Bani Walid was a military operation in the Libyan civil war conducted by anti-Gaddafi forces in September and October 2011, in an effort to take control of the desert city of Bani Walid from pro-Gaddafi forces. It began following days of force buildup on the part of the attackers, as well as skirmishes around the city.
Following the collapse of loyalist forces in Zawiya, Zliten and finally Tripoli in mid to late August, NLA forces advanced southwards from Misrata and Tarhuna towards the apparent pro-Gaddafi stronghold of Bani Walid.
3 September
Negotiations between representatives of the National Transitional Council, and tribal leaders from Bani Walid broke down. NLA fighters armed with heavy machine guns and anti aircraft guns advanced from Tarhuna towards Bani Walid after negotiations appeared to have failed.
4 September
NLA forces were 60 km from the city, according to the NTC.
5 September
The NTC announced that "the door is still open for negotiations", referring to attempts to get Bani Walid to surrender to NLA forces peacefully. It was reported that NLA units were only 40 km from the city.
wn.com/Battle_of_Bani_Walid -
Battle of Bin Jawad
The Battle of Bin Jawad was a battle in the Libyan civil war between forces loyal to Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and anti-Gaddafi forces for control of the town of Bin Jawad.
On 5 March 2011, following the Battle of Ra's Lanuf, rebel forces advanced along the Mediterranean coast and captured the town of Bin Jawad. They stopped during the night in the hamlet and planned to continue on to Sirte in the morning. During the evening, the opposition forces pulled back to Ra's Lanuf so they could prepare to continue their push to the west.
On the morning of 6 March, the rebels were on the move again and were passing through Bin Jawad, when they realized that loyalist forces had entered the town the previous night and took up positions in houses and on rooftops in preparation for an ambush. Government troops opened fire on the rebels with machine guns and RPG's and the opposition forces were soon in full retreat toward Ra's Lanuf. During the chaos, about 50 rebel fighters were left behind and trapped inside a Bin Jawad mosque. An opposition force in 20 pickup trucks tried to surge back into the city and rescue them, but was hit by artillery fire and one truck was destroyed. The rest of the convoy quickly retreated back to the edges of the town. Gaddafi's forces had retaken Bin Jawad.
wn.com/Battle_of_Bin_Jawad -
Battle of Gharyan
The Battle of Gharyan was a battle in the Libyan civil war between rebel anti-Gaddafi forces and forces loyal to Muammar Gaddafi for control of the Tripolitanian city of Gharyan located at the Eastern edge of the Nafusa Mountains.
Following large scale protests across the country, what would soon become part of the organized opposition in Libya gained control over most of the Nafusa mountains. Gharyan was soon captured by the rebels however as part of the offensive to retake control of Libya from the rebels, Gaddafi quickly dispatched units to regain control. During the night between the 1 and 2 March, loyalist forces came into the town, under the cover of darkness. On the morning of 2 March, the rebels realised that the town was overrun by government troops. Soldiers had a list of opposition members and started to round up all of the rebels in Gharyan. Gharyan had been retaken by the government.
Following the defeat of Gaddafi forces in Yafran and Kikla, rebel forces began to make preparations for the attack of Gharyan. On 6 July, Rebels captured Al-Qawalish and advanced on Asabah. However a Gaddafi counter attack was able to hold them back and temporarily recaptured Al-Qawalish.
wn.com/Battle_of_Gharyan -
Battle of Misrata
The Battle of Misrata (Arabic: معركة مصراتة), also known as the Siege of Misrata, was a major battle of the Libyan civil war. The battle was fought between Gaddafi loyalists and anti-Gaddafi forces, which held Misrata, the third largest city in Libya. Following the initial stages of the uprising, the Libyan government took back most towns in the west of the country, leaving Misrata the only major city under rebel control in Tripolitania, aside from several locations in the Nafusa Mountains. The city soon became the site of one of the major and most symbolic battles of the war that has been often compared to the Battle of Stalingrad during World War II. During the siege, the city saw intense fighting, came under daily assaults and shelling, was cut off from its seaport, leaving no escape route for Misrata's inhabitants—a situation compared to the Battle of Königsberg. Following the beginning of the UN military intervention in the civil war, NATO declared that breaking the encirclement of the city was its top priority. It ranks as one of the longest and bloodiest battles of the entire war. In late April and early May, rebel counterattacks successfully retook the city, culminating in the fall of the airport and nearby military airbase on 11 May.
wn.com/Battle_of_Misrata -
Battle of Wazzin
The Battle of Wazzin was a conflict during the Libyan civil war for the Libyan-Tunisian border town of Wazzin. Rebel forces made an initial victory, but it was short lived as Gaddafi's men re-occupied the town, only to lose it again to the rebels.
The battle spilled over into Tunisian territory on several occasions, prompting clashes with the Tunisian military (which had not explicitly taken a side in the battle).
The fighting turned Wazzin into something of a ghost town, valuable only as a strategic location.
In the early days of the war, towns in the Nafusa Mountains quickly joined the uprising against Muammar Gaddafi, but soon came under heavy attack by loyalist forces. Wazzin was initially taken by rebels, but soon fell under the control of loyalists, cutting off this supply line to the rebel-held mountain towns. To relieve the military and humanitarian pressure on their besieged towns, the rebels fought to retake the crossing.
On 21 April, rebel forces assaulted Wazzin but were met with fierce resistance by loyalist soldiers. Their advances were initially slow but eventually they overwhelmed Gaddafi's men, taking the town of Wazzin before swiftly capturing the crossing itself, causing Gaddafi's men to be trapped in between the Tunisian border and the advancing rebels. In the end, 105 loyalist soldiers retreated into Tunisia where they surrendered to Tunisian officials.
wn.com/Battle_of_Wazzin -
Belarus
Belarus (
i/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
wn.com/Belarus -
Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
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Benghazi
Benghazi (/bɛnˈɡɑːzi/; Arabic: بنغازيBinġāzī, Libyan Arabic: [bənˈʁɑːzi] (
listen), Italian: Bengasi; Turkish: Bingazi; also: Bengasi,Benghasi,Banghāzī,Binghāzī,Bengazi,Βερενίκη Berenice and Hesperides) is the second largest city in Libya, the main city (or capital) of the Cyrenaica region (or ex-Province), and the former provisional capital of the National Transitional Council. The wider metropolitan area (which includes the southern towns of Gimeenis and Suluq) is also a district of Libya. The port city is located on the Mediterranean Sea.
During the Kingdom era of Libya's history, Benghazi enjoyed a sort of joint-capital status (alongside Tripoli), possibly because the King used to reside in the nearby city of Bayda and the Senussis (royal family) in general were associated with Cyrenaica rather than Tripolitania. Benghazi continues to hold institutions and organizations normally associated with a national capital city. This creates a constant atmosphere of rivalry and sensitivities between Benghazi and Tripoli and by extension between the two regions (Cyrenaica and Tripolitania). The population of the entire district was 500,120 in 1995 (census) and has increased to 670,797 in the 2006 census.
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Botswana
Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana (Tswana: Lefatshe la Botswana), is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa. The citizens are properly referred to as "Batswana" (singular: Motswana), but many English-language sources use "Botswanan". Formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana adopted its new name after becoming independent within the Commonwealth on 30 September 1966. It has held free and fair democratic elections since independence.
Botswana is flat, and up to 70% is covered by the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. Its border with Zambia to the north near Kazungula, Zambia is poorly defined but at most is a few hundred meters long.
A mid-sized country of just over two million people, Botswana is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. Botswana was one of the poorest countries in Africa when it gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1966, with a GDP per capita of about US$70. Botswana has since transformed itself, becoming one of the fastest-growing economies in the world to a GDP (purchasing power parity) per capita of about $14,000. The country also has a strong tradition as a representative democracy.
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Brega
Brega /ˈbreɪɡə/, also known as Mersa Brega or Marsa al-Brega (Arabic: مرسى البريقة Marsā al Burayqah, i.e. "Brega Seaport"), is a complex of several smaller towns, industry installations and education establishments situated in Libya on the Gulf of Sidra, the most southerly point of the Mediterranean Sea. It is located in the former Ajdabiya District, which in 2007 was merged into the Al Wahat District. The town is the center of Libya's second-largest hydro-carbon complex.
During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the town quickly fell under control of the Libyan opposition. Government forces attempted to capture the town on 2 March but were repelled; their attack on 13 March was successful, though rebels later recaptured it on 26 March. In April the rebels were again driven out of the Brega area, and a several months long stalemate formed. On 11 August 2011, the rebels claimed to had retaken the eastern part of Brega.
The assigned settlement near the refinery and oil terminal is known as Brega. The town was built in pre-fabricated concrete parts and designed by Greek architect and urban planner Konstantinos Apostolos Doxiadis. The town has about 7,000 inhabitants.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Canada
Canada (
/ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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Chad
Chadi/ˈtʃæd/ (French: Tchad, Arabic: تشاد Tšād), officially known as the Republic of Chad, is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Libya to the north, Sudan to the east, the Central African Republic to the south, Cameroon and Nigeria to the southwest, and Niger to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely desert climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the "Dead Heart of Africa".
Chad is divided into multiple regions: a desert zone in the north, an arid Sahelian belt in the centre and a more fertile Sudanese savanna zone in the south. Lake Chad, after which the country is named, is the largest wetland in Chad and the second largest in Africa. Chad's highest peak is the Emi Koussi in the Sahara, and N'Djamena, (formerly Fort-Lamy), the capital, is the largest city. Chad is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. Arabic and French are the official languages. Islam and Christianity are the most widely practiced religions.
Beginning in the 7th millennium BC, human populations moved into the Chadian basin in great numbers. By the end of the 1st millennium BC, a series of states and empires rose and fell in Chad's Sahelian strip, each focused on controlling the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region. France conquered the territory by 1920 and incorporated it as part of French Equatorial Africa.
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Cyrenaica
Cyrenaica ( /saɪrɨˈneɪ.ɨkə/ SY-rə-NAY-ə-kə; Ancient Greek: Κυρηναϊκή, after the city of Cyrene; Arabic: برقة Barqah; Berber: Berqa) is the historical name of the eastern region in Libya, which self-declared autonomy. In a tribal meeting the National Federal Bloc party declared Cyrenaica as self-autonomous region, but no actual authority has been observed on the ground, as the National Transitional Council still the defacto authority in all of Libya. Also known as Pentapolis in antiquity, it was part of the Creta et Cyrenaica province during the Roman period, later divided in Libia Pentapolis and Libia Sicca. During the Islamic period, the area came to be known as Barqa, after the city of Barca.
Cyrenaica was the name of an administrative division of Italian Libya from 1927 through 1943, then under British military and civil administration from 1943 through 1951, and finally in the Kingdom of Libya from 1951 through 1963. In a wider sense, which is still used, Cyrenaica is composed of all of the eastern part of Libya, including the Kufra District. Cyrenaica is adjacent to Tripolitania in the northwest and Fezzan in the southwest. The region that used to be Cyrenaica officially through 1963 is now divided up into several shabiyat, the administrative divisions of Libya.
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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
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Dublin
Dublin ( /ˈdʌblɨn/; locally /ˈdʊbᵊlən/; Irish: Baile Átha Cliath, meaning "town of the hurdled ford", pronounced [blʲaˈklʲiə] or Áth Cliath, [aː klʲiə], occasionally Duibhlinn) is the capital and most populous city of Ireland. The English name for the city is derived from the Irish name Dubhlinn, meaning "black pool". Dublin is situated near the midpoint of Ireland's east coast, at the mouth of the River Liffey and the centre of the Dublin Region.
Originally founded as a Viking settlement, it evolved into the Kingdom of Dublin and became the island's principal city following the Norman invasion. The city expanded rapidly from the 17th century; it was briefly the second largest city in the British Empire and the fifth largest in Europe. Dublin entered a period of stagnation following the Act of Union of 1800, but it remained the economic centre for most of the island. Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, the new parliament, the Oireachtas, was located in Leinster House. Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State and later the Republic of Ireland.
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Egypt
Egypti/ˈiːdʒɪpt/ (Arabic: مصر, Miṣr, Egyptian Arabic: [mɑsˤɾ] ; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, Kīmi ; Sahidic Coptic: ⲕⲏⲙⲉ, Kēme), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة (help·info), is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world. Covering an area of about 1,010,000 square kilometers (390,000 sq mi), Egypt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south and Libya to the west.
Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its over 81 million people live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited. About half of Egypt's residents live in urban areas, with most spread across the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities in the Nile Delta.
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European Parliament
The European Parliament (abbreviated as Europarl or the EP) is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union (EU). Together with the Council of the European Union (the Council) and the European Commission, it exercises the legislative function of the EU and it has been described as one of the most powerful legislatures in the world. The Parliament is currently composed of 754 Members of the European Parliament, who represent the second largest democratic electorate in the world (after the Parliament of India) and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world (375 million eligible voters in 2009).
It has been directly elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, and has been under 50% since 1999. Turnout in 2009 stood at 43% of all European voters, ranging from 90% in Luxembourg and Belgium (where compulsory voting is used) to 20% in Slovakia. Turnout was under 50% in 18 out of 27 member states.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Geography of Libya
Coordinates: 25°00′N 17°00′E / 25°N 17°E / 25; 17
Libya is fourth in size among the countries of Africa and seventeenth among the countries of the world. Its coastline lies between Egypt and Tunisia. Although the oil discoveries of the 1960s have brought it immense petroleum wealth, at the time of its independence it was an extremely poor desert state whose only important physical asset appeared to be its strategic location at the midpoint of Africa's northern rim. It lay within easy reach of the major European nations and linked the Arab countries of North Africa with those of the Middle East, facts that throughout history had made its urban centers bustling crossroads rather than isolated backwaters without external social influences. Consequently, an immense social gap developed between the cities, cosmopolitan and peopled largely by foreigners, and the desert hinterland, where tribal chieftains ruled in isolation and where social change was minimal.
The Mediterranean coast and the Sahara Desert are the country's most prominent natural features. There are several highlands but no true mountain ranges except in the largely empty southern desert near the Chadian border, where the Tibesti Massif rises to over 2,200 meters. A relatively narrow coastal strip and highland steppes immediately south of it are the most productive agricultural regions. Still farther south a pastoral zone of sparse grassland gives way to the vast Sahara Desert, a barren wasteland of rocky plateaus and sand. It supports minimal human habitation, and agriculture is possible only in a few scattered oases.
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Ghadames
Ghadames or Ghadamis /ɡəˈdæmɨs/ (Arabic: غدامس, Libyan vernacular: ġdāməs) is an oasis town in the Nalut District of the Tripolitania region in southwestern Libya.
Ghadames lies roughly 462 kilometres (287 mi) to the southwest of Tripoli, near the borders with Algeria and Tunisia. Ghadames borders Illizi Province, Algeria and Tataouine Governorate, Tunisia.
The oasis has a population of around 10,000, mainly Berbers. The old part of the town, which is surrounded by a city wall, has been declared a UNESCO World Heritage site. Each of the seven clans that used to live in this part of the town had its own district, of which each had a public place where festivals could be held.
The first records about Ghadames date from the Roman period, when the settlement was known as Cydamus. In the 1st century BC the Roman proconsul Lucius Cornelius Balbus invaded Cydamus during the reign of emperor Augustus. A permanent Roman garrison was established during the reign of Septimius Severus, and the emperor may have visited the settlement around AD 202. However, the Romans withdrew from the area a few decades later during the Crisis of the Third Century.
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Ghadames raid
The Ghadames raid was a series of hit-and-run attacks carried out between 24 and 26 September 2011 by groups of pro-Gaddafi forces, allegedly including elements of the Khamis Brigade, against the National Transitional Council-administered desert oasis town of Ghadames, Libya, during the Libyan civil war.
Ghadames, an oasis town with a population of around 10,000, lies surrounded by desert in a corner of western Libya, bordering both Algeria and Tunisia. The city is home to one of five UNESCO World Heritage sites in Libya, which UNESCO officials feared would be endangered by fighting. Throughout much of the conflict, Ghadames remained isolated and cut off from communications. As such, news from the town was scant and control of the town was not easy to discern. Some reports said that Ghadames was "under siege" by loyalists for months; however, when anti-Gaddafi forces retook the town in late August, these reports were definitively contradicted.
After apparently filtering across the Libya-Algeria border in cars for several days, loyalist forces launched an attack on NTC forces in the city of Ghadames on 24 September. The raid began at around 5:30 AM as group of around 100 loyalists, allegedly including mercenaries from Algeria and groups of Tuareg, entered the city and began attacking NTC positions. Local pro-Gaddafi sleeper cells were also reported by local officials to have joined in on the raid. Anti-Gaddafi forces lost 6-8 fighters and suffered more than 60 wounded before driving loyalists back into the desert. Sporadic shelling of the town by loyalists continued after the raid, and anti-Gaddafi forces continued to engage in clashes with loyalists as they pursued them out of the town.
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Great Manmade River
The Great Man-Made River (GMR, النهر الصناعي العظيم) is a network of pipes that supplies water from the Sahara Desert in Libya, from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System fossil aquifer. It is the world's largest irrigation project.
According to its website, it is the largest underground network of pipes (2820 km) and aqueducts in the world. It consists of more than 1,300 wells, most more than 500 m deep, and supplies 6,500,000 m3 of fresh water per day to the cities of Tripoli, Benghazi, Sirte and elsewhere. The late Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi described it as the "Eighth Wonder of the World."
In 1953, efforts to find oil in southern Libya led to the discovery of large quantities of fresh water underground. The Great Man-made River Project (GMRP) was conceived in the late 1960s and work on the project began in 1984. The project's construction was divided into five phases. The first phase required 85 million m³ of excavation and was inaugurated on 28 August 1991. The second phase (dubbed First water to Tripoli) was inaugurated on 1 September 1996.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Interpol
Coordinates: 45°46′56″N 4°50′54″E / 45.78219°N 4.84838°E / 45.78219; 4.84838 The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO), widely known as INTERPOL or Interpol, is an organization facilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) in 1923 and adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956.
Its membership of 190 countries provides finance of around €59 million through annual contributions. The organization's headquarters is in Lyon, France. It is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations, in terms of number of member states.
Its current Secretary-General is Ronald Noble, a former United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement. Its current President is Singapore's Senior Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs and former Commissioner of Police Khoo Boon Hui; the President before that, Jackie Selebi, National Commissioner of the South African Police Service, held his term from 2004 till his resignation on 13 January 2008, after which he was charged in South Africa on three counts of corruption and one of defeating the course of justice, and replaced by Arturo Herrera Verdugo, current National Commissioner of Investigations Police of Chile and former vice president for the American Zone, who remained acting president until the organization meeting in October 2008.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jordan
Jordan ( /ˈdʒɔr.dən/;Arabic: اَلأُرْدُنّ, Al-'Urdunn), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (Arabic: اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة), Al-Mamlakah Al-Urdaniyyah Al-Hashimiyyah) is a kingdom on the East Bank of the River Jordan. The country borders Saudi Arabia to the east and south-east, Iraq to the north-east, Syria to the north and the West Bank and Israel to the west, sharing control of the Dead Sea with the latter. Jordan's only port is at its south-western tip, at the Gulf of Aqaba, which is shared with Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia. Over half of Jordan is covered by the Arabian Desert. However, the western part of Jordan is arable land and forests. Jordan is part of the Fertile Crescent. The capital city is Amman. According to the CIA World Factbook, Jordan has the second highest life expectancy in the Middle East, after Israel. The average life expectancy is one position behind the United Kingdom, although the age remains exactly the same (80.05 years).
The precursor to modern Jordan was founded in 1921 as the Hashemite Emirate, and it was recognized by the League of Nations as a state under the British mandate in 1922 known as The Emirate of Transjordan. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of Cisjordan during the 1948–49 war with Israel, Abdullah I took the title King of Jordan and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.
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Kenya
Kenya ( /ˈkɛnjə/ or /ˈkiːnjə/), officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator. With the Indian Ocean to its south-east, it is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya has a land area of 580,000 km2 and a population of nearly 41 million, representing 42 different peoples and cultures. The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and second among Africa's highest mountain peaks. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi.
Kenya has a warm and humid climate along its coastline on the Indian Ocean which changes to wildlife-rich savannah grasslands moving inland towards the capital Nairobi. Nairobi has a cool climate that gets colder approaching Mount Kenya, which has three permanently snow-capped peaks. The warm and humid tropical climate reappears further inland towards lake Victoria, before giving way to temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The North Eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh-water lake (after Lake Superior in the US and Canada) and the world's largest tropical lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya is famous for its safaris and diverse world-famous wildlife reserves such as Tsavo National Park, the Maasai Mara, Nakuru National Park, and Aberdares National Park.
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Kingdom of Libya
The Kingdom of Libya, (Arabic: المملكة الليبية, literally, the Libyan Kingdom Italian: Regno di Libia) originally called the United Libyan Kingdom came into existence upon independence on 24 December 1951 and lasted until a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi on 1 September 1969 overthrew King Idris of Libya and established the Libyan Arab Republic.
Under the constitution of October 1951, the federal monarchy of Libya was headed by King Idris as chief of state, with succession to his designated heirs. Substantial political power resided with the king. The executive arm of the government consisted of a prime minister and Council of Ministers designated by the king but also responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of a bicameral legislature. The Senate, or upper house, consisted of eight representatives from each of the three provinces. Half of the senators were nominated by the king, who also had the right to veto legislation and to dissolve the lower house. Local autonomy in the provinces was exercised through provincial governments and legislatures. Tripoli and Benghazi served alternately as the national capital.
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Libya
Libya (Arabic: ليبيا Lībyā), Berber: ⵍⵉⴱⵢⴰ) is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad and Niger to the south, and Algeria and Tunisia to the west.
With an area of almost 1.8 million square kilometres (700,000 sq mi), Libya is the third largest country in Africa by area, and the 17th largest in the world. The largest city, Tripoli, is home to 1.7 million of Libya's 6.4 million people. The three traditional parts of the country are Tripolitania, Fezzan and Cyrenaica.
In 2009 Libya had the highest HDI in Africa and the fourth highest GDP (PPP) per capita in Africa, behind Seychelles, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon. Libya has the 10th-largest proven oil reserves of any country in the world and the 17th-highest petroleum production.
As a result of the Libyan civil war, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, which had at that time been in existence for 34 years, collapsed and Libya entered a period of governance by a transitional administration called the National Transitional Council. The NTC has stated its intention to oversee the first phase of a transition to constitutional democracy, after which it claims it will dissolve in favor of a representative legislature.
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Libyan Desert
The Libyan Desert covers an area of approximately 1,100,000 km2, it extends approximately 1100 km from east to west, and 1,000 km from north to south, in about the shape of a rectangle. Like most of the Sahara, this desert is primarily sand and hamada or stony plain.
Sand plains, dunes, ridges and some depressions (basins) typify the endorheic region, with no rivers draining into or out of the desert. The Gilf Kebir plateau reaches an altitude of just over 1000 m, and along with the nearby massif of Jebel Uweinat is an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments, forming a massive sand plain, low plateaus and dunes.
The desert features a striking diversity of landscapes including mountains such as Jebel Uweinat (1980 m), the Gilf Kebir plateau, and sand seas (see below). The Libyan Desert is barely populated apart from the modern settlements at oases of the lower Cyrenaica region in southeastern Libya. The indigenous population is Berber. In most of Upper Egypt, the desert is close to the Nile River, with a seasonal flood plain only a few kilometers wide between river and desert.
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Malta
Maltai/ˈmɒltə/, officially known as the Republic of Malta (Maltese: Repubblika ta' Malta), is a Southern European country consisting of an archipelago situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 80 km (50 mi) south of Sicily, 284 km (176 mi) east of Tunisia and 333 km (207 mi) north of Libya, with Gibraltar 1,755 km (1,091 mi) to the west and Alexandria 1,508 km (937 mi) to the east. Malta covers just over 316 km2 (122 sq mi) in land area, making it one of the world's smallest states. It is also one of the most densely populated countries worldwide. The de facto capital city of Malta is Valletta; the largest town, Birkirkara. The main island comprises many towns, which together form one Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with a population of 368,250 according to Eurostat. The country has two official languages, Maltese (constitutionally the national language) and English.
Throughout history, Malta's location has given it great strategic importance, and a succession of powers including the Phoenicians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Normans, Aragonese, Habsburg Spain, Knights of St John, French and the British ruled the islands. Malta gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1964 and became a republic in 1974, whilst retaining membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Malta was admitted to the United Nations in 1964 and to the European Union in 2004. Malta is also party to the Schengen Agreement and in 2008 it became part of the eurozone.
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Maydan al Shajara
Maydan al-Shajara (Arabic: ميدان الشجرة; English: The Tree Square), is a major town square in Benghazi, the second largest city in Libya. A large native Atlas Cedar tree is located in the center of the square, giving it its name. The square is located in the center of Benghazi, linking two primary roads, Gamal Abdel al-Nasser Street and 'Amr ibn al-'As Street.
The National Oil Corporation and Wahda Bank buildings overlook the square, with several other buildings of historic architectural distinction. Nearby are three government administration buildings. Maydan al-Shajara is the site of public events, celebrations, and demonstrations.
Maydan al-Shajara became a major gathering place for protesters during the Libyan civil war. Government forces had used water cannons, and reportedly machine-guns and heavy weapons on crowds, in attempts to disperse demonstrators in the early days. By 20 February Benghazi and Maydan al-Shajara came under the control of the opposition government.
Coordinates: 32°6′54″N 20°3′45″E / 32.115°N 20.0625°E / 32.115; 20.0625
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Misrata
Misrata /mɪzˈrɑːtə/ (Arabic: مصراتة Mişrātah, Libyan Arabic: IPA: [məsˤˈrˤɑːtæ]), also spelled Misurata or Misratah, is a city in the Misrata District in northwestern Libya, situated 187 km (116 mi) to the east of Tripoli and 825 km (513 mi) west of Benghazi on the Mediterranean coast near Cape Misrata.
With a population of just over 281,000, Misrata is the third largest city in Libya, after Tripoli and Benghazi. It is the capital city of the Misrata District and has been called the business capital of Libya. The harbor is at Qasr Ahmad.
The meaning of the name Misrata is not well documented.
Modern Misrata was established around the 7th-century during the beginning of modern Libya's rule by the Islamic Caliphate. It had been a major caravan center named "Thubaqt." Some contemporary sources claim the town existed prior to Islamic rule, during the Roman Empire era and that its initial Arabic name derived from its Roman name "Thubactis." D. J. Mattingly, author of Tripoltania, a comprehensive reference book on northwestern Libya, stated that identification of Misrata as the ancient "Thubactis" is particularly problematic, complicated and "defies an easy answer." Nonetheless the Roman town was located at some point on the oasis upon which the modern city sits. The two common identifications are at the eastern and western anchorages of modern Misrata or south and inland of the city, respectively. The Roman town was recorded as one of the six municipia (small cities) of the Tripolitania province, a rank below coloniae (major cities.)
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NATO
Coordinates: 50°52′34.16″N 4°25′19.24″E / 50.8761556°N 4.4220111°E / 50.8761556; 4.4220111
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( /ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
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Netherlands
The Netherlands (
i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
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Niger
Niger (French pronunciation: [niʒɛʁ], but occasionally pronounced as /niːˈʒɛər/ ori/ˈnaɪdʒər/), officially the Republic of Niger, is a landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. It borders Nigeria and Benin to the south, Burkina Faso and Mali to the west, Algeria and Libya to the north and Chad to the east. Niger covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2, making it the largest nation in West Africa, with over 80 percent of its land area covered by the Sahara desert. The country's predominantly Islamic population of just above 15,000,000 is mostly clustered in the far south and west of the nation. The capital city is Niamey, located in the far southwest corner of Niger.
Niger is a developing country, and consistently ranks as one of the lowest ranks of the United Nations' Human Development Index (HDI), 186th of 187 countries in 2011. Much of the non-desert portions of the country are threatened by periodic drought and desertification. The economy is concentrated around subsistence and some export agriculture clustered in the more fertile south, and the export of raw materials, especially uranium ore. Niger remains handicapped by its landlocked position, desert terrain, poor education and poverty of its people, lack of infrastructure, poor health care, and environmental degradation.
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North Korea
Coordinates: 40°00′N 127°00′E / 40°N 127°E / 40; 127 The Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK; Chosŏn'gŭl: 조선민주주의인민공화국), commonly referred to as "North Korea" ( listen), is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea. The Amnok, or Yalu, and the Tumen rivers form the border between North Korea and China. A section of the Tumen River in the far northeast is the border with Russia.
The peninsula was governed by the Korean Empire until it was annexed by Japan after the Russo-Japanese War in 1910. It was divided into Soviet- and American-occupied zones in 1945, after the end of World War II. North Korea refused to participate in a United Nations–supervised election held in the south in 1948, which led to the creation of separate Korean governments for the two occupation zones. North and South Korea each claimed sovereignty over the whole Korean Peninsula, which led to the Korean War of 1950. The Armistice Agreement of 1953 ended the fighting; but the two countries are officially still at war against each other, for a peace treaty was never signed. Both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Peru
Perui/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú;Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.
Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures, spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.
Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 31%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Ras Ajdir
Ras Ajdir, alternatively Ras Jdir or Ras Ejder (Arabic:راس اجدير), is a small coastal town on the border between Tunisia and Libya and Libya's most northerly point.
It is the site of an experimental station for wind and solar power for desalination.
The town is a major transport hub and border crossing, for trade by road between Tunisia and Libya. From 15 February – 15 March 2007, 21,758 foreigners entered and 8,112 left through Ras Ajdir.
Ras Ajdir is a likely border station on the new Libyan Railways line, which is under construction in 2007. An agreement has been signed for a link to Tunisian Railways. The nearest Tunisian railhead, albeit of 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in), is at Gabès.
In 2011, during the Libyan civil war, rebel forces attempted to take control of the crossing from loyalist forces. On 27 August, the border town was secured by the National Transitional Council forces.
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RIA Novosti
Russian International News Agency (RIA Novosti) (in Russian: Российское агентство международных новостей «РИА Новости») is of the largest Russian news agencies. It is state-owned with its HQ in Moscow and about 80 bureaus abroad.
The agency publishes news and analysis of social-political, economic, scientific and financial subjects on the Internet and via e-mail in the main European languages, as well as in Persian, Japanese, Chinese and Arabic. It has a correspondent network in the Russian Federation, CIS and over 40 non-CIS countries. Its clients include the presidential administration, Russian government, Federation Council, State Duma, leading ministries and government departments, administrations of Russian regions, representatives of Russian and foreign business communities, diplomatic missions, and public organizations.
The current editor-in-chief and general director of the agency is Svetlana Mironyuk.
RIA Novosti’s history dates back to June 24, 1941, when by a resolution of the USSR Council of People’s Commissars and the Communist Party Central Committee, “On the Establishment and Tasks of the Soviet Information Bureau”, the Soviet Information Bureau (Sovinformburo) was set up under the USSR Council of People’s Commissars and the Central Committee. Its main task was to oversee work to cover international, military events and the events of the country’s domestic life in periodicals and on the radio (from October 14, 1941, to March 3, 1942, was based in Kuibyshev – modern-day Samara).
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Rixos Al Nasr
The Rixos Al Nasr is a five star hotel in Tripoli, Libya. Owned by the Turkish-based Rixos Hotels group, it is located in the center of Tripoli, at one corner of Tarabulus Zoo Park. Opened on the 12 March 2010, amongst its first guests was the President of Eritrea, Isaias Afewerki. The hotel has two floors built on timber, and is surrounded by a garden that backs on to Tripoli's biggest parkland. All external surfaces of the hotel building are covered with green plants.
Aimed at business people, the hotel features a SPA certified wellness centre, indoor swimming pool, restaurants and an attached shopping center. It became more widely known in the 2011 Libyan civil war for accommodating foreign journalists.
The hotel was used to host foreign journalists and press conferences were held there. In March 2011, Iman al-Obeidi, a Libyan postgraduate law student, made headlines when she burst into the restaurant of the hotel and told the international press corps there that Libyan troops had beaten and gang-raped her. Her public statement challenged both the Gaddafi government and the taboo against discussing sex crimes in Libya.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Sabratha
Sabratha, Sabratah or Siburata (Arabic: صبراتة), in the Zawiya District in the northwestern corner of modern Libya, was the westernmost of the "three cities" of Tripolis. From 2001 to 2007 it was the capital of the former Sabratha wa Sorman District. It lies on the Mediterranean coast about 66 km (41 mi) west of Tripoli. The extant archaeological site was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1982.
Sabratha's port was established, perhaps about 500 BC, as a Phoenician trading-post that served as a coastal outlet for the products of the African hinterland.The Phoenicians gave it the Lybico-Berber name 'Sbrt'n', which suggests that there may have been a native town built there prior to the Phoenicians' arrival. Sabratha became part of the short-lived Numidian Kingdom of Massinissa before being Romanized and rebuilt in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The Emperor Septimius Severus was born nearby in Leptis Magna, and Sabratha reached its monumental peak during the rule of the Severans. The city was badly damaged by earthquakes during the 4th century, particularly the quake of AD 365. It was rebuilt on a more modest scale by Byzantine governors. Within a hundred years of the Arab conquest of the maghreb, trade had shifted to other ports and Sabratha dwindled to a village.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Sirte
Sirte (also spelled Sirt, Surt, Sert or Syrte, pronounced /ˈsɜrt/; Arabic: سرت, pronunciation (help·info); from Ancient Greek: Σύρτις) is a city in Libya. It is on the south coast of the Gulf of Sidra (ancient Syrtis Major, from which Sirte's name derives). Sirte lies halfway between Tripoli and Benghazi. The settlement was established in the early 20th century by the Italians, at the site of a 19th-century fortress built by the Ottomans. It grew into a city after World War II. Sirte was briefly the capital of Gaddafi-controlled Libya after the capture of Tripoli during the final days of the Libyan civil war.
As the birthplace of Muammar Gaddafi, Sirte was favoured by the Gaddafi government. The city was the final major stronghold of Gaddafi loyalists in the Libyan civil war and Gaddafi was killed there by rebel forces on 20 October 2011. During the battle Sirte was left almost completely in ruins, with many buildings totally destroyed or damaged. Six months after the civil war, more than 60,000 inhabitants, about 70 percent of pre-war population, had returned.
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Sky News
Sky News is a 24-hour British and international satellite television news broadcaster with an emphasis on UK and international news stories.
The service places emphasis on rolling news, including the latest breaking news. Sky News also hosts localised versions of the channel in Australia and in New Zealand, as well as their previously operated version in Ireland. Sky News is also offered in an international version without the British adverts under the name Sky News International available in Europe and Asia.
Based at a news centre in London, Sky News started broadcasting on 5 February 1989 as part of the then four-channel Sky Television service. Sky News provides an hourly news radio service to multiple radio networks in the UK and Ireland. The channel currently has seven UK bases each with their own correspondents, and the channel can also call upon a wide range of resources and global bureaux provided by its parent company News Corporation such as reporters from Fox News Channel and Fox Business Network (its sister news and business channels).
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Sorman
Sorman or Surman (Arabic: صرمان) is a town near the Mediterranean coast, in the Zawiya District of the Tripolitania region in northwestern Libya.
On 20 June, during the Libyan civil war, NATO strikes in Sorman against what appeared to be civilian homes in a compound belonging to one of Muammar Gaddafi's associates, Khaled K. El-Hamedi, reportedly killed several civilians, including two children and their mother. NATO admitted carrying out an air strike on a military target in Sorman but deined civilian deaths. NATO issued a statement that said a precision air strike was launched against a "high-level" command and control "node" in the Sorman area.
On 14 August, the National Liberation Army said it had captured the city in battle during the major coastal offensive. 10 rebel fighters were killed and at least 40 pro-Gaddafi fighters were captured during the battle for the town.
Coordinates: 32°45′N 12°34′E / 32.75°N 12.567°E / 32.75; 12.567
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
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Tawergha
Tawergha (Berber: ⵜⴰⵡⴻⵔⵖⴰ, Arabic: تاورغا), also transliterated Tawarga, Tauorga, Taworgha or Tawurgha, is, as of October 2011, a ghost town in Libya that is under administrative jurisdiction of the city of Misrata, which is 38 kilometers away. It was the site of intense fighting during the Libyan civil war before its capture and ethnic cleansing by anti-Gaddafi forces in August 2011.
As of October 2011, the town has been largely cleared of its prewar population.
Tawergha means "the green island" in the Berber language.
This city was famous for its palm trees which at one point were considered the true wealth in the city. The city also produces significant amount of date fruits, including the Bersiel date, which is used as a component in ropes and other commodities. In pre-colonial times, the work on the plantation was done by tens of thousands of black skinned slaves, making Tawerga the only town in coastal Libya with a black majority. In the colonial period, these people were nominally emancipated from slavery, but their economic status remained very low. In the gaddafi-period, they were treated a lot better, receiving full education and development. Many of its inhabitants achieved high positions in the army and civil service.
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Tobruk
Tobruk or Tubruq /tɵˈbrʊk/ (Arabic: طبرق Ţubruq; also transliterated as Tóbruch, Tobruch, Ţubruq, Tobruck and Tubruk) is a port city on Libya's eastern Mediterranean coast, near the border with Egypt. It is the capital of the Butnan District (formerly Tobruk District) and has a population of 120,000 (2011 est.).
Tobruk was the site of an ancient Greek colony and, later, of a Roman fortress guarding the frontier of Cyrenaica. Over the centuries, Tobruk also served as a waystation along the coastal caravan route. By 1911, Tobruk had become an Italian military post, but during World War II, Allied forces, mainly the Australian 6th Division, took Tobruk on 22 January 1941. The Australian 9th Division ("The Rats of Tobruk") pulled back to Tobruk to avoid encirclement after actions at Er Regima and Mechili and reached Tobruk on 9 April 1941 where prolonged fighting against German forces followed. Rebuilt after World War II, Tobruk was later expanded during the 1960s to include a port terminal linked by an oil pipeline to the Sarir oil field.
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Totebo
Totebo is a locality situated in Västervik Municipality, Kalmar County, Sweden with 239 inhabitants in 2010.
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Tripoli
Tripoli is the capital and largest city in Libya. It is also known as Tripoli-of-the-West (Arabic: طرابلس الغرب Ṭarābulus al-Gharb), to distinguish it from Tripoli, Lebanon. It is affectionately called The Mermaid of the Mediterranean (Arabic: عروسة البحر ʼarūsat el-baḥr; lit: "bride of the sea"), describing its turquoise waters and its whitewashed buildings. Tripoli (English pronunciation: /ˈtrɪpɵli/) is a Greek name that means "Three Cities", introduced in Western European languages through the Italian Tripoli. In Arabic: طرابلس it is called Ṭarābulus ( pronunciation (help·info), Libyan Arabic: Ṭrābləs pronunciation (help·info), Berber: Ṭrables, from Ancient Greek: Τρίπολις Trípolis). As of 2011, the Tripoli metropolitan area (district area) had a population of 2.2 million. The city is located in the northwest part of the country on the edge of the desert, on a point of rocky land projecting into the Mediterranean and forming a bay.
The city includes the Port of Tripoli and the country's largest commercial and manufacturing centre. It is also the site of the University of Tripoli. The vast Bab al-Azizia barracks, which includes the former family compound of Muammar Gaddafi, is also located in the city; Gaddafi largely ruled the country from his residence in this barracks.
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Tunisia
Tunisia (USi/tuːˈniːʒə/ two-NEE-zhə or UK /tjuːˈnɪziə/ tew-NIZ-iə; Arabic: تونس Tūnis pronounced [ˈtuːnɪs]), officially the Republic of Tunisia (Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah), is the northernmost country in Africa. It is an Arab Maghreb country and is bordered by Algeria to the west, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Its area is almost 165,000 square kilometres (64,000 sq mi), with an estimated population of just under 10.7 million. Its name is derived from the capital Tunis located in the northeast.
Tunisia is the smallest country in North Africa. The south of the country is composed of the Sahara desert, with much of the remainder consisting of particularly fertile soil and 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) of coastline.
Tunisia has relations with both the European Union—with whom it has an association agreement—and the Arab world. Tunisia is also a member of the Arab Maghreb Union, the Arab League, and the African Union. Tunisia has established close relations with France in particular, through economic cooperation, industrial modernization, and privatisation programs.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emiratesi/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Zawiya raid
The Zawiya raid[citation needed] was a raid launched by the National Liberation Army during the Libyan civil war against army units and militiamen loyal to Muammar Gaddafi in the city of Zawiya.
Between February and March 2011 there was a major battle for control of this city in which the rebels were defeated by the Gaddafi forces.
New clashes had restarted by early June, with an anti-Gaddafi uprising within the city. On 11 June, a spokesman for the rebel National Transitional Council said that the opposition fighters were in control of a large area on the western side of the city. Later the same day, Reuters confirmed that the coastal road was shut down and deserted, except for a large number of soldiers, police and armed men in civilian clothes. Residents also confirmed that fighting begun during the morning between loyalist forces and rebels and described fighting as "heavy".
According to rebel spokesman within the city, 30 rebels were killed and 20 wounded in two days of fighting. The rebels managed to take control of the western side of the city, but the loyalists remained in control of the city center and the eastern side. Also, there were reports that loyalist forces were receiving reinforcements. Guma el-Gamaty, United Kingdom based coordinator for the National Transitional Council claimed that rebel fighters in Zawiya are composed of fighters which trained in the Nafusa Mountains. Moussa Ibrahim, a Libyan government spokesman, insisted that only 20 to 25 rebels guerrilla fighters infiltrated the city and were being surrounded, and that they posed no threat to the regime.
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Zintan
Zintan (Arabic: الزنتان, Amazigh: Tigharmin, meaning "small castles") is a small city in north western Libya, situated roughly 136 kilometres (85 mi) southwest of Tripoli, in the Nafusa Mountains area. The city and its surrounding area has a population of approximately 50,000.
Groups from Zintan joined in the Libyan civil war. The Battle of Zintan reportedly began when the Gaddafi-led government forces arrived to recruit 1,000 soldiers. Insulted by the proposal to fight fellow Libyans, a group formed in Zintan to protest. As the group grew, pro-Gaddafi forces attacked but local groups counterattacked with seized weapons, "rout[ing]" a large, heavily armed government convoy on 19-20 March.
The Zintan people were responsible for the capture of Saif al-Islam, the second son of Muammar Gaddafi. He was captured on 19 November 2011, nearly a month after his father's death, about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of the town of Ubari near Sabha in southern Libya. After his father, Saif al-Islam was the second most-widely recognized political figure in Libya. He is currently being held as a prisoner in the city of Zintan.
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Zuwara
Zuwara /zʊˈwɑrə/ (Arabic: زوارة, Berber: Tamurt n Wat Willul) is a port city in northwestern Libya, with a population of around 180,000. It is situated 102 kilometres (63 mi) west of Tripoli and 60 kilometres (37 mi) from the Tunisian border. It is the capital of the Nuqat al Khams district. Its population mainly belongs to the Ibadi branch of Islam, and speaks Zuwara Berber, a Zenati Berber language.
The Amazigh tribe of Zwara was cited by al-Bakri in the 11th century, together with Louata, Lemaya, Nefusa, Mezata and Zouagha, as a tribe dwelling in the surroundings of the Gulf of Gabès.
The settlement was first mentioned by the traveller al-Tidjani in the years 1306-1309 as Zwara al-saghirah ("Little Zwarah"). In a Catalan sailing manual (1375) it was called as Punta dar Zoyara, it later served as the western outpost of Italian Libya (1912–43), being the terminus of the now-defunct Italian Libya Railway from Tripoli 105 kilometres (65 mi) to the east. Its artificial harbour shelters a motorized fishing fleet. Cereals, dates, and esparto grass (used to make cordage, shoes, and paper) are local products.
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Abbas El Fassi
Abbas El Fassi (Arabic: عباس الفاسي; born on September 18, 1940, In Berkane, Morocco) was the Prime Minister of Morocco from 19 September 2007 to 29 November 2011. El Fassi, a member of the Istiqlal Party, replaced independent Driss Jettou.
El Fassi was born in Berkane, Morocco on September 18, 1940. He served as the Minister of Housing from 1977 to 1981, Minister of Handicraft and Social Affairs from 1981 to 1985, Ambassador to Tunisia and the Arab League from 1985 to 1990, Ambassador to France from 1990 to 1994, and as Minister of Employment, Professional training, Social Development and Solidarity from 2000 to 2002. He then took up the post of Minister of State in the Jettou government from 2002 to 2007.King Mohammed VI appointed El Fassi as Prime Minister on September 19, 2007 following Istiqlal's victory in the parliamentary elections on September 7.
His government was appointed by Mohammed VI on October 15, with 33 members (not including El Fassi), including seven women. Five political parties were included in this government: Istiqlal, liberal Mouvement Populaire (MP), the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP), the National Rally of Independents (RNI), and the Party of Progress and Socialism (PPS).
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Abdelaziz Bouteflika
Abdelaziz Bouteflika (Arabic pronunciation: [ʕaːbd lʕziz butfliqaː]; Arabic: عبد العزيز بوتفليقة) (born 2 March 1937) is an Algerian politician who has been the fifth President of Algeria since 1999. He presided over the end of the bloody Algerian Civil War in 2002, and he ended emergency rule in February 2011 amidst regional unrest.
He has also served as president of the United Nations General Assembly.
Abdelaziz Bouteflika was born on 2 March 1937 in Oujda, Morocco. He was the first child of his mother and the second child of his father (Fatima, his half-sister, preceded him). His father (Ahmed Bouteflika) and mother (Mansouria Ghezlaoui) originated from the region of Tlemcen. Bouteflika has three half-sisters (Fatima, Yamina, and Aïcha), as well as four brothers (Abdelghani, Mustapha, Abderahim and Saïd) and one sister (Latifa). Saïd serves as Abdelaziz Bouteflika's personal physician, and is said by some to be an important figure in Bouteflika's inner circle of advisers.
Bouteflika was raised in Oujda, where his father had emigrated as a youngster. He successively attended three schools there: "Sidi Ziane", "El Hoceinia" and the "Abdel Moumen" high-school, where he reportedly excelled academically. He was also affiliated with Kadiri Zaouia in Oujda.
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Abdelhakim Belhadj
Abdelhakim Belhadj (Arabic: عبد الحكيم بالحاج , nom de guerre Abu Abdallah Assadaq) is a Libyan politician and military leader. He is the leader of the political party Hizb El Watan and head of Tripoli Military Council. He was the former emir of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group.
Born on 1 May 1966 in the Souq al Jum'aa area of Tripoli, he studied at Al Fateh University, where he earned a civil engineering degree.
Wanting to rid Libya of Colonel Gaddafi, Belhadj joined other young Islamists who formed a group, but were pursued from the country before they could achieve anything. Leaving the country via Saudi Arabia he arrived in Afghanistan, and became an Islamist fighter in the Soviet-Afghan war.
In 1992, after the Mujahideen took Kabul, he travelled across the Middle East and Eastern Europe, before returning to Libya in 1992. There he formed with others the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG), which tried to overthrow Colonel Gaddafi from 1994 onwards. Belhadj was known during this period as Abu Abdullah al-Sadiq, and was part of the LIFG that fought an insurgency campaign based from eastern Libya. But after three unsuccessful assassination attempts on Gaddafi, the LIFG was crushed in 1998.
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Abdul Fatah Younis
Abdul Fatah Younis Al-Obeidi (Arabic: عبد الفتاح يونس, 1944 – 28 July 2011), sometimes transliterated Fattah Younis or Fattah Younes or Fatah Younes, was a senior military officer in Libya. He held the rank of Major General and the post of Minister of Interior, but resigned on 22 February 2011 to defect to the rebel side in what was to become the Libyan civil war. He was considered a key supporter of Muammar Gaddafi or even No. 2 in the Libyan government.
In resigning, he urged that the Libyan army should "join the people and respond to their legitimate demands". In an interview with John Simpson on 25 February, he said he believed Gaddafi would fight to the death, or commit suicide.
On 29 July 2011, Younis was reported dead by Libya's National Transitional Council (NTC). NTC's oil minister Ali Tarhouni said Younis was killed by members of an anti-Gaddafi militia.
Younis was previously minister for public security, and attended a key meeting with the British ambassador to Egypt in 1992 where he apologised for Libya's involvement in the killing of Yvonne Fletcher, and offered to extradite her killers; he also admitted Libyan support of the IRA and offered compensation for their victims.
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Abdul Hafiz Ghoga
Abdul Hafiz Ghoga (also Ghogha, or Abdelhafed Abdelkader Ghoga,Arabic: عبد الحافظ غوقة) is a Libyan human rights lawyer who rose to prominence as the spokesman for the National Transitional Council, a body formed in Benghazi during the 2011 Libyan civil war. On 23 March 2011, he became the Vice Chairman of the Council, serving in that post until he resigned on 22 January 2012 after protests against him.
Abdul Hafiz Ghoga was actively involved in legal representation for the families of people killed in the 1996 Abu Salim prison massacre.
Ghoga was a member of the National Transitional Council created during the 2011 Libyan civil war and acts as its spokesperson. Ghoga has argued that the Council is working for a unified Libya, rather than letting rebel-controlled areas separate from areas controlled by Muammar Gaddafi; "There is no such thing as a divided Libya".
On 27 February, he said that the Council was not seeking foreign intervention. On 20 March, he announced that over 8000 people opposed to Gaddafi had been killed. He criticised a comment by Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa that was critical of the way in which the Libyan no-fly zone was implemented. Ghoga stated, "Today, when the secretary general spoke, I was surprised. What is the mechanism that stops the extermination of the people in Libya, what is the mechanism, Mr. Secretary General? If the protection of civilians is not a humanitarian obligation, what is the mechanism that you propose to us?"
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Abdul Hassan
Abdul Hassan is a Libyan rebel commander who leads the Al Horia Brigade and led them in the Battle of Tawergha of the Libyan civil war.
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Abdullah Senussi
Abdullah Senussi (born 5 December 1949) is a Libyan national who was the intelligence chief and brother-in-law of Colonel Muammar Gaddafi. He was married to Gaddafi's sister-in-law.
Scottish police officers plan to interview him in connection with the Lockerbie bombing, raising the prospect of a second Lockerbie trial.
According to The Guardian he had a reputation for brutality since the 1970s. During the 1980s he was head of internal security in Libya, at a time when many opponents of Gaddafi were killed. Later, he had been described as the head of military intelligence, but it is unclear whether he actually held an official rank. In 1999 he was convicted in absentia in France for his role in a 1989 bombing of a passenger plane flying over Niger that resulted in the deaths of 170 people. Libyans believe he was responsible for massacring 1,200 prisoners at the Abu Salim jail in 1996. He was also thought to have been behind an alleged plot in 2003 to assassinate Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia.
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Abu Oweis
Abu Oweis is the founder and deputy commander of the Qatari-trained Tripoli Brigade in the 2011 Libyan civil war.
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Abu Qatada
Abu Qatada al-Filistini (Arabic: أبو قتادة الفلسطيني, ’Abū Qatāda al-Filisṭīnī; born 1959/60), is the conventional name of Omar Mahmoud Othman (Arabic: عمر بن محمود بن عثمان ‘Umar ibn Maḥmūd ibn ‘Uṯmān), a Palestinian Muslim of Jordanian citizenship. He is under worldwide embargo by the United Nations Security Council Committee 1267 for his alleged affiliation with al-Qaeda. Repeatedly imprisoned in Britain since he was first detained under anti-terrorism laws in 2002, he has not been prosecuted there for any criminal or conspiracy offences. The Algerian government has described Abu Qatada as being involved with Islamists in London and possibly elsewhere. After initially barring the United Kingdom from deporting Qatada to Jordan, in May 2012 the European Court of Human Rights ruled that he could be deported on the basis of assurances from Jordan that he will not be tortured.
Abu Qatada has Jordanian nationality because he was born in Bethlehem in the West Bank in 1960, which at that time was occupied by Jordan. In 1989 he went to Peshawar, where the BBC has written that "some say he met Osama Bin Laden." Abu Qatada has always distanced himself from links to Al Qaeda and insisted he has never met with Osama Bin Laden.Jason Burke has written that, "Qutada [sic] has impeccable traditional and modern Salafist credentials and had acted as the in-house alim to radical groups, particularly in Algeria, from his base in northwest London since 1994". In 2001, after bin Laden was criticised by a Salafist faction for issuing fatwas, he turned to Abu Qatada for support, and the support was forthcoming. In 1991, after the Gulf War, Abu Qatada was expelled from Kuwait along with many other Palestinians. He returned to Jordan, but in September 1993 he fled with his wife and five children to the UK, using a forged UAE passport. He requested asylum on grounds of religious persecution and this was granted in June 1994.
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Abuzed Omar Dorda
Abuzed Omar Dorda (Arabic: أبو زيد عمر دوردة) (born 4 April 1944) was General Secretary of the People's Committee (Prime Minister) of Libya from 7 October 1990 to 29 January 1994, and as Libya's Permanent Representative to the United Nations from 1997 to 2003.
Dorda entered politics as Governor of Misrata District in 1970, serving in that capacity until 1972. Next, he served as Minister of Information and Culture until 1974, and as Undersecretary of Foreign Affairs, until 1976. In 1990, he became Prime Minister and in 1997 he became Libya's Permanent Representative at the UN.
On 12 April 2009, it was reported that Dorda had been appointed to head the Libyan intelligence service, replacing Moussa Koussa.
On 31 March 2011 it was reported that he had been in Tunisia, awaiting a flight out of there, in an attempt to defect Gaddafi's government, and on the background of the Libyan civil war. He was a part of Gaddafi's inner circle. He was arrested by NTC forces on 11 September 2011.
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Alan Cowell
Alan S. Cowell (born 16 March 1947) is a British journalist and a correspondent for The New York Times. Since 2008 he has been senior correspondent for NYTimes.com based in Paris. Cowell began his journalism career as a reporter for British newspapers and the Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. He joined Reuters in 1972 and the New York Times in 1981. His reporting has covered Turkey, the Middle East, central and southern Africa, Greece, Egypt, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom.
In 1985, Cowell won the George Polk Award and was nominated for a Pulitzer prize for foreign reporting.
Cowell is married to Susan Cullinan. They have three daughters: Sarah, Rebecca and Amanda.
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Alex Crawford
Alex Christine Crawford, OBE is the special correspondent for Sky News based in South Africa and covering the Gulf and Middle East. She has won the Royal Television Society award for Journalist of the Year on three occasions.
She is currently living in Johannesburg, South Africa with her husband, Richard, and her four children, Nat, Frankie, Maddy, and Flo. Crawford was brought up in Nigeria and Zambia,[citation needed] and educated at Cobham Hall School in Kent. She first worked in journalism at the Wokingham Times and then worked for the BBC and for TV-am before joining Sky News when it was launched in 1989.
Crawford was active in covering the course of the 2011 Libyan civil war. She was widely praised for her live on-scene reporting of the Battle of Tripoli. Crawford traveled with a rebel convoy into the heart of Tripoli, shooting direct live footage of the rebel advances, which reached Green Square with little resistance from pro-Gaddafi forces. She wore a helmet and bulletproof vest, stating that she did not feel in any danger, but wore them as a precaution against celebratory gunfire. She also covered the raid of Bab al-Azizia live from outside the compound, and was one of the first journalists to go inside once the raid was over.
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Ali Abdullah Saleh
Ali Abdullah Saleh (Arabic: علي عبدالله صالح; born 21 March 1942) is a Yemeni politician who was President of Yemen from 1990 to 2012. Saleh previously served as President of the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) from 1978 until 1990; upon the unification of North Yemen and South Yemen in 1990, he became President of Yemen.
After more than 33 years in power, Saleh signed the Gulf Cooperation Council agreement in November 2011, paving the way for his vice president to become acting president until February 21, 2012; at that point the vice president would be elected to the presidency. On January 22, 2012, the Yemeni parliament passed a law that granted Saleh immunity from being prosecuted and he left Yemen for treatment in the United States. Saleh stepped down and formally ceded power to his deputy Abd Rabbuh Mansur Al-Hadi at the Presidential Palace on 27 February 2012.
Saleh was born in the town of Bait el-Ahmar, in the Al-Ahmar family of the small Sanhan tribe, a tribe whose territories lie some 20 kilometers southeast of the capital Sana'a (the Al-Ahmar family of Sanhan is often falsely confounded with the same-named ruling family of the Hashid tribal confederacy, a confederacy to which the Sanhan tribe belongs). Saleh is a Zaydi Shia Muslim. He is a "non-Hashimi" Zaydi (not a direct descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandfather), and would not have been eligible to rule under the Zaydi Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen that ruled the country until 1962.
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Ali Salman
Ali Salman (Arabic: علي سلمان) is the president of the Al-Wefaq political society in Bahrain. He is a Twelver Shi'a cleric educated in Qom. In January 1995 the Bahraini government forcibly exiled him to Dubai for leading a popular campaign demanding the reinstatement of the constitution and the restoration of parliament during the 1990s Uprising. From there he made his way to London and sought asylum. He continued opposition activities from London, where he was associated with the Bahrain Freedom Movement. Salman returned to Bahrain in March 2001 in a general amnesty as part of a set of political reforms announced by King Hamad.
Within Al Wefaq he is considered the 'moderate' public face of the organization, and has opposed the more confrontational approach with the authorities of other leaders.
Ali Salman originally studied in Qom, a major centre of Iranian theological thinking in Iran. He is a Twelver Shiite who originally followed the quietest teachings of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Abul-Qassim al-Khoei, the spiritual leader of much of the Shia world until his death in 1992. Following death of his original Marja’, Salman has not felt compelled to speak publicly about his new Marja’. However, in a private interview he claimed that he now tended to rely on the rulings of Grand Ayatollah Sayyid Ali al-Husayni al-Sistani.
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Ali Tarhouni
Ali Abdussalam Tarhouni (Arabic علي الترهوني) (born 1951) is a Libyan economist and politician. Tarhouni served as the minister for oil and finance on the National Transitional Council, the provisional governing authority in Libya, from 23 March to 22 November 2011. He acted in the capacity of interim Prime Minister of Libya during the departure of outgoing incumbent Mahmoud Jibril from 23 October 2011 until Abdurrahim El-Keib was formally named to succeed Jibril on 31 October.
Born in Libya, Tarhouni studied economics at the University of Libya, until fleeing the country in 1973. He was stripped of citizenship, sentenced to death in absentia, and put on a government hit list in 1981. After immigrating to the United States, Tarhouni continued his studies, earning a master's degree (1978) and a Ph.D. (1983) from Michigan State University. Since 1985 he has been a Senior Lecturer in Business Economics at the University of Washington Michael G. Foster School of Business.
Tarhouni was named to head both the oil and finance ministries of the National Transitional Council, an opposition council formed to coordinate anti-Gaddafi elements during the Libyan civil war, in March 2011. He acted as a frequent spokesman for the council and wielded considerable influence as a prominent liberal in the opposition. He officially announced the transfer of the NTC from Benghazi to Tripoli on 25 August 2011.
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Anthony Shadid
Anthony Shadid (September 26, 1968 – February 16, 2012) was a foreign correspondent for The New York Times based in Baghdad and Beirut. He won the Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting twice, in 2004 and 2010.
From 2003 to 2009 Shadid was a staff writer for The Washington Post where he was an Islamic affairs correspondent based in the Middle East. Before The Washington Post, Shadid worked as Middle East correspondent for the Associated Press based in Cairo and as news editor of the AP bureau in Los Angeles. He spent two years covering diplomacy and the State Department for The Boston Globe before joining the Post's foreign desk.
In 2002, he was shot in the shoulder by what he believed to be an Israel sniper in Ramallah while reporting for the Boston Globe in the West Bank.
On March 16, 2011, Shadid and three colleagues were reported missing in Eastern Libya, having gone there to report on the uprising against the dictatorship of Col. Muammar Al-Ghaddafi. On March 18, 2011, The New York Times reported that Libya agreed to free him and three colleagues: Stephen Farrell, Lynsey Addario and Tyler Hicks. The Libyan government released the four journalists on March 21, 2011.
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Baghdadi Mahmudi
Baghdadi Ali Mahmudi (Arabic: البغدادي علي المحمودي) was Secretary of the General People's Committee (prime minister) of Libya from 5 March 2006 to as late as 1 September 2011, when he acknowledged the collapse of the GPCO and the ascendance of the National Transitional Council as a result of the Libyan civil war. He has a medical degree, specialising in obstetrics and gynecology, and had served as Deputy Prime Minister to Prime Minister Shukri Ghanem since 2003 at the time he was appointed to replace him. He was a part of Gaddafi's inner circle at least prior to his escape in mid-2011. He was arrested in Tunisia for illegal border entry and jailed for six months,, although this was later overruled on appeal, however a Tunisian court decided to extradite Mamoudi to Libya under a request from Libya's Tranisitonal council.
Mahmudi came from the Zawiya District of northwestern Libya. He trained as a physician, and in 1992 was appointed Minister of Health and Social Security. In 1997 he was replaced in that ministry by Suleiman al-Ghamari and from then until 2000 Mahmudi was the Minister for the People's Committees' Affairs. For seven months in 2000 (March-September), he was the deputy prime minister for Services Affairs. Mahmudi then became Minister of Human Resources Affairs for six months, and then Minister for Infrastructure, Urban Planning and Environment Affairs for five months. In September 2001, he was appointed deputy prime minister for Production Affairs. On 7 March 2004 he became the deputy prime minister for Libya (Assistant Secretary of the General People's Committee).
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Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II (i/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. In January 2005, Obama was sworn in as a U.S. Senator in the state of Illinois. He would hold this office until November 2008, when he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.
Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.
Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, Obama ran for the United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Illinois Democratic primary for the Senate election and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In April 2011, he announced that he would be running for re-election in 2012.
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Black people
The term black people is used in some socially-based systems of racial classification for humans of a dark-skinned phenotype, relative to other racial groups represented in a particular social context. Different societies apply different criteria regarding who is classified as "black", and often social variables such as class and socio-economic status also play a role, so that relatively dark-skinned people can be classified as white if they fulfill other social criteria of "whiteness" and relatively light-skinned people can be classified as black if they fulfill the social criteria for "blackness" in a particular setting.
As a biological phenotype being "black" is often associated with the very dark skin colors of some people who are classified as "black". But, particularly in the United States, the racial or ethnic classification also refers to people with all possible kinds of skin pigmentation from the darkest through to the very lightest skin colors, including albinos, if they are believed by others to have African ancestry, or to exhibit cultural traits associated with being "African-American". As a result, in the United States the term "black people" is not an indicator of skin color but of socially based racial classification.
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Burhan Ghalioun
Burhan Ghalioun (Arabic: برهان غليون) (born 11 February 1945), is a French Syrian political scientist and a professor of political sociology at the Université de Paris III Sorbonne University in Paris, and the chairman of the Syrian opposition Transitional National Council. He was named chairman on 29 August 2011. He is the author of numerous books, dealing which sociological and political issues of the Islamic world, mostly written in Arabic, several of which have been translated into French.
Several Syrian opposition groups see the Paris-based intellectual Burhan Ghalioun as a consensus figure capable of heading a unified opposition coalition or council. Accordingly, Dr. Ghalioun has been named a member of the Syrian Nation Council (SNC), a political body originally formed in 2005 and revived in 2011 to represent Syria by Syrian opposition during the 2011 Syrian uprising. However, there is no consensus over Ghalioun’s straddling of local and foreign platforms of dissent.
Ghalion published a pamphlet, "A Manifesto for Democracy," in the late 1970s; it argued that state power in the Arab world had become the enemy of society and called for the implementation of democratic reforms. Ghalioun, who is director of the Centre d'Etudes sur l'Orient Contemporain (CEOC) in Paris and a professor of political sociology at the Université de Paris III (Sorbonne Nouvelle), made these statements when then President Hafez Assad was consolidating power and faced opposition at home, and with Syria engaged in a conflict in Lebanon.
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Carter Ham
Carter F. Ham (born February 16, 1952) is a United States Army general, who serves as the second and current Commander, U.S. Africa Command. In that position, he has been in command of the initial 2011 military intervention in Libya.
Ham previously served as Commanding General, U.S. Army Europe and Seventh Army from August 28, 2008 to March 8, 2011. Prior to that, he served as Director for Operations (J-3) at the Joint Staff from August 2007 to August 2008 and the Commanding General, U.S. 1st Infantry Division from August 2006 to August 2007. He assumed his current assignment with the Africa Command on March 8, 2011.
Ham served as an enlisted Infantryman in the 82nd Airborne Division before attending John Carroll University in Cleveland, Ohio. He was commissioned as 2nd Lieutenant through the Army Reserve Officers' Training Corps (Army ROTC) in the Infantry as a Distinguished Military Graduate in 1976. He later received his master's degree in National Security and Strategic Studies from the U.S. Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island as well as graduating from several military schools including the Infantry Officer Basic Course, the Armor Officer Advanced Course, the College of Naval Command and Staff of the U.S. Naval War College and the U.S. Air Force Air War College. He is a member of the John Carroll University ROTC Hall of Fame. He and his wife, Christi, are both John Carroll University graduates.
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Charles Bouchard
Lieutenant General Joseph Jacques Charles "Charlie" Bouchard OC CMM MSC CD is a Royal Canadian Air Force general. He has served as Commander of 1 Canadian Air Division / Canadian NORAD Region, the Deputy Commander of North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) and Deputy Commander of Allied Joint Force Command Naples. On 25 March 2011, Bouchard was named Commander of the NATO military mission in Libya.
Joseph Jacques Charles Bouchard was born in Chicoutimi, Quebec, Canada. He enrolled with the Canadian Forces in 1974 under the Officer Candidate Training Plan. After helicopter training, Bouchard qualified in 1976 as a helicopter pilot.
Bouchard has had a long career in Tactical Aviation within Canadian Forces Air Command, which included flying positions in several squadrons, command of 444 Tactical Helicopter Squadron at Lahr in Germany, and command of 1 Wing Kingston. Bouchard has served in the United States as Deputy Commander for Continental NORAD Region and was standing duty at Tyndall Air Force Base conducting Air Operation on September 11, 2001. Bouchard would later become Deputy Commander of 1 Canadian Air Division, and from August 2007 to June 2009, Deputy Commander of North American Aerospace Defense Command, receiving promotion to Lieutenant-General on taking up the appointment. In 2009, he assumed the position of Deputy Commander, Allied Joint Force Command Naples. While continuing to serve at Naples, on 25 March 2011, Bouchard was named Commander of Operation Unified Protector, NATO's military intervention in Libya.
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David Cameron
David William Donald Cameron (pronunciation: /ˈkæmərən/; born 9 October 1966) is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, First Lord of the Treasury, Minister for the Civil Service and Leader of the Conservative Party. He represents Witney as its Member of Parliament (MP).
Cameron studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics (PPE) at Oxford, gaining a first class honours degree. He then joined the Conservative Research Department and became Special Adviser to Norman Lamont, and then to Michael Howard. He was Director of Corporate Affairs at Carlton Communications for seven years.
He was defeated in his first candidacy for Parliament at Stafford in 1997, but was elected in 2001 as the Member of Parliament for the Oxfordshire constituency of Witney. He was promoted to the Opposition front bench two years later, and rose rapidly to become head of policy co-ordination during the 2005 general election campaign. With a public image of a youthful, moderate candidate who would appeal to young voters, he won the Conservative leadership election in 2005.
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Essam Sharaf
Essam Abdel-Aziz Sharaf (Arabic: عصام عبد العزيز شرف, IPA: [ʕeˈsˤɑːm ʕæbdelʕæˈziːz ʃɑɾˤɑf]; born 1952) is an Egyptian academic who was the Prime Minister of Egypt from 3 March 2011 to 7 December 2011. He served as Minister of Transportation from 2004 to 2005.
Sharaf was born in the Egyptian city of Giza in 1952. After receiving his B.Sc. in civil engineering from Cairo University in 1975, he went to Purdue University where he continued his studies, receiving his M.Sc. Engg in 1980 and his Ph.D. in 1984.
Sharaf took a post as a visiting assistant professor at Purdue in 1984 before becoming assistant professor of Highway and Traffic Engineering at the University of Cairo the following year. In 1990, he was an assistant professor in Civil Engineering at King Saud University in Saudi Arabia. He returned to the University of Cairo in 1991, becoming a professor of Highway Engineering in 1996 while working as senior advisor for the Transportation & Aviation department in Zuhair Fayez Partnership (ZFP) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Sharaf was the senior adviser to the Egyptian Minister of Transport in 1999 and the Senior Technical Adviser to the municipality of Al Ain in the UAE in 2003.
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Fathi Terbil
Fathi Terbil, also romanized as Fatih Turbel, (Arabic: فتحي_تربل) is a Libyan lawyer and human rights activist and member of the National Transitional Council representing Libyan youth. He represents the relatives of over 1000 prisoners allegedly killed by Libyan security forces in Abu Salim Prison in 1996. He is also the Youth and Sports Minister for the Interim Government.
Fathi Terbil's arrest in February 2011 sparked a demonstration in Benghazi on 15 February by around 200 relatives of the deceased prisoners, which began the Libyan civil war. He was subsequently said to have been freed. On 20 February, Terbil told Al Jazeera that security forces - sometimes firing from civilian cars without license plates - had killed dozens, perhaps hundreds, of protestors in Benghazi.
On 30 May 2011, he was awarded the Ludovic-Trarieux International Human Rights Prize ("The award given by lawyers to a lawyer"), given each year to a lawyer who throughout his or her career has illustrated, by activity or suffering, the defence of human rights in the world.
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Hasan Mushaima
Hasan Mushaima (Arabic: حسن مشيمع) is an opposition leader in Bahrain and the secretary-general of the Haq Movement, an important opposition party in Bahrain. He is campaigning for more democratic rights in Bahrain. Before forming Haq, he was a founding member of Al Wefaq and a leading figure in the 1994 uprising in Bahrain.
The Bahraini government has placed Mushaima under arrest several times, twice arresting him during the 1994 uprising. He was later jailed from March 1995 to September 1995 and again from January 1996 till February 2001. Mushaima was re-arrested in February 2007 and jailed for one day, and then was arrested and imprisoned again from January 2009 to April 2009.
In 2010 Mushaima traveled to Great Britain to be treated for lung cancer.
Mushaima announced plans to return to Bahrain during the protests in February 2011, but authorities detained him in Lebanon while en route, possibly at the request of the Bahraini government. Mushaima finally did return to Bahrain on Saturday, February 26, 2011. On that day, he was described by the Associated Press as being "welcomed like a rock star," by protestors in Pearl Square. On 7th March, 2011, Mushaima alongside with Abdulwahab Hussain, the leader of Wafa movement and Saeed Alshehabi the leader of the Bahrain Freedom Movement, formed the " Alliance for the Republic " (Arabic:التحالف من أجل الجمهورية), because of their belief that the Bahraini regime lost legitimacy after the harsh crackdown on protesters using heavy weapons. One months after protests, the Gulf Cooperation Council sent 1,500+ PSF troops (1,000 Saudi, some Qatari troops and 500 Emirati policemen) to crush the popular uprising there and also sent the Kuwaiti Navy to stop any aid to the protesters by sea. After the protesters were kicked from the Pearl Roundabout, many known rights activists operating in Bahrain were arrested, including Mushaima.
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Hosni Mubarak
Muhammad Hosni El Sayed Mubarak (Arabic: محمد حسني السيد مبارك, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mæˈħæmːæd ˈħosni ˈsæjjed moˈbɑːɾˤɑk], Muḥammad Ḥusnī Sayyid Mubārak; born 4 May 1928) is a former Egyptian politician and military commander. He served as the fourth President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011.
Mubarak was appointed Vice President of Egypt in 1975, and assumed the presidency on 14 October 1981, following the assassination of President Anwar El Sadat. His almost thirty-year presidency made him Egypt's longest-serving ruler since Muhammad Ali Pasha. Before he entered politics, Mubarak was a career officer in the Egyptian Air Force, serving as its commander from 1972 to 1975 and rising to the rank of air chief marshal.
Mubarak was ousted after 18 days of demonstrations during the 2011 Egyptian revolution when, on 11 February, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned as president and transferred authority to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. On 13 April, a prosecutor[which?] ordered Mubarak and both his sons to be detained for 15 days of questioning about allegations of corruption and abuse of power. He was then ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during the revolution. These trials officially began on 3 August 2011. Egypt’s military prosecutors then also proclaimed that they are investigating Mubarak's role in the assassination of his predecessor Anwar Sadat.
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Idris of Libya
Idris, GBE (Arabic: إدريس الأول), also known as Idris I of Libya (b. Sayyid Muhammad Idris bin Muhammad al-Mahdi as-Senussi 12 March 1889 – 25 May 1983), was the first and only king of Libya, reigning from 1951 to 1969, and the Chief of the Senussi Muslim order.
Born at Al-Jaghbub, the headquarters of the Senussi movement, the son of Sayyid Muhammad al-Mahdi bin Sayyid Muhammad al-Senussi and his fifth wife Aisha bint Ahmad al-Syrte, Idris was a grandson of Sayyid Muhammad bin 'Ali as-Senussi, the founder of the Senussi Muslim sufi order. He became Chief of the Senussi order in 1916 following the abdication of his cousin Sayyid Ahmed Sharif es Senussi. He was recognized by the British under the new title Emir of the territory of Cyrenaica, a position also confirmed by the Italians in 1920. He was also installed as Emir of Tripolitania on 28 July 1922.
Idris spent the early part of his career attempting to negotiate independence for Cyrenaica. In 1922, following the Italian military campaigns against Libya, he went into exile. Egypt then served as his base in a guerrilla war against the colonial Italian authorities.
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Interpol
Coordinates: 45°46′56″N 4°50′54″E / 45.78219°N 4.84838°E / 45.78219; 4.84838 The International Criminal Police Organization (ICPO), widely known as INTERPOL or Interpol, is an organization facilitating international police cooperation. It was established as the International Criminal Police Commission (ICPC) in 1923 and adopted its telegraphic address as its common name in 1956.
Its membership of 190 countries provides finance of around €59 million through annual contributions. The organization's headquarters is in Lyon, France. It is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the United Nations, in terms of number of member states.
Its current Secretary-General is Ronald Noble, a former United States Under Secretary of the Treasury for Enforcement. Its current President is Singapore's Senior Deputy Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs and former Commissioner of Police Khoo Boon Hui; the President before that, Jackie Selebi, National Commissioner of the South African Police Service, held his term from 2004 till his resignation on 13 January 2008, after which he was charged in South Africa on three counts of corruption and one of defeating the course of justice, and replaced by Arturo Herrera Verdugo, current National Commissioner of Investigations Police of Chile and former vice president for the American Zone, who remained acting president until the organization meeting in October 2008.
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Jean Ping
Jean Ping (born 24 November 1942) is a Gabonese diplomat and politician who is currently the Chairperson of the Commission of the African Union. He was previously the Foreign Minister of Gabon from 1999 to 2008 and served as President of the United Nations General Assembly from 2004 to 2005.
The son of Chinese trader Cheng Zhiping (Chinese: 程志平 Chéng Zhìpíng) of Wenzhou descent, and a Gabonese mother, Jean Ping was born in Omboué, Etimbwé Department, Ogooué-Maritime Province. Cheng immigrated to Gabon in the 1930s as a trader and married the daughter of a local tribal leader. The villagers initially called Ping the "son of Ping." In demonstrating respect to his wife's Christian beliefs, Cheng took his son to get baptized when he was a month old and named him "Jean." Cheng also attained substantial wealth through his many successful business enterprises in his newly adopted country. He sold china, wood, and seafood, and he also ran a bakery. Because of his good relationship with the locals, Cheng was elected to the local assembly three times.
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Jens Stoltenberg
Jens Stoltenberg (help·info) (born 16 March 1959) is a Norwegian politician, leader of the Norwegian Labour Party and the current Prime Minister of Norway. Having assumed office on 17 October 2005, Stoltenberg previously served as Prime Minister from 2000 to 2001.
Having first been elected to Parliament in 1993 for the Oslo constituency, Stoltenberg served as State Secretary in the Ministry of the Environment from 1990 to 1991 and as Minister of Industry from 1993 to 1996 in the Third Brundtland Cabinet, respectively. Following the resignation of Brundtland in 1996, Thorbjørn Jagland was elected leader of the Labour Party and became Prime Minister, while Stoltenberg was appointed Minister of Finance, an office he held until 17 October 1997 when Jagland and the entire government resigned. While in parliamentary opposition, Stoltenberg served in the standing committees on energy affairs. Following a motion of confidence against the First Bondevik Cabinet, Stoltenberg was appointed Prime Minister on 3 March 2000, despite being deputy leader of the party, and not the party leader.
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John Ibbitson
John Ibbitson (born 1955 in Gravenhurst, Ontario) is a Canadian propaganda writer and journalist. He is currently Ottawa Bureau Chief for The Globe and Mail. He has written three books on Ontario and Canadian politics, Promised Land: Inside the Mike Harris Revolution (1997), Loyal No More: Ontario's Struggle for a Separate Destiny, and The Polite Revolution: Perfecting the Canadian Dream (McClelland & Stewart, 2005). His latest young-adult novel, "The Landing" was winner of the 2008 Governor General's Award for children't literature (text). His latest political work, "Open & Shut: Why America Has Barack Obama and Canada Has Stephen Harper" was published in May 2009. It was written while he was in Washington, covering American politics and society for the Globe.
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Khalid Shahmah
Major-General Khalid Shahmah is a senior Libyan military officer. Though once under the employ of Muammar Gaddafi's government, he is now loyal to the National Transitional Council of Libya. After the use of Gaddafi's forces to repress a series of protests and the subsequent uprising beginning on 15 February 2011, on 10 March 2011 it was reported by Libya's state news that Major-General Khalid Shahmah had defected. Shahmah's defection was a contributing factor in a change of strategy for Gaddafi's remaining loyal forces during the 2011 Libyan civil war.
Libya's state-controlled television station reported in an "urgent" on-screen cation that Major-General Khalid Shahmah, switched sides to join the rebels in the city of Zawiya, one of two fiercely contested western cities that were strongholds of the opposition at the time of Shahmah's defection. Coinciding with the defection, Western military analysts, like the International Institute for Strategic Studies based in London, determined that Colonel Gaddafi had begun curbing the use of his ground troops because his commanders feared mass defections.
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Khamis Gaddafi
Khamis Gaddafi (Arabic: خميس القذافي) (27 May 1983 – 29 August 2011) was the seventh and youngest son of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, and the military commander in charge of the Khamis Brigade of the Libyan Army. He was part of his father's inner circle.
During the Libyan civil war, Gaddafi was a major target for opposition forces trying to overthrow his father. He was frequently rumored to have been killed during the war, and now it is widely believed that he died on 29 August 2011 when the car he was traveling in, was destroyed by a NATO helicopter or by a technical. On 15 October, the pro-Gaddafi TV station Arrai TV posted a message mourning his death on 29 August.
At the age of three, Khamis Gaddafi was injured in the 15 April 1986 United States bombing of Libya, suffering head injuries when the Bab al-Azizia military compound was attacked in retaliation for the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing. He graduated from the military academy in Tripoli, receiving a bachelor’s degree in military arts and science, further graduating from the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow and the Academy of the General Staff Academy of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation. In 2008, Gaddafi visited Algeria, where he was received by President Abdelaziz Bouteflika.
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Kingdom of Libya
The Kingdom of Libya, (Arabic: المملكة الليبية, literally, the Libyan Kingdom Italian: Regno di Libia) originally called the United Libyan Kingdom came into existence upon independence on 24 December 1951 and lasted until a coup d'état led by Muammar Gaddafi on 1 September 1969 overthrew King Idris of Libya and established the Libyan Arab Republic.
Under the constitution of October 1951, the federal monarchy of Libya was headed by King Idris as chief of state, with succession to his designated heirs. Substantial political power resided with the king. The executive arm of the government consisted of a prime minister and Council of Ministers designated by the king but also responsible to the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of a bicameral legislature. The Senate, or upper house, consisted of eight representatives from each of the three provinces. Half of the senators were nominated by the king, who also had the right to veto legislation and to dissolve the lower house. Local autonomy in the provinces was exercised through provincial governments and legislatures. Tripoli and Benghazi served alternately as the national capital.
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Knud Bartels
Knud Bartels (8 April 1952 in Copenhagen) is a Danish general.
Bartels is the Danish Chief of Defence and was appointed on 16 November 2009 (announced on 10 November). He succeeded admiral Tim Sloth Jørgensen who resigned after being involved in the controversy around a fake Arabic translation of Jæger – i krig med eliten, a book by a former special forces soldier which he tried to suppress.
As the Danish Chief of Defence, general Knud Bartels is the military advisor to the Minister of Defence. He is responsible for the organisation, training and operations of the Defence.
The Chief of Defence is responsible for approximately 93 percent of the Defence budget. He gives certain directives to the Defence Intelligence Service, the Home Guard and the Defence Construction Service, and will assume command over the Home Guard in times of tension and war.
Defence Command Denmark subordinated authorities are the operational commands, materiel command, Defence Health Service and the Defence Academy, and some minor joint service institutions.
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Lars Løkke Rasmussen
Lars Løkke Rasmussen (Danish: [lɑːs ˈløɡ̊ə]; 15 May 1964) is a Danish politician who served as Prime Minister of Denmark from April 2009 to October 2011. He is the leader of the centre-right liberal party, Venstre.
Rasmussen has been a member of the Danish parliament (Folketinget) since 21 September 1994. He also served as County Mayor of Frederiksborg County from 1998 to 2001. Subsequently he was the Interior and Health Minister from 27 November 2001 to 23 November 2007 as part of Anders Fogh Rasmussen's first and second Cabinets, and then Minister of Finance from 23 November 2007 to April 2009 as part of Anders Fogh Rasmussen's third Cabinet. On 5 April 2009, he succeeded Anders Fogh Rasmussen as Prime Minister following the latter's appointment as Secretary General of NATO.
In the September 2011 parliamentary election, the government lost its parliamentary majority, and on 16 September 2011, Rasmussen tendered the government's resignation to Queen Margrethe. He remained in office as head of a caretaker government until his successor, Helle Thorning-Schmidt, was appointed on 3 October 2011.
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Libyan civil war
The Libyan civil war (also referred to as the Libyan revolution), was an armed conflict in the North African state of Libya, fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust his government. The war was preceded by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday, 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces that fired on the crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council.
The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution on 26 February, freezing the assets of Gaddafi and his inner circle and restricting their travel, and referred the matter to the International Criminal Court for investigation. In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further U.N. resolution authorised member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya, and to use "all necessary measures" to prevent attacks on civilians. The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it, though it then accused rebels of violating the ceasefire when they continued to fight as well. Throughout the conflict, rebels rejected government offers of a ceasefire and efforts by the African Union to end the fighting because the plans set forth did not include the removal of Gaddafi.
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Lynsey Addario
Lynsey Addario (born 1973 Norwalk, Connecticut) is an American photojournalist currently based in London. Her work often focuses on conflicts and human rights issues, especially the role of women in traditional societies.
She graduated from Staples High School, in 1991. She graduated from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, with a B.A. in International Relations and Italian in 1995. She began photographing professionally in 1996. After spending time in Argentina at the Buenos Aires Herald, she began freelancing for the Associated Press, with Cuba as a focus. In 2000, she photographed in Afghanistan under Taliban control. She has since covered conflicts in Afghanistan, Iraq, Darfur, the Congo, and Haiti. She has covered stories throughout the Middle East and Africa. She has visited Darfur or neighboring Chad at least once a month from August 2004.
She has photographed for The New York Times,The New York Times Magazine, Time, Newsweek, and National Geographic.
In Pakistan on May 9, 2009, Addario was involved in an automobile accident while returning to Islamabad from an assignment at a refugee camp. Her collar bone (clavicle) was broken, another journalist was injured, and the driver was killed.
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Mahmoud Jibril
Mahmoud Jibril el-Warfally (Arabic: محمود جبريل الورفلي), also transcribed Jabril or Jebril or Gebril, (born 28 May 1952) is a Libyan politician who served as the interim Prime Minister of Libya for seven and a half months during the Libyan civil war, chairing the executive board of the National Transitional Council from 5 March to 23 October 2011. He also served as the Head of International Affairs.
Toward the end of the conflict, Jibril was increasingly referred to by foreign governments and in media as the interim prime minister of Libya rather than as the chairman of the executive board, the title used to describe him on the NTC's website, but it was unclear whether this was an official title or simply referred to his position as the provisional council's head of government. Jibril's government was recognized as the "sole legitimate representative" of Libya by the majority of UN states including France, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States, Iran and Qatar.
Jibril graduated in Economics and Political Science from Cairo University in 1975, then earned a master's degree in political science in 1980 and a doctorate in political science in 1985, both from the University of Pittsburgh. He taught strategic planning at Pittsburgh for several years.
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Mansour Dhao
Mansour Dhao Ibrahim, sometimes spelled Dao or Daw, is a former Libyan politician. He was a prominent figure in the Gaddafi government, serving as Muammar Gaddafi's chief of security until they were both captured. Dhao was the leader of the regime's People's Guard.
Dhao fled with Gaddafi during the Battle of Tripoli. On 20 October 2011, Dhao was captured in Sirte , despite earlier reports that he was in Niger. He was injured after a NATO airstrike destroyed the convoy in which he and Gaddafi were traveling, and he was taken into custody by fighters from Misrata. Dhao was quoted at length in a New York Times piece published two days later in which he said he had been in Sirte since late August, he regretted his decision to remain loyal to Gaddafi, and his jailers were treating him well. Dhao also denied any role in the crackdown on the during the protests of the 2011 Libyan civil war.
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Massoud Abdelhafid
Massoud Abdelhafid was a prominent Libyan general in the regime of Muammar Gaddafi. He has held various positions of government since the 1969 coup d'etat of Muammar Gaddafi including Commander of Military Security, Governor of Southern Libya and Head of Security in Major Cities. He is a key figure in Libya's relations with neighbouring Chad and Sudan. Massoud Abdelhafid was a senior commander in the Libyan Army during the Chadian-Libyan conflict. Known for his leadership of Libyan-backed insurrections and wars in Chad, he has been referred to as "Mr Chad".
The United Nations Security Council drafted a resolution naming 23 senior Libyan officials in the regime of Muammar Gaddafi to be sanctioned. The resolution, which included travel bans and asset freezes, named Massoud Abdelhafid.
Subsequent to the defection of Abdul Fatah Younis, Muammar Gaddafi designated Abdelhafid to the position of interior minister. General Massoud Abdelhafid led the pro-Gaddafi forces in the city of Sabha during the Battle of Sabha and the Fezzan campaign.
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Mohamed Bouazizi
Mohamed Bouazizi (29 March 1984 – 4 January 2011; Arabic: محمد البوعزيزي) was a Tunisian street vendor who set himself on fire on 17 December 2010, in protest of the confiscation of his wares and the harassment and humiliation that he reported was inflicted on him by a municipal official and her aides. His act became a catalyst for the Tunisian Revolution and the wider Arab Spring, inciting demonstrations and riots throughout Tunisia in protest of social and political issues in the country. The public's anger and violence intensified following Bouazizi's death, leading then-President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to step down on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power.
The success of the Tunisian protests inspired protests in several other Arab countries, plus several non-Arab countries. The protests included several men who emulated Bouazizi's act of self-immolation, in an attempt to bring an end to their own autocratic governments. Those men and Bouazizi were hailed by some Arab commentators as "heroic martyrs of a new Middle Eastern revolution."
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Mohamed ElBaradei
Mohamed Mustafa ElBaradei (Arabic: محمد مصطفى البرادعى, Muḥammad Muṣṭafā al-Barādʿī, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [mæˈħæmmæd mosˈtˤɑfɑ (ʔe)lbæˈɾædʕi]; born June 17, 1942) is an Egyptian law scholar and diplomat. He was the Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an intergovernmental organization under the auspices of the United Nations, from December 1997 to November 2009. ElBaradei and the IAEA were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. ElBaradei was also an important figure in the 2011 Egyptian revolution which ousted the Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak.
ElBaradei was born and raised in Cairo, Egypt. He was one of five children of Mostafa ElBaradei, an attorney who headed the Egyptian Bar Association and often found himself at odds with the regime of President Gamal Abdel Nasser. ElBaradei's father was also a supporter of democratic rights in Egypt, supporting a free press and an independent judiciary.
ElBaradei is married to Aida El-Kachef, an early-childhood teacher. They have two children: a daughter, Laila, who is a lawyer living in London; and a son, Mostafa, who is an IT manager living in Cairo. They also have one granddaughter, Maya.
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Mohammed El Senussi
Mohammed El Senussi (Sayyid Mohammed al-Rida bin Sayyid Hasan ar-Rida al-Mahdi El Senussi; occasionally spelled as "...Al Senussi", born 20 October 1962) is the son of Crown Prince Hasan as-Senussi of Libya, and of Crown Princess Fawzia bint Tahir Bakeer. Born in Tripoli, he is considered by Libyan royalists to be the legitimate heir to the Senussi Crown of Libya. A rival claim is also advanced by his distant relative Idris bin Abdullah.
He was named Mohammed al-Rida (محمد الرضا) after his grandfather Mohammed al Rida El Senussi.
Colonel Muammar Gaddafi overthrew Mohammed El Senussi's great-uncle King Idris and his father the Crown Prince on 1 September 1969 in the Al Fateh Revolution. Gaddafi detained the Royal Family and held them under house arrest. In 1982 their house with belongings was destroyed and the family moved into a shack on the beach. Before being allowed to emigrate to the United Kingdom in 1988, Prince Mohammed spent some time in the early eighties working at the Libyan Ministry of Agriculture.
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Mohammed Nabbous
Mohamed "Mo" Nabbous (محمد نبوس ; 27 February 1983 – 19 March 2011) was a Libyan information technologist, blogger, businessperson and civilian journalist who created and founded Libya Al Hurra TV.
In the wake of the 2011 Libyan civil war, Nabbous founded Libya Alhurra TV, the first independent broadcast news organization since Gaddafi took power in Libya. Libya AlHurra TV was established in Benghazi, Libya on 19 February 2011 and started broadcasting online when Nabbous established a two-way satellite connection in the wake of a complete Internet blackout imposed by the Gaddafi regime subsequent to the 17 February protests.
Nabbous was shot by a Pro-Gaddafi sniper and killed on 19 March 2011 while reporting on attempts by government forces to fight revolutionaries and attack civilians in Benghazi. In the hours following the death of Nabbous, UN Coalition planes entered Libyan airspace to enforce a No-Fly Zone approved by the UN Security Council along with a Resolution authorizing "all necessary measures" to protect civilians against Gaddafi forces. In the last weeks of his life, Nabbous focused on bringing international attention to the humanitarian crisis unfolding in Libya. His death was widely reported by CNN and various media outlets. Prior to the establishment of Libya Al Hurra TV, Nabbous operated a number of businesses in Benghazi City.
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Moussa Ibrahim
Moussa Ibrahim (Arabic: موسى إبراهيم ; romanized also as Mussa and Musa) is a Libyan political figure, serving as Libyan Minister of Information and the official spokesman for Muammar Gaddafi from March 2011 until the fall of the regime. He came to general international attention during the Libyan civil war.
Ibrahim was born in 1974 into Gaddafi's Qadhadhfa tribe. He has a German wife and a young son, and studied politics at the University of Exeter in the early 2000s. He worked on a PhD in media arts at Royal Holloway, University of London, completing his final exam in May 2010, although he has not formally received his doctorate as supervisors are awaiting a small number of required amendments to his thesis. One of Ibrahim's lecturers at the University of Exeter, Dr. Larbi Sadiki, described him as an engaging, friendly but serious student—"a nice guy but with a short fuse".
He told Sky News: "I lived in London for 15 years. I know every street in London. I know how decent the British people are."
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Moussa Koussa
Moussa Muhammad Koussa (Arabic: موسى كوسا, Arabic pronunciation: [ˈmusaˌkosa]; born c. 1947) is a Libyan political figure and diplomat, who served in the Libyan government as Minister of Foreign Affairs from March 2009, into the Libyan civil war, when he resigned his position from the Gaddafi regime on 30 March 2011.
Koussa previously headed the Libyan intelligence agency from 1994 to 2009, and was considered one of the country's most powerful figures. He arrived in the United Kingdom on 30 March 2011. Later the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office released an official statement saying that Koussa no longer wished to represent the Libyan government and intended to resign. He now lives in a small house in a suburb of Doha, Qatar after being asked to leave his suite in Doha's luxurious Four Seasons hotel. He was a member of Gaddafi's inner circle.
He attended Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan, earning a bachelor's in sociology in 1978.
Koussa worked as a security specialist for Libyan embassies in Europe before being appointed as Secretary of the Libyan People's Bureau in London in 1979. He was expelled from the United Kingdom in 1980, after stating in an interview with The Times newspaper that his government intended to eliminate two political opponents of the Libyan government, who were living in the UK.
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Muammar Gaddafi
Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi (Arabic: معمر محمد أبو منيار القذافي) (June 1942 – 20 October 2011), commonly known as Muammar Gaddafi /ˈmoʊ.əmɑr ɡəˈdɑːfi/ (Arabic: مُعَمَّر القَذَّافِي Muʿammar al-Qaḏḏāfī audio (help·info)) or Colonel Gaddafi, was the official ruler of the Libyan Arab Republic from 1969 to 1977 and then the "Brother Leader" of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from 1977 to 2011. Gaddafi seized power in a bloodless military coup in 1969 and served as the country's head of state until 1977, when he stepped down from his official executive role as Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council of Libya, and claimed subsequently to be merely a symbolic figurehead. He styled himself as "Leader of the Revolution"; in 2008 a meeting of traditional African rulers bestowed on him the title "King of Kings". A leading advocate for a United States of Africa, he served as Chairperson of the African Union (AU) from 2 February 2009 to 31 January 2010.
Gaddafi replaced the Libyan Constitution of 1951 with laws based on the political ideology he had formulated, which he called the Third International Theory and published in The Green Book. After establishing the Jamahiriya (جماهيرية, "state of the masses") system in 1977, he officially stepped down from power and after that time held a largely symbolic role within the country's official governance structure. Rising oil prices and extraction in Libya led to increasing revenues. By exporting as much oil per capita as Saudi Arabia and through various welfare programs, Libya achieved the highest living standards in Africa; Libya remained debt-free.
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Mustafa Abdul Jalil
Mustafa Abdul Jalil or Abdul-Jalil (Arabic: مصطفى عبد الجليل, also transcribed Abdul-Jelil, Abd-al-Jalil,Abdel-Jalil, Abdeljalil or Abdu Al Jeleil) (born 1952) is the Chairman of the National Transitional Council of Libya, and as such serves as head of state in Libya's caretaker government which was formed as a result of the 2011 Libyan civil war. He is also a spokesman for the city of Bayda.
From 2007 to 2011, Abdul Jalil was Minister of Justice (officially, the Secretary of the General People's Committee of Justice) under Colonel Muammar Gaddafi. He has been noted in some news media for his stance against various human rights violations in Libya, although others express a different view and accuse him, for example, of intransigence during the appeal by the Bulgarian nurses (that sentence was later converted to life imprisonment and the nurses were eventually released). During the civil war, Abdul Jalil was identified as the Chairman of the National Transitional Council based in Benghazi, although this position was contested by others in the uprising due to his past direct participation in Gaddafi's government as Minister of Justice for four years until 2011.}
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Mutassim Gaddafi
Mutassim Billah Gaddafi (Arabic: مُعْتَصِمٌ بِٱللهِ ٱلْقَذَّافِيّ, also transliterated as Moatassem or Al-Mu'tasim; 1977 – 20 October 2011) was a Libyan Army officer, and the National Security Advisor of Libya from 2008 until 2011. He was the fifth son of former Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, and a member of his father's inner circle. His mother was Safia Farkash. He was captured during the Battle of Sirte by anti-Gaddafi forces, and later killed along with his father.
In April 2009, Mutassim Gaddafi met with U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, the highest-level diplomatic exchange between the two countries since they resumed diplomatic relations several years earlier. For Gaddafi, it was a serious display of his new responsibilities as the National Security Advisor. He was considered a womanizer and described by Libyan officials as "not intellectually curious", who struggled to get him to read custom-made abstracts on current events and national security. He overreached his role as NSA in 2008 by requesting $1.2 billion from the National Oil Corporation to form his own special forces brigade.
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Nicolas Sarkozy
Nicolas Sarkozy (pronounced [ni.kɔ.la saʁ.kɔ.zi] ( listen), born Nicolas Paul Stéphane Sarközy de Nagy-Bocsa; 28 January 1955) is a French politician who served as the 23rd President of the French Republic from 16 May 2007 until 15 May 2012.
Before his presidency, he was leader of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP). Under Jacques Chirac's presidency he served as Minister of the Interior in Jean-Pierre Raffarin's (UMP) first two governments (from May 2002 to March 2004), then was appointed Minister of Finances in Raffarin's last government (March 2004 to May 2005) and again Minister of the Interior in Dominique de Villepin's government (2005–2007).
Sarkozy was also president of the General council of the Hauts-de-Seine department from 2004 to 2007 and mayor of Neuilly-sur-Seine, one of the wealthiest communes of France from 1983 to 2002. He was Minister of the Budget in the government of Édouard Balladur (RPR, predecessor of the UMP) during François Mitterrand's last term.
In foreign affairs, he promised a strengthening of the entente cordiale with the United Kingdom and closer cooperation with the United States. During his term, he faced the late-2000s financial crisis (followed by the recession and the debt crisis caused by it) and the Arab Spring (especially in Tunisia, Libya, and Syria). He also married Italian-French singer-songwriter Carla Bruni on 2 February 2008 at the Élysée Palace in Paris.
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Omar Suleiman
Omar Suleiman (Arabic: عمر سليمان, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [ˈʕomɑɾˤ seleˈmæːn]; born 2 July 1936) is a former Egyptian army general, politician, diplomat, and intelligence officer. A leading figure in Egypt's intelligence system beginning in 1986, Suleiman was appointed to the long-vacant Vice Presidency by then-President Hosni Mubarak on 29 January 2011. On 11 February 2011, Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation and ceased being Vice President; governing power was transferred to the Armed Forces Supreme Council, of which Suleiman is not a member. A new head of intelligence services was appointed by the ruling Supreme Council. Suleiman withdrew from the political scene and did not appear in public after announcing Mubarak's resignation.
Millions of Egyptian citizens involved in the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 opposed Suleiman or Mubarak remaining in power without elections taking place. Human rights groups tied Suleiman’s career to a regime marked by widespread human rights abuses, and asserted that many Egyptians "see Suleiman as Mubarak II." Torture victims and human rights groups charged that Suleiman oversaw the systematic use of torture on detainees and that in at least one instance he personally tortured a detainee during his career in intelligence. In response to the 2011 protests, Suleiman blamed foreign influence and appealed to protestors to go home.
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Osama Bin Laden
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden ( /oʊˈsɑːmə bɪn moʊˈhɑːmɨd bɪn əˈwɑːd bɪn ˈlɑːdən/; Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن, ʾUsāmah bin Muḥammad bin ʿAwaḍ bin Lādin; March 10, 1957 – May 2, 2011), was the founder of Al-Qaeda, the jihadist organization responsible for the September 11 attacks on the United States and numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets. He was a member of the wealthy Saudi bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, with a US$25 million bounty by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs and CIA operatives in a covert operation ordered by United States President Barack Obama.
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Ralph Jodice
Lieutenant-General Ralph J. Jodice II (born 1955) is a United States Air Force general and the current Commander of NATO's Allied Air Component Command Headquarters at Izmir, Turkey. He is currently the Air Component Commander for Operation Unified Protector, NATO's operation to enforce United Nations Security Council resolutions 1970 and 1973 during the 2011 Libyan civil war.
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Rinaldo Veri
Rinaldo Veri (born 22 April 1952) is an Italian naval officer. He was promoted to the rank of Ammiraglio di squadra (equivalent to Vice admiral) on July 1, 2010 and assumed command of the naval forces of NATO Allied Joint Force Command Naples on 10 March 2011. As of 23 March 2011, he is commanding NATO naval operation Operation Unified Protector to enforce the arms embargo against Libya in support of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1970 and 1973.
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Samir Rifai
Samir Zaid al-Rifai (Arabic: سمير زيد الرفاعي) (born July 1, 1966) is a Jordanian politician of Palestinian descent, who was Prime Minister of Jordan from 14 December 2009 to 1 February 2011. He was replaced by Marouf al-Bakhit by the king Abdullah II, following weeks of protests in the country. He is the son of former Prime Minister Zaid al-Rifai and grandson of Samir al-Rifai.
Rifai was born in to a prominent Palestinian family hailing from Safed in Northern Palestine. He took admission in Harvard University in 1984 and received his bachelor's degree in Middle East Studies in 1988, Samir Rifai began his career working in the Royal Court in 1988, He obtained his master's degree in International Relations from Cambridge University in 1989. In 1999 he was appointed Secretary General of the Royal Hashemite Court where he oversaw the implementation of an integrated program for restructuring the administrative and financial affairs office, also took over the Information Office and the Public Relations Department of King Abdullah II. In 2003, he was appointed Minister of the Hashemite Royal Court to represent the fundamental link between the King and the Government. In April 2005, Rifai was appointed adviser to the King, and continued in that position until the end of 2005.
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Senussi
The Senussi or Sanussi refers to a Muslim political-religious order in Libya and the Sudan region founded in Mecca in 1837 by the Grand Senussi, Sayyid Muhammad ibn Ali as-Senussi. Senussi was concerned with both the decline of Islamic thought and spirituality and the weakening of Muslim political integrity. From 1902 to 1913 the Senussi fought French expansion in the Sahara, and the Italian colonisation of Libya beginning in 1911. In World War I, the Senussi fought against the British in Egypt and Sudan. The Grand Senussi's grandson became King Idris of Libya in 1951. In 1969, King Idris I was overthrown by a military coup led by Colonel Muammar Gaddafi. A third of the population in Libya continue to be affiliated with the Senussi movement.[citation needed]
The Senussi order has been historically closed to Europeans and outsiders, leading reports of their beliefs and practices to vary immensely. Though it is possible to gain some insight from the lives of the Senussi sheikhs further details are difficult to obtain.
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Shukri Ghanem
Shukri Mohammed Ghanem (Arabic: شكري محمد غانم) (9 October 1942 – 29 April 2012) was a Libyan politician who was the General Secretary of the General People's Committee of Libya (prime minister) from June 2003 until March 2006 when, in the first major government re-shuffle in over a decade, he was replaced by his deputy, Baghdadi Mahmudi. Ghanem subsequently served as the Minister of Oil until 2011. On 29 April 2012 his body was found floating on the New Danube, Vienna.
Early in the Libyan civil war he reportedly "fled", but after the city of Ra's Lanuf was recaptured by pro-government forces, AP reported on 13 March that he asked Italian oil giant Eni SpA for help with putting out a fire at the Ra's Lanuf Refinery. On 16 May, Al Arabiya and the NTC reported that Shukri Ghanem defected to Tunisia. The next day Tunisian security officials confirmed he had indeed defected into Tunisia.
With advanced degrees in International Economics and Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, Ghanem was previously in charge of the OPEC secretariat, and was the Director of its Research Division. He served as Deputy Director and Director of Foreign Trade at the Ministry of Economy in Libya; was Director of Marketing of Libya's National Oil Corporation (NOC); was Director of Economic Affairs and Under Secretary and Chief Advisor at the Ministry of Petroleum in Libya. In March 2006, Ghanem was appointed Chairman of Libya's NOC. He tendered his resignation from NOC in August 2009 amidst probable disagreements within the Libyan government over the development of the oil sector.
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Silvio Berlusconi
Silvio Berlusconi (Italian pronunciation: [ˈsilvjo berluˈskoːni] ( listen); born 29 September 1936) is an Italian politician and media tycoon who served three times as Prime Minister of Italy from 1994 to 1995, 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. Berlusconi is also the controlling shareholder of Mediaset and owner of A.C. Milan. He is nicknamed Il Cavaliere (The Knight) for his knighthood to the Order of Merit for Labour, which he received in 1977.
Berlusconi is the longest-serving post-war Prime Minister of Italy, and third longest-serving since Italy's unification, after Benito Mussolini and Giovanni Giolitti, holding three separate terms. Technically, he has been sworn in four times because after a cabinet reshuffle, as happened with Berlusconi in 2005, the new ministry is sworn in and subjected to a vote of confidence. He is the leader of the People of Freedom political movement, a centre-right party he founded in 2009. From November 2009 to November 2011, he was the most senior leader of the G8 countries. In 2012, Forbes magazine ranked him as the 169th richest man in the world with a net worth of US$5.9 billion.
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Stephen Harper
Stephen Joseph Harper, PC MP (born April 30, 1959) is the 22nd and current Prime Minister of Canada and leader of the Conservative Party. Harper became prime minister when his party formed a minority government after the 2006 federal election. He is the first prime minister from the newly reconstituted Conservative Party, following a merger of the Progressive Conservative and Canadian Alliance parties.
Harper has been the Member of Parliament (MP) for the riding of Calgary Southwest in Alberta since 2002. Earlier, from 1993 to 1997, he was the MP for Calgary West. He was one of the founding members of the Reform Party, but did not seek re-election, and instead joined, and shortly thereafter led, the National Citizens Coalition. In 2002, he succeeded Stockwell Day as leader of the Canadian Alliance (the successor to the Reform Party) and returned to parliament as Leader of the Opposition. In 2003, he reached an agreement with Progressive Conservative leader Peter MacKay for the merger of their two parties to form the Conservative Party of Canada. He was elected as the party's first non-interim leader in March 2004.
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Stuart Peach
Air Chief Marshal Sir Stuart William Peach KCB CBE FRAeS (born 1956) is a senior Royal Air Force officer, currently serving as the first Commander of Joint Forces Command. He was Chief of Joint Operations from March 2009 until taking up his current appointment in December 2011.
Peach was commissioned as a University Cadet in 1974, being regraded on graduation in 1977, and promoted to Flying Officer and Flight Lieutenant the following year. A navigator, Peach served one tour on the English Electric Canberra in the photographic reconnaissance role and then three tours on the ground attack and reconnaissance variant of the Panavia Tornado in both the UK and Germany, being promoted to Squadron Leader in 1986, becoming a Qualified Weapons Instructor and receiving the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air in the 1990 Birthday Honours List.
After Staff College in 1990 he returned to Germany to serve as Personal Staff Officer to, in turn, Deputy Commander RAF Germany, Commander-in-Chief RAF Germany and Commander Second Allied Tactical Air Force (of which RAF Germany formed a part), being promoted to Wing Commander in 1991. From 1994 to 1996 Peach commanded IX (Bomber) Squadron operating in the Strike, Attack and SEAD role, also acting as Deputy Station Commander RAF Bruggen.
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Suleiman Mahmoud
Suleiman Mahmoud al-Obeidi (Arabic: سليمان محمود العبيدي) is a senior military officer in Libya. He was formerly a commander in Muammar Gaddafi's army. He was commander of the Tobruk Military Region. He was amongst the first of the army hierarchy to defect to the opposition during the Libyan civil war. Around half of the estimated 6,000 troops who have joined the rebels took their orders from General Mahmoud prior to the 28 July 2011 assassination of General Abdul Fatah Younis, the top commander of the National Liberation Army. The Associated Press reported the next day that Mahmoud succeeded Younis as army commander.
Mahmoud moved his headquarters to Tripoli after the success of Operation Mermaid Dawn. As of early September 2011, he reportedly maintains a separate force from Abdelhakim Belhadj, the head of the Tripoli Military Council, though the two men are ostensibly working to integrate the anti-Gaddafi forces in western Libya into a cohesive military under the aegis of the National Transitional Council.
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Susan Rice
Susan Elizabeth Rice (born November 17, 1964) is an American diplomat, former think tank fellow, and civil servant. She is an American foreign policy advisor and United States Ambassador to the United Nations. Rice served on the staff of the National Security Council and as Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs during President Bill Clinton's second term. Rice was confirmed as UN Ambassador by the U.S. Senate by unanimous consent on January 22, 2009.
Rice was born in Washington, D.C. Her father, Emmett J. Rice (1919–2011), was a Cornell University economics professor and governor of the Federal Reserve System. Her mother is education policy scholar Lois Dickson Fitt, currently at the Brookings Institution. Her brother, John Rice, received an M.B.A. from Harvard Business School and is the founder of Management Leadership for Tomorrow (an organization committed to developing top minority talent for leadership roles in the business and non-profit sector). She is not related to Condoleezza Rice.
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Sverker Göranson
Sverker John Olof Göranson, born 3 May 1954 in Lund, is a General of the Swedish Army with an armoured forces background and is the Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces since 25 March 2009, when he succeeded Håkan Syrén. Göranson was Inspector General of the Swedish Army from 2005 to 2007, and serves as the Commander of the Armed Forces Headquarters since 2007. In 1995, he was the chief of staff of the Nordic battalion within UNPROFOR in Bosnia.
Göranson's promotions:
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Traian Băsescu
Traian Băsescu (born November 4th, 1951 in Basarabi, Romania) is the current president of Romania, serving since 2004. Mayor of Bucharest from 2000 to 2004, he was elected president in 2004, suspended from office in 2007 but reconfirmed a month later in a plebiscite. He was re-elected president for a second 5-year term in 2009, amidst allegations of electoral fraud that were ultimately dismissed by the Constitutional Court of Romania.
Băsescu was born in Basarabi (renamed Murfatlar in 2007), near the port city of Constanţa, the largest Romanian port on the Black Sea. Băsescu's father, Dumitru (d. 2002), was an army officer; his mother's first name is Elena (d. 2010). He has a brother, Mircea (b. 1953). Traian Băsescu and his wife Maria have two daughters.
Băsescu graduated from the Naval Institute of Constanţa in 1976 and became a merchant marine deck officer at Navrom, the Romanian state-owned shipping company. Between 1981 and 1987 he served as Captain on Romanian commercial ships. Throughout his career, questions have been raised about Basescu's links to the Securitate, the security services of the communist dictator Nicolae Ceausescu. But Basescu has said his links with the former Securitate were minimal, though some contact was obligatory at the time for somebody working abroad in a senior position. In 1984 he was promoted to Captain of the oil tanker Biruinţa, the largest ship of the then Romanian commercial fleet. In 1989, Băsescu moved to Belgium to head the Navrom Agency in Antwerp.
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Tuareg people
The Tuareg (also spelled Twareg or Touareg; endonym Imuhagh) are a Berber people with a traditionally nomadic pastoralist lifestyle. They are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa.
The Tuareg language, or languages, have an estimated 1.2 million speakers. About half this number is accounted for by speakers of the Eastern dialect (Tamajaq, Tawallammat). Most Tuareg live in the Saharan parts of Niger and Mali but, being nomadic, there is constant movement across national borders, and small groups of Tuareg are also found in southeastern Algeria, southwestern Libya and northern Burkina Faso, and a small community in northern Nigeria.
The name Tuareg is derived from Targa, the Berber name of Libya's Fezzan province. The name Tuareg thus in origin designated the inhabitants of Fezzan from the perspective of the Berbers living closer to the Mediterranean coast, and was adopted from them into English, French and German during the colonial period. The Berber noun targa means "drainage channel" and by extension "arable land, garden". It designated the Wadi al-Haya area between Sabha and Ubari and is rendered in Arabic as bilad al-khayr "good land". There is a widespread Arabic folk etymology of the name, connecting tawariq "abandoned [by God]", reflecting the religious disapproval of residual animist practice among the Tuareg by orthodox Muslims.
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Tyler Hicks
Tyler Hicks is an American journalist who works as a staff photographer for The New York Times. Based in Kenya, he typically covers foreign affairs, with an emphasis in recent years on conflict and war, but also works at times on assignments across the United States.
He has won several awards. He was named the newspaper photographer of the year by the Missouri School of Journalism's Pictures of the Year International contest in 2007. He shared the 2009 Pultizer Prize for International Reporting with a team from The New York Times recognized for coverage of Pakistan and Afghanistan, where he works frequently in the field, focusing on the ground-level experience. In 2010, his photographs from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, along with the war correspondence of his colleagues Dexter Filkins and C.J. Chivers, with whom he often works, were selected by New York University as one of the Top Ten Works of Journalism of the Decade.[citation needed]
Before working at the Times Hicks was a freelance photographer based in Africa and the Balkans, and worked for newspapers in North Carolina and Ohio.
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UAE Five
The UAE Five are five United Arab Emirati activists who were imprisoned from April to November 2011 on charges of insulting President Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan, Vice President Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, and Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan of the United Arab Emirates. The five arrested activists were Nasser bin Ghaith, an Emirati economist and lecturer at the Abu Dhabi branch of the Paris-Sorbonne University; Ahmed Mansoor, who signed a pro-democracy petition; and online activists Fahad Salim Dalk, Hassan Ali al-Khamis and Ahmed Abdul Khaleq.
Inspired by the growing momentum of the pro-democracy Arab Spring, Emirati activists began to be more vocal in their opposition to the UAE government in early 2011. Bin Ghaith, an "outspoken economics professor", was arrested on 11 April for his call for "democratic and economic reforms". Mansoor, an engineer, blogger, and member of Human Rights Watch, was arrested the same day for signing a petition in favor of an elected parliament, and Dalk, al-Khamis, and Khaleq were detained for their online activities before the end of the month. Following their arrests, UAE government-controlled media reported that the five were "religious extremists" and Iranian foreign agents.
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Wael Ghonim
Wael Ghonim (Arabic: وائل غنيم, IPA: [ˈwæːʔel ɣoˈneːm]; other transliterations include: Ghoneim, Ghonaim) (born 23 December 1980 in Cairo, Egypt) is an Internet activist and computer engineer with an interest in social entrepreneurship.
In 2011, he became an international figure and energized pro-democracy demonstrations in Egypt after his emotional interview following 11 days of secret incarceration by Egyptian police—during which he was interrogated regarding his work as the administrator of the Facebook page, "We are all Khaled Saeed", which helped spark the revolution. The TIME magazine added him in its "Time 100" list of 100 most influential people of 2011.
Wael Ghonim was born to a middle-class family on 23 December 1980 in Cairo, Egypt and grew up in Abha, Saudi Arabia until he was 13 years old, then he moved back to live in Cairo. In January 2010, Wael was promoted to Head of Marketing at Google in the Middle East & North Africa and moved to Dubai, the United Arab Emirates.
He earned a BS in computer engineering from Cairo University in 2004 and an MBA, with honors, in marketing and finance from the American University in Cairo in 2007.[citation needed]
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Édouard Guillaud
Admiral Édouard Guillaud (born 10 July 1953) is a French Navy officer and admiral. He has devoted a significant part of his career to the design of the Charles De Gaulle, and eventually captained her. He currently serves as Chief of the Defence Staff. Guillaud assumed his current assignment on 25 February 2010.
Édouard Guillaud was born to the family of Jean-Louis Guillaud, former president of AFP and TF1.
Édouard Guillaud studied at the lycée Hector Berlioz in Vincennes and at the Ecole Sainte Geneviève in Versailles. He joined the École navale in 1973.
Upon graduation, in 1978, he served on the escort Paimpolaise, monitoring the nuclear trials in Mururoa, and on the SNLE Indomptable and on the Redoutable. In 1979, Guillaud took command of the minesweeped Lobelia, for one year. The next year, he studied for a specialisation in gunnery and missiles.
In the early 80s, Guillaud was sent in exchange in the USA. He then served on the aviso Amyot d'Inville and the T 47 class destroyers Du Chayla and Kersaint, cruising off Iran and Lebanon in 1983.
wn.com/Édouard_Guillaud
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Libyan civil war, deadly confrontation in Sirte
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Updated: 12 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/Libyan_civil_war,_deadly_confrontation_in_Sirte
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:44
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Battle_for_Galaa_Sofitt_Hill_near_Zintan_Part_1
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7112
- author: routergods
More Battle Footage From Libyan Civil War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:58
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when
http://wn.com/More_Battle_Footage_From_Libyan_Civil_War
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when
- published: 26 Jun 2011
- views: 21372
- author: LibyanWarVideoz
The Civil-War in Libya - Events, Causes, Facts (Documentary)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:10
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for more information about the libyan civil war. ------------- It describes the events that caused the libyan civil war and the NATO attack on Libya. It tells in an unknown richness of details the progression of the events that caused the war. Additionally it questions the UN resolution. The original documentary was made by citizens of Tripoli.
http://wn.com/The_Civil-War_in_Libya_Events,_Causes,_Facts_Documentary
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for more information about the libyan civil war. ------------- It describes the events that caused the libyan civil war and the NATO attack on Libya. It tells in an unknown richness of details the progression of the events that caused the war. Additionally it questions the UN resolution. The original documentary was made by citizens of Tripoli.
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 2767
- author: ToBiOh2
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:26
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Battle_for_Galaa_Sofitt_Hill_near_Zintan_Part_2
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7809
- author: routergods
Celente: Libya civil war none of US business
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:33
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the US targeted Libya to make a statement. Gerald Celente, the director of the Trends Research Institute says this is a chilling example of US hypocrisy. Killing people with bombs to solve the humanitarian crisis is absurd and ironic he notes. In addition, Americans are suffering from high unemployment and calling for cuts to government spending, yet the Pentagon is blowing away billions per week bombing Libya.
http://wn.com/Celente_Libya_civil_war_none_of_US_business
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the US targeted Libya to make a statement. Gerald Celente, the director of the Trends Research Institute says this is a chilling example of US hypocrisy. Killing people with bombs to solve the humanitarian crisis is absurd and ironic he notes. In addition, Americans are suffering from high unemployment and calling for cuts to government spending, yet the Pentagon is blowing away billions per week bombing Libya.
- published: 25 Mar 2011
- views: 15489
- author: RTAmerica
Libyan Civil War _Chris Parker_Symphony[ HD ]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:56
- Updated: 09 Aug 2012
The Libyan civil war (also referred to as the Libyan revolution , was an armed conflict in the state of Libya, fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust his government. The war was preceded by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday, 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces that fired on the crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council. In August, rebel forces began a coastal offensive, taking back territory lost weeks before and ultimately capturing the capital city of Tripoli, while Gaddafi evaded capture and loyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign. On 16 September 2011, the National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government. Muammar Gaddafi remained at large until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed attempting to escape from Sirte. The National Transitional Council "declared the liberation of Libya" and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Chris_Parker_Symphony_HD_
The Libyan civil war (also referred to as the Libyan revolution , was an armed conflict in the state of Libya, fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust his government. The war was preceded by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday, 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces that fired on the crowd. The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country, with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council. In August, rebel forces began a coastal offensive, taking back territory lost weeks before and ultimately capturing the capital city of Tripoli, while Gaddafi evaded capture and loyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign. On 16 September 2011, the National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government. Muammar Gaddafi remained at large until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed attempting to escape from Sirte. The National Transitional Council "declared the liberation of Libya" and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011.
- published: 12 May 2012
- views: 948
- author: NeonLight1122
'West-chosen rulers push Libya into real civil war'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:04
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tribal leaders to heel, after they'd declared autonomy for an oil-rich region in the east. The leader of the National Transitional Council went on to claim that pro-Gaddafi infiltrators were behind the move. RT talks to Patrick Hayes from the online world affairs magazine, Spiked.
http://wn.com/'West-chosen_rulers_push_Libya_into_real_civil_war'
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tribal leaders to heel, after they'd declared autonomy for an oil-rich region in the east. The leader of the National Transitional Council went on to claim that pro-Gaddafi infiltrators were behind the move. RT talks to Patrick Hayes from the online world affairs magazine, Spiked.
- published: 08 Mar 2012
- views: 15169
- author: RussiaToday
Latest Libyan News - Will A Civil War Start Now?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:28
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still return to London to continue their education, and they bring their frontline stories with them. Unlike Tripoli, Sirte, Bani Walid and Sabha might not fall so quickly, perhaps because they are demographically more homogeneous societies. Donations: www.paypal.com
http://wn.com/Latest_Libyan_News_Will_A_Civil_War_Start_Now?
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still return to London to continue their education, and they bring their frontline stories with them. Unlike Tripoli, Sirte, Bani Walid and Sabha might not fall so quickly, perhaps because they are demographically more homogeneous societies. Donations: www.paypal.com
- published: 17 Sep 2011
- views: 8108
- author: 108morris108
Inside Story - Libya: Ready for civil war?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:29
- Updated: 12 Jun 2012
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "fight to the last bullet".
http://wn.com/Inside_Story_Libya_Ready_for_civil_war?
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "fight to the last bullet".
- published: 22 Feb 2011
- views: 28600
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:13
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Battle_for_Galaa_Sofitt_Hill_near_Zintan_Part_4
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 2490
- author: routergods
Libya on the verge of civil war again
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:53
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
Approximately three months ago Moammar Gaddafi was killed by Libyan rebels. The dictator was overthrown after he was condemned by President Obama and NATO for using violence on the Libyan people. Many believe NATO and the US aided the rebels in an attempt to seize the country's oil. Now the remaining Gaddafi loyalists are clashing with revolutionary forces and pushing the country to the brink of a civil war. Robert Naiman, policy director at Just Foreign Policy, joins us to shed some light on the issue. Follow Liz on Twitter at twitter.com
http://wn.com/Libya_on_the_verge_of_civil_war_again
Approximately three months ago Moammar Gaddafi was killed by Libyan rebels. The dictator was overthrown after he was condemned by President Obama and NATO for using violence on the Libyan people. Many believe NATO and the US aided the rebels in an attempt to seize the country's oil. Now the remaining Gaddafi loyalists are clashing with revolutionary forces and pushing the country to the brink of a civil war. Robert Naiman, policy director at Just Foreign Policy, joins us to shed some light on the issue. Follow Liz on Twitter at twitter.com
- published: 25 Jan 2012
- views: 3076
- author: RTAmerica
Libya fighting resembles civil war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 26 Jan 2013
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push the rebels back and recapture fallen towns, the fighting looks set to intensify. In the city of Misurata, rebels were filmed celebrating their victory over Gaddafi's forces. But there has been more fighting there and rebels say they fear government forces are regrouping. Past Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte lies Ras Lanuf where pro-Gaddafi forces are bombarding the oil-rich city, allegedly killing at least three people on Monday. Al Jazeera's Laurence Lee reports.
http://wn.com/Libya_fighting_resembles_civil_war
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push the rebels back and recapture fallen towns, the fighting looks set to intensify. In the city of Misurata, rebels were filmed celebrating their victory over Gaddafi's forces. But there has been more fighting there and rebels say they fear government forces are regrouping. Past Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte lies Ras Lanuf where pro-Gaddafi forces are bombarding the oil-rich city, allegedly killing at least three people on Monday. Al Jazeera's Laurence Lee reports.
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 33000
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Political Science 101: The Libyan Civil War and UN Intervention
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:03
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until one side completely militarily defeats the other, and this process takes a long time.
http://wn.com/Political_Science_101_The_Libyan_Civil_War_and_UN_Intervention
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until one side completely militarily defeats the other, and this process takes a long time.
- published: 19 Mar 2011
- views: 2695
- author: William Spaniel
Civil War Warning: 'Saif has no chance of fair trial'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:11
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
The leader of Libya's National Transitional Council, says the country could be headed towards a civil war. It follows protests in the city of Benghazi that resulted in the resignation of his deputy. This past weekend, enraged Libyans took to the streets of the city which was the centre of opposition in the uprising against Gaddafi. Demonstrators are now accusing the NTC of corruption, a lack of reform and favoring former government loyalists. For more on the future of Libya RT talks to Sabah al-Mukhtar, president of the Arab Lawyers Association. RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com RT on Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Civil_War_Warning_'Saif_has_no_chance_of_fair_trial'
The leader of Libya's National Transitional Council, says the country could be headed towards a civil war. It follows protests in the city of Benghazi that resulted in the resignation of his deputy. This past weekend, enraged Libyans took to the streets of the city which was the centre of opposition in the uprising against Gaddafi. Demonstrators are now accusing the NTC of corruption, a lack of reform and favoring former government loyalists. For more on the future of Libya RT talks to Sabah al-Mukhtar, president of the Arab Lawyers Association. RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com RT on Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 23 Jan 2012
- views: 4569
- author: RussiaToday
Oil Surges! Libya's Civil War! Habitable Exoplanets Discovered!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:03
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
My commentary about the marine scientist Samantha Joye of the University of Georgia report on oil on the seafloor of the Gulf, Gadhafi's violent meltdown in Libya, Libya descending into a Civil War, the discovery of Exoplanets that may have habitable conditions and the impact of a solar storm on our electrical systems. Muammar Gaddafi addresses the nation www.youtube.com Gadhafi vows to die as a martyr in Libya www.msnbc.msn.com Michigan orders DPS to make huge cuts detnews.com Scientist finds Gulf bottom still oily, dead news.yahoo.com Oil holds near 2-1/2 year highs on Libya revolt www.reuters.com Solar storms could create $2tn 'global Katrina', warns chief scientist www.guardian.co.uk Exoplanet findings spark philosophical debate www.newscientist.com
http://wn.com/Oil_Surges!_Libya's_Civil_War!_Habitable_Exoplanets_Discovered!
My commentary about the marine scientist Samantha Joye of the University of Georgia report on oil on the seafloor of the Gulf, Gadhafi's violent meltdown in Libya, Libya descending into a Civil War, the discovery of Exoplanets that may have habitable conditions and the impact of a solar storm on our electrical systems. Muammar Gaddafi addresses the nation www.youtube.com Gadhafi vows to die as a martyr in Libya www.msnbc.msn.com Michigan orders DPS to make huge cuts detnews.com Scientist finds Gulf bottom still oily, dead news.yahoo.com Oil holds near 2-1/2 year highs on Libya revolt www.reuters.com Solar storms could create $2tn 'global Katrina', warns chief scientist www.guardian.co.uk Exoplanet findings spark philosophical debate www.newscientist.com
- published: 22 Feb 2011
- views: 6884
- author: DEMCAD
Gas Prices Killing Me 10% Increase, Libya Civil War, Bush Clinton Regime
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:27
- Updated: 29 Jul 2012
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron also rants about the rumors of United States intervention into the Libya civil war. Aaron believes the Bush, Clinton Regime is destroying collapsing the United States.
http://wn.com/Gas_Prices_Killing_Me_10_Increase,_Libya_Civil_War,_Bush_Clinton_Regime
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron also rants about the rumors of United States intervention into the Libya civil war. Aaron believes the Bush, Clinton Regime is destroying collapsing the United States.
- published: 04 Mar 2011
- views: 2615
- author: adb024
Fears Libya's revolt may become civil war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:19
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
There are fears that Libya's uprising against Muammar Gaddafi's rule is turning into a protracted civil war. Witnesses say government forces have recaptured the town of Bin Jawad from the rebels. Anti-government fighters claim to be in control of Zawiyah just 50 kilometres west of the capital Tripoli, but forces loyal to the Libyan leader have been counter-attacking with considerable power. Rebel leaders said they fought off three assaults by government tanks and infantry over the weekend, each one bigger than the last. ... www.euronews.net
http://wn.com/Fears_Libya's_revolt_may_become_civil_war
There are fears that Libya's uprising against Muammar Gaddafi's rule is turning into a protracted civil war. Witnesses say government forces have recaptured the town of Bin Jawad from the rebels. Anti-government fighters claim to be in control of Zawiyah just 50 kilometres west of the capital Tripoli, but forces loyal to the Libyan leader have been counter-attacking with considerable power. Rebel leaders said they fought off three assaults by government tanks and infantry over the weekend, each one bigger than the last. ... www.euronews.net
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 11414
- author: Euronews
Hillary Clinton "Testifies Benghazi Libya Hearings" (Live)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 28 Jan 2013
Theologian Paul Begley of Indiana reviews and Sec. Of State Clinton opening remarks on the situation in Libya www.paulbegleyprophecy.com also (video live from http and being used for bible prophecy teaching only and not owned by Begley)
http://wn.com/Hillary_Clinton_Testifies_Benghazi_Libya_Hearings_Live
Theologian Paul Begley of Indiana reviews and Sec. Of State Clinton opening remarks on the situation in Libya www.paulbegleyprophecy.com also (video live from http and being used for bible prophecy teaching only and not owned by Begley)
- published: 23 Jan 2013
- views: 3155
- author: Paul Begley
"Unintended Consequences of Military Intervention": Roots of Mali, Algeria Crisis Tied To Libya War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:52
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
DemocracyNow.org - In Algeria, at least 22 foreign hostages remained unaccounted for in what has been described as one of the biggest international hostage crises in decades. Islamist militants opposed to the French air strikes in neighboring Mali seized a gas facility near the Libyan border. It remains unclear how many people died on Thursday when Algerian forces stormed the desert gas complex to free the workers. Meanwhile, the Obama administration has acknowledged it is now directly aiding France's military operation in Mali. We speak to Emira Woods, co-director of Foreign Policy In Focus at the Institute for Policy Studies. To watch the entire weekday independent news hour, read the transcript, download the podcast, search our vast archive, or to find more information about Democracy Now! and Amy Goodman, visit www.democracynow.org. Democracy Now!, an independent global news hour that airs weekdays on 1100+ TV and radio stations Monday through Friday. FOLLOW DEMOCRACY NOW! ONLINE Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: @democracynow Subscribe on YouTube: www.youtube.com Listen on SoundCloud: www.soundcloud.com Daily Email News Digest: www.democracynow.org Please consider supporting independent media by making a donation to Democracy Now! today, visit www.democracynow.org
http://wn.com/Unintended_Consequences_of_Military_Intervention_Roots_of_Mali,_Algeria_Crisis_Tied_To_Libya_War
DemocracyNow.org - In Algeria, at least 22 foreign hostages remained unaccounted for in what has been described as one of the biggest international hostage crises in decades. Islamist militants opposed to the French air strikes in neighboring Mali seized a gas facility near the Libyan border. It remains unclear how many people died on Thursday when Algerian forces stormed the desert gas complex to free the workers. Meanwhile, the Obama administration has acknowledged it is now directly aiding France's military operation in Mali. We speak to Emira Woods, co-director of Foreign Policy In Focus at the Institute for Policy Studies. To watch the entire weekday independent news hour, read the transcript, download the podcast, search our vast archive, or to find more information about Democracy Now! and Amy Goodman, visit www.democracynow.org. Democracy Now!, an independent global news hour that airs weekdays on 1100+ TV and radio stations Monday through Friday. FOLLOW DEMOCRACY NOW! ONLINE Facebook: www.facebook.com Twitter: @democracynow Subscribe on YouTube: www.youtube.com Listen on SoundCloud: www.soundcloud.com Daily Email News Digest: www.democracynow.org Please consider supporting independent media by making a donation to Democracy Now! today, visit www.democracynow.org
- published: 18 Jan 2013
- views: 4112
- author: democracynow
Military "Expert" Calls For War In Libya on Fox News
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:23
- Updated: 02 Feb 2013
Watch Fox News Conservative "Military Expert" Lt. Col. Ralph Peters call for war in Libya in retribution for protesters attacking our embassy. Cenk Uygur breaks down just how clownish this "expert" and his comments are. Tell us in the comment section below what you think of Lt. Col. Ralph Peters' comments. Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
http://wn.com/Military_Expert_Calls_For_War_In_Libya_on_Fox_News
Watch Fox News Conservative "Military Expert" Lt. Col. Ralph Peters call for war in Libya in retribution for protesters attacking our embassy. Cenk Uygur breaks down just how clownish this "expert" and his comments are. Tell us in the comment section below what you think of Lt. Col. Ralph Peters' comments. Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
- published: 14 Sep 2012
- views: 44308
- author: TheYoungTurks
Libyan protesters kill American ambassador
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:07
- Updated: 15 Jan 2013
On Tuesday night, a group of Libyan protesters gathered outside the American consulate in Benghazi to express their discontent over an alleged American video posted on YouTube insulting the prophet Mohammed. The group stormed thebuilding after launching rockets at the consulate killing four Americans. Among them, J. Christopher Stevens an American diplomat was killed and President Obama has vowed to seek justice by sending drones to the country. RT's Arabic correspondent Reema Abu Hamdieh, joins us with the latest on the the recent attacks. Like us and/or follow us: twitter.com www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Libyan_protesters_kill_American_ambassador
On Tuesday night, a group of Libyan protesters gathered outside the American consulate in Benghazi to express their discontent over an alleged American video posted on YouTube insulting the prophet Mohammed. The group stormed thebuilding after launching rockets at the consulate killing four Americans. Among them, J. Christopher Stevens an American diplomat was killed and President Obama has vowed to seek justice by sending drones to the country. RT's Arabic correspondent Reema Abu Hamdieh, joins us with the latest on the the recent attacks. Like us and/or follow us: twitter.com www.facebook.com
- published: 12 Sep 2012
- views: 14905
- author: RTAmerica
Hillary Clinton testifies before Senate on 1-23-2013 regarding Benghazi, Libya Terror Attack
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 111:23
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
Hillary Clinton testifies before Senate on 1-23-2013 regarding Benghazi, Libya Terror Attack
http://wn.com/Hillary_Clinton_testifies_before_Senate_on_1-23-2013_regarding_Benghazi,_Libya_Terror_Attack
Hillary Clinton testifies before Senate on 1-23-2013 regarding Benghazi, Libya Terror Attack
- published: 24 Jan 2013
- views: 4746
- author: datasign
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Libyan civil war, deadly confrontation in Sirte
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:58
- Updated: 12 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/Libyan_civil_war,_deadly_confrontation_in_Sirte
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:44
- Updated: 24 Dec 2012
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Battle_for_Galaa_Sofitt_Hill_near_Zintan_Part_1
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7112
- author: routergods
More Battle Footage From Libyan Civil War
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:58
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when
http://wn.com/More_Battle_Footage_From_Libyan_Civil_War
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when
- published: 26 Jun 2011
- views: 21372
- author: LibyanWarVideoz
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:26
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
http://wn.com/Libyan_Civil_War_Battle_for_Galaa_Sofitt_Hill_near_Zintan_Part_2
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7809
- author: routergods
The Civil-War in Libya - Events, Causes, Facts (Documentary)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:10
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for more information about the libyan civil war. ------------- It describes the events that caused the libyan civil war and the NATO attack on Libya. It tells in an unknown richness of details the progression of the events that caused the war. Additionally it questions the UN resolution. The original documentary was made by citizens of Tripoli.
http://wn.com/The_Civil-War_in_Libya_Events,_Causes,_Facts_Documentary
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for more information about the libyan civil war. ------------- It describes the events that caused the libyan civil war and the NATO attack on Libya. It tells in an unknown richness of details the progression of the events that caused the war. Additionally it questions the UN resolution. The original documentary was made by citizens of Tripoli.
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 2767
- author: ToBiOh2
Celente: Libya civil war none of US business
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:33
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the US targeted Libya to make a statement. Gerald Celente, the director of the Trends Research Institute says this is a chilling example of US hypocrisy. Killing people with bombs to solve the humanitarian crisis is absurd and ironic he notes. In addition, Americans are suffering from high unemployment and calling for cuts to government spending, yet the Pentagon is blowing away billions per week bombing Libya.
http://wn.com/Celente_Libya_civil_war_none_of_US_business
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the US targeted Libya to make a statement. Gerald Celente, the director of the Trends Research Institute says this is a chilling example of US hypocrisy. Killing people with bombs to solve the humanitarian crisis is absurd and ironic he notes. In addition, Americans are suffering from high unemployment and calling for cuts to government spending, yet the Pentagon is blowing away billions per week bombing Libya.
- published: 25 Mar 2011
- views: 15489
- author: RTAmerica
Inside Story - Libya: Ready for civil war?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:29
- Updated: 12 Jun 2012
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "fight to the last bullet".
http://wn.com/Inside_Story_Libya_Ready_for_civil_war?
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "fight to the last bullet".
- published: 22 Feb 2011
- views: 28600
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Latest Libyan News - Will A Civil War Start Now?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:28
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still return to London to continue their education, and they bring their frontline stories with them. Unlike Tripoli, Sirte, Bani Walid and Sabha might not fall so quickly, perhaps because they are demographically more homogeneous societies. Donations: www.paypal.com
http://wn.com/Latest_Libyan_News_Will_A_Civil_War_Start_Now?
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still return to London to continue their education, and they bring their frontline stories with them. Unlike Tripoli, Sirte, Bani Walid and Sabha might not fall so quickly, perhaps because they are demographically more homogeneous societies. Donations: www.paypal.com
- published: 17 Sep 2011
- views: 8108
- author: 108morris108
Political Science 101: The Libyan Civil War and UN Intervention
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:03
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until one side completely militarily defeats the other, and this process takes a long time.
http://wn.com/Political_Science_101_The_Libyan_Civil_War_and_UN_Intervention
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until one side completely militarily defeats the other, and this process takes a long time.
- published: 19 Mar 2011
- views: 2695
- author: William Spaniel
Libya fighting resembles civil war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 26 Jan 2013
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push the rebels back and recapture fallen towns, the fighting looks set to intensify. In the city of Misurata, rebels were filmed celebrating their victory over Gaddafi's forces. But there has been more fighting there and rebels say they fear government forces are regrouping. Past Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte lies Ras Lanuf where pro-Gaddafi forces are bombarding the oil-rich city, allegedly killing at least three people on Monday. Al Jazeera's Laurence Lee reports.
http://wn.com/Libya_fighting_resembles_civil_war
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push the rebels back and recapture fallen towns, the fighting looks set to intensify. In the city of Misurata, rebels were filmed celebrating their victory over Gaddafi's forces. But there has been more fighting there and rebels say they fear government forces are regrouping. Past Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte lies Ras Lanuf where pro-Gaddafi forces are bombarding the oil-rich city, allegedly killing at least three people on Monday. Al Jazeera's Laurence Lee reports.
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 33000
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Gaddafi's son: Libya like McDonald's for NATO - fast war as fast food
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:48
- Updated: 09 Feb 2013
With the war in Libya at the focal point of international relations, RT's gained access to Colonel Gaddafi's son in NATO-targeted Tripoli. Saif al-Islam thinks his country's wanted for its riches, but says the people won't let Libya fall under foreign control.
http://wn.com/Gaddafi's_son_Libya_like_McDonald's_for_NATO_fast_war_as_fast_food
With the war in Libya at the focal point of international relations, RT's gained access to Colonel Gaddafi's son in NATO-targeted Tripoli. Saif al-Islam thinks his country's wanted for its riches, but says the people won't let Libya fall under foreign control.
- published: 01 Jul 2011
- views: 279455
- author: RussiaToday
Gas Prices Killing Me 10% Increase, Libya Civil War, Bush Clinton Regime
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:27
- Updated: 29 Jul 2012
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron also rants about the rumors of United States intervention into the Libya civil war. Aaron believes the Bush, Clinton Regime is destroying collapsing the United States.
http://wn.com/Gas_Prices_Killing_Me_10_Increase,_Libya_Civil_War,_Bush_Clinton_Regime
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron also rants about the rumors of United States intervention into the Libya civil war. Aaron believes the Bush, Clinton Regime is destroying collapsing the United States.
- published: 04 Mar 2011
- views: 2615
- author: adb024
![2011 Libyan Civil War [HD]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130216025102im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/YmIBsSj-1u8/default.jpg "2011 Libyan Civil War [HD]")
2011 Libyan Civil War [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:30
- Updated: 05 Oct 2012
This is just a video describing the war situation in Libya during its civil war.
http://wn.com/2011_Libyan_Civil_War_HD_
This is just a video describing the war situation in Libya during its civil war.
- published: 17 Jul 2011
- views: 4690
- author: garvilsingh
Short Khadafi interview 28 Feb 2011, Libya Crisis in Detail
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:10
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
Short part of interview with Colonel Kadhafi of Libya recorded 28 February 2011. Also includes detailed report into the growing resistance, and refugees fleeing across Libyan borders.
http://wn.com/Short_Khadafi_interview_28_Feb_2011,_Libya_Crisis_in_Detail
Short part of interview with Colonel Kadhafi of Libya recorded 28 February 2011. Also includes detailed report into the growing resistance, and refugees fleeing across Libyan borders.
- published: 01 Mar 2011
- views: 9222
- author: GlobalPrison
Interview in Tripoli with a Black Libyan man
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:47
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
A perspective from a Arab Black Libyan of they Libyan civil war. He is from southern Libya wear many indigenous Black Libyans live.
http://wn.com/Interview_in_Tripoli_with_a_Black_Libyan_man
A perspective from a Arab Black Libyan of they Libyan civil war. He is from southern Libya wear many indigenous Black Libyans live.
- published: 09 Jun 2011
- views: 5969
- author: bbjhnsn28
'West-chosen rulers push Libya into real civil war'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:04
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tribal leaders to heel, after they'd declared autonomy for an oil-rich region in the east. The leader of the National Transitional Council went on to claim that pro-Gaddafi infiltrators were behind the move. RT talks to Patrick Hayes from the online world affairs magazine, Spiked.
http://wn.com/'West-chosen_rulers_push_Libya_into_real_civil_war'
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tribal leaders to heel, after they'd declared autonomy for an oil-rich region in the east. The leader of the National Transitional Council went on to claim that pro-Gaddafi infiltrators were behind the move. RT talks to Patrick Hayes from the online world affairs magazine, Spiked.
- published: 08 Mar 2012
- views: 15169
- author: RussiaToday
NATO Empire Madness War on Libya President Hugo Chavez Interview 25.08.2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:19
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
After meeting with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in Caracas, Venezuela's president Hugo Chavez condemned the United States and European countries for NATO's air strikes during Libya's conflict, saying: "They've destroyed a country!'' he also said that this is part of the "Empire Madness". Chavez accused the National Transitional Council for having banned the transmission of the truth of the events in Tripoli, which he named a "real massacre". Let's save the human race, let's finish off the US empire. ~ President Hugo Chavez I tell the coward crusaders: I live in a place where you can't get to and kill me. I live in the hearts of millions. ~ Muammar Gaddafi
http://wn.com/NATO_Empire_Madness_War_on_Libya_President_Hugo_Chavez_Interview_25082011
After meeting with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in Caracas, Venezuela's president Hugo Chavez condemned the United States and European countries for NATO's air strikes during Libya's conflict, saying: "They've destroyed a country!'' he also said that this is part of the "Empire Madness". Chavez accused the National Transitional Council for having banned the transmission of the truth of the events in Tripoli, which he named a "real massacre". Let's save the human race, let's finish off the US empire. ~ President Hugo Chavez I tell the coward crusaders: I live in a place where you can't get to and kill me. I live in the hearts of millions. ~ Muammar Gaddafi
- published: 26 Aug 2011
- views: 4371
- author: alphasex5
Libya on the verge of civil war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:21
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Intense fighting has continued across Libya with both government and opposition groups claiming success. In Misrata, where rebels say they beat back Gaddafi's forces, it's thought at least 18 people were killed with many hundreds wounded. The UN has called for immediate access to give medical assistance. While the rebels have claimed Misrata and Zawiyah, it appears to be a different story in Bin Jawad where they were forced to retreat. ... www.euronews.net
http://wn.com/Libya_on_the_verge_of_civil_war
Intense fighting has continued across Libya with both government and opposition groups claiming success. In Misrata, where rebels say they beat back Gaddafi's forces, it's thought at least 18 people were killed with many hundreds wounded. The UN has called for immediate access to give medical assistance. While the rebels have claimed Misrata and Zawiyah, it appears to be a different story in Bin Jawad where they were forced to retreat. ... www.euronews.net
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 15891
- author: Euronews
Libya faces 'civil war' as violence spreads to Tripoli
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:30
- Updated: 23 Mar 2011
The protests and violence were the heaviest yet in the capital, a sign of the spread of unrest after six days of demonstrations in eastern cities demanding the end of the elder Gadhafi's rule. FRANCE 24 INTERNATIONAL NEWS 24/7 www.france24.com
http://wn.com/Libya_faces_'civil_war'_as_violence_spreads_to_Tripoli
The protests and violence were the heaviest yet in the capital, a sign of the spread of unrest after six days of demonstrations in eastern cities demanding the end of the elder Gadhafi's rule. FRANCE 24 INTERNATIONAL NEWS 24/7 www.france24.com
- published: 21 Feb 2011
- views: 8074
- author: france24english
Lowkey interview with RT news - Libya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:46
- Updated: 28 Jan 2013
Britain, France and the US are interested in sustaining the civil war in Libya in order to secure access to oil and ongoing military contracts. "It's about sustaining the period of civil war and thus destabilizing the revolutions which took place in Tunisia and Egypt," says rapper and activist LowKey. Find me: Daniel 'nev Elenin' Brown on facebook. PAYPAL: www.paypal.com
http://wn.com/Lowkey_interview_with_RT_news_Libya
Britain, France and the US are interested in sustaining the civil war in Libya in order to secure access to oil and ongoing military contracts. "It's about sustaining the period of civil war and thus destabilizing the revolutions which took place in Tunisia and Egypt," says rapper and activist LowKey. Find me: Daniel 'nev Elenin' Brown on facebook. PAYPAL: www.paypal.com
- published: 01 Apr 2011
- views: 4121
- author: theageofthesacredter
Corbyn: UK judge & jury in Libya, bogged down deep in civil war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:49
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Britain now officially recognizes Libya's rebels as the legitimate government, and has expelled Colonel Gaddafi's diplomats. It's also unfreezing 150 million dollars of Libyan oil assets to help fund the rebels. Tripoli insists it will not enter peace talks to end the four-months-long civil war until NATO stops its air strikes. UN talks with the rebels in Benghazi also making little progress towards a ceasefire. RT gets some insight on this from Jeremy Corbyn, who is a British opposition MP and peace campaigner. RT on Twitter: twitter.com RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Corbyn_UK_judge_jury_in_Libya,_bogged_down_deep_in_civil_war
Britain now officially recognizes Libya's rebels as the legitimate government, and has expelled Colonel Gaddafi's diplomats. It's also unfreezing 150 million dollars of Libyan oil assets to help fund the rebels. Tripoli insists it will not enter peace talks to end the four-months-long civil war until NATO stops its air strikes. UN talks with the rebels in Benghazi also making little progress towards a ceasefire. RT gets some insight on this from Jeremy Corbyn, who is a British opposition MP and peace campaigner. RT on Twitter: twitter.com RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com
- published: 28 Jul 2011
- views: 8338
- author: RussiaToday
'Libya war driven by OIL: Oil, Israel & Logistics' - McKinney to RT
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:07
- Updated: 15 Feb 2013
As NATO attacks continue in Libya, ex US Congresswoman and former presidential candidate Cynthia McKinney went to the country on a non-governmental fact-finding mission to see what exactly is going on in the war-torn country. Cynthia McKinney believes the bombardments of Libyan cities and other measures taken by NATO, causing civilian casualties, represent the idea of "collective punishment". RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com RT on Twitter: twitter.com
http://wn.com/'Libya_war_driven_by_OIL_Oil,_Israel_Logistics'_McKinney_to_RT
As NATO attacks continue in Libya, ex US Congresswoman and former presidential candidate Cynthia McKinney went to the country on a non-governmental fact-finding mission to see what exactly is going on in the war-torn country. Cynthia McKinney believes the bombardments of Libyan cities and other measures taken by NATO, causing civilian casualties, represent the idea of "collective punishment". RT on Facebook: www.facebook.com RT on Twitter: twitter.com
- published: 14 Jun 2011
- views: 54833
- author: RussiaToday
euronews interview - Shedding light on Libya's uncertain future
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:57
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
To find out more on about the possible future of Libya, euronews has been speaking to Mohammed Farhat the representative of Libya's National Transitional Council to the European Union. We asked him about the risk of civil war in Libya future relations with the west, Nato's role in Libya, and first where is Muammar Gaddafi and why the Council has said his son Saif al-Islam was in captivity when it turned out he wasn't? Mohammad Farhat: ... www.euronews.net
http://wn.com/euronews_interview_Shedding_light_on_Libya's_uncertain_future
To find out more on about the possible future of Libya, euronews has been speaking to Mohammed Farhat the representative of Libya's National Transitional Council to the European Union. We asked him about the risk of civil war in Libya future relations with the west, Nato's role in Libya, and first where is Muammar Gaddafi and why the Council has said his son Saif al-Islam was in captivity when it turned out he wasn't? Mohammad Farhat: ... www.euronews.net
- published: 23 Aug 2011
- views: 430
- author: Euronews
3:58
Libyan civil war, deadly confrontation in Sirte
...
published: 18 Sep 2011
author: Coolins335
Libyan civil war, deadly confrontation in Sirte
- published: 18 Sep 2011
- views: 35938
- author: Coolins335
9:44
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 1
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filme...
published: 01 Aug 2011
author: routergods
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 1
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7112
- author: routergods
7:58
More Battle Footage From Libyan Civil War
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when...
published: 26 Jun 2011
author: LibyanWarVideoz
More Battle Footage From Libyan Civil War
Subscribe and watch more Libyan War videos Dont know where or when
- published: 26 Jun 2011
- views: 21372
- author: LibyanWarVideoz
10:26
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 2
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filme...
published: 01 Aug 2011
author: routergods
Libyan Civil War - Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill (near Zintan) Part 2
Humphrey Cheung - warjumper.com Twitter @humphreycheung Battle for Galaa/Sofitt Hill filmed on June 7 2011 GoPro Hero HD helmet cam footage. 26 parts in total (each approximately 10 minutes) More info about the battle - warjumper.com Reddit IAMA - bit.ly It has been nearly 2 months since the battle and I'll be putting almost all of the battle footage up for historical reasons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 7809
- author: routergods
25:10
The Civil-War in Libya - Events, Causes, Facts (Documentary)
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for mo...
published: 28 Sep 2012
author: ToBiOh2
The Civil-War in Libya - Events, Causes, Facts (Documentary)
This documentary was created by globalciviliansforpeace.com Please visit their site for more information about the libyan civil war. ------------- It describes the events that caused the libyan civil war and the NATO attack on Libya. It tells in an unknown richness of details the progression of the events that caused the war. Additionally it questions the UN resolution. The original documentary was made by citizens of Tripoli.
- published: 28 Sep 2012
- views: 2767
- author: ToBiOh2
7:33
Celente: Libya civil war none of US business
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and ...
published: 25 Mar 2011
author: RTAmerica
Celente: Libya civil war none of US business
There are increasing calls for more democracy and to end corruption throughout Africa and the Middle East, but the US targeted Libya to make a statement. Gerald Celente, the director of the Trends Research Institute says this is a chilling example of US hypocrisy. Killing people with bombs to solve the humanitarian crisis is absurd and ironic he notes. In addition, Americans are suffering from high unemployment and calling for cuts to government spending, yet the Pentagon is blowing away billions per week bombing Libya.
- published: 25 Mar 2011
- views: 15489
- author: RTAmerica
24:29
Inside Story - Libya: Ready for civil war?
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "...
published: 22 Feb 2011
author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Inside Story - Libya: Ready for civil war?
As protests spread across the country, Seif al-Islam Gaddafi vowed that the regime would "fight to the last bullet".
- published: 22 Feb 2011
- views: 28600
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
6:28
Latest Libyan News - Will A Civil War Start Now?
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still r...
published: 17 Sep 2011
author: 108morris108
Latest Libyan News - Will A Civil War Start Now?
Even though Britain is an antagonist in this Libyan war - Gaddafi loyalist Libyans still return to London to continue their education, and they bring their frontline stories with them. Unlike Tripoli, Sirte, Bani Walid and Sabha might not fall so quickly, perhaps because they are demographically more homogeneous societies. Donations: www.paypal.com
- published: 17 Sep 2011
- views: 8108
- author: 108morris108
7:03
Political Science 101: The Libyan Civil War and UN Intervention
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until...
published: 19 Mar 2011
author: William Spaniel
Political Science 101: The Libyan Civil War and UN Intervention
We're going to be there for a while. This video shows why--the conflict will not end until one side completely militarily defeats the other, and this process takes a long time.
- published: 19 Mar 2011
- views: 2695
- author: William Spaniel
2:39
Libya fighting resembles civil war
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push ...
published: 07 Mar 2011
author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Libya fighting resembles civil war
As supporters of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi start moving eastward in an effort to push the rebels back and recapture fallen towns, the fighting looks set to intensify. In the city of Misurata, rebels were filmed celebrating their victory over Gaddafi's forces. But there has been more fighting there and rebels say they fear government forces are regrouping. Past Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte lies Ras Lanuf where pro-Gaddafi forces are bombarding the oil-rich city, allegedly killing at least three people on Monday. Al Jazeera's Laurence Lee reports.
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 33000
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
12:48
Gaddafi's son: Libya like McDonald's for NATO - fast war as fast food
With the war in Libya at the focal point of international relations, RT's gained access to...
published: 01 Jul 2011
author: RussiaToday
Gaddafi's son: Libya like McDonald's for NATO - fast war as fast food
With the war in Libya at the focal point of international relations, RT's gained access to Colonel Gaddafi's son in NATO-targeted Tripoli. Saif al-Islam thinks his country's wanted for its riches, but says the people won't let Libya fall under foreign control.
- published: 01 Jul 2011
- views: 279455
- author: RussiaToday
2:27
Gas Prices Killing Me 10% Increase, Libya Civil War, Bush Clinton Regime
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron als...
published: 04 Mar 2011
author: adb024
Gas Prices Killing Me 10% Increase, Libya Civil War, Bush Clinton Regime
Aaron Baker rants about gas prices, he has seen a 10% increase in a months time. Aaron also rants about the rumors of United States intervention into the Libya civil war. Aaron believes the Bush, Clinton Regime is destroying collapsing the United States.
- published: 04 Mar 2011
- views: 2615
- author: adb024
1:30
2011 Libyan Civil War [HD]
This is just a video describing the war situation in Libya during its civil war....
published: 17 Jul 2011
author: garvilsingh
2011 Libyan Civil War [HD]
This is just a video describing the war situation in Libya during its civil war.
- published: 17 Jul 2011
- views: 4690
- author: garvilsingh
14:10
Short Khadafi interview 28 Feb 2011, Libya Crisis in Detail
Short part of interview with Colonel Kadhafi of Libya recorded 28 February 2011. Also incl...
published: 01 Mar 2011
author: GlobalPrison
Short Khadafi interview 28 Feb 2011, Libya Crisis in Detail
Short part of interview with Colonel Kadhafi of Libya recorded 28 February 2011. Also includes detailed report into the growing resistance, and refugees fleeing across Libyan borders.
- published: 01 Mar 2011
- views: 9222
- author: GlobalPrison
Vimeo results:
29:48
Flashpoint 416 - Libyan Civil War
Protests in Libya have accelerated, the leadership refuses to step down and the country sl...
published: 04 Mar 2011
author: Alfred Snider
Flashpoint 416 - Libyan Civil War
Protests in Libya have accelerated, the leadership refuses to step down and the country slides towards civil war. Panelists include: Joe Geenty, Allison Hamlin, Tom Dionesotes and Alfred Snider.
Flashpoint is a regular program of issues and ideas sponsored by the Lawrence Debate Union at the University of Vermont. http://debate.uvm.edu/debateblog/LDU/The_Team.html
The Flashpoint website is at
http://flashpointtv.blogspot.com/
Flashpoint programs in archive can be found on the ftp site labeled with show number and title (0390showtitle).
http://uvm.edu/~debate/watch
Thanks to Vermont Community Access Media for their support.
http://vermontcam.org/
38:06
Rewind: The 2011 Libyan civil war
http://newsblast.us A Viewer Comment Website...
published: 13 Sep 2011
author: newsblast.us
Rewind: The 2011 Libyan civil war
http://newsblast.us A Viewer Comment Website
4:41
Libyan Conflict
Motivated and inspired by the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, thousands of Libyans took ...
published: 27 Jul 2011
author: Manu Brabo
Libyan Conflict
Motivated and inspired by the revolutions in Tunisia and Egypt, thousands of Libyans took to the streets in the major cities, calling for democratic reforms and for the end of corruption within Muammar Gaddafi’s regime. The brutal repression by the regime and the subsequent escalation of violence lead to a civil war that still continues. Trapped between both sides, civilians are the first people suffering its consequences.
7:46
ZENGA ZENGA - Libyan uprising
On 17th February a peaceful commemoration of the martyrs killed in Benghazi during the 200...
published: 02 Jun 2011
author: Alfredo Bini
ZENGA ZENGA - Libyan uprising
On 17th February a peaceful commemoration of the martyrs killed in Benghazi during the 2006 protests on the Italian Consulate is forcefully repressed by the Libyan regime.
In the following days disturbances break out all over the country taking the shape of a civil war that within a month will involve Western Countries as well.
Muammar Gaddafi appears in public again and again to announce that the rebels will not get away with it and asks his followers to hunt them down street by street, door to door, closet by closet, encouraging them with a final: "Come on! Come on! Come on!"
ILALAMAN! ILALAMAN! ILALAMAN!
Youtube results:
8:47
Interview in Tripoli with a Black Libyan man
A perspective from a Arab Black Libyan of they Libyan civil war. He is from southern Libya...
published: 09 Jun 2011
author: bbjhnsn28
Interview in Tripoli with a Black Libyan man
A perspective from a Arab Black Libyan of they Libyan civil war. He is from southern Libya wear many indigenous Black Libyans live.
- published: 09 Jun 2011
- views: 5969
- author: bbjhnsn28
6:04
'West-chosen rulers push Libya into real civil war'
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tri...
published: 08 Mar 2012
author: RussiaToday
'West-chosen rulers push Libya into real civil war'
The head of Libya's interim government has threatened to use "force" to bring powerful tribal leaders to heel, after they'd declared autonomy for an oil-rich region in the east. The leader of the National Transitional Council went on to claim that pro-Gaddafi infiltrators were behind the move. RT talks to Patrick Hayes from the online world affairs magazine, Spiked.
- published: 08 Mar 2012
- views: 15169
- author: RussiaToday
4:19
NATO Empire Madness War on Libya President Hugo Chavez Interview 25.08.2011
After meeting with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in Caracas, Venezuela's presiden...
published: 26 Aug 2011
author: alphasex5
NATO Empire Madness War on Libya President Hugo Chavez Interview 25.08.2011
After meeting with Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov in Caracas, Venezuela's president Hugo Chavez condemned the United States and European countries for NATO's air strikes during Libya's conflict, saying: "They've destroyed a country!'' he also said that this is part of the "Empire Madness". Chavez accused the National Transitional Council for having banned the transmission of the truth of the events in Tripoli, which he named a "real massacre". Let's save the human race, let's finish off the US empire. ~ President Hugo Chavez I tell the coward crusaders: I live in a place where you can't get to and kill me. I live in the hearts of millions. ~ Muammar Gaddafi
- published: 26 Aug 2011
- views: 4371
- author: alphasex5
1:21
Libya on the verge of civil war
Intense fighting has continued across Libya with both government and opposition groups cla...
published: 07 Mar 2011
author: Euronews
Libya on the verge of civil war
Intense fighting has continued across Libya with both government and opposition groups claiming success. In Misrata, where rebels say they beat back Gaddafi's forces, it's thought at least 18 people were killed with many hundreds wounded. The UN has called for immediate access to give medical assistance. While the rebels have claimed Misrata and Zawiyah, it appears to be a different story in Bin Jawad where they were forced to retreat. ... www.euronews.net
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 15891
- author: Euronews
| Libyan civil war | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of the Arab Spring | |||||||
 Clockwise from top-left: The National Transitional Council flag is flown by anti-Gaddafi fighters in Brega on 10 March 2011; protesters in Bayda; protesters and defectors clash with Libyan soldiers in Bayda on 17 February 2011; a French rescue helicopter lands on USS Mount Whitney, at the beginning of the military intervention; remains of two Palmaria heavy howitzers of the Libyan Army, destroyed by French warplanes near Benghazi; USS Barry launches one of its Tomahawk missiles during Operation Unified Protector. |
|||||||
|
|||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
 National Transitional Council
UN member states enforcing UNSC Resolution 1973: Spillover conflict: |
 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
|
||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Mustafa Abdul Jalil (Chairman of the NTC)[22]
22x20px Anders Fogh Rasmussen
|
Muammar Gaddafi † Muammar Gaddafi's sons: |
||||||
| Strength | |||||||
| 17,000 defecting soldiers and volunteers[29]
200,000 volunteers by war's end International Forces: Numerous air and maritime forces (see here) |
20,000[31]–40,000[32] soldiers and militia | ||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||
| 5,849–7,241 opposition fighters and supporters killed, 2,716–2,835 missing (see here)
|
2,319–3,224 soldiers killed (see here), 7,000 captured*[35] |
||||||
| Estimated total casualties on both sides, including civilians: 25,000[36]–30,000 killed, 4,000 missing,[37] 50,000 injured[38] |
|||||||
| *Large number of loyalist or immigrant civilians, not military personnel, among those captured by rebels,[39] only an estimated minimum of 1,542+ confirmed as soldiers[40] | |||||||
|
|
|||||
The Libyan civil war (also referred to as the Libyan revolution[41]), was an armed conflict in the North African state of Libya, fought between forces loyal to Colonel Muammar Gaddafi and those seeking to oust his government.[42][43] The war was preceded by protests in Benghazi beginning on Tuesday, 15 February 2011, which led to clashes with security forces that fired on the crowd.[19] The protests escalated into a rebellion that spread across the country,[44] with the forces opposing Gaddafi establishing an interim governing body, the National Transitional Council.
The United Nations Security Council passed an initial resolution on 26 February, freezing the assets of Gaddafi and his inner circle and restricting their travel, and referred the matter to the International Criminal Court for investigation.[45] In early March, Gaddafi's forces rallied, pushed eastwards and re-took several coastal cities before attacking Benghazi. A further U.N. resolution authorised member states to establish and enforce a no-fly zone over Libya, and to use "all necessary measures" to prevent attacks on civilians.[46] The Gaddafi government then announced a ceasefire, but failed to uphold it,[47] though it then accused rebels of violating the ceasefire when they continued to fight as well.[48] Throughout the conflict, rebels rejected government offers of a ceasefire and efforts by the African Union to end the fighting because the plans set forth did not include the removal of Gaddafi.[49]
In August, rebel forces began a coastal offensive, taking back territory lost weeks before and ultimately capturing the capital city of Tripoli,[50] while Gaddafi evaded capture and loyalists engaged in a rearguard campaign.[51] On 16 September 2011, the National Transitional Council was recognised by the United Nations as the legal representative of Libya, replacing the Gaddafi government. Muammar Gaddafi remained at large until 20 October 2011, when he was captured and killed attempting to escape from Sirte.[52] The National Transitional Council "declared the liberation of Libya" and the official end of the war on 23 October 2011.[53]
Amidst the aftermath of the civil war, a low-level insurgency by former Gaddafi loyalists still continued. In addition, there have been various disagreements and strife between local militia and tribes. The most serious clashes erupted in late January 2012. On 23 January, the former Gaddafi stronghold of Bani Walid was captured by local fighters, who subsequently established a non-NTC town council due to the NTC's refusal to cooperate with tribal leaders.[54][55]
Contents |
Background[link]
Further information: History of Libya under Gaddafi
Leadership[link]
Muammar Gaddafi became the de-facto ruler of Libya after he led a military coup that overthrew King Idris I in 1969.[56] He abolished the Libyan Constitution of 1951, and adopted laws based on his own ideology outlined in his manifesto The Green Book. He officially stepped down from power in 1977, and subsequently claimed to be merely a "symbolic figurehead" until 2011, with the Libyan government up until then also denying that he held any power.[57][58]
Under Gaddafi, Libya was theoretically a decentralized, direct democracy[59] state run according to the philosophy of Gaddafi's The Green Book, with Gaddafi retaining a ceremonial position. Libya was officially run by a system of people's committees which served as local governments for the country's subdivisions, an indirectly elected General People's Congress as the legislature, and the General People's Committee, led by a Secretary-General, as the executive branch. According to Freedom House, however, these structures were often manipulated to ensure the dominance of Gaddafi, who reportedly continued to dominate all aspects of government.[60]
WikiLeaks' disclosure of confidential US diplomatic cables revealed US diplomats there speaking of Gaddafi's "mastery of tactical manoeuvring".[61] While placing relatives and loyal members of his tribe in central military and government positions, he skillfully marginalized supporters and rivals, thus maintaining a delicate balance of powers, stability and economic developments. This extended even to his own sons, as he repeatedly changed affections to avoid the rise of a clear successor and rival.[61]
Both Gaddafi and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, however, officially denied that he held any power, but claimed he was merely a symbolic figurehead.[57][58] While he was popularly seen as a demagogue in the West, Gaddafi always portrayed himself as a statesman-philosopher.[62]
According to several Western media sources, Gaddafi feared a military coup against his government and deliberately kept Libya's military relatively weak. The Libyan Army consisted of about 50,000 personnel. Its most powerful units were four crack brigades of highly equipped and trained soldiers, composed of members of Gaddafi's tribe or members of other tribes loyal to him. One, the Khamis Brigade, was led by his son Khamis. Local militias and Revolutionary Committees across the country were also kept well-armed. By contrast, regular military units were poorly armed and trained, and were armed with largely outdated military equipment.[63][64][65] According to Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, however, the reason for the country's de-militarization was a reaction to the Iraq War, so that Libya wouldn't be accused of possessing weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and face the same fate. He also accused NATO of betraying their trust and taking advantage of this weakness to launch an air attack, recommending that other nations build up their military defences in order to avoid facing the same fate as Libya.[66]
Development and corruption[link]
Much of the state's income came from its oil production, which soared in the 1970s. In the 1980s, a large portion of it was spent on arms purchases, and on sponsoring militant groups and independence movements around the world.[67][68]
Petroleum revenues contributed up to 58% of Libya's GDP.[69] Governments with resource curse revenue have a lower need for taxes from other industries and consequently feel less pressure to develop their middle class. To calm opposition, they can use the income from natural resources to offer services to the population, or to specific government supporters.[70] Libya's oil wealth being spread over a relatively small population gave it a higher GDP per capita than in neighbouring states.[71][72][73] Libya's GDP per capita (PPP), human development index, and literacy rate were better than in Egypt and Tunisia, whose Arab Spring revolutions preceded the outbreak of protests in Libya.[74] Libya's corruption perception index in 2010 was 2.2, ranking 146th out of 178 countries, worse than that of Egypt (ranked 98th) and Tunisia (ranked 59th).[75] One paper speculated that such a situation created a broader contrast between good education, high demand for democracy, and the government's practices (perceived corruption, political system, supply of democracy).[74]
An estimated 13% of Libyan citizens were unemployed.[76] More than 16% of families had none of its members earning a stable income, while 43.3% had just one. Despite one of the highest unemployment rates in the region, there was a consistent labor shortage with over a million migrant workers present on the market.[77] These migrant workers formed the bulk of the refugees leaving Libya after the beginning of hostilities. Despite this, Libya's Human Development Index in 2010 was the highest in Africa and greater than that of Saudi Arabia. Libya had welfare systems allowing access to free education, free healthcare, and financial assistance for housing, while the Great Manmade River was built to allow free access to fresh water across large parts of the country.[78]
Some of the worst economic conditions were in the eastern parts of the state, once a breadbasket of the ancient world, where Gaddafi extracted oil.[79][80] Despite improvements in housing and the Great Manmade River allowing access to free fresh water,[78] not much infrastructure beyond this was developed in the region for many years, with the only sewage facility in Benghazi being over 40 years old, and untreated sewage has resulted in environmental problems.[81]
Several foreign governments and analysts have claimed that a large share of the business enterprise was controlled by Gaddafi, his family, and the government.[82] A leaked US diplomatic cable claimed that the Libyan economy was "a kleptocracy in which the government – either the Gaddafi family itself or its close political allies – has a direct stake in anything worth buying, selling or owning".[83] According to US officials, Gaddafi amassed a vast personal fortune during his 42-year leadership.[84] The New York Times pointed to Gaddafi's relatives adopting lavish lifestyles, including luxurious homes, Hollywood film investments, and private parties with American pop stars.[83][85]
Gaddafi claimed he was planning to combat corruption in the state by proposing reforms where oil profits are handed out directly to the country's five million people[86] rather than to government bodies, stating that "as long as money is administered by a government body, there would be theft and corruption."[87] Gaddafi urged a sweeping reform of the government bureaucracy, suggesting that most of the cabinet system should be dismantled to "free Libyans from red tape" and "protect the state's budget from corruption." According to Western diplomats, this move appeared to be aimed at putting pressure on the government to speed up reforms.[86] In March 2008, Gaddafi proposed plans to dissolve the country's existing administrative structure and disburse oil revenue directly to the people. The plan included abolishing all ministries except those of defence, internal security, and foreign affairs, and departments implementing strategic projects.[88] He claimed that the ministries were failing to manage the country’s oil revenues,[89] and that his "dream during all these years was to give power and wealth directly to the people."[90]
A national vote on Gaddafi's plan to disband the government and give oil money directly to the people was held in 2009, where Libya's people's congresses, collectively the country's highest authority, voted to delay implementation. The General People's Congress announced that, out of 468 Basic People's Congresses, 64 chose immediate implementation while 251 endorsed implementation "but asked for (it) to be delayed until appropriate measures were put in place." This plan led to dissent from top government officials, who claimed it would "wreak havoc" in the economy by "fanning inflation and spurring capital flight." Gaddafi acknowledged that the scheme, which promised up to 30,000 Libyan dinars ($23,000) annually to about a million of Libya's poorest, may "cause chaos before it brought about prosperity," but claimed "do not be afraid to experiment with a new form of government" and that "this plan is to offer a better future for Libya's children."[90][91]
The civil war was viewed as part of the Arab Spring, which had already resulted in the ousting of long-term presidents of adjacent Tunisia and Egypt, with the initial protests all using similar slogans.[92] Social media played an important role in organizing the opposition.[93]
Human rights in Libya[link]
Further information: Human rights in Libya
In 2009 and 2011, the Freedom of the Press Index rated Libya the most-censored state in the Middle East and North Africa.[94][95] In contrast, a January 2011 report of the United Nations Human Rights Council, on which the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya sat prior to the uprising, released a month before protests began, praised certain aspects of the country's human rights record, including its treatment of women and improvements in other areas.[96]
The Libyan Arab Jamahiriya's delegation to the United Nations issued a report about human rights in Libya. The report claimed that the country was founded on direct people's democracy that guaranteed direct exercise of authority by all citizens through the people's congresses. Citizens were claimed to be able to express opinions of the congresses on issues related to political, economic, social, and cultural issues. In addition, the report claimed that there were information platforms such as newspapers and TV channels for people to express their opinions through. Libyan authorities also argued that no one in the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya suffered from extreme poverty and hunger, and that the government guaranteed a minimum of food and essential needs to people with low incomes. In 2006, an initiative was adopted for providing people with low incomes investment potfolios amounting to $30,000 to be deposited with banks and companies.[97]
The Revolutionary Committees occasionally kept tight control over internal dissent; reportedly, ten to twenty percent of Libyans worked as informants for these committees, with surveillance taking place in the government, in factories, and in the education sector.[98] The government sometimes executed dissidents through public hangings and mutilations and re-broadcast them on public television channels.[98][99] Up to the mid-1980s, Libya's intelligence service conducted assassinations of Libyan dissidents around the world.[98][100]
In December 2009, Gaddafi reportedly told government officials that Libya would soon experience a "new political period" and would have elections for important positions such as minister-level roles and the National Security Advisor position (a Prime Minister equivalent). He also promised that international monitors would be included to ensure fair elections. His speech was said to have caused quite a stir. These elections were planned to coincide with the Jamahiriya's usual periodic elections for the Popular Committees, Basic People's Committees, Basic People's Congresses, and General People's Congresses, in 2010.[101]
Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973, and in 1974, Gaddafi asserted that anyone guilty of founding a political party would be executed.[98] With the establishment of the Jamahiriya ("state of the masses") system in 1977, he established the Revolutionary Committees as conduits for raising political consciousness, with the aim of direct political participation by all Libyans rather than a traditional party-based representative system.[102] In 1979, some of the Revolutionary Committees had eventually evolved into self-appointed, sometimes zealous, enforcers of revolutionary orthodoxy.[102] During the early 1980s, the Revolutionary Committees had considerable power and became a growing source of tension within the Jamihiriya,[103] to the extent that Gaddafi sometimes criticized their effectiveness and excessive repression,[102][103] until the power of the Revolutionary Committees were eventually restricted in the late 1980s.[103]
The Green Book, which Gaddafi authored in the 1970s, was for years the principal text of political education. BBC cited a Libyan who claimed that teachers who called it "rubbish" could face execution.[104] According to the Libyan Government, "the death penalty may not be imposed except in tretribution (qisas) or on persons whose lives endanger or corrupt society."[97]
In 1988, Gaddafi criticized the "excesses" he blamed on the Revolutionary Councils, stating that "they deviated, harmed, tortured" and that "the true revolutionary does not practise repression."[102] That same year, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya issued the Great Green Document on Human Rights, in which Article 5 established laws that allowed greater freedom of expression. Article 8 of The Code on the Promotion of Freedom stated that "each citizen has the right to express his opinions and ideas openly in People’s Congresses and in all mass media."[96] A number of restrictions were also allegedly placed on the power of the Revolutionary Committees by the Gaddafi government, leading to a resurgence in the Libyan state's popularity by the early 1990s.[103] In 2004, however, Libya posted a $1 million bounty for journalist and governmental critic Ashur Shamis, under the allegation that he was linked to Al-Qaeda and terror suspect Abu Qatada.[105]
Anti-Gaddafi movement, beginnings of the National Transitional Council[link]
Beginnings of protests[link]
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Between 13 and 16 January 2011, upset at delays in the building of housing units and over political corruption, protesters in Bayda, Derna, Benghazi and other cities broke into, and occupied, housing that the government had been building. Protesters also clashed with police in Bayda and attacked government offices.[108][109] By 27 January, the government had responded to the housing unrest with a €20 billion investment fund to provide housing and development.[110][111]
In late January, Jamal al-Hajji, a writer, political commentator and accountant, "call[ed] on the Internet for demonstrations to be held in support of greater freedoms in Libya" inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions. He was arrested on 1 February by plain-clothes police officers, and charged on 3 February with injuring someone with his car. Amnesty International claimed that because al-Hajji had previously been imprisoned for his non-violent political opinions, the real reason for the present arrest appeared to be his call for demonstrations.[112] In early February, Gaddafi, on behalf of the Jamahiriya, met with political activists, journalists and media figures and warned them that they would be held responsible if they disturbed the peace or created chaos in Libya.[113]
Uprising and civil war[link]
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The protests, unrest and confrontations began in earnest on 15 February 2011. On the evening of 15 February, between 500 and 600 demonstrators protested in front of Benghazi's police headquarters after the arrest of human rights lawyer Fathi Terbil. Crowds were armed with petrol bombs and threw stones. Marchers hurled Molotov cocktails in a downtown square in Benghazi, damaging cars, blocking roads, and hurling rocks. Police responded to crowds with tear gas, water cannon, and rubber bullets.[114] 38 people were injured, among them ten security personnel.[115][116] The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests.[115]
In a statement released after clashes in Benghazi, a Libyan official warned that the Government "will not allow a group of people to move around at night and play with the security of Libya". The statement added: "The clashes last night were between small groups of people - up to 150. Some outsiders infiltrated that group. They were trying to corrupt the local legal process which has long been in place. We will not permit that at all, and we call on Libyans to voice their issues through existing channels, even if it is to call for the downfall of the government."[117]
In Bayda and Zintan, hundreds of protesters in each town called for an end to the Gaddafi government and set fire to police and security buildings.[115][118] In Zintan, the protesters set up tents in the town centre.[115] The armed protests continued the following day in Benghazi, Derna and Bayda. Libyan security forces allegedly responded with lethal force. Hundreds gathered at Maydan al-Shajara in Benghazi, and authorities tried to disperse protesters with water cannons.[119]
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A "Day of Rage" in Libya and by Libyans in exile was planned for 17 February.[113][120][121] The National Conference for the Libyan Opposition asked that all groups opposed to the Gaddafi government protest on 17 February in memory of demonstrations in Benghazi five years earlier.[113] The plans to protest were inspired by the Tunisian and Egyptian revolution.[113] Protests took place in Benghazi, Ajdabiya, Derna, Zintan, and Bayda. Libyan security forces fired live ammunition into the armed protests. Protesters torched a number of government buildings, including a police station.[122][123] In Tripoli, television and public radio stations had been sacked, and protesters set fire to security buildings, Revolutionary Committee offices, the interior ministry building, and the People's Hall.[124][125] According to a report from the International Crisis Group, "much Western media coverage has from the outset presented a very one-sided view of the logic of events, portraying the protest movement as entirely peaceful and repeatedly suggesting that the government's security forces were unaccountably massacring unarmed demonstrators who presented no security challenge".[124]
On 18 February, police and army personnel later withdrew from Benghazi after being overwhelmed by protesters. Some army personnel also joined the protesters; they then seized the local radio station. In Bayda, unconfirmed reports indicated that the local police force and riot-control units had joined the protesters.[126] On 19 February, witnesses in Libya reported helicopters firing into crowds of anti-government protesters.[127] The army withdrew from the city of Bayda.
Cultural revolt[link]
‘Al-Soo'al’ (The Question)[128]
“Muammar: You have never served the people
Muammar: You'd better give up
Confess. You cannot escape
Our revenge will catch you
As a train roars through a wall
We will drown you.”
Rap, hip hop and traditional music, alongside other genres, have played a role in encouraging the dissidents to Gaddafi's government. Music has been controlled and dissenting cultural figures have been arrested or tortured in Arab Spring countries, including Libya.[128] The music has provided an important platform by means of communication among the demonstrators. The music has helped create moral support and encouraged a spirit of resistance and revolt against the governments.[128]
An anonymous hip hop artist called Ibn Thabit has given a voice to "disenfranchised Libyans looking for a non-violent way to express their political will".[129][130] On his website, Ibn Thabit claims he "has been attacking Gaddafi with his music since 2008" when he posted his first song on the internet, titled "Moammar – the coward".[129][131] Lyrics of a song 'Al-Soo'al' released by Ibn Thabit on YouTube on 27 January 2011, weeks before the riots began in Libya are indicative of the rebel sentiment.[128]
Some groups, such as a rock band from Benghazi called the "Guys Underground", used metaphors to cloak the censure of the authorities. The group released a song just before the uprising entitled "Like My Father Always Says" to ridicule an autocratic fictional male head of a family which was a veiled reference to Colonel Gaddafi.[128]
Organisation[link]
See also: National Transitional Council
Many opposition participants have called for a return to the 1952 constitution and a transition to multi-party democracy. Military units who have joined the rebellion and many volunteers have formed an army to defend against Jamahiriya attacks and to work to bring Tripoli under the influence of Jalil.[132] In Tobruk, volunteers turned a former headquarters of the government into a centre for helping protesters. Volunteers reportedly guarded the port, local banks and oil terminals to keep the oil flowing. Teachers and engineers set up a committee to collect weapons.[80] Likewise supply lines were run by volunteers. For example, in Misrata people organised a pizza service which delivered up to 8,000 pizzas a day to fighters.[133]
The National Transitional Council (Arabic: المجلس الوطني الانتقالي) was established on 27 February in an effort to consolidate efforts for change in the rule of Libya.[134] The main objectives of the group did not include forming an interim government, but instead to co-ordinate resistance efforts between the different towns held in rebel control, and to give a political "face" to the opposition to present to the world.[135] The Benghazi-based opposition government had called for a no-fly zone and airstrikes against the Jamahiriya.[136] The council refers to the Libyan state as the Libyan Republic and it now has a website.[137] Former Jamahiriya Justice Minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil said in February that the new government would prepare for elections and they could be held in three months.[138] On 29 March, the political and international affairs committee of the Council presented its eight-point plan for Libya in The Guardian newspaper, stating they would hold free and fair elections and draft a national constitution.[42][43]
An independent newspaper called Libya appeared in Benghazi, as well as rebel-controlled radio stations.[139] Some of the rebels oppose tribalism and wear vests bearing slogans such as "No to tribalism, no to factionalism".[80] Libyans have said that they have found abandoned torture chambers and devices that have been used in the past.[140]
Composition of rebel forces[link]
The rebels are composed primarily of civilians, such as teachers, students, lawyers, and oil workers, and a contingent of professional soldiers that defected from the Libyan Army and joined the rebels.[141] The Islamist group Libyan Islamic Fighting Group is considered part of the rebel movement,[142] as is the Obaida Ibn Jarrah Brigade which has been held responsible for the assassination of top rebel commander General Abdul Fatah Younis.[143]
Gaddafi's administration had repeatedly asserted that the rebels included al-Qaeda fighters.[144] NATO's Supreme Allied Commander James G. Stavridis stated that intelligence reports suggested "flickers" of al-Qaeda activity were present among the rebels, but also added that there is not sufficient information to confirm there is any significant al-Qaeda or terrorist presence.[145][146] Denials of al-Qaeda membership were issued by the rebels.[147] Gaddafi's claims are supported by a secret cable to the State Department from the US embassy in Tripoli in 2008 and an analysis by the Combating Terrorism Center at the US Military Academy at West Point of a set of documents called the Sinjar Records, purporting to show a statistical study of the al-Qaeda personnel records. The West Point analysis of these documents concluded that Libya provided "far more" foreign fighters in per capita terms than any other country.[148] A disclosed file from 2005 on WikiLeaks found that rebel leader Abu Sufian Ibrahim Ahmed Hamuda Bin Qumu was a former Guantanamo Bay detainee alleged to be a member of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, to have joined the Taliban in 1998, and that he was a “probable member of Al Qaida and a member of the African Extremist Network.”[149]
State response[link]
Further information: Muammar Gaddafi's response to the Libyan civil war
In the days leading up to the conflict, Gaddafi called for a rally against the government that was to be held on 17 February. The International Crisis Group believes this to have been a political manoeuvre to divert attention away from himself and the Jamahiriya political system towards government officials currently in power.[124]
Later in February, Gaddafi claimed that the rebels were influenced by Al-Qaeda, Osama Bin Laden, and hallucinogenic drugs put in drinks and pills. He specifically referred to substances in milk, coffee, and Nescafé, and claimed that Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda were distributing these hallucinogenic drugs. He also blamed alcohol.[150][151][152] Gaddafi later also claimed that the revolt against his rule was the result of a colonialist plot by foreign states, particularly blaming France, the US and the UK, to control oil and enslave the Libyan people. He referred to the rebels as "cockroaches" and "rats", and vowed not to step down and to cleanse Libya house by house until the insurrection was crushed.[153][154][155] He said that if the rebels laid down their arms, they would not be harmed. He also said that he had been receiving "thousands" of phone calls from Benghazi, from residents who were being held hostage and who wanted to be rescued. Gaddafi said in a speech addressed to Benghazi on 17 March 2011 that the rebels "can run away, they can go to Egypt...Those who would surrender their weapons and would join our side, we are the people of Libya. Those who surrender their weapons and would come without their arms, we would forgive them, and would have amnesty for those who put down their weapons. Anyone who throws his arms away and stays at home would be protected.[156]
Libya's ambassador in Malta explained that "many people instigating unrest were arrested. Libya will show that these belonged to Al Qaeda. Some young protestors were also misled. The government is ready to dialogue with them." He cited reports from the Libyan Foreign Ministry that up to 2,500 al-Qaeda foreign operatives have been working in eastern Libya and were mostly responsible for "stirring up trouble." He concluded, “What we saw in Tahrir Square, and in Tunisia, was a clear situation. But in Libya, there is something different."[157]
He called himself a "warrior", and vowed to fight on and die a "martyr", and urged his supporters to leave their homes and attack rebels "in their lairs". Gaddafi claimed that he had not yet ordered the use of force, and threatened that "everything will burn" when he did. Responding to demands that he step down, he claimed that he could not step down, as he held a purely symbolic position like Queen Elizabeth, and that the people were in power.[158]
The Swedish peace research institute SIPRI reported flights between Tripoli and a dedicated military base in Belarus which only handles stockpiled weaponry and military equipment.[159]
Violence[link]
Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, in an interview with ABC on 17 March, stated that the rebels in Benghazi engaged in terror against the population. He stated, "You know, the armoured militia yesterday, they killed four young boys in Benghazi. Why? Because they were against them. Everybody is terrified because of the armed militia. They live in terror. Nightmare. Armed people are everywhere. They have their own courts. They execute the people who are against them. No school. No hospital. No money. No banks."[160]
The Libyan government were reported to have employed snipers, artillery, helicopter gunships, warplanes, anti-aircraft weaponry, and warships against demonstrations and funeral processions.[161] It was also reported that security forces and foreign mercenaries repeatedly used firearms, including assault rifles and machine guns, as well as knives against protesters. Amnesty International initially reported that writers, intellectuals and other prominent opposition sympathizers disappeared during the early days of the conflict in Gaddafi-controlled cities, and that they may have been subjected to torture or execution.[162]
In a 17 March 2011 interview, shortly before the military intervention, Muammar Gaddafi's son and heir apparent Saif al-Islam Gaddafi claimed "armed militia" fighters in Benghazi were killing children and terrorizing the population.[160]
Amnesty International also reported that security forces targeted paramedics helping injured protesters.[163] In multiple incidents, Gaddafi's forces were documented using ambulances in their attacks.[164][165] Injured demonstrators were sometimes denied access to hospitals and ambulance transport. The government also banned giving blood transfusions to people who had taken part in the demonstrations.[166] Security forces, including members of Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees, stormed hospitals and removed the dead. Injured protesters were either summarily executed or had their oxygen masks, IV drips, and wires connected to the monitors removed. The dead and injured were piled into vehicles and taken away, possibly for cremation.[167][168] Doctors were prevented from documenting the numbers of dead and wounded, but an orderly in a Tripoli hospital morgue estimated to the BBC that 600–700 protesters were killed in Green Square in Tripoli on 20 February. The orderly claimed that ambulances brought in three or four corpses at a time, and that after the ice lockers were filled to capacity, bodies were placed on stretchers or the floor, and that "it was in the same at the other hospitals".[167]
In the eastern city of Bayda, anti-government forces hung two policemen who were involved in trying to disperse demonstrations. In downtown Benghazi, anti-government forces killed the managing director of al-Galaa hospital. The victim's body showed signs of torture.[169]
On 19 February, several days after the conflict began, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi announced the creation of a commission of inquiry into the violence, chaired by a Libyan judge, as reported on state television. He stated that the commission was intended to be "for members of Libyan and foreign organizations of human rights" and that it will "investigate the circumstances and events that have caused many victims."[125] Later in the month, he went on state television to deny allegations that the government had launched airstrikes against Libyan cities and stated that the number of protesters killed had been exaggerated.[150]
Later in February, it was reported that the Gaddafi government had suppressed protests in Tripoli by distributing automobiles, money and weapons for hired followers to drive around Tripoli and attack people showing signs of dissent.[170] In Tripoli, "death squads" of mercenaries and Revolutionary Committees members reportedly patrolled the streets and shot people who tried to take the dead off the streets or gather in groups.[171]
In March 2011, the International Federation for Human Rights concluded that Gaddafi was implementing a scorched earth strategy. The organization stated that "It is reasonable to fear that he has, in fact, decided to largely eliminate, wherever he still can, Libyan citizens who stood up against his regime and furthermore, to systematically and indiscriminately repress civilians. These acts can be characterized as crimes against humanity, as defined in Article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."[172]
In May 2011, International Criminal Court (ICC) chief prosecutor Luis Moreno-Ocampo estimated that 500–700 people were killed by security forces in February 2011, before the rebels took up arms. According to Moreno-Ocampo, "shooting at protesters was systematic".[173]
During the siege of Misrata in May 2011, Amnesty International reported "horrifying" tactics such as "indiscriminate attacks that have led to massive civilian casualties, including use of heavy artillery, rockets and cluster bombs in civilian areas and sniper fire against residents."[174] Gaddafi's military commanders also reportedly executed soldiers who refused to fire on protesters.[175] The International Federation for Human Rights reported a case where 130 soldiers were executed.[176] Some of the soldiers executed by their commanders were reportedly burned alive.[177]
In June 2011, a more detailed investigation carried out by Amnesty International found that many of the allegations against Gaddafi and the Libyan state turned out to either be false or lack any credible evidence, noting that rebels at times appeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence. According to the Amnesty investigation, the number of casualties was heavily exaggerated, some of the protesters may have been armed, "there is no proof of mass killing of civilians on the scale of Syria or Yemen," and there is no evidence that aircraft or heavy anti-aircraft machine guns were used against crowds. It also doubted claims that the protest movement was "entirely peaceful" and "presented no security challenge."[19]
In July 2011, Saif al-Islam Gaddafi had an interview with Russia Today in which he denied the ICC's allegations that he or his father Muammar Gaddafi ordered the killing of civilian protesters. He claimed that he was not a member of the government or the military and therefore had no authority to give such orders. He also claimed his father made recorded calls to General Abdul Fatah Younis, who later defected to the rebel forces, in order to request not to use force against protesters, to which he said Fatah Younis responded that protesters were attacking a military site and soldiers were acting in self-defense.[66][178]
Prison sites and torture[link]
Gaddafi reportedly imprisoned thousands or tens of thousands residents in Tripoli, with Red Cross denied access to these hidden prisons. One of the most notorious is a prison which was set up in a tobacco factory in Tripoli where inmates are reported to have been fed just half a loaf of bread and a bottle of water a day.[179]
In late April, United States Ambassador to the United Nations Susan Rice alleged that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were given Viagra and encouraged to commit rapes in rebel-held or disputed areas. The allegations surfaced in an Al Jazeera report the previous month from Libya-based doctors, who claimed to have found Viagra in the pockets of government soldiers.[180] Human rights groups and aid workers had previously documented rapes by loyalist fighters during the war. The British aid agency "Save the children" said it got reports that children were raped by unknown perpetrators, although the charity warns that these reports could not be confirmed.[181][182]
In Misrata, a rebel spokesman claimed that government soldiers had committed a string of sexual assaults in Benghazi Street before being pushed out by rebels. A doctor claimed that two young sisters were raped by five Black African mercenaries after their brothers joined the rebels. According to aid workers, four young girls were abducted and held for four days, and were possibly sexually assaulted.[183] In a questionnaire 259 refugee women reported that they had been raped by Gaddafi's soldiers, however the accounts of these women could not be independently verified as the psychologist who conducted the questionnaire claimed that "she had lost contact with them".[19]
The validity of the rape allegations is questioned by Amnesty International, which has not found evidence to back up the claims and notes that there are indications that on several occasions the rebels in Benghazi appeared to have knowingly made false claims or manufactured evidence.[19]
Mercenaries[link]
The Libyan government alleged that the armed rebellion was composed of "criminal gangs and mercenaries."[184] A Libyan official reported to Libyan television that security forces arrested Tunisians and Egyptians that were "trained to sow chaos."[185] According to the Libyan Government authorities, mercenaries from Turkey, Egypt, and Tunisia allegedly entered Libya to fight on the side of the rebels. Dozens of them were arrested. Libya's Jamahiriya News Agency reported that the detained men were part of a “foreign network (and were) trained to damage Libya’s stability, the safety of its citizens and national unity.”[186] Military advisors from Qatar participated on the side of the rebels,[187] and were sometimes labelled as "mercenaries" by the media.[188]
After clashes between Government and anti-government forces, allegations arose of the Libyan Gaddafi using foreign mercenaries. The Libyan Government's ambassador to India Ali al-Essawi claimed that the defections of military units had indeed led to such a decision.[189] Video footage purporting to show this started to leak out of the country.[189] Gaddafi's former Chief of Protocol Nouri Al Misrahi claimed in an interview with the Al Jazeera that Nigerien, Malian, Chadian and Kenyan mercenaries are among foreign soldiers helping fight the uprising on behalf of Gaddafi.[190] Chadian sources repudiated allegations that mercenaries from Chad were involved in the fighting in Libya. The Chadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs in a statement said that "Chadians are not sent or recruited in Chad to serve as mercenaries in Libya," and that allegations about Chadian mercenaries were "likely to cause serious physical and material harm to Chadians residing in Libya."[191]
According to African Union chairman Jean Ping, the "NTC seems to confuse black people with mercenaries,". Ping said that for the rebels, "All blacks are mercenaries. If you do that, it means (that the) one-third of the population of Libya, which is black, is also mercenaries. They are killing people, normal workers, mistreating them."[192]
In Mali, members of the Tuareg tribe confirmed that a large number of men, about 5,000, from the tribe went to Libya in late February.[18][193][194][195] Locals in Mali said they were promised €7,500 ($10,000) upfront payment and compensation up to €750 ($1,000) per day.[193][194] Gaddafi has used Malian Tuaregs in his political projects before, sending them to fight in places like Chad, Sudan and Lebanon and recently they have fought against Niger government, a war which Gaddafi has reportedly sponsored. Malian government officials told BBC that it's hard to stop the flow of fighters from Mali to Libya.[193] A recruitment center for Malian soldiers leaving to Libya was found in a Bamako hotel.[195]
Reports from Ghana state that the men who went to Libya were offered as much as €1950 ($2,500) per day.[189] Advertisements seeking mercenaries were seen in Nigeria[189] with at least one female Nigerian pro-Gaddafi sniper being caught in late August outside of Tripoli.[196] One group of mercenaries from Niger, who had been allegedly recruited from the streets with promises of money, included a soldier of just 13 years of age.[16] The Daily Telegraph studied the case of a sixteen-year-old captured Chadian child soldier in Bayda. The boy, who had previously been a shepherd in Chad, told that a Libyan man had offered him a job and a free flight to Tripoli, but in the end he had been airlifted to shoot opposition members in Eastern Libya.[17]
Reports by EU experts stated that Gaddafi's government hired between 300 and 500 European soldiers, including some from EU countries, at high wages. According to Michel Koutouzis, who does research on security issues for the EU institutions, the UN and the French government, "In Libyan society, there is a taboo against killing people from your own tribal group. This is one reason why Gaddafi needs foreign fighters,"[197] The Serbian newspaper Alo! stated that Serbs were hired to help Gaddafi in the early days of the conflict.[198] Rumors of Serbian pilots participating on the side of Gaddafi appeared early in the conflict.[199][200][201] Time magazine interviewed mercenaries from ex-Yugoslavia who fled Gaddafi's forces in August.[202]
A witness claimed that mercenaries were more willing to kill demonstrators than Libyan forces were, and earned a reputation as among the most brutal forces employed by the government. A doctor in Benghazi said of the mercenaries that "they know one thing: to kill whose in front of them. Nothing else. They're killing people in cold blood".[203]
On 7 April, Reuters reported that soldiers loyal to Gaddafi were sent into refugee camps to intimidate and bribe black African migrant workers into fighting for the Libyan state during the war. Some of these "mercenaries" were compelled to fight against their wishes, according to a source inside one of the refugee camps.[204]
In June 2011, Amnesty International said it found no evidence of foreign mercenaries being used, saying the black Africans claimed to be "mercenaries" were in fact "sub-Saharan migrants working in Libya," and described the use of mercenaries as a "myth" that "inflamed public opinion" and led to lynchings and executions of black Africans by rebel forces.[19]
In October 2011 it was reported that the South African government was investigating the possibility that South African mercenaries were hired by Gaddafi to help him in his failed attempt to escape the besieged city of Sirte.[205] It is thought that two South African mercenaries died in that operation from a NATO air strike on Gaddafi's convoy. One of the alleged mercenaries speaking from a hospital in North Africa stated that around 19 South Africans had been contracted by different companies for the operation.[206]
Censorship of events[link]
A subsidiary of Bull, developed a software called Eagle that enabled to monitor internet traffic and which was implemented in Libya in 2008 and with better performance in 2010.[207] Gaddafi shut down all Internet communications in Libya, and arrested Libyans who had given phone interviews to the media.[208][209] International journalists were banned by the Libyan authorities from reporting from Libya except by invitation of the Gaddafi government.[210][211][212] On 21 February, The New York Times reported that Gaddafi had tried to impose a blackout on information from Libya.[213] Several residents reported that cellphone service was down, and even landline phone service was sporadic.[213] However, every day new footage made with cell phone cameras finds its way to YouTube and the international media. Journalists and human rights researchers make daily phone calls to hundreds of civilians in government held territory.
The rebels abducted five journalists from Russia in April 2011 in Ajdabiya. They took away the journalists' documents and equipment.[214] In the city of Misrata, rebel leaders imposed restrictions on the foreign media. Journalists were prevented from traveling to the village of Dafniya and were turned back at rebel-held checkpoints. Journalists were only able to use officially approved translators.[215]
International journalists who have attempted to cover the events were attacked by Gaddafi's forces. A BBC News crew was beaten and then lined up against a wall by Gaddafi's soldiers, who then shot next to a journalist's ear and laughed at them.[216] A journalist working for The Guardian and another Brazilian journalist have been detained. An Al-Jazeera journalist Ali Hassan al-Jaber was murdered, and was apparently deliberately targeted.[217] Gaddafi's soldiers held four New York Times journalists – Lynsey Addario, Anthony Shadid, Stephen Farrell and Tyler Hicks – in captivity for a week.[218][219] Libyan citizen journalist Mohammed Nabbous was shot in the head by Gaddafi's soldiers soon after exposing the Gaddafi government's false reports related to the cease-fire declaration.[220]
International media[link]
After the uprising began, Libyan students studying in the United States received phone calls from the Libyan embassy, instructing them to participate in pro-Gaddafi rallies. They were threatened with losing their government-funded scholarships if they refused. Gaddafi's ambassador denied the reports.[221] A campaign in Serbia has organized people to spread pro-Gaddafi messages on the Internet.[222]
Gaddafi's men organized tours for foreign journalists in Tripoli. The Economist correspondent in Tripoli noted "The picture presented by the regime often falls apart, fast. Coffins at funerals have sometimes turned out to be empty. Bombing sites are recycled. An injured seven-year-old in a hospital was the victim of a car crash, according to a note passed on surreptitiously by a nurse. Journalists who point out such blatant massaging of facts are harangued in the hotel corridors."[223]
Held by anti-Gaddafis by 1 March. (Checkered: Lost before UN intervention)
Contested areas between March and August.
Rebel western coastal offensive in August.
Rebel gains by 1 October.
Last loyalist pockets.
Major campaigns. 
battles.The Guardian described journalism in Gaddafi's Libya as "North Korea with palm trees". Journalist were not allowed to go anywhere, or talk to anyone, without authorization from Gaddafi's officials who always followed them. Journalists who didn't report events the way Gaddafi's officials instructed faced problems and sudden deportations.[224]
In June 2011, Amnesty International criticized "Western media coverage" which "has from the outset presented a very one-sided view of the logic of events, portraying the protest movement as entirely peaceful and repeatedly suggesting that the regime's security forces were unaccountably massacring unarmed demonstrators who presented no security challenge."[19]
Human shields[link]
Gaddafi forces reportedly surrounded themselves with civilians to protect themselves and key military sites like the Bab al-Azizia compound in Tripoli from air strikes.[225] Amnesty International cited claims that Gaddafi had placed his tanks next to civilian facilities, using them as shields.[174]
According to Libyan state television, the rebels used human shields in Misrata.[226] The Jamahiriya News Agency reported on a speech delivered by Leader Gaddafi to Misrata Tribes in Tripol, in which he claimed that the rebels "used children and women as human shields. They took more than 100 children whose whereabouts we do not know—maybe to Europe to be evangelised."[227]
Course of the war[link]
Main article: Timeline of the Libyan civil war
First weeks[link]
By 23 February, Gaddafi was suffering from the resignations and defections of close allies,[228] from the loss of Benghazi,[229] the fall of Tobruk, Misrata, Bayda, Zawiya, Zuwara, Sabratha, Sorman,[228][230] and mounting international isolation and pressure.[228][231][232] By the end of February, Gaddafi's government had lost control of a significant part of Libya, including the major cities of Misrata and Benghazi, and the important harbors at Ra's Lanuf and Brega.[233][234] But in March, Gaddafi's forces pushed the rebels back and eventually reached Benghazi[235][236] and Misrata.
Foreign military intervention[link]
Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya
| Funds spent by Foreign Powers on War in Libya. | |||||||||||||||||||
| Country | Funds Spent | By | |||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 United Kingdom |
$336–$1500 million USD | September 2011 (estimate)[237][238] | |||||||||||||||||
 United States |
$896 million USD | 31 July 2011[239][240][241] | |||||||||||||||||
 France |
$450 million USD | September 2011[242][243] | |||||||||||||||||
 Turkey |
$300 million USD | July 2011[244] | |||||||||||||||||
 Denmark |
$120 million USD | November 2011[245] | |||||||||||||||||
 Belgium |
$58 million USD | October 2011[246] | |||||||||||||||||
 Spain |
$50 million USD | September 2011[247] | |||||||||||||||||
 Sweden |
$50 million USD | October 2011[248] | |||||||||||||||||
 Canada |
$26 million USD | June 2011[249] | |||||||||||||||||
The Royal Canadian Navy frigate HMCS Charlottetown was on 2 March 2011 deployed to the Mediterranean, off the coast of Libya, but did not take immediate action once arrived.[250] Seventeen days later, a multi-state coalition began a military intervention in Libya to implement United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973, which was taken in response to events during the Libyan civil war. That same day, military operations began, with US forces and one British submarine firing cruise missiles,[251][252] the French Air Force, United States Air Force and British Royal Air Force[253] undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the Royal Navy.[254][255][256]
Since the beginning of the intervention, the initial coalition of Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Italy, Norway, Qatar, Spain, UK and US[257][258][259][260][261] has expanded to seventeen states, with newer states mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade or providing military logistical assistance. The effort was initially largely led by the United States.[251] NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, named Operation Unified Protector. An attempt to unify the military command of the air campaign (whilst keeping political and strategic control with a small group), first failed over objections by the French, German, and Turkish governments.[262][263] On 24 March, NATO agreed to take control of the no-fly zone, while command of targeting ground units remains with coalition forces.[264]
In June 2011, Muammar Gaddafi and his son Saif al-Islam announced that they were willing to hold elections and that Gaddafi would step aside if he lost. Saif al-Islam stated that the elections could be held within three months and transparency would be guaranteed through international observers. NATO and the rebels rejected the offer, and NATO soon resumed their bombardment of Tripoli.[265]
In July 2011, Saif al-Islam condemned NATO for bombing Libyan civilians, including his family members and their children, under the false pretence that their homes were military bases. He also stated that NATO offered to drop the ICC charges against him and his father if they accept a secret deal, an offer they rejected. He thus criticized the ICC as "a fake court" that is controlled by the NATO nations.[66][178]
20 August rebel offensive[link]
Further information: Battle of Tripoli (2011)
Heads of the rebellion reported on 21 August that Gaddafi's son, Saif al-Islam, was under arrest and that they had encircled the leader's compound, suggesting that the war had reached its endgame with an imminent rebel victory. By 22 August, rebel fighters had gained entrance into Tripoli and occupied Green Square, which was promptly renamed Martyrs' Square in memory of those who had died fighting in the civil war.[266] Early on 23 August, Saif al-Islam appeared at the Gaddafi-controlled Rixos Hotel in central Tripoli and boasted his father was still in control.[267] Later the same day, rebels blasted open the Bab al-Azizia compound in Tripoli through its north gates and stormed inside. Despite previous reports suggesting that Muammar Gaddafi may be inside, no members of the Gaddafi family were found.[268]
Early the following day, 24 August, Gaddafi broadcast an address from a Tripoli local radio station in which he said the withdrawal from Bab al-Azizia had been a "tactical" move. The New York Times reported rebel leaders as saying they believed the only areas still under Gaddafi's control, other than the immediate neighbourhood of Bab al-Azizia, were al-Hadhba and Abu Salim, the latter including the Rixos Hotel where a group of foreign journalists had been trapped for days. However, the report noted the rebels lacked a unified command and that Gaddafi loyalists and snipers remained at large in many areas of Tripoli. Local hospitals and clinics, even in areas considered under rebel control, were reporting hundreds of cases of gunshot wounds and the death toll was impossible to estimate.[269] By late afternoon the journalists trapped at the Rixos Hotel had been released while heavy fighting continued in the Abu Salim region close to Bab al-Azizia and elsewhere.[270] The rebels were reported as estimating 400 people had been killed and a further 2,000 injured in the battle thus far.[51]
After Tripoli and NTC victory[link]
See also: Death of Muammar Gaddafi
Efforts to mop up pro-Gaddafi forces in northwestern Libya and toward Sirte began even before the rebels fully consolidated control of Tripoli. Rebels took the city of Ghadames near the borders of Tunisia and Algeria on 29 August. Members of the Gaddafi family have taken flight to Algeria. In September, the Gaddafi stronghold of Bani Walid was besieged by rebels, who reported that Gaddafi's son Saif al-Islam was hiding in the city.[271] On 22 September, the NTC captured the southern city of Sabha, and claimed to have found a large cache of chemical weapons.[272] Concerns were raised over the danger of Gaddafi mounting an insurgency against the new authorities.[273]
By mid-October 2011, much of the city of Sirte had been taken by NTC forces, although fierce fighting continued around the city center, where many pro-Gaddafi fighters were encamped.[274] The NTC captured the whole of Sirte on 20 October 2011, and reported that Gaddafi himself had been killed in the city.[275][276] Some civilian Gaddafi supporters remaining in the city reported that women and children had been killed in crossfire or fired upon by rebel forces. There were also reports of harassment and theft by rebels, however the rebel army indicated it would leave unarmed civilians "to their own devices", and had allowed families in the city access to supplies and medical assistance.[277]
Aftermath[link]
Main article: Aftermath of the Libyan civil war
See also: 2011-2012 Libyan interfactional fighting
Despite the defeat of Gaddafi's loyalists, capture of last loyalist cities and Gaddafi's death, Saif al-Islam, Gaddafi's son and successor, remained hiding in the southern region of Libya until his capture in mid-November. In addition, some loyalist forces crossed into Niger, though the escape attempts exploded into violence, when detected by Nigerien troops.
Sporadic clashes between NTC and former loyalists also continued across Libya with low intensity. On 23 November, seven people were killed in clashes at Bani Walid, five of them among the revolutionary forces and one Gaddafi loyalist.[278]
Fighting broke out on 3 January 2012, at a building used as intelligence headquarters by the Gaddafi government.[279] Abdul Jalil, the chairman of NTC, warned Libyans that the country could descend into another civil war if they resort to force to settle their differences.[279] It was reported that five people were killed and at least five injured in the events.[280]
Also on 3 January, Libya's government named a retired general from Misrata, Yousel al-Manquosh, as head of the country's armed forces.[281]
Bani Walid was captured by local tribal fighters on 23 January, due to the NTC's perceived inability to cooperate with them.[2][55] The local forces were said to have used heavy weapons and numbered 100-150 men.[55] Eight NTC fighters were killed and at least 25 wounded, with the rest fleeing the city.[2] Clashes were also reported in Benghazi and Tripoli.[55]
The NTC has functioned as an interim legislature during the transitional period. In early May 2012, it passed its most sweeping measures to date, granting immunity to former rebel fighters for acts committed during the civil war and ordering that all detainees accused of fighting for Gaddafi should be tried or released by 12 July 2012. It also adopted Law 37, prohibiting the publication of "propaganda" criticising the revolution, questioning the authority of Libya's governing organs, or praising Muammar Gaddafi, his family, his government, or the ideas of the Green Book.[282]
Humanitarian situation[link]
Main article: Humanitarian situation during the Libyan civil war
By the end of February 2011, supplies of medicine, fuel and food were dangerously low in Libya's urban centres.[283] On 25 February, the International Committee of the Red Cross launched an emergency appeal for US$6.4 million to meet the emergency needs of people affected by the violent unrest in Libya.[284] In early March, the fighting across Libya meant that more than a million people fleeing or inside the country needed humanitarian aid.[285][286] The Islamic Relief and the WFP also coordinated a shipment of humanitarian supplies to Misrata.[287] In March, the Swedish government donated medical supplies and other humanitarian aid and the UN World Food Programme provided food. Turkey sent a hospital ship to Misrata and a Turkish cargo ship brought 141 tons of humanitarian aid.[287][288]
Another humanitarian issue was refugees fleeing the crisis. A humanitarian ship docked in harbour of Misrata in April to begin the evacuation of stranded migrants.[289] By 10 July, over 150,000 migrants were evacutated.[290] Migrants were also stranded elsewhere in Libya, such as in the southern towns of Sebha and Gatroum. Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugees were crossing the Libya–Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those escaping the violence were native Libyans as well as foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks.[291]
Potential military–humanitarian coordination[link]
While the UN sanctioned military intervention has been implemented on humanitarian grounds, UN agencies seeking to ease the humanitarian crisis repeatedly rejected offers of support from the military to carry out the agencies' humanitarian operations.[292] The conditions under which such support may be accepted are outlined in the Guidelines on the Use of Military and Civil Defence Assets to Support United Nations Humanitarian Activities in Complex Emergencies (MCDA), whereby military support can be used but only temporarily and as a last resort.[292] Yet, there remains the concern that aid agencies' neutrality will be brought into question by accepting military support, putting aid staff at risk of being attacked and causing some parties to prevent the agencies accessing all the areas they need to.[292] Furthermore, the military may not always have the technical skills required to assess the need for aid and to ensure its effective distribution.[292] Despite this, offers continue for the creation of an aid corridor and aid agencies have accepted military logistical support in the past, for instance in the 2010 Pakistan floods response.[292]
Targeting of black Libyans and sub-Saharan Africans[link]
In August 2011, the UNHCR issued a strong call for the rights and lives of sub-Saharan Africans living in Libya to be protected due to reports that black Africans were being targeted by the rebel forces as cities fell.[293] Other news sources including The Independent and CNN have reported on the targeting of black people in rebel held areas.[294][295][296]
An Amnesty International statement, released on 30 August 2011, stated that on visits to detention centres in Zawiya and Tripoli, Amnesty International was informed that between one third and half of those detained were from Sub-Saharan Africa. A New York Times online article also comments that "it seems that plenty of the black Africans captured as mercenaries were never actually involved in the fight".[297][298] "Hundreds of thousands of sub-Saharan Africans worked in Gaddafi's Libya, doing everything from managing hotels to sweeping floors. But some also fought as pro-Gaddafi mercenaries, and many migrant workers [-] fled ahead of the rebels, fearing they would be mistaken for mercenaries."[299]
It was also reported that some African women have claimed rebels are raping them in refugee camps, with additional reports of forced labour. Foreign aid workers are also claiming to be prohibited from officially talking about the allegations.[300]
The town of Tawergha, which supported Gaddafi prior to its capture by anti-Gaddafi fighters in August, has been emptied of its mostly black inhabitants in what appeared to be a "major reprisal against supporters of the Gaddafi regime", according to an 11 September report from The Sunday Telegraph, and commanders of the Misrata Brigade are refusing to allow the displaced townspeople to return. One commander was quoted as saying, "Tawergha no longer exists."[301]
Libyan refugees[link]
Main article: Refugees of the Libyan civil war
Fleeing the violence of Tripoli by road, as many as 4,000 refugees were crossing the Libya–Tunisia border daily during the first days of the uprising. Among those, escaping the violence, were native Libyans as well as foreign nationals including Egyptians, Tunisians and Turks.[302] In February, Italian Foreign Minister Frattini expressed his concerns that the amount of Libyan refugees trying to reach Italy might reach between 200,000 and 300,000 people.[303] By 1 March, officials from the UN High Commissioner for Refugees had confirmed allegations of discrimination against sub-Saharan Africans who were held in dangerous conditions in the no-man's-land between Tunisia and Libya.[304] By 3 March, an estimated 200,000 refugees had fled Libya to either Tunisia or Egypt. A provisional refugee camp set up at Ras Ajdir with a capacity for 10,000 was overflowing with an estimated 20,000 to 30,000 refugees. Many tens of thousands were still trapped on the Libyan side of the frontier. By 3 March, the situation was described as a logistical nightmare, with the World Health Organization warning of the risk of epidemics.[305]
To continue responding to the needs of people staying at the Ras Ajdir crossing point in Tunisia, the WFP and Secours Islamique-France were upgrading a kitchen that would provide breakfast for families. Separately, the ICRC advised it was handing over its operations at the Choucha Camp to the Tunisian Red Crescent.[306] Since 24 March, the WFP supplied over 42,500 cooked meals for TCNs at the Saloum border. A total of 1,650 cartons of fortified date bars (equivalent of 13.2 metric tons) had also been provided to supplement these meals.[287]
The Sunday Telegraph reported on 11 September that almost the entire population of Tawergha, a town of about 10,000 people, had been forced to flee their homes by anti-Gaddafi fighters after their takeover of the settlement. The report suggested that Tawergha, which was dominated by black Libyans, may have been the subject of ethnic cleansing provoked by a combination of racism and bitterness on the part of Misratan fighters over the town's support for Gaddafi during the siege of Misrata.[301]
Casualties[link]
Main article: Casualties of the Libyan civil war
Independent numbers of dead and injured in the conflict have still not been made available. Estimates have been widely varied.
On 24 February, Libya's ambassador to Malta said that Gaddafi's government believed the number of dead to be about 300, including civilians, police officers, and soldiers.[157] The exact same day, the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting reported that the International Criminal Court estimated 10,000 had been killed.[307] The numbers of injured were estimated to be around 4,000 by 22 February.[308]
On 2 March, the World Health Organization estimated approximately 2,000 killed.[309] At the same time, the opposition claimed that 6,500 people had died.[310] Later, rebel spokesman Abdul Hafiz Ghoga reported that the death toll reached 8,000.[311]
In June 2011, Amnesty International stated that earlier estimates of the initial clashes in February were exaggerated. It estimated that during the first few days of the conflict, 100 to 110 people were killed in Benghazi and 59 to 64 were killed in Bayda.[19]
On 8 September, Naji Barakat, the Health Minister of the National Transitional Council, stated that about half of an estimated 30,000 dead were believed to have been pro-Gaddafi fighters. War wounded were estimated as at least 50,000, of which about 20,000 were serious injuries, but this estimate was expected to rise.[37] However, there was no independent verification of the Health Minister's claim and, one month later, the NTC reduced the estimated number of killed to 25,000.[36]
Domestic responses[link]
Main article: Domestic responses to the Libyan civil war
Resignation of government officials[link]
In response to the use of force against protesters, a number of senior Libyan public officials either renounced the Gaddafi government or resigned from their positions. Justice Minister Mustafa Abdul Jalil and Interior Minister Major General Abdul Fatah Younis both defected to the opposition. Oil Minister Shukri Ghanem and Foreign Minister Moussa Koussa fled Libya, with the latter defecting to the UK.[126][312] Libyan Prosecutor General Abdul-Rahman al-Abbar resigned his position and joined the opposition.[313]
The staff of a number of diplomatic missions of Libya have either resigned or condemned the actions of the Gaddafi government. The ambassadors to the Arab League, European Union and United Nations have either resigned or stated that they no longer support the government.[314][315][316] The ambassadors to Australia,[317] Bangladesh, Belgium,[315] France,[318] India,[314] Indonesia,[126] Malaysia, Nigeria, Portugal,[319] Sweden,[320] and the US[321] also renounced the Gaddafi government or formally resigned.
Military defections[link]
A number of senior military officials defected to the opposition, including General Abdul Fatah Younis, General al-Barani Ashkal,[322] Major General Suleiman Mahmoud, Brigadier General Musa'ed Ghaidan Al Mansouri, Brigadier General Hassan Ibrahim Al Qarawi and Brigadier General Dawood Issa Al Qafsi. Two Libyan Air Force colonels each flew their Mirage F1 fighter jets to Malta and requested asylum, after being ordered to carry out airstrikes against civilian protesters in Benghazi.[323][324] Colonel Nuretin Hurala, the commander of the Benghazi Naval Base also defected along with senior naval officials.[325]
Economic, religious and tribal[link]
The Libyan economy is mainly based on its oil production. The Arabian Gulf Oil Company, the second-largest state-owned oil company in Libya, announced plans to use oil funds to support anti-Gaddafi forces.[326] Islamic leaders and clerics in Libya, notably the Network of Free Ulema – Libya urged all Muslims to rebel against Gaddafi.[126][327] The Tuareg and Magarha tribes announced their support of the protesters.[233][328] The Zuwayya tribe, based in eastern Libya, threatened to cut off oil exports from fields in its part of Libya if Libyan security forces continued attacking demonstrators.[328]
Libyan royal family[link]
Muhammad as-Senussi, son of the former Crown Prince and grand-nephew of the late King Idris,[329] sent his condolences "for the heroes who have laid down their lives, killed by the brutal forces of Gaddafi" and called on the international community "to halt all support for the dictator with immediate effect."[330] as-Senussi said that the protesters would be "victorious in the end" and calls for international support to end the violence. On 24 February, as-Senussi gave an interview to Al Jazeera where he called upon the international community to help remove Gaddafi from power and stop the ongoing "massacre".[331] He dismissed talk of a civil war saying "The Libyan people and the tribes have proven they are united". He later stated that international community needs "less talk and more action" to stop the violence.[332] He asked for a no-fly zone over Libya but does not support foreign ground troops.[333] On 20 April, Mohammed spoke in front of the European Parliament calling for more support for Libya.[334] He also stated that he will support any form of government that Libya will choose after Gaddafi including a constitutional monarchy.[335]
A rival claimant to the throne, Idris bin Abdullah al-Senussi, announced in an interview with Adnkronos that he was ready to return to Libya and "assume leadership" once change had been initiated.[336] On 21 February, he made an appearance on Piers Morgan Tonight to discuss the uprising.[337] In March, it was reported Idris bin Abdullah had held meetings at the State Department and Congress in Washington with US government officials. It was also reported attempts at contact had been initiated by French and Saudi officials.[338] On 3 March, it was reported that another member of the family, Prince Zouber al-Senussi, had fled Libya with his family and was seeking asylum in Totebo, Sweden.[339]
International reactions[link]
Main articles: International reactions to the Libyan civil war and US domestic reactions to the 2011 military intervention in Libya
Many states and supranational bodies condemned Gaddafi's government over disputed allegations of air attacks on civilian targets within the country. Virtually all Western countries cut off diplomatic relations with Gaddafi's government over disputed reports of an aerial bombing campaign in February and March, and a number of other countries led by Peru and Botswana did likewise. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1970 was adopted on 26 February, freezing the assets of Gaddafi and ten members of his inner circle and restricting their travel. The resolution also referred the actions of the government to the International Criminal Court for investigation,[45] and an arrest warrant for Gaddafi was issued on 27 June.[341] This was followed by an arrest warrant issued by Interpol on 8 September.[342]
The disputed allegations about the Libyan government's use of the Libyan Air Force to strike civilians led to the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 to create a Libyan no-fly zone on 17 March, though several countries involved in the resolution's enforcement have also carried out regular strike missions to degrade the offensive capacity of the Libyan Army and destroy the government's command and control capabilities, effectively acting in de facto support of anti-Gaddafi forces on the ground. 100 countries have recognized the anti-Gaddafi National Transitional Council as Libya's legitimate representative, with many of those countries explicitly describing it as the legal interim government of the country due to the perceived loss of legitimacy on the part of Gaddafi's government.
Many states have also either issued travel advisories or attempted evacuations. Some evacuations were successful in either going to Malta or via land borders to Egypt or Tunisia; other attempts were hindered by tarmac damage at Benghazi's airport or refusals of permission to land in Tripoli. There were also several solidarity protests in other countries that were mostly composed of Libyan expatriates. Financial markets around the world had adverse reactions to the instability with oil prices rising to a two-and-a-half year high.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "AJE Live Blog". Al Jazeera. 20 October 2011. http://blogs.aljazeera.net/liveblog/libya-oct-20-2011-1646-0. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
- ^ a b c Holmes, Oliver (24 January 2012). "UPDATE 1-Anger, chaos but no revolt after Libya violence". Reuters Africa. Reuters (Bani Walid). http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFL5E8CO2HB20120124. Retrieved 24 January 2012.
- ^ a b Dagher, Sam (21 June 2011). "Libya City Torn by Tribal Feud". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304887904576395143328336026.html. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
- ^ a b Von Rohr, Mathieu (26 July 2011). "Tribal Rivalries Complicate Libyan War". Der Spiegel. http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,776695,00.html. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
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- ^ Squires, Nick (23 February 2011). "Libya: Italy Fears 300,000 Refugees". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/libya/8343963/Libya-Italy-fears-300000-refugees.html. Retrieved 7 July 2011.
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Further reading[link]
- Crawford, Alex. Colonel Gaddafi's Hat. Collins, London (2012). ISBN 978-0-00-746730-3
- Hilsum, Lindsey (2012). Sandstorm: Libya in the Time of Revolution. London: Faber and Faber.
- Morayef, Heba (2009). Truth and Justice Can't Wait – Human Rights Developments in Libya Amid Institutional Obstacles. New York: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-563-1.
- Roberts, Hugh (17 November 2011). "Who said Gaddafi had to go?". London Review of Books 33 (22): 8–18. http://www.lrb.co.uk/v33/n22/hugh-roberts/who-said-gaddafi-had-to-go. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- St. John, Ronald Bruce (2011). Libya – Continuity and Change. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-77977-7.
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Related pages:
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the definition of the specific type of war. For civil wars in history, see List of civil wars. For other uses, see Civil war (disambiguation).
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A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic,[1] or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly united nation state.[2] The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.[1] The term is a calque of the Latin bellum civile which was used to refer to the various civil wars of the Roman Republic in the 1st century BC.
A civil war is a high-intensity conflict, often involving regular armed forces, that is sustained, organized and large-scale. Civil wars may result in large numbers of casualties and the consumption of significant resources.[3]
Civil wars since the end of World War II have lasted on average just over four years, a dramatic rise from the one-and-a-half year average of the 1900-1944 period. While the rate of emergence of new civil wars has been relatively steady since the mid-19th century, the increasing length of those wars resulted in increasing numbers of wars ongoing at any one time. For example, there were no more than five civil wars underway simultaneously in the first half of the 20th century, while over 20 concurrent civil wars were occurring at the end of the Cold War, before a significant decrease as conflicts strongly associated with the superpower rivalry came to an end. Since 1945, civil wars have resulted in the deaths of over 25 million people, as well as the forced displacement of millions more. Civil wars have further resulted in economic collapse; Burma (Myanmar), Uganda and Angola are examples of nations that were considered to have promising futures before being engulfed in civil wars.[4]
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Definition[link]
James Fearon, a scholar of civil wars at Stanford University, defines a civil war as "a violent conflict within a country fought by organized groups that aim to take power at the center or in a region, or to change government policies".[1] Ann Hironaka further specifies that one side of a civil war is the state.[3] The intensity at which a civil disturbance becomes a civil war is contested by academics. Some political scientists define a civil war as having more than 1000 casualties,[1] while others further specify that at least 100 must come from each side.[5] The Correlates of War, a dataset widely used by scholars of conflict, classifies civil wars as having over 1000 war-related casualties per year of conflict. This rate is a small fraction of the millions killed in the Second Sudanese Civil War and Cambodian Civil War, for example, but excludes several highly publicized conflicts, such as The Troubles of Northern Ireland and the struggle of the African National Congress in Apartheid-era South Africa.[3]
Based on the 1000 casualties per year criterion, there were 213 civil wars from 1816 to 1997, 104 of which occurred from 1944 to 1997.[3] If one uses the less-stringent 1000 casualties total criterion, there were over 90 civil wars between 1945 and 2007, with 20 ongoing civil wars as of 2007.[1]
Further definitions[link]
The Geneva Conventions do not specifically define the term "civil war". They do, however, describe the criteria for acts qualifying as "armed conflict not of an international character", which includes civil wars. Among the conditions listed are four requirements:[6][7]
- The party in revolt must be in possession of a part of the national territory.
- The insurgent civil authority must exercise de facto authority over the population within the determinate portion of the national territory.
- The insurgents must have some amount of recognition as a belligerent.
- The legal Government is "obliged to have recourse to the regular military forces against insurgents organized as military."
Causes of civil war in the Collier-Hoeffler Model[link]
Scholars investigating the cause of civil war are attracted by two opposing theories, greed versus grievance. Roughly stated: are conflicts caused by who people are, whether that be defined in terms of ethnicity, religion or other social affiliation, or do conflicts begin because it is in the economic best interests of individuals and groups to start them? Scholarly analysis supports the conclusion that economic and structural factors are more important than those of identity in predicting occurrences of civil war.[8]
A comprehensive studies of civil war was carried out by a team from the World Bank in the early 21st century. The study framework, which came to be called the Collier-Hoeffler Model, examined 78 five-year increments when civil war occurred from 1960 to 1999, as well as 1,167 five-year increments of "no civil war" for comparison, and subjected the data set to regression analysis to see the effect of various factors. The factors that were shown to have a statistically significant effect on the chance that a civil war would occur in any given five-year period were:[9]
- Availability of finance
A high proportion of primary commodities in national exports significantly increases the risk of a conflict. A country at "peak danger", with commodities comprising 32% of gross domestic product, has a 22% risk of falling into civil war in a given five-year period, while a country with no primary commodity exports has a 1% risk. When disaggregated, only petroleum and non-petroleum groupings showed different results: a country with relatively low levels of dependence on petroleum exports is at slightly less risk, while a high-level of dependence on oil as an export results in slightly more risk of a civil war than national dependence on another primary commodity. The authors of the study interpreted this as being the result of the ease by which primary commodities may be extorted or captured compared to other forms of wealth, for example, it is easy to capture and control the output of a gold mine or oil field compared to a sector of garment manufacturing or hospitality services.[10]
A second source of finance is national diasporas, which can fund rebellions and insurgencies from abroad. The study found that statistically switching the size of a country's diaspora from the smallest found in the study to the largest resulted in a sixfold increase in the chance of a civil war.[10]
- Opportunity cost of rebellion
Higher male secondary school enrollment, per capita income and economic growth rate all had significant effects on reducing the chance of civil war. Specifically, a male secondary school enrollment 10% above the average reduced the chance of a conflict by about 3%, while a growth rate 1% higher than the study average resulted in a decline in the chance of a civil war of about 1%. The study interpreted these three factors as proxies for earnings foregone by rebellion, and therefore that lower foregone earnings encourages rebellion.[10] Phrased another way: young males (who make up the vast majority of combatants in civil wars) are less likely to join a rebellion if they are getting an education and/or have a comfortable salary, and can reasonably assume that they will prosper in the future.
Low per capita income has been proposed as a cause for grievance, prompting armed rebellion. However, for this to be true, one would expect economic inequality to also be a significant factor in rebellions, which it is not. The study therefore concluded that the economic model of opportunity cost better explained the findings.[9]
- Military advantage
High levels of population dispersion and, to a lesser extent, the presence of mountainous terrain increased the chance of conflict. Both of these factors favor rebels, as a population dispersed outward toward the borders is harder to control than one concentrated in a central region, while mountains offer terrain where rebels can seek sanctuary.[10]
- Grievance
Most proxies for "grievance" - the theory that civil wars begin because of issues of identity, rather than economics - were statistically insignificant, including economic equality, political rights, ethnic polarization and religious fractionalization. Only ethnic dominance, the case where the largest ethnic group comprises a majority of the population, increased the risk of civil war. A country characterized by ethnic dominance has nearly twice the chance of a civil war. However, the combined effects of ethnic and religious fractionalization, i.e. the more chance that any two randomly chosen people will be from separate ethnic or religious groups the less chance of a civil war, were also significant and positive, as long as the country avoided ethnic dominance. The study interpreted this as stating that minority groups are more likely to rebel if they feel that they are being dominated, but that rebellions are more likely to occur the more homogeneous the population and thus more cohesive the rebels. These two factors may thus be seen as mitigating each other in many cases.[11]
- Population size
The various factors contributing to the risk of civil war rise increase with population size. The risk of a civil war rises approximately proportionately with the size of a country's population.[9]
- Time
The more time that has elapsed since the last civil war, the less likely it is that a conflict will recur. The study had two possible explanations for this: one opportunity-based and the other grievance-based. The elapsed time may represent the depreciation of whatever capital the rebellion was fought over and thus increase the opportunity cost of restarting the conflict. Alternatively, elapsed time may represent the gradual process of healing of old hatreds. The study found that the presence of diaspora substantially reduced the positive effect of time, as the funding from diasporas offsets the depreciation of rebellion-specific capital.[11]
Other causes[link]
Evolutionary psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa has argued that an important cause of intergroup conflict may be the relative availability of women of reproductive age. He found that polygyny greatly increased the frequency of civil wars but not interstate wars.[12] Gleditsch et al. did not find a relationship between ethnic groups with polygyny and increased frequency of civil wars but nations having legal polygamy may have more civil wars. They argued that misogyny is a better explanation than polygyny. They found that increased women's rights were are associated with less civil wars and that legal polygamy had no effect after women’s rights were controlled for.[13]
Duration of civil wars[link]
Ann Hironaka, author of Neverending Wars, divides the modern history of civil wars into the pre-19th century, 19th century to early 20th century, and late 20th century. In 19th century Europe, the length of civil wars fell significantly, largely due to the nature of the conflicts as battles for the power center of the state, the strength of centralized governments, and the normally quick and decisive intervention by other states to support the government. Following World War II the duration of civil wars grew past the norm of the pre-19th century, largely due to weakness of the many postcolonial states and the intervention by major powers on both sides of conflict. The most obvious commonality to civil wars are that they occur in fragile states.[14]
Civil wars in the 19th and early 20th centuries[link]
Civil wars through the 19th century to early 20th century tended to be short; the average length of a civil war between 1900 and 1944 was one and half years.[15] The state itself was the obvious center of authority in the majority of cases, and the civil wars were thus fought for control of the state. This meant that whoever had control of the capital and the military could normally crush resistance. If a rebellion failed to quickly seize the capital and control of the military for itself, it was normally doomed to a quick destruction. For example, the fighting associated with the 1871 Paris Commune occurred almost entirely in Paris, and ended quickly once the military sided with the government.[16]
The power of non-state actors resulted in a lower value placed on sovereignty in the 18th and 19th centuries, which further reduced the number of civil wars. For example, the pirates of the Barbary Coast were recognized as de facto states because of their military power. The Barbary pirates thus had no need to rebel against the Ottoman Empire, who were their nominal state government, to gain recognition for their sovereignty. Conversely, states such as Virginia and Massachusetts in the United States of America did not have sovereign status, but had significant political and economic independence coupled with weak federal control, reducing the incentive to secede.[17]
The two major global ideologies, monarchism and democracy, led to several civil wars. However, a bi-polar world, divided between the two ideologies, did not develop, largely due the dominance of monarchists through most of the period. The monarchists would thus normally intervene in other countries to stop democratic movements taking control and forming democratic governments, which were seen by monarchists as being both dangerous and unpredictable. The Great Powers, defined in the 1815 Congress of Vienna as the United Kingdom, Habsburg Austria, Prussia, France, and Russia, would frequently coordinate interventions in other nations' civil wars, nearly always on the side of the incumbent government. Given the military strength of the Great Powers, these interventions were nearly always decisive and quickly ended the civil wars.[18]
File:Savoia-Marchetti SM.81.jpg
A plane, supported by smaller fighter planes, of Francisco Franco's Nationalists bombs Madrid during the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
There were several exceptions from the general rule of quick civil wars during this period. The American Civil War (1861–1865) was unusual for at least two reasons: it was fought around regional identities, rather than political ideologies, and it was ended through a war of attrition, rather than over a decisive battle over control of the capital, as was the norm. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) was exceptional because both sides of the war received support from intervening great powers: Germany, Italy, and Portugal supported opposition leader Francisco Franco, while France and Russia supported the government[19] (see proxy war).
Civil wars since 1945[link]
In the 1990s, about twenty civil wars were occurring concurrently during an average year, a rate about ten times the historical average since the 19th century. However, the rate of new civil wars had not increased appreciably; the drastic rise in the number of ongoing wars after World War II was a result of the tripling of the average duration of civil wars to over four years.[20] This increase was a result of the increased number of states, the fragility of states formed after 1945, the decline in interstate war, and the Cold War rivalry.[21]
Following World War II, the major European powers divested themselves of their colonies at an increasing rate: the number of ex-colonial states jumped from about 30 to almost 120 after the war. The rate of state formation leveled off in the 1980s, at which point few colonies remained.[22] More states also meant more states in which to have long civil wars. Hironaka statistically measures the impact of the increased number of ex-colonial states as increasing the post-WWII incidence of civil wars by +165% over the pre-1945 number.[23]
While the new ex-colonial states appeared to follow the blueprint of the idealized state - centralized government, territory enclosed by defined borders, and citizenry with defined rights -, as well as accessories such as a national flag, an anthem, a seat at the United Nations and an official economic policy, they were in actuality far weaker than the Western states they were modeled after.[24] In Western states, the structure of governments closely matched states' actual capabilities, which had been arduously developed over centuries. The development of strong administrative structures, in particular those related to extraction of taxes, is closely associated with the intense warfare between predatory European states in the 17th and 18th centuries, or in Charles Tilly's famous formulation: "War made the state and the state made war".[25] For example, the formation of the modern states of Germany and Italy in the 19th century is closely associated with the wars of expansion and consolidation led by Prussia and Sardinia, respectively.[25] The Western process of forming effective and impersonal bureaucracies, developing efficient tax systems, and integrating national territory continued into the 20th century; as late as World War I, some French military conscripts from rural regions were unable to name the country they were fighting for.[26] Nevertheless, Western states that survived into the latter half of the 20th century were considered "strong" by simple reason that they had managed to develop the institutional structures and military capability required to survive predation by their fellow states.
In sharp contrast, decolonization was an entirely different process of state formation. Most imperial powers had not foreseen a need to prepare their colonies for independence; for example, Britain had given limited self-rule to India and Sri Lanka, while treating British Somaliland as little more than a trading post, while all major decisions for French colonies were made in Paris and Belgium prohibited any self-government up until it suddenly granted independence to its colonies in 1960. Like Western states of previous centuries, the new ex-colonies lacked autonomous bureaucracies, which would make decisions based on the benefit to society as a whole, rather than respond to corruption and nepotism to favor a particular interest group. In such a situation, factions manipulate the state to benefit themselves or, alternatively, state leaders use the bureaucracy to further their own self-interest. The lack of credible governance was compounded by the fact that most colonies were economic loss-makers at independence, lacking both a productive economic base and a taxation system to effectively extract resources from economic activity. Among the rare states profitable at decolonization was India, to which scholars credibly argue that Uganda, Malaysia and Angola may be included. Neither did imperial powers make territorial integration a priority, and may have discouraged nascent nationalism as a danger to their rule. Many newly independent states thus found themselves impoverished, with minimal administrative capacity in a fragmented society, while faced with the expectation of immediately meeting the demands of a modern state.[27] Such states are considered "weak" or "fragile". The "strong"-"weak" categorization is not the same as "Western"-"non-Western", as some Latin American states like Argentina and Brazil and Middle Eastern states like Egypt and Israel are considered to have "strong" administrative structures and economic infrastructure.[28]
Historically, the international community would have targeted weak states for territorial absorption or colonial domination or, alternatively, such states would fragment into pieces small enough to be effectively administered and secured by a local power. However, international norms towards sovereignty changed in the wake of WWII in ways that support and maintain the existence of weak states. Weak states are given de jure sovereignty equal to that of other states, even when they do not have de facto sovereignty or control of their own territory, including the privileges of international diplomatic recognition and an equal vote in the United Nations. Further, the international community offers development aid to weak states, which helps maintain the facade of a functioning modern state by giving the appearance that the state is capable of fulfilling its implied responsibilities of control and order.[29] The formation of a strong international law regime and norms against territorial aggression is strongly associated with the dramatic drop in the number of interstate wars, though it has also been attributed to the effect of the Cold War or to the changing nature of economic development. Consequently, military aggression that results in territorial annexation became increasingly likely to prompt international condemnation, diplomatic censure, a reduction in international aid or the introduction of economic sanction, or, as in the case of 1990 invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, international military intervention to reverse the territorial aggression.[30] Similarly, the international community has largely refused to recognize secessionist regions, while keeping some states such as Cyprus and Taiwan in diplomatic recognition limbo. While there is not a large body of academic work examining the relationship, Hironaka's statistical study found a correlation that suggests that every major international anti-secessionist declaration increased the number of ongoing civil wars by +10%, or a total +114% from 1945 to 1997.[31] The diplomatic and legal protection given by the international community, as well as economic support to weak governments and discouragement of secession, thus had the unintended effect of encouraging civil wars.
There has been an enormous amount of international intervention in civil wars since 1945 that served to extend wars. While intervention has been practiced since the international system has existed, its nature changed substantially. It became common for both the state and opposition group to receive foreign support, allowing wars to continue well past the point when domestic resources had been exhausted. Superpowers, such as the European great powers, had always felt no compunction in intervening in civil wars that affected their interests, while distant regional powers such as the United States could declare the interventionist Monroe Doctrine of 1821 for events in its Central American "backyard". However, the large population of weak states after 1945 allowed intervention by former colonial powers, regional powers and neighboring states who themselves often had scarce resources. On average, a civil war with interstate intervention was 300% longer than those without. When disaggregated, a civil war with intervention on only one side is 156% longer, while intervention on both sides lengthens the average civil war by an addition 92%. If one of the intervening states was a superpower, a civil war is extended a further 72%; a conflict such as the Angolan Civil War, in which there is two-sided foreign intervention, including by a superpower (actually, two superpowers in the case of Angola), would be 538% longer on average than a civil war without any international intervention.[32]
Effect of the Cold War[link]
The Cold War (1945–1989) provided a global network of material and ideological support that perpetuated civil wars, which were mainly fought in weak ex-colonial states, rather than the relatively strong states that were aligned with the Warsaw Pact and North Atlantic Treaty Organization. In some cases, superpowers would superimpose Cold War ideology onto local conflicts, while in others local actors using Cold War ideology would attract the attention of a superpower to obtain support. Using a separate statistical evaluation than used above for interventions, civil wars that included pro- or anti-communist forces lasted 141% longer than the average non-Cold War conflict, while a Cold War civil war that attracted superpower intervention resulted in wars typically lasting over three times as long as other civil wars. Conversely, the end of the Cold War marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 resulted in a reduction in the duration of Cold War civil wars of 92% or, phrased another way, a roughly ten-fold increase in the rate of resolution of Cold War civil wars. Lengthy Cold War-associated civil conflicts that ground to a halt include the wars of Guatemala (1960–1996), El Salvador (1979–1991) and Nicaragua (1970–1990).[33]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b c d e James Fearon, "Iraq's Civil War" in Foreign Affairs, March/April 2007. For further discussion on civil war classification, see the section "Definition".
- ^ Nations, Markets, and War: Modern History and the American Civil War | Book Reviews, EH.net. "Two nations [within the U.S.] developed because of slavery." October 2006. Retrieved July 2009.
- ^ a b c d Ann Hironaka, Neverending Wars: The International Community, Weak States, and the Perpetuation of Civil War, Harvard University Press: Cambridge, Mass., 2005, p. 3, ISBN 0-674-01532-0
- ^ Hironaka (2005), pp. 1-2, 4-5
- ^ Edward Wong, "A Matter of Definition: What Makes a Civil War, and Who Declares It So?" New York Times November 26, 2006
- ^ Final Record of the Diplomatic Conference of Geneva of 1949, (Volume II-B, p. 121)
- ^ See also the International Committee of the Red Cross commentary on Third 1949 Geneva Convention, Article III, Section "A. Cases of armed conflict" for the ICRC's reading of the definition and a listing of proposed alternate wording
- ^ See, for example, Hironaka (2005), pp. 9-10, and Collier, Paul, Anke Hoeffler and Nicholas Sambanis, "The Collier-Hoeffler Model of Civil War Onset and the Case Study Project Research Design," in Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 13
- ^ a b c Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 17
- ^ a b c d Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 16
- ^ a b Collier & Sambanis, Vol 1, p. 18
- ^ Kanazawa, S. (2009). "Evolutionary Psychological Foundations of Civil Wars". The Journal of Politics 71: 25. DOI:10.1017/S0022381608090026. edit
- ^ Gleditsch, K. S.; Wucherpfennig, J.; Hug, S.; Reigstad, K. G. (2011). "Polygyny or Misogyny? Reexamining the "First Law of Intergroup Conflict"". The Journal of Politics 73: 265. DOI:10.1017/S0022381610001003. edit
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 28
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 1
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 28-29
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 29
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 30
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 31
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 1, 4-5
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 7 & 23
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 36
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 40
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 54
- ^ a b Hironaka, 2005, p. 6
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 58
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 59-61
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 56
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 6
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, p. 16
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 37-40
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 50-51
- ^ Hironaka, 2005, pp. 48-50
Bibliography[link]
- Ali, Taisier Mohamed Ahmed and Robert O. Matthews, eds. Civil Wars in Africa: roots and resolution (1999), 322 pages
- Mats Berdal and David M. Malone, Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Lynne Rienner, 2000).
- Paul Collier, Breaking the Conflict Trap: civil war and development policy World Bank (2003) - 320 pages
- Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis. 1: Africa. Washington, DC: The World Bank. ISBN 978-0-8213-6047-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=OnGQQVuIBjgC&pg=PP1&dq=Understanding+Civil+War:Evidence+and+Analysis&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Collier, Paul; Sambanis, Nicholas, eds. (2005). Understanding Civil War:Evidence and Analysis. 2: Europe, Central Asia, and Other Regions. Washington, DC: The World Bank. ISBN 978-0-8213-6049-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=yNTQ-BDLPxIC&pg=PP1&dq=Understanding+Civil+War:Evidence+and+Analysis&cd=2#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- Stathis Kalyvas, "'New' and 'Old' Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?" World Politics 54, no. 1 (2001): 99-118.
- David Lake and Donald Rothchild, eds. The International Spread of Ethnic Conflict: Fear, Diffusion, and Escalation (Princeton University Press, 1996).
- Roy Licklider, "The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945--1993," American Political Science Review 89, no. 3 (summer 1995): pp 681–690.
- Andrew Mack, "Civil War: Academic Research and the Policy Community," Journal of Peace Research 39, no. 5 (2002): pp. 515–525.
- David T. Mason and Patrick 3. Fett, "How Civil Wars End: A Rational Choice Approach," Journal of Conflict Resolution 40, no. 4 (fall 1996): 546-568.
- Patrick M. Regan. Civil Wars and Foreign Powers: Outside Intervention in Intrastate Conflict (2000) 172 pages
- Stephen John and others., eds. Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation of Peace Agreements (2002), 729 pages
- Monica Duffy Toft, The Geography of Ethnic Violence: Identity, Interests, and the Indivisibility of Territory (Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003). ISBN 0-691-12383-7.
- Barbara F. Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars (Princeton University Press, 2002),
- Elisabeth Jean Wood; "Civil Wars: What We Don't Know," Global Governance, Vol. 9, 2003 pp 247+ online version
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
