Branches of Mathematics

Pure mathematics

• Algebra
• Calculus
• Geometry
• Topology
• Trignometry
• Combinatorics
• Logic
• Number theory

Applied mathematics

• Dynamical systems and differential equations
• Mathematical physics
• Computing
• Information theory and signal processing
• Probability and statistics
• Game theory
• Operations research

Related Topics

• Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Linear Equations
• Applied Physics
• Nano Technology
• Engineering Sciences
• Mathematical Medicine
• Fluid dynamics
• Computational Mathematics
• Gamma Ray Optics
• Onfrared Optics
• Relative Velocity
• Iciam
• Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
• Biomedical Engineering
• Neuroscience Research
• Quantum Cosmology
• Brain Research

• Ada Lovelace
• Advanced Placement
• Alan Turing
• Algebra
• Algebraic data types
• Algorithm
• Algorithm design
• Algorithmic trading
• Algorithms
• Allen B. Tucker
• Allen Tucker
• Analytical Engine
• Ancient technology
• Anthony Ralston
• Applied mathematics
• Applied science
• Aquaculture
• Artificial life
• Audio engineering
• Automata theory
• Automated reasoning
• Automation
• Bertrand Meyer
• Bioinformatics
• Biomechatronics
• Biotechnology
• Blaise Pascal
• Bletchley Park
• Book Technology
• Boolean algebra
• Business informatics
• Category Technology
• Category theory
• Ceramic engineering
• Charles Babbage
• Chemical engineering
• Cheminformatics
• CiteSeerX
• Civil engineering
• Claude Shannon
• Clean technology
• Code
• Coding theory
• Cognitive science
• Combinatorics
• Compiler
• Compiler design
• Complex systems
• Computability
• Computability theory
• Computation
• Computer animation
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• Computer hardware
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• Computer networking
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• Computer science
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• Computer system
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• Computing
• Concurrency control
• Control engineering
• Cryogenics
• Cryptography
• Cybernetics
• Data compression
• Data mining
• Data structure
• Data structures
• Data transmission
• Database
• Database models
• Databases
• David Hemmendinger
• David Kahn (writer)
• David Parnas
• Deductive reasoning
• Difference engine
• Digital computer
• Digital logic
• Digital revolution
• Domain theory
• Domestic technology
• Donald Knuth
• Ecological design
• Economic efficiency
• Ecotechnology
• Edsger W. Dijkstra
• Educational software
• Edwin D. Reilly
• Electronic warfare
• Electronics
• Energy technology
• Engineering
• Engineering geology
• Engineering physics
• Enigma machine
• Ephemeralization
• Epistemology
• Ethics of technology
• Expert system
• Facade engineering
• Fictional technology
• Fisheries science
• Fluid dynamics
• Folding@home
• Food chemistry
• Food engineering
• Food microbiology
• Food technology
• Formal language
• Formal methods
• Formal specification
• Formal verification
• Genetic engineering
• George Forsythe
• Germany
• Graph theory
• Green building
• Green nanotechnology
• Grid computing
• Hal Abelson
• Hardware
• Health Informatics
• Health informatics
• Healthcare science
• High tech
• Human Genome Project
• Humans
• Hydraulics
• Hype cycle
• IBM
• ICT in agriculture
• Image processing
• Index (database)
• Inevitability thesis
• Information Age
• Information science
• Information systems
• Information theory
• Integrated circuits
• Internet
• Intractably
• Invention
• Jan van Leeuwen
• Jet Age
• Kardashev scale
• Kurt Gödel
• Life-critical system
• Linguistics
• List of technologies
• Logic
• Logic programming
• Low-technology
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• Market liquidity
• Materials science
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• Mathematically
• Mathematics
• Mature technology
• Mechatronics
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• Medical technology
• Medieval technology
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• Nanomedicine
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• Natural science
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• Neolithic Revolution
• Network coding
• Network topology
• Neurophysiology
• Neuroscience
• Norman Gibbs
• Nuclear engineering
• Nuclear technology
• Number theory
• Numerical analysis
• Nutrition
• Ontology engineering
• Operating system
• Operating systems
• Optical engineering
• P = NP problem
• Parallel computing
• Parsing
• Particle physics
• Pascal's calculator
• Pattern recognition
• Peter J. Denning
• Peter Naur
• Peter Wegner
• Petri nets
• Pharmacology
• Philosophy
• Philosophy of mind
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• Portal Technology
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• Program semantics
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• Steven Levy
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• Technorealism
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• Template Technology
• The Codebreakers
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• Wilhelm Schickard
• Women in computing
• World War II
• WP Books
• Zentralblatt MATH
• 
  

• 
  Germany
  Germany (ⁱ/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km² and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
  A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
  
  wn.com/Germany
• 
  Purdue University
  Purdue University, located in West Lafayette, Indiana, U.S., is the flagship university of the six-campus Purdue University system. Purdue was founded on May 6, 1869, as a land-grant university when the Indiana General Assembly, taking advantage of the Morrill Act, accepted a donation of land and money from Lafayette businessman John Purdue to establish a college of science, technology, and agriculture in his name. The first classes were held on September 16, 1874, with six instructors and 39 students. Today, Purdue enrolls the second largest student body of any university in Indiana as well as the second largest international student population of any public university in the United States.
  Purdue offers both undergraduate and graduate programs in over 210 major areas of study, and is well known for its competitive engineering curricula. The university has also been highly influential in America's history of aviation, having established the first college credit offered in flight training, the first four-year bachelor's degree in aviation, and the first university airport (Purdue University Airport). In the mid-20th century, Purdue's aviation program expanded to encompass advanced spaceflight technology giving rise to Purdue's nickname, Cradle of Astronauts. Twenty-two Purdue graduates have gone on to become astronauts, including Gus Grissom (one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts), Neil Armstrong (the first person to walk on the moon), and Eugene Cernan (the most recent person to walk on the moon).
  
  wn.com/Purdue_University

• 
  Ada Lovelace
  Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace (10 December 1815 - 27 November 1852), born Augusta Ada Byron, was an English mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on Charles Babbage's early mechanical general-purpose computer, the analytical engine. Her notes on the engine include what is recognised as the first algorithm intended to be processed by a machine; thanks to this, she is sometimes considered the world's first computer programmer.
  She was the only legitimate child of the poet Lord Byron (with Anne Isabella Milbanke, 11th Baroness Wentworth). She had no relationship with her father, who died when she was nine. As a young adult, she took an interest in mathematics, and in particular Babbage's work on the analytical engine. Between 1842 and 1843, she translated an article by Italian mathematician Luigi Menabrea on the engine, which she supplemented with a set of notes of her own. These notes contain what is considered the first computer programme — that is, an algorithm encoded for processing by a machine. Though Babbage's engine has never been built, Lovelace's notes are important in the early history of computers. She also foresaw the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or number-crunching while others, including Babbage himself, focused only on these capabilities.
  
  wn.com/Ada_Lovelace
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  Alan Turing
  Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS ( /ˈtjʊərɪŋ/ TEWR-ing; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954), was an English mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, and computer scientist. He was highly influential in the development of computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of "algorithm" and "computation" with the Turing machine, which played a significant role in the creation of the modern computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of computer science and artificial intelligence.
  During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre. For a time he was head of Hut 8, the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the bombe, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine.
  After the war he worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he created one of the first designs for a stored-program computer, the ACE. In 1948 Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Laboratory at Manchester University, where he assisted in the development of the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis, and he predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, which were first observed in the 1960s.
  
  wn.com/Alan_Turing
• 
  Bertrand Meyer
  Bertrand Meyer (born 1950 in France) is an academic, author, and consultant in the field of computer languages. He created the Eiffel programming language.
  Bertrand Meyer received the equivalent of a bachelor's degree in engineering from the École polytechnique in Paris, a master's degree from Stanford University, and a PhD from the Université de Nancy in Nancy, Meurthe-et-Moselle. He had a technical and managerial career for nine years at Électricité de France, and for three years was on the faculty at the University of California, Santa Barbara.
  Since October 2001, he has been Professor of Software Engineering at ETH Zürich, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, where he pursues research on building trusted components (reusable software elements) with a guaranteed level of quality.
  His other activities include being adjunct professor at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia (1998–2003) and membership of the French Academy of Technologies. He is also active as a consultant (object-oriented system design, architectural reviews, technology assessment), trainer in object technology and other software topics, and conference speaker. As former head of the ETH Computer Science department, he is one of the founders and the current president of Informatics Europe, the association of European computer science departments.
  
  wn.com/Bertrand_Meyer
• 
  Blaise Pascal
  Blaise Pascal (French pronunciation: [blɛz paskal]; 19 June 1623 – 19 August 1662), was a French mathematician, physicist, inventor, writer and Catholic philosopher. He was a child prodigy who was educated by his father, a tax collector in Rouen. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied sciences where he made important contributions to the study of fluids, and clarified the concepts of pressure and vacuum by generalizing the work of Evangelista Torricelli. Pascal also wrote in defense of the scientific method.
  In 1642, while still a teenager, he started some pioneering work on calculating machines, and after three years of effort and 50 prototypes he invented the mechanical calculator. He built twenty of these machines (called the Pascaline) in the following ten years. Pascal was an important mathematician, helping create two major new areas of research: he wrote a significant treatise on the subject of projective geometry at the age of sixteen, and later corresponded with Pierre de Fermat on probability theory, strongly influencing the development of modern economics and social science. Following Galileo and Torricelli, in 1646 he refuted Aristotle's followers who insisted that nature abhors a vacuum. Pascal's results caused many disputes before being accepted.
  
  wn.com/Blaise_Pascal
• 
  Charles Babbage
  Charles Babbage, FRS (26 December 1791 – 18 October 1871) was an English mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who originated the concept of a programmable computer. Considered a "father of the computer", Babbage is credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more complex designs.
  Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the London Science Museum. In 1991, a perfectly functioning difference engine was constructed from Babbage's original plans. Built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, the success of the finished engine indicated that Babbage's machine would have worked. Nine years later, the Science Museum completed the printer Babbage had designed for the difference engine.
  Babbage's birthplace is disputed, but he was most likely born at 44 Crosby Row, Walworth Road, London, England. A blue plaque on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event.
  His date of birth was given in his obituary in The Times as 26 December 1792. However after the obituary appeared, a nephew wrote to say that Charles Babbage was born one year earlier, in 1791. The parish register of St. Mary's Newington, London, shows that Babbage was baptised on 6 January 1792, supporting a birth year of 1791.
  
  wn.com/Charles_Babbage
• Claude Shannon
  Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) was an American mathematician, electronic engineer, and cryptographer known as "the father of information theory".
  Shannon is famous for having founded information theory with one landmark paper published in 1948. But he is also credited with founding both digital computer and digital circuit design theory in 1937, when, as a 21-year-old master's student at MIT, he wrote a thesis demonstrating that electrical application of Boolean algebra could construct and resolve any logical, numerical relationship. It has been claimed that this was the most important master's thesis of all time. Shannon contributed to the field of cryptanalysis during World War II and afterwards, including basic work on code breaking.
  Shannon was born in Petoskey, Michigan. His father, Claude Sr (1862–1934), a descendant of early New Jersey settlers, was a self-made businessman and for a while, Judge of Probate. His mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890–1945), daughter of German immigrants, was a language teacher and for a number of years principal of Gaylord High School, Michigan. The first 16 years of Shannon's life were spent in Gaylord, Michigan, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932. Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical things. His best subjects were science and mathematics, and at home he constructed such devices as models of planes, a radio-controlled model boat and a wireless telegraph system to a friend's house half a mile away. While growing up, he worked as a messenger for Western Union. His childhood hero was Thomas Edison, who he later learned was a distant cousin. Both were descendants of John Ogden, a colonial leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people.
  
  wn.com/Claude_Shannon
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  David Parnas
  David Lorge Parnas (born February 10, 1941) is a Canadian early pioneer of software engineering, who developed the concept of information hiding in modular programming, which is an important element of object-oriented programming today. He is also noted for his advocacy of precise documentation.
  Parnas earned his Ph.D. at Carnegie Mellon University in electrical engineering. Parnas also earned a professional engineering license in Canada and was one of the first to apply traditional engineering principles to software design. He worked there as a professor for many years. He also taught at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (U.S.), the Technische Universität Darmstadt (Germany), the University of Victoria (British Columbia, Canada), Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario, and University of Limerick (Republic of Ireland).
  David Parnas received several awards and honors
  In modular design, his double dictum^{[citation needed]} of high cohesion within modules and loose coupling between modules is fundamental to modular design in software. However, in Parnas's seminal 1972 paper On the Criteria to Be Used in Decomposing Systems into Modules, this dictum is expressed in terms of information hiding, and the terms cohesion and coupling are not used.
  
  wn.com/David_Parnas
• 
  Donald Knuth
  Donald Ervin Knuth ( /kəˈnuːθ/kə-NOOTH; born January 10, 1938) is a computer scientist and Professor Emeritus at Stanford University.
  He is the author of the seminal multi-volume work The Art of Computer Programming. Knuth has been called the "father" of the analysis of algorithms. He contributed to the development of the rigorous analysis of the computational complexity of algorithms and systematized formal mathematical techniques for it. In the process he also popularized the asymptotic notation.
  In addition to fundamental contributions in several branches of theoretical computer science, Knuth is the creator of the TeX computer typesetting system, the related METAFONT font definition language and rendering system, and the Computer Modern family of typefaces.
  As a writer and scholar, Knuth created the WEB/CWEB computer programming systems designed to encourage and facilitate literate programming, and designed the MIX/MMIX instruction set architectures.
  Knuth was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where his father owned a small printing business and taught bookkeeping at Milwaukee Lutheran High School, where he enrolled, earning achievement awards. He applied his intelligence in unconventional ways, winning a contest when he was in eighth grade by finding over 4,500 words that could be formed from the letters in "Ziegler's Giant Bar." The judges had only about 2,500 words on their master list. This won him a television set for his school and a candy bar for everyone in his class.
  
  wn.com/Donald_Knuth
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  Edsger W. Dijkstra
  Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (May 11, 1930 – August 6, 2002); Dutch pronunciation: [ˈɛtsxər ˈwibə ˈdɛɪkstra] ( listen)) was a Dutch computer scientist. He received the 1972 Turing Award for fundamental contributions to developing programming languages, and was the Schlumberger Centennial Chair of Computer Sciences at The University of Texas at Austin from 1984 until 2000.
  Shortly before his death in 2002, he received the ACM PODC Influential Paper Award in distributed computing for his work on self-stabilization of program computation. This annual award was renamed the Dijkstra Prize the following year, in his honor.
  Born in Rotterdam, Dijkstra studied theoretical physics at Leiden University, but quickly realized he was more interested in computer science. Originally employed by the Mathematisch Centrum in Amsterdam, he held a professorship at the Eindhoven University of Technology, worked as a research fellow for Burroughs Corporation in the early 1980s, and later held the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in Computer Sciences at the University of Texas at Austin, in the United States. He retired in 2000.
  
  wn.com/Edsger_W._Dijkstra
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  George Forsythe
  George Elmer Forsythe (January 8, 1917 – April 9, 1972) was the founder and head of Stanford University's Computer Science Department.. George came to Stanford in the Mathematics Department in 1959 and served as professor and chairman of the Computer Science department from 1965 until his death. Forsythe served as the president of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), and also co-authored four books on computer science and a fifth on meteorology, and edited more than 75 other books on computer science.
  His wife, Alexandra I. Forsythe, taught and published in Computer Science as well and actively participated in her husband's work, while promoting a more active role for women than was common at the time . Between 1950 and 1958 both of them programmed using the SWAC at the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in Los Angeles and later at UCLA after the western division of NBS was closed due to political pressures (see Oral History cited below).
  According to Donald Knuth, Forsythe's greatest contributions were helping to establish computer science as its own academic discipline and starting the field of refereeing and editing algorithms as scholarly work. Professor Forsythe supervised 17 PhD graduates; many of them went into academic careers .
  
  wn.com/George_Forsythe
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  Hal Abelson
  Harold (Hal) Abelson is a Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, a fellow of the IEEE, and is a founding director of both Creative Commons and the Free Software Foundation.
  Abelson holds an A.B. degree from Princeton University and a Ph.D. degree in mathematics from MIT. In 1992, Abelson was designated as one of MIT's six inaugural MacVicar Faculty Fellows, in recognition of his significant and sustained contributions to teaching and undergraduate education. Abelson was recipient in 1992 of the Bose Award (MIT's School of Engineering teaching award). Abelson is also the winner of the 1995 Taylor L. Booth Education Award given by IEEE Computer Society, cited for his continued contributions to the pedagogy and teaching of introductory computer science.
  Abelson has a longstanding interest in using computation as a conceptual framework in teaching. He directed the first implementation of Logo for the Apple II, which made the language widely available on personal computers beginning in 1981; and published a widely selling book on Logo in 1982. His book Turtle Geometry, written with Andrea diSessa in 1981, presented a computational approach to geometry which has been cited as "the first step in a revolutionary change in the entire teaching/learning process."
  
  wn.com/Hal_Abelson
• Jan van Leeuwen
  Jan van Leeuwen (born 1946 in Waddinxveen) is a Dutch computer scientist and a professor at the Department of Information and Computing Sciences at the Utrecht University.
  Van Leeuwen completed his undergraduate studies in mathematics at Utrecht University in 1967 and received a Ph.D. in mathematics in 1971 from the same institution under the supervision of Dirk van Dalen. After postdoctoral studies at the University of California, Berkeley and faculty positions at Stony Brook University and Pennsylvania State University, he returned to Utrecht as a faculty member in 1977. He was head of his department from 1977 to 1983, and again from 1991 to 1994, and dean from 1994 to 2009. Among his doctoral students is fellow Utrecht faculty member and notable game software developer, Mark Overmars.
  Van Leeuwen is an ISI highly cited researcher. Since 1992 he has been a member of the Royal Dutch Society of Science, and in 2006 he was elected to the Academia Europaea. He was the editor of the Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science.
  
  wn.com/Jan_van_Leeuwen
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  Kurt Gödel
  Kurt Friedrich Gödel (/ˈkɜrt ɡɜrdəl/; German pronunciation: [ˈkʊʁt ˈɡøːdəl] ( listen); April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was an Austrian/American logician, mathematician, and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when many, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead and David Hilbert, were pioneering the use of logic and set theory to understand the foundations of mathematics.
  Gödel is best known for his two incompleteness theorems, published in 1931 when he was 25 years old, one year after finishing his doctorate at the University of Vienna. The more famous incompleteness theorem states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. To prove this theorem, Gödel developed a technique now known as Gödel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.
  
  wn.com/Kurt_Gödel
• 
  Peter J. Denning
  Peter J. Denning (born 1942) is an American computer scientist, and prolific writer. He is best known for pioneering work in virtual memory, especially for inventing the working-set model for program behavior, which defeated thrashing in operating systems and became the reference standard for all memory management policies. He is also known for his works on principles of operating systems, operational analysis of queueing network systems, design and implementation of CSNET, ACM digital library, codifying the great principles of computing, and most recently for his groundbreaking book The Innovator's Way", on innovation as learnable practices.
  Denning was born January 6, 1942, in Queens, NY, and raised in Darien, CT. He took an early interest in science, pursuing astronomy, botany, radio, and electronics while in grade school. At Fairfield Prep, he submitted home designed computers to the science fair in 1958, 1959, and 1960. The second computer, which solved linear equations using pinball machine parts, won the grand prize. He attended Manhattan College for a Bachelor in EE (1964) and then MIT for a PhD (1968). At MIT he was part of Project MAC and contributed to the design of Multics. His PhD thesis, "Resource allocation in multiprocess computer systems", introduced seminal ideas in working sets, locality, thrashing, and system balance.
  
  wn.com/Peter_J._Denning
• 
  Peter Naur
  Peter Naur (born 25 October 1928) is a Danish pioneer in computer science and Turing award winner. His last name is the N in the BNF notation (Backus-Naur form), used in the description of the syntax for most programming languages. He contributed to the creation of the ALGOL 60 programming language.
  He began his career as an astronomer for which he received his PhD degree in 1957, but his encounter with computers led to a change of profession. From 1959 to 1969, he was employed at Regnecentralen, the Danish computing institute, while at the same time giving lectures at the Niels Bohr Institute and the Technical University of Denmark. From 1969 to 1998 Naur was a professor of computer science at University of Copenhagen.
  His main areas of inquiry are design, structure and performance of computer programs and algorithms. Areas such as software engineering and software architecture have also been pioneered by Naur. In his book Computing: A Human Activity (1992), which is a collection of his contributions to computer science, he rejects the formalist school of programming that view programming as a branch of mathematics. He does not like being associated with the Backus-Naur form (attributed to him by Donald Knuth) and says that he would prefer it to be called the Backus Normal Form.
  
  wn.com/Peter_Naur
• Peter Wegner
  Peter Wegner (born in 1932) is an American computer scientist who has made significant contributions to both the theory of object-oriented programming during 80's and to the relevance of Church-Turing thesis for empirical aspects of computer science during 90's and present. The seminal work for his previous occupation is On Understanding Types which was co-authored with Luca Cardelli. For his latter undertaking, he has co-authored several papers and co-edited a book (Interactive Computation: the New Paradigm) which was published in 2006.
  Wegner was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) in 1995. In 1999, he was awarded the Austrian Cross of Honor for Science and Art (“Ehrenkreuz”) but was hit by a bus and sustained serious brain injuries when on a trip to London to receive his award. He recovered after a lengthy coma.
  He is the former editor-in-chief of ACM Computing Surveys and of The Brown Faculty Bulletin and is currently an emeritus professor at Brown University.
  
  wn.com/Peter_Wegner
• 
  Society
  A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification and/or dominance patterns in subgroups.
  Insofar as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis; both individual and social (common) benefits can thus be distinguished, or in many cases found to overlap.
  A society can also consist of like-minded people governed by their own norms and values within a dominant, larger society. This is sometimes referred to as a subculture, a term used extensively within criminology.
  
  wn.com/Society
• 
  Wilhelm Schickard
  Wilhelm Schickard (22 April 1592 – 24 October 1635) was a German professor of Hebrew and Astronomy who became famous in the second part of the 20th century after Dr. Franz Hammer, a biographer of Johannes Kepler, claimed that the drawings of a calculating clock, predating the public release of Pascal's calculator by twenty years, had been discovered in two unknown letters written by Schickard to Johannes Kepler in 1623 and 1624.
  Dr. Hammer asserted that because these letters had been lost for three hundred years, Blaise Pascal had been called and celebrated as the inventor of the mechanical calculator in error during all this time.
  After careful examination it was found that Schikard's drawings had been published at least once per century starting from 1718, that his machine was not complete and required additional wheels and springs and that it was designed around a single tooth carry mechanism that didn't work properly when used in calculating clocks.
  Schickard's machine was the first of five unsuccessful attempts of designing a direct entry calculating clock in the 17th century (including the designs of Tito Burattini, Samuel Morland and René Grillet). Schickard's work had no impact on the development of mechanical calculators.
  
  wn.com/Wilhelm_Schickard

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