Liu Xiang

Liu Xiang (simplified Chinese: 刘向; traditional Chinese: 劉向; pinyin: Liú Xiàng; Wade–Giles: Liu Hsiang) (79-8 BCE^[1]), born Liu Gengsheng (劉更生), courtesy name Zizheng (Chinese: 子政), was a famous Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty. He was born in Xuzhou and related to Liu Bang, the founder of the Han dynasty. His son, Liu Xin, developed the "Triple Concordance" astronomical system.

Liu compiled the first catalogue of the imperial library, the Bielu, or Abstracts (別錄/别录), and was the first editor of the Shan Hai Jing (finished by his son).^[2] He was a prodigious collector of old stories, which he compiled into the Zhan Guo Ce, the Xinxu (新序, "New Prefaces"), the Shuoyuan (說苑, "Garden of Stories"), the Lienü Zhuan, and probably the Liexian Zhuan.

In 26 BCE he was commanded by the emperor Han Chengdi to reorganize the neglected imperial library. This was done with the assistance of Liu Xin, who completed this task after his father's death. Thus in the cultural history of the Han, the Lius became the second famous family after Sima Tan and Sima Qian. They are credited with creating the canonical book format for classical texts, some of which went unchallenged until the Guodian discovery of 1993.

Notes[link]

References[link]

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

• Fei, Zhengang, "Liu Xiang". Encyclopedia of China (Philosophy Edition), 1st ed.
• Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.

External links[link]

Chinese Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Garden of Stories

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Medal record
Liu Xiang in 2010
Competitor for  China
Men's athletics
Olympic Games
Gold	2004 Athens	110 m hurdles
World Championships
Gold	2007 Osaka	110 m hurdles
Silver	2005 Helsinki	110 m hurdles
Silver	2011 Daegu	110 m hurdles
Bronze	2003 Paris	110 m hurdles
World Indoor Championships
Gold	2008 Valencia	60 m hurdles
Silver	2004 Budapest	60 m hurdles
Silver	2012 Istanbul	60 m hurdles
Bronze	2003 Birmingham	60 m hurdles
Asian Games
Gold	2002 Busan	110 m hurdles
Gold	2006 Doha	110 m hurdles
Gold	2010 Guangzhou	110 m hurdles

Liu Xiang (simplified Chinese: 刘翔; traditional Chinese: 劉翔; pinyin: Liú Xiáng; born July 13, 1983 in Putuo District, Shanghai, China) is a Chinese 110 meter hurdler. Liu is an Olympic Gold medalist and World Champion.^[1] His 2004 Olympic gold medal was the first in a men's track and field event for China.

Liu is one of China's most commercially successful athletes and has emerged as a cultural icon.^[2] He is the first Chinese athlete to achieve the "triple crown" of athletics: World Record Holder, World Champion and Olympic Champion. He was the favorite to win another gold in the 110 metre hurdles at the Beijing Olympics,^[3] but much to the dismay of his fans, he had to withdraw from competition at the last moment after a false start and aggravation to a previously unrevealed injury.

Career[link]

In May 2001, he won at the East Asian Games in Osaka, Japan with a time of 13.42 seconds. In August 2001, he won at the Universiade in Beijing, China with a time of 13.33 seconds.^[4] He also won at the 9th National Games of the People's Republic of China that same year.^[5]

In May 2004 at an IAAF race in Osaka, Japan, Liu managed to beat Allen Johnson with a personal best record time of 13.06 seconds. Liu had become his hero's equal just before the Athens Olympic Games.^{[citation needed]}

2004 Olympics[link]

Liu Xiang
Liu Xiang celebrating at the 2007 World Championship as he became the World Champion for the first time.
Traditional Chinese	劉翔
Simplified Chinese	刘翔
Hanyu Pinyin	Liú Xiáng
Transcriptions Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Liú Xiáng - Wade–Giles Liu Hsiang Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Lau4 Coeng4 - Yale Romanization Lyou2 Syang2

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2010)

Liu Xiang won the gold medal at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens in the 110 metre hurdles event, equaling Colin Jackson's 1993 world record of 12.91 seconds. Liu became just the sixth man to post a time under 13 seconds for this event. The ecstatic Liu at once fulfilled the great promise he had shown in setting a world junior record two years earlier and raised the hopes of his compatriots for a repeat victory at the 2008 Games in Beijing. Liu said that his performance, which brought China its first men's Olympic gold medal in track and field, "changes the opinion that Asian countries don't get good results in sprint races. I want to prove to all the world that Asians can run very fast." His 2004 Olympic gold medal was the first in a men's track and field event for China, in which the previous best were held by Olympic silver medallist C.K. Yang of the Republic of China and Olympic bronze medalist Zhu Jianhua. Contrary to popular belief however, Liu Xiang's Olympic track and field gold medal is not the first won by an Asian male athlete, as Olympic gold medalist Mikio Oda, Naoto Tajima, Son Kitei and others were the forerunners of Asian male track and field athletes achieving gold in the Olympic Games. Liu, a 21-year-old student at East China Normal University at the time of his Athens victory, became the object of a bidding war between commercial sponsors. The Chinese Track and Field Association restricted him to four such deals.

Liu finished the season with four of the year's ten fastest clockings. Reaching 17 finals in the 60 m indoor hurdles and the 110 metre hurdles, he lost just two, both to American Allen Johnson. Liu, at 1.89 m (6 ft 2 in) and 85 kg (187 lb), was taller than most sprint hurdlers, and he has showed spectacular athleticism by constraining his naturally long stride to the three-step pattern necessary in order to avoid the alternation of lead legs in hurdling.

2005 and 2007 World Championships[link]

In August 2005, Liu won a silver medal at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics in Helsinki, Finland, finishing 13.08 seconds, 0.01 seconds after champion Ladji Doucouré from France. In November 2005, he won at East Asian Games in Macau, China with 13.21 seconds.

Off track, in May, he was awarded the Laureus World Sports Award for Newcomer of the Year for his breakthrough performance at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.

Liu set a new world record in the 110 metre hurdles, at the Super Grand Prix in Lausanne on July 11, 2006, with a time of 12.88 seconds (+1.1 m/s tailwind). The record was ratified by the IAAF.^[6] In that same race, American Dominique Arnold had also beaten the previous record with a time of 12.90 seconds.^[7] In September, he won gold at IAAF World Athletics Final in Stuttgart, Germany with 12.93 seconds.

On August 31, 2007 at the World Athletics Championships in Osaka, Japan, Liu won gold in the 110 metre hurdles with 12.95 seconds to become the World Champion for the first time.

On May 23, Liu participated in a test event at the Beijing National Stadium.^[8] He pulled out of the Reebok Grand Prix in New York on May 31, citing hamstring problems. On June 8, he false-started at the Prefontaine Classic at Eugene, Oregon. Liu skipped the entire European circuit, preferring to train for the Olympics in China instead.

Beijing Olympics[link]

Leading up to the Summer Olympics in Beijing, China, Liu bore national expectations of a repeat victory on home soil.^[9] On August 18, Liu withdrew from the Olympic 110 metre hurdles. He walked off the track after a false start by another runner in his first-round heat,^[9] leaving the crowd at the Beijing National Stadium in stunned silence,^[10] confusion,^[11] and tears.^[8][9] According to Jeré Longman of the New York Times, "China's greatest hope had been dashed".^[12]

According to China's track and field association, Liu suffered from a recurrence of chronic inflammation in his right Achilles tendon.^[8] Liu's coach, Sun Haiping addressed the media during a press conference and stated that the hurdler had been hampered by a tendon injury for six or seven years.^[10] He commented on the situation, saying "We worked hard every day, but the result was as you see and it is really hard to take."^[10] Sun, who was in tears for most of the press conference, stated that Liu would be unable to compete for the remainder of 2008. Liu made a public apology to the Chinese media the following day, saying he could "do nothing but pull out of the race" because of his foot injury. He believes that the injury would not prevent him from future competitions and vows to "come back" for the next Olympics.^[13]

Liu's injury was significant and also ruled him out of the following year's major competition, the 2009 World Championships in Athletics.^[14] However, coach Sun Haiping was confident that he would return in time for the Chinese national championships and 2009 Asian Championships in Athletics in November.^[15]

2009–2011: Return from injury[link]

After a 13-month absence because of his injury, Liu finally returned to competition at the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix. Liu recorded a time of 13.15, tied with Terrence Trammell, but finished 0.01s behind and was awarded second place. However, Liu said he was happy with his performance.^[16][17] Nearing the end of the year, he competed at a number of major events on home turf. He won gold medals at the 2009 Asian Athletics Championships, the East Asian Games and the 11th Chinese National Games.^[18][19]

At the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Doha, admitting that his right foot has yet to fully recover,^[20] Liu was able to finish in the finals of the 60 m hurdles, but managed only seventh place.^[21] His sole appearance on the 2010 IAAF Diamond League circuit came at the Shanghai Grand Prix and he lost to national rival Shi Dongpeng for the first time.^[22] Following a six-month break, he marked his return to form at the 2010 Asian Games. A crowd of 70,000 gathered at the Guangdong Olympic Stadium to see him in the final and he easily won his third consecutive title at the competition, breaking the Games record with a run of 13.09 seconds – making him the third fastest athlete that season.^[23]

The Shanghai Golden Grand Prix in May 2011 saw Liu make a return to a world class level: he defeated David Oliver (the fastest hurdler in 2010) with a world-leading mark of 13.07 seconds to take his first win on the 2011 IAAF Diamond League. Liu showed he had accomplished a transition in his technique, as he reduced his number of starting steps before the first hurdle from eight to seven, using his left leg for hurdling.^[24]

On August 29, 2011, Liu Xiang competed in the men's 110 m hurdles final in the IAAF World Championships in Daegu, South Korea. Liu finished the race in third place, but he eventually won the silver medal, as the winner Dayron Robles was disqualified for entering Liu's lane and touching him. Though Robles' disqualification improved Liu's final position, many Liu fans claim that without Robles' violation, Liu wouldn't have lost balance and could have won the race.^[25]

2012 season[link]

In Liu's first competition of 2012, he was matched up against Dayron Robles at the Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix and this time he won cleanly with an Asian record time of 7.41 seconds for the 60 m hurdles.^[26] He was the favourite for the title at the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships, but was beaten into second place by Aries Merritt and left with the silver medal.^[27] In the outdoor season he set a 110 m hurdles meet record at the Golden Grand Prix Kawasaki, then ran 12.97 seconds to win at his home nation 2012 IAAF Diamond League meet, the Shanghai Golden Grand Prix. This was his first run under 13 seconds since 2007 and he beat Americans David Oliver and Jason Richardson by some distance.^[28]

Personal life[link]

Liu is known for his low-profile appearance, but he has become one of the most popular athletes in China.^[29] Liu Xiang was on Time magazine Asian edition's cover of the 2008 Summer Olympic Games titled "Liu Xiang & 99 More Athletes to Watch."^[30]

Liu donated approximately 2,500,000 yuan (364,000 USD) to 2008 Sichuan Earthquake relief efforts.^[31]

Although he is arguably one of the most popular sports stars in China, Liu admits that he has no time for a romantic relationship, citing that he wishes he had taken the chance to form one before the Athens Olympics, which catapulted him to fame: "There is no girlfriend. No time."^[32]

In Jan 2007, Liu was announced as global brand spokesperson for Nutrilite.^{[citation needed]} Liu's athletic gear is sponsored by Nike.^[33] He is also a spokesperson for Coca Cola and Cadillac.

International competition record[link]

See also[link]

• China at the 2004 Summer Olympics
• China at the 2008 Summer Olympics
• China at the World Championships in Athletics

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website
• IAAF profile for Liu Xiang
• IAAF "Focus on Athletes" article
• SPIKES Hero profile on www.spikesmag.com

Records
Preceded by Colin Jackson	Men's 110 m Hurdles World Record Holder August 27, 2004 – June 12, 2008	Succeeded by Dayron Robles
Sporting positions
Preceded by Allen Johnson	Men's 110 m Hurdles Best Year Performance 2004	Succeeded by Ladji Doucouré
Preceded by Ladji Doucouré	Men's 110 m Hurdles Best Year Performance 2006–2007	Succeeded by Dayron Robles

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2009)

Xiang Yu (232 BC – 202 BC) was a prominent military leader and political figure during the late Qin Dynasty.

Xiang Yu was a native of Xiaxiang (下相; present-day Suqian, Jiangsu). He was granted the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公) by King Huai II of Chu in 208 BC. The following year, Xiang Yu led the Chu rebel forces to victory at the Battle of Julu against the Qin armies led by Zhang Han. After the fall of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu proclaimed himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (Chinese: 西楚霸王; pinyin: Xī Chǔ Bà Wáng) and ruled a vast area of land covering parts of present-day Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Hunan and Jiangsu, with Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou) as his capital. He engaged Liu Bang, founding emperor of the Han Dynasty, in a long struggle for power, known as the Chu–Han Contention, that concluded with his eventual defeat and suicide at the bank of the Wu River.

Names and titles[link]

• Names:
  • Family name: Xiang (simplified Chinese: 项; traditional Chinese: 項; pinyin: Xiàng)
  • Given name: Ji (Chinese: 籍; pinyin: Jí)
  • Style name / courtesy name (zi): Yu (Chinese: 羽; pinyin: Yǔ)

• Titles:
  • "Lu Gong" (simplified Chinese: 鲁公; traditional Chinese: 魯公; pinyin: Lǔ Gōng), translates to "Duke of Lu".
  • "Xi Chu Ba Wang" (Chinese: 西楚霸王; pinyin: Xī Chǔ Bà Wáng), translates to "Hegemon of Western Chu", "Hegemon-King of Western Chu", "Conqueror of Western Chu", "Overlord of Western Chu", and other renditions.
    • Sometimes simplified to "Ba Wang" (Chinese: 霸王; pinyin: Bà Wáng), which translates to "Hegemon", "Hegemon-King", "Conqueror", "Overlord", and other renditions.
  • "Xiang Wang" (simplified Chinese: 项王; traditional Chinese: 項王; pinyin: Xiàng Wáng), translates to "King Xiang".

Biography[link]

Birth and family background[link]

There are two accounts of Xiang Yu's family background. The first claimed that Xiang Yu was from the house of Mi (羋), the royal family of the Chu state. His ancestors were granted the land of Xiang (項) by the king of Chu and had since adopted "Xiang" as their family name. The other account claimed that Xiang Yu was a descendant of a noble clan from the Lu state and his family had served the Chu rulers as military commanders for generations. Xiang Yu's grandfather, Xiang Yan, was a well known general who led the Chu army in resisting the Qin invaders led by Wang Jian, and was killed in action when Qin conquered Chu in 223 BC.

Xiang Yu was born in 232 BC in the late Warring States Period when the Qin state started annexing the other six major states. His father was Xiang Chao (項超), the oldest son of Xiang Yan.^{[citation needed]} Xiang Yu was raised by his uncle, Xiang Liang, as his father died early. In 221 BC, when Xiang Yu was about 11 years old, the Qin state finally unified China and established the Qin Dynasty.

Xiang Yu had a double pupil in one of his eyes^[1] just like the ancient Chinese rulers Shun and Duke Wen of Jin before him. He was thus seen as an extraordinary person because his unique double pupil was a mark of a king or sage in Chinese tradition. Xiang Yu was slightly taller than eight chi (approximately 1.85 metres, about 6' 1") and possessed unusual physical strength as he could lift a ding (an ancient Chinese vessel resembling a giant cauldron on tripods).^[1]

Early days[link]

In his younger days, Xiang Yu was instructed in scholarly arts and swordsmanship but he did not manage to master what he was taught, and his uncle Xiang Liang was not very satisfied with him.^[1] Xiang Yu said, "Books are only useful in helping me remember my name. Mastering swordsmanship allows me to face only one opponent, so it's not worth learning. I want to learn how to defeat 10,000 enemies."^[1][2] Hence, his uncle tried to educate him in military strategy instead, but Xiang Yu stopped learning after he had grasped the main ideas.^[1][2] Xiang Liang was disappointed with his nephew, who showed no sign of motivation or apparent talent apart from his great strength, and gave up and let Xiang Yu decide his own future.^[1][2]

When Xiang Yu became older, his uncle killed someone and they fled to Wu (present-day southern Jiangsu) to evade the authorities. At that time, Qin Shi Huang was on an inspection tour in that area and Xiang Yu watched the emperor's procession pass by with his uncle. Xiang Yu said, "I can replace him.", in reference to the Qin emperor.^[1] Xiang Liang was shocked and immediately covered his nephew's mouth with his hand. Since then, Xiang Liang began to see his nephew in a different light.

Rebellion against the Qin Dynasty[link]

In 209 BC, during the reign of Qin Er Shi (Qin Shi Huang's son and successor), peasant rebellions erupted throughout China to overthrow the Qin Dynasty, plunging China into a state of anarchy. Yin Tong, Grand Administrator of Kuaiji (present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang), wanted to start a rebellion as well, so he invited Xiang Liang to meet him and discuss their plans. However, the Xiangs lured Yin Tong into a trap and killed him instead, with Xiang Yu personally striking down dozens of Yin's men. Xiang Liang initiated the rebellion himself and rallied about 8,000 men to support him. Xiang Liang proclaimed himself Grand Administrator of Kuaiji while appointing Xiang Yu as General. Xiang Liang's rebel force grew in size until it was between 60,000 to 70,000. In 208 BC, Xiang Liang installed Mi Xin as King Huai II of Chu to rally support from those eager to help him overthrow the Qin Dynasty and restore the former Chu state. Xiang Yu distinguished himself as a competent military leader and mighty warrior on the battlefield while participating in the battles against Qin forces.

Later that year, Xiang Liang was killed in the Battle of Dingtao against the Qin army led by Zhang Han and the military power of Chu fell into the hands of the king and some other generals. In the winter of 208 BC, another rebel force claiming to restore the Zhao state, led by Zhao Xie, was besieged in Handan by Zhang Han, and Zhao Xie requested for reinforcements from Chu. King Huai II granted Xiang Yu the title of "Duke of Lu" (魯公), and placed him second-in-command to Song Yi to lead an army to reinforce Zhao Xie. At the same time, the king placed Liu Bang in command of another army to attack Guanzhong, the heartland of Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong first will be conferred the title of "King of Guanzhong".

Battle of Julu[link]

The Chu army led by Song Yi and Xiang Yu reached Anyang, some distance away from Julu (in present-day Xingtai, Hebei), where Zhao Xie's forces had retreated to. Song Yi ordered the troops to lay camp there for 46 days and he refused to accept Xiang Yu's suggestion to proceed further. Xiang Yu took Song Yi by surprise in a meeting and killed him for alleged treason. The other subordinate generals were afraid of Xiang Yu and let him become the acting commander. Xiang Yu sent a messenger to inform King Huai II and the king approved Xiang's command.

In 207 BC, Xiang Yu's army advanced towards Julu and he sent Ying Bu and Zhongli Mo to lead the 20,000 strong vanguard army to cross the river and attack the Qin forces led by Zhang Han, while he followed behind with the remaining majority of the troops. After crossing the river, Xiang Yu ordered his men to sink their boats and destroy all but three days worth of rations, in order to force his men to choose between prevailing against overwhelming odds within three days or die trapped before the walls of the city with no supplies or hope of escape. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Chu forces scored a great victory after nine engagements, defeating the 300,000 strong Qin army. After the battle, other rebel forces, including those not from Chu, came to join Xiang Yu out of admiration for his martial valor. When Xiang Yu received them at the gate, the rebel generals were so fearful of him that they sank to their knees and did not even dare to look up at him.

Zhang Han sent his deputy Sima Xin to Xianyang to request for reinforcements and supplies from Qin Er Shi. Zhao Gao deceived the emperor and the emperor dismissed Zhang Han's request. Zhao Gao even sent assassins to kill Sima Xin on his return journey later, but Sima managed to escape and return to Zhang Han. In dire straits, Zhang Han and his 200,000 troops eventually surrendered to Xiang Yu in the summer of 207 BC. Xiang Yu perceived the surrendered Qin troops as disloyal and a liability, and had them executed by burying them alive at Xin'an (新安; in present-day Yima, Henan). Zhang Han, along with Sima Xin and Dong Yi, were spared from death. Xiang Yu appointed Zhang Han as "King of Yong", while Sima Xin and Dong Yi were respectively conferred the titles of "King of Sai" and "King of Di".

Feast at Hong Gate[link]

After his victory in the Battle of Julu, Xiang Yu prepared for an invasion on Guanzhong, the heartland of the Qin Dynasty. In the winter of 207 BC, the last Qin ruler Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang in Xianyang (Qin's capital), bringing an end to the Qin Dynasty. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu's control. Liu Bang's general Cao Wushang sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziying would be appointed as Liu's chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. At that time, he had about 400,000 troops under his command while Liu Bang only had a quarter of that number.

As strongly encouraged by his advisor Fan Zeng, Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a Feast at Hong Gate and intended to kill Liu during the banquet. However, Xiang Yu listened to his uncle Xiang Bo (a friend of Liu Bang's strategist Zhang Liang) instead and spared Liu's life. Liu Bang escaped later under the pretext of going to the latrine.

Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang in 206 BC. He ordered the execution of Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. It was said that Xiang Yu would leave behind a trail of destruction in the places he passed by, and the people of Guanzhong were greatly disappointed with him.^[3]

Despite advice from his subjects to remain in Guanzhong and continue with his conquests, Xiang Yu was insistent on returning to his homeland in Chu. He said, "To not return home when one has made his fortune is equivalent to walking on the streets at night in glamorous outfits. Who would notice that?"^[1] One of his followers said, "It is indeed true when people say that the men of Chu are apes dressed in human clothing."^[1] Xiang Yu had that man boiled alive when he heard that insult.^[1]

Division of the empire[link]

After the downfall of the Qin Dynasty, Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Chu" and announced his decision to divide the former Qin Empire. Xiang Yu declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" (西楚霸王) and ruled nine commanderies in the former Liang and Chu territories, with his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou). In the spring of 206 BC, Xiang Yu divided the empire into the Eighteen Kingdoms, to be granted to his subordinates and some leaders of the former rebel forces. He moved some of the rulers of other states to more remote areas and granted the land of Guanzhong to the three surrendered Qin generals, ignoring Emperor Yi's earlier promise to appoint Liu Bang as king of that region. Liu Bang was relocated to the remote Hanzhong area instead and given the title of "King of Han" (漢王).

Xiang Yu appointed several generals from the rebel coalition as vassal kings, even though these generals were subordinates of other lords, who should rightfully be the kings in place of their followers. Xiang Yu also left out some other important rebel leaders who did not support him earlier, but did contribute to the overthrow of Qin. In winter, Xiang Yu moved Emperor Yi to the remote area of Chen County (present-day Chenzhou, Hunan), effectively sending the puppet emperor into exile. At the same time, he issued a secret order to the vassal kings in that area and had the emperor assassinated during his journey (205 BCE). The emperor's death was later used by Liu Bang as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.

Shortly after the death of Emperor Yi, Xiang Yu had Han Cheng (King of Han) put to death and seized Han's lands for himself. Several months later, Tian Rong (chancellor of Qi) took control over the Three Qis (Jiaodong, Qi and Jibei) from their respective kings and reinstated Tian Fu as the King of Qi, but he took over the throne himself afterwards. Similarly, Chen Yu, a former vice chancellor of Zhao, led an uprising against the King of Changshan, Zhang Er, and seized Zhang's domain and reinstalled Zhao Xie as the King of Zhao.

Chu–Han contention[link]

In 206 BC, Liu Bang led his forces to attack Guanzhong. At that time, Xiang Yu was at war with Qi and did not focus on resisting the Han forces. The following year, Liu Bang formed an alliance with another five kingdoms and attacked Western Chu with a 560,000 strong army, capturing Xiang Yu's capital of Pengcheng. Upon hearing that, Xiang Yu led 30,000 men to attack Liu Bang and defeated the latter at the Battle of Pengcheng, with the Han army suffering heavy casualties.

Liu Bang managed to escape after his defeat with Xiang Yu's troops on pursuit. Han troops retreated to Xingyang and defended the city firmly, preventing Chu forces from advancing west any further, but only managed to hold on until 204 BC. Liu Bang's general Ji Xin disguised himself as his lord and surrendered to Xiang Yu, buying time for Liu Bang to escape. When Xiang Yu learnt that he had been fooled, he was furious and had Ji Xin burnt to death. After the fall of Xingyang, Chu and Han forces were divided on two fronts along present-day Henan. However, Xiang Yu's forces were not faring well on the battlefront north of the Yellow River, as the Han army led by Han Xin defeated his troops in every single battle. At the same time, Liu Bang's ally Peng Yue led his men to harass Xiang Yu's rear.

By 203 BC, the tide has turned in favour of Han. Xiang Yu managed to capture Liu Bang's father after a year-long siege and he threatened to boil Liu's father alive if Liu refused to surrender. Liu Bang remarked that he and Xiang Yu were oath brothers,^[4] so if Xiang killed Liu's father, he would be guilty of patricide. Xiang Yu requested for an armistice, known as the Treaty of Hong Canal, and returned the hostages he captured back to Liu Bang as part of their agreement. The treaty divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.

Shortly after, as Xiang Yu was retreating eastwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and led his forces to attack Western Chu. Liu Bang sent messengers to Han Xin and Peng Yue, requesting for their assistance in forming a three-pronged attack on Xiang Yu, but Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilize their troops and Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at the Battle of Guling. Liu Bang retreated and reinforced his defenses, while sending emissaries to Han Xin and Peng Yue, promising to grant them fiefs and titles of vassal kings if they would join him in attacking Western Chu.

Defeat and downfall[link]

In 202 BC, Han armies led by Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Western Chu from three sides and trapped Xiang Yu's army, which was low on supplies, in the Battle of Gaixia. Liu Bang ordered his troops to sing folk songs from the Chu region, to create a false impression that Xiang Yu's native land had been conquered by Han forces. The morale of the Chu army plummeted and many of Xiang Yu's troops deserted in despair. Xiang Yu sank into a state of depression and he sang the Song of Gaixia. His concubine Consort Yu committed suicide. The next morning, Xiang Yu led about 800 of his remaining elite cavalry on a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement, with 5,000 enemy troops hot on pursuit.

After crossing the Huai River, Xiang Yu was only left with a few hundred soldiers. They were lost in Yinling and Xiang Yu asked for directions from a farmer, who directed him wrongly to a swamp. When Xiang Yu reached Dongcheng, only 28 men were left, with the Han troops still following him. Xiang Yu made a speech to his men, saying that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure. After that, he led a charge out of the encirclement, killing one Han general in the battle. Xiang Yu then split his men into three groups to confuse the enemy and induce them to split up as well to attack the three groups. Xiang Yu took the Han troops by surprise again and slew another enemy commander, inflicting about 100 casualties on the enemy, while he only lost two men.

Death[link]

Xiang Yu retreated to Wu River (near present-day He County, Chaohu City, Anhui) and the ferryman at the ford prepared a boat for him to cross the river, strongly encouraging him to do so because Xiang Yu still had the support of the people from his homeland in the south. Xiang Yu said that he was too ashamed to return home and face his people because none of the first 8,000 men from Jiangdong who followed him on his conquests managed to survive. He refused to cross and ordered his remaining men to dismount, asking the ferryman to take his warhorse Zhui (騅) back home.

As he refused, his remaining men decided to stay, but Xiang Yu ordered them to go back on the boat.

Before Xiang Yu died, he saw an old friend Lü Matong among the Han soldiers. He then said, "I heard that the King of Han (Liu Bang) had placed a price of 1,000 gold and the title of Marquis of Wanhu^[5] on my head. Take it then, on account of our friendship." Xiang Yu then committed suicide by slitting his throat with his sword, and a brawl broke out among the Han soldiers at the scene due to the reward offered by Liu Bang, and Xiang Yu's body was said to be dismembered and mutilated in the fight. The reward was eventually claimed by Lü Matong and five others. After Xiang Yu's death, Western Chu surrendered and China was united under Liu Bang's rule, marking the start of the Han Dynasty. Liu Bang held a grand state funeral for Xiang Yu in Yicheng (in present-day Shandong), with the ceremony befitting Xiang's title of "Duke of Lu". Xiang Yu's relatives were spared from death, including Xiang Bo, who saved Liu Bang's life at the Feast at Hong Gate, and they were granted titles of marquises.

Song of Gaixia[link]

^[8]

Evaluation[link]

Historian Sima Qian, author of Records of the Grand Historian, described Xiang Yu as someone who boasts about his achievements and thinks highly of himself. Xiang Yu preferred to depend on his personal abilities as opposed to learning with humility from others before him. Sima Qian felt that Xiang Yu had failed to see his own shortcomings and to make attempts to correct his mistakes, even until his death. Sima Qian thought that it was ridiculous when Xiang Yu claimed that his downfall was due to Heaven's will and not his personal failure.^[1]

Liu Bang's general Han Xin, who was one of Xiang Yu's opponents on the battlefield, made a statement criticizing Xiang: "A man who turns into a fierce warrior when he encounters a rival stronger than he is, but also one who is sympathetic and soft hearted when he sees someone weaker than he is. Neither was he able to make good use of capable generals nor was he able to support Emperor Yi of Chu, as he killed the emperor. Even though he had the name of a Conqueror, he had already lost the favour of the people."^[9]

The Tang Dynasty poet Du Mu mentioned Xiang Yu in one of his poems Ti Wujiang Ting (題烏江亭): "Victory or defeat is common in battle. One who can endure humiliation is a true man. There are several talents in Jiangdong, who knows if he (Xiang Yu) can make a comeback?"^[10] However, the Song Dynasty poet Wang Anshi had a different opinion, as he stated: "The warrior is already tired after so many battles. His defeat in the Central Plains is hard to reverse. Although there are talents in Jiangdong, are they willing to help him?"^[11] The Song Dynasty female poet Li Qingzhao wrote: "A hero in life, a king of ghosts after death. Until now we still remember Xiang Yu, who refused to return to Jiangdong."^[12]

Mao Zedong also mentioned Xiang Yu once, saying that "We should use our remaining strength to defeat the enemy, instead of thinking about achieving fame like the Conqueror."^[13] In 1964, Mao also pointed out three reasons for Xiang Yu's downfall: Not following Fan Zeng's advice to kill Liu Bang at the Feast at Hong Gate and letting Liu leave; Adhering firmly to the terms of the peace treaty (without considering that Liu Bang might betray his trust); Building his capital at Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou).

Xiang Yu is popularly viewed as a leader who possesses great courage but lacks wisdom, and his character is aptly summarized using the Chinese idiom you yong wu mou (simplified Chinese: 有勇无谋; traditional Chinese: 有勇無謀; pinyin: yǒu yǒng wú móu)^[14], meaning "has courage but lacks tactics", "foolhardy". Xiang Yu's battle tactics were studied by later military leaders while his political blunders served as cautionary tales for later rulers.^{[citation needed]} Another Chinese idiom, si mian chu ge (Chinese: 四面楚歌; pinyin: sì miàn chǔ gē; literally "surrounded by Chu songs"), was also derived from the Battle of Gaixia, and used to describe someone in a desperate situation without help. Another saying by Liu Bang, "Having a Fan Zeng but unable to use him" (有一范增而不能用), was also used to describe Xiang Yu's reliance on his advisor Fan Zeng and failure to actually listen to Fan's advice.^{[citation needed]}

Historian John Keay cites Xiang Yu as the most accomplished general in Chinese history.^[15]

Modern references[link]

Xiang Yu's might and prowess in battle has been glorified in Chinese folk tales and poetry, especially in his final battle.^[16] However, his ambitions ended with the collapse of Western Chu, his defeat by Liu Bang, and death at the early age of 30. He is also the subject of films, television, plays, Chinese operas, video games and comics. His classic image is that of a heroic and brave, but arrogant and bloodthirsty warrior-king. His romance with his concubine Consort Yu and his suicide have also added a touch of a tragic hero to his character.

Xiang Yu is also depicted as a ruthless leader, in sharp contrast to his rival, Liu Bang. He was a mass murderer, ordering the massacres of entire cities when they refused to surrender and put up strong resistance. The most notorious example of his cruelty was when he ordered the 200,000 surrendered Qin troops to be buried alive after the Battle of Julu,^[17][18] and the gruesome methods of execution he employed against his enemies and critics. Conversely, Liu Bang is portrayed as a shrewd and cunning ruler who can be brutal at times.^[19] However, Liu Bang did forbid his troops from looting the cities they captured and he spared the lives of the citizens, earning their support and trust in return. Xiang Yu's story became an example for Confucianists to advocate the idea that leaders should rule with benevolence and not govern by instilling fear in the people.

In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature, Sun Ce is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" (小霸王) and is often compared favorably to Xiang Yu by his contemporaries. Sun Ce is best known for his conquests in the Jiangdong region that laid the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms era. In Water Margin, another of the Four Great Classical Novels, Zhou Tong, one of the 108 outlaws, is nicknamed "Little Conqueror" for his resemblance to Xiang Yu in appearance.

The Meng Ch'iu, an eighth-century Chinese primer, contains the four-character rhyming couplet: "Ji Xin impersonates the Emperor". It referred to the episode in the Battle of Xingyang when Ji Xin and 2,000 women disguised themselves as Liu Bang and his army, to distract Xiang Yu in order to buy time for Liu Bang to escape from the city of Xingyang.^[20]

A famous Beijing opera, Ba Wang Bie Ji (Chinese: 霸王别姬; pinyin: bà wáng bié jī; literally "The Conqueror bids his concubine farewell"), depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the Battle of Gaixia. The title of the play was borrowed as the Chinese title for Chen Kaige's award-winning motion picture Farewell My Concubine.

"The Works of Xiang Yu" are a central theme in the Firefly episode, War Stories, which deals with sadism and torture.

In the last episode of the 2001 Hong Kong television series A Step into the Past, the son of Xiang Shaolong (or Hung Siu-lung, the time traveling protagonist) says he wants to change his name to "Yu" (literally means "feather") because he admires the flying birds. His father is shocked to realise that his son is actually the future Hegemon-King of Western Chu.

Xiang Yu is one of the 32 historical figures who appear as special characters in the video game Romance of the Three Kingdoms XI by Koei. He is also featured as a non-playable character (NPC) in the action RPG Prince of Qin.

References[link]

• Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian, Volume 7.
• Ban Gu et al. Book of Han, Volume 31.
• Sima Guang. Zizhi Tongjian, volumes 8, 9, 10, 11.

Tina Chen (b. in Chongqing, China) is a Chinese American actress best known for her appearances in the films Alice's Restaurant, Three Days of the Condor and The Hawaiians.

Chen received a Golden Globe nomination for her supporting performance in the film The Hawaiians. She received an Emmy nomination for her supporting performance in the CBS Playhouse drama "The Final War of Olly Winter."

She has played leading roles in many productions on and off Broadway, including Family Devotions by David Henry Hwang. She has directed a number of plays, including Lucy Liu's New York stage debut in Fairy Bones.

On Broadway, she co-produced the play Passion by Peter Nichols (starring Frank Langella), and received a Drama Desk Award nomination as part of the producing team for The Rink by Terrence McNally (starring Chita Rivera and Liza Minnelli).

Her other awards include Urban Stages 25th Anniversary Award for Artistic Brilliance, Women's Project's Women of Achievement Award, Girl Scouts Woman of Distinction Award, and The Anna Mae Wong Award.

External links[link]

• Tina Chen at the Internet Movie Database

This article about an American actor or actress is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

It has been suggested that Lady Gan be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) Proposed since January 2012.

Liu Bei
Founding emperor of Shu Han
Born	161 Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present-day Zhuozhou, Baoding, Hebei)
Died	10 June 223 (aged 62) Baidicheng (8 km east of present-day Fengjie County, Chongqing)
Reign	221–223
Successor	Liu Shan
Names
Simplified Chinese	刘备
Traditional Chinese	劉備
Pinyin	Liú Bèi
Wade-Giles	Liu Pei
Style name	Xuande (玄德)
Posthumous name	Zhaolie (昭烈)
Era names	Zhangwu (章武; 221–223)
Other names	Yuzhou Liu (劉豫州)[1]

Liu Bei (Mandarin pronunciation: [ljoʊ peɪ]; 161 – 10 June 223),^[2] also known as Liu Xuande, was a warlord, military general and later the founding emperor of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms era of Chinese history. Despite having a later start than his rivals and lacking both the material resources and social status they commanded, Liu Bei overcame his many defeats to carve out his own realm, which at its peak spanned modern day Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, part of Hubei and part of Gansu.

Culturally, due to the popularity of the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong, Liu Bei is widely known as the ideal benevolent, humane ruler who cared for his people and selected good advisors for his government. His fictional character was a salutary example of a ruler who adhered to the Confucian set of moral values, such as loyalty and compassion. Historically, Liu Bei was a brilliant politician and leader whose skill was a remarkable demonstration of a Legalist. His political philosophy can best be described by the Chinese idiom "Confucian in appearance but Legalist in substance (Chinese: 儒表法裡; pinyin: rú biǎo fǎ lǐ," a style of governing which had become the norm after the founding of the Han Dynasty.^[3]

Biography[link]

Early life and career[link]

Pedigree[link]

According to Records of the Three Kingdoms, Liu Bei was born in Zhuo County, Zhuo Commandery (present day Zhuozhou, Baoding, Hebei). He was a descendant of Liu Zhen, a son of Liu Sheng and grandson of Emperor Jing. However, Pei Songzhi's commentary, based on the Dianlue (典略), said that Liu Bei was a descendant of the Marquis of Linyi (臨邑侯). The title of Marquis of Linyi was held by Liu Fu (劉復; grandson of Liu Yan), and later by Liu Fu's son Liu Taotu (劉騊駼). All three descended from Emperor Jing. Liu Bei's grandfather Liu Xiong and father Liu Hong were both employed as local clerks.

Liu Bei grew up in a poor family, having lost his father when he was still a child. To support themselves, Liu Bei and his mother sold shoes and straw-woven mats. Even so, Liu Bei was full of ambition since childhood: he once said to his peers, while under a tree that resembled the royal chariot, that he desired to become an emperor. At the age of 14, Liu Bei, sponsored by a more affluent relative who recognised his potential in leadership, went to study under the tutelage of Lu Zhi (a prominent scholar and, at the time, former Administrator of Jiujiang). There he met and befriended Gongsun Zan, a prominent northern warlord to be. The adolescent Liu Bei was said to be unenthusiastic in studying and displayed interest in hunting, music and dressing. Concise in speech, calm in demeanor, and kind to his friends, Liu Bei was well liked by his contemporaries. He was said to have long arms and large earlobes.^[4]

Yellow Turban Rebellion[link]

In 184, at the outbreak of the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Liu Bei called for the assembly of a volunteer army to help government forces suppress the rebellion. Liu Bei received financial contributions from two wealthy horse merchants and rallied a group of loyal followers, among whom include Guan Yu and Zhang Fei.

Liu Bei led his army to join the provincial army. Together, they scored several victories against the rebels. In recognition of his contributions, Liu Bei was appointed Prefect of Anxi (安喜令) in Zhongshan Commandery (中山郡). He resigned after refusing to submit to a corrupt inspector who attempted to ask him for bribes. He then traveled south with his followers to join another volunteer army to suppress the Yellow Turbans remnants in Xu Province (present day northern Jiangsu). For that achievement, he was appointed Prefect and Commandant of Gaotang (高唐令、高唐尉).

Warlord state[link]

Succeeding Tao Qian[link]

In 192, after the splitting of the coalition against Dong Zhuo, China sank into civil war and chaos. Overran by rebels, Liu Bei moved north to join Gongsun Zan, who was at war with Yuan Shao for control of Ji Province (Hebei) and Qing Province (Shandong). Gongsun Zan appointed Liu Bei as the Prefect of Pingyuan County under Tian Kai to fight Yuan Shao in Shandong, but was held off by Yuan Shao's oldest son, Yuan Tan, and later lost Gongsun Zan's interest in the area to Yuan Tan.^[5] In 194, Yuan Shao's ally, Cao Cao, launched a campaign against Tao Qian in Xu Province. At the time, there were two opposing alliances — Yuan Shu, Tao Qian, and Gongsun Zan on one side, Yuan Shao, Cao Cao, and Liu Biao the other. In face of strong pressure from Cao Cao's invading force, Tao Qian appealed to Tian Kai for help. Tian Kai and Liu Bei led their armies to support Tao Qian.

Despite initial success on the invasion, Cao Cao's subordinate Zhang Miao rebelled and allowed Lü Bu to take over Cao's base in Yan Province (present day western Shandong), forcing Cao to retreat from Xu Province. Tao Qian asked Liu Bei to station his army in nearby Xiaopei (present day Pei County, Jiangsu) and gave him 4,000 more troops, in addition to 1,000 or so troops and some Wuhuan cavalry already under his command. Thus, Liu Bei deserted his supervisor Tian Kai for Tao Qian. Meantime, Liu Bei raised troops around the area, and actively built up connections with influential clans and people of the region. In a rather short period of time, he had gained the support of the two most powerful families in Xu Province: the Mi clan led by Mi Zhu and Mi Fang, and the Chen clan led by Chen Gui and Chen Deng. Liu Bei also married Mi Zhu's younger sister to draw support from the Mi clan.

Upon Tao Qian's death shortly after Liu Bei secured his position around the area by building up connections and an army,^[6] the Mi clan strongly advocated the governorship be passed on to Liu Bei instead of Tao Qian's sons. Liu Bei was hesitant and apprehensive towards taking the post when Chen Qun told him that Yuan Shu would contest the control of the province with him.^[7] Liu Bei then consulted Kong Rong and Chen Deng, who advised him to switch ally and seek confirmation from the leading warlord, Yuan Shao. Liu Bei finally took over Xu Province after Yuan Shao recognized his "succession".^[8]

Statue of Liu Bei in Zhuge Liang's temple in Chengdu

Conflict with Lü Bu[link]

In 195, Lü Bu was defeated by Cao Cao and sought shelter under Liu Bei. In the next year, Yuan Shu sent his general Ji Ling with a large army to invade Xu Province. Liu Bei led his army to Xuyi and Huaiyin (in Guangling, south of Xu Province) to counter. They faced each other for a month without any decisive result.

Zhang Fei, who was left behind by Liu to guard Xiapi (capital of Xu Province), killed Cao Bao (chancellor of Xiapi when Tao Qian was still in charge of Xu Province) after an intense quarrel. Cao Bao's death caused unrest in the city, providing Lü Bu with an opportunity to seize control of the city, capturing the families of Liu Bei and his men during the surprise attack.

Liu Bei returned to Xiapi on receiving the news but his army disintegrated by the time he reached there. Liu Bei rallied his remaining men and moved to Guangling, where he was defeated by Yuan Shu. Liu Bei then retreated to Haixi (海西), Donghai Commandery (東海). Faced with enemies on both sides and a lack of supplies (Mi Zhu used his personal wealth to support the army), Liu Bei's army resorted to cannibalism, and finally surrendered to Lü Bu, who recognized Liu's pledge of allegiance, and returned his family as an act of good faith, and ordered Liu to help him resist Yuan Shu.^[9] Lü Bu, fearing isolation, obstructed further attempts by Yuan Shu to eliminate Liu Bei. Liu Bei moved his camp to Xiaopei where he rebuilt his army, gathering over ten thousand men. Lü Bu became concerned and attacked Xiaopei. Liu Bei fled to Xuchang, where Cao Cao received him well, gave him some troops, provisions, and official appointment of Governor of Yu Province (豫州牧). Liu Bei then reassumed his post in Xiaopei to keep an eye on Lü Bu.

In 198, Lü Bu renewed his alliance with Yuan Shu to stem Cao Cao's growing influence and sent Gao Shun and Zhang Liao to attack Liu Bei. Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun to support Liu Bei but they were defeated by Gao Shun. Liu Bei had to flee to Cao Cao again. Cao Cao personally led an army to eliminate Lü Bu and achieved victory at the Battle of Xiapi.

Role in the Cao-Yuan conflict[link]

By 199, Cao Cao had Emperor Xian in his control and enjoyed a political advantage. Liu Bei joined a conspiracy headed by Dong Cheng, an imperial relative, and some others to remove Cao Cao from power. Moreover, he was anxious to leave Cao Cao's stronghold, Xuchang. Hence, on hearing that Yuan Shu had surrendered to, and was on his way, via Xiapi, to join Yuan Shao in the north, Liu Bei asked to lead an army to intercept Yuan Shu. Before his advisers were able to change his mind, Cao Cao consented, commissioned Liu Bei and Zhu Ling with an army to move south. Having his path blocked, Yuan Shu turned back to Shouchun and died there later.

Zhu Ling returned to Xuchang, but Liu stayed behind with the army. Liu Bei seized the opportunity to kill Che Zhou, the Governor of Xu Province who was appointed by the imperial court after Lü Bu's defeat. Liu Bei took over Xu Province and left Guan Yu behind to guard Xiapi while he stationed himself in Xiaopei.

Yuan Shao, who earlier recognized Liu Bei's control on Xu Province, had defeated Gongsun Zan, and started moving against Cao Cao on the northern bank of the Yellow River. Knowing that he still had a plenty of spies and cohort inside the imperial capital, Liu Bei sent his messenger, Sun Qian, to Yuan Shao to request an immediate attack be launched against Cao Cao. However, Yuan Shao turned down Liu Bei's plea, even his own strategists advised him to do Liu a favor. In 200, Dong Cheng's plot was discovered. All conspirators and their families were summarily executed. However, Liu Bei, as well as a few others who were outside Cao Cao's domain, survived the purge.

With his domestic situation settled, Cao Cao turned his attention to his last great rival in the north, Yuan Shao. Cao fortified many of the key crossing points on the Yellow River which divided his territory from Yuan's; he personally made camp at Guandu with his main army. To eliminate Yuan Shao's last southern ally, Cao sent his subordinates, Liu Dai and Wang Zhong against Liu Bei, but they were defeated.

Predicting that Yuan Shao would be hesitant to go on the offensive, Cao Cao led his army away from Guandu to personally overrun Liu Bei's position. He overcame Liu Bei in an extremely short period of time, leaving Yuan Shao no chance to aid Liu on second thought. Yuan Shao's attempt to reinforce Liu was repulsed by Yu Jin, whom Cao Cao had left in command of his troops at Yan Ford. Liu Bei's force disintegrated under the weight of Cao Cao's assault, but his trusted aides all survived the war. Zhang Fei protected Liu Bei when the latter fled from the battlefield, while Guan Yu surrendered to Cao Cao on terms that he could return to Liu Bei's service if the latter was alive.

Liu Bei fled north to join Yuan Shao, where he was received with respect by Yuan Shao and his son Yuan Tan. Liu Bei participated in the unsuccessful battles along the Yellow River, in which Yuan Shao successively lost two of his best generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou, with the former being slain by Guan Yu.

As Liu Pi in Runan rebelled against Cao Cao, Liu Bei persuaded Yuan Shao to "lend" him an army to help Liu Pi. Liu Bei and Liu Pi attacked Xuchang but were defeated by Cao Ren. Liu Bei returned to the north and urged Yuan Shao to ally with Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province (present-day Hubei and Hunan). Yuan Shao again sent him with an army to Runan to aid the bandit leader, Gong Du. They were able to kill Cao Cao's general Cai Yang there.

Taking refuge under Liu Biao[link]

In 201, Cao Cao led his army to attack Liu Bei in Runan after defeating Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu. Liu Bei fled to Jing Province to seek refuge under Liu Biao. Liu Biao welcomed Liu Bei personally, treating him as an honored guest. He also gave Liu Bei some troops and asked him to station in Xinye.

Liu Bei stayed in Jing Province for several years. During a meeting with Liu Biao, Liu Bei started weeping and the surprised Liu Biao asked why. Liu Bei answered "In earlier times, I've never left the saddle. My thighs were thin. Now I do not ride anymore, they are fat and flabby. The days and months pass like a stream, and old age will come, but I have achieved nothing. That's why I am sad^[10] In 202, Cao Cao sent Yu Jin and Xiahou Dun to attack Liu Bei. Liu Bei ambushed and defeated them at the Battle of Bowang.

In 207, Cao Cao planned a campaign to conquer the Wuhuan in the north, but was apprehensive that Liu Biao might attack his base but he was assured by Guo Jia that Liu Biao would not do so for fear of Liu Bei being more powerful than he was. Cao Cao agreed and Guo Jia's point was proven later, when Liu Biao refused to attack Xuchang when Liu Bei advised him to do so.

Away from the battlefields in the east and under Liu Biao's efficient rule, Jing Province was prosperous and a popular destination for literati fleeing from the destruction of war. Liu Bei asked Sima Hui, a revered recluse, about scholars. Sima Hui named Zhuge Liang and Pang Tong as exceptional talents who could comprehend important events of their time well. Xu Shu also urged Liu Bei to call on Zhuge Liang.

Liu Bei went to see Zhuge Liang and finally had an audience with him after three visits. Zhuge Liang presented Liu Bei with his Longzhong Plan, a generalized long-term plan outlining the takeover of Jing Province and Yi Province to set up a two-pronged final strike at the imperial capital.

Liu Biao died in 208 and his younger son Liu Cong succeeded him and surrendered to Cao Cao without informing Liu Bei. By the time Liu Bei heard news of Liu Cong's surrender, Cao Cao's army had already reached Wancheng (present-day Nanyang, Henan). Liu Bei led his troops away and abandoned Fancheng, leading civilians and his followers (including some of Liu Biao's former attendants) on an exodus to the south. By the time they reached Dangyang (当阳), his followers numbered more than one hundred thousand and they moved only 10 li a day. Liu Bei sent Guan Yu ahead to wait for him in Jiangling, where abundant supplies and arsenal were stored, with Jing Province's fleet.

Afraid that Liu Bei might reach Jiangling before him, Cao Cao led his cavalry on pursuit. In a day and a night, Cao Cao caught up with Liu and captured most of his people and baggage at the Battle of Changban. Leaving his family behind, Liu Bei fled with only scores of followers. With Guan Yu's fleet, they crossed the Mian River to Jiangxia and the Yangtze River to Xiakou with Liu Qi, Liu Biao's older son, and his men.

Alliance with Sun Quan[link]

Battle of Red Cliffs[link]

When Liu Bei was still at Changban, Sun Quan's envoy Lu Su hinted to him that he should ally with Sun against Cao Cao. Zhuge Liang went to meet Sun Quan, as Liu Bei's envoy, together with Lu Su at Chaisang to discuss the formation of the alliance.

Liu Bei and Sun Quan formed their first coalition against the southward expansion of Cao Cao. The two sides clashed at the Red Cliffs (northwest of present day Puqi County, Hubei). Cao Cao boasted 830,000 men (Zhou Yu claimed the realistic number be 230,000 to 270,000), while the alliance at best had 50,000 troops under the leadership of Zhou Yu.^{[citation needed]}

Cao Cao's core troops were mostly northerners, so they were unable to adapt to the southern climate and naval warfare, and that posed a major disadvantage to Cao. Subsequently, a plague broke out that undermined the strength of Cao Cao's army. The fire attack masterminded by Zhou Yu and Huang Gai succeeded against Cao Cao's chain-linked vessels and most of Cao's navy was destroyed in the battle. The majority of Cao Cao's troops were burnt to death or drowned in the river while the survivors who successfully retreated to the riverbank were ambushed and killed by skirmishers. Cao Cao barely escaped after his defeat. He retreated back to the north and left behind Cao Ren and Xu Huang to guard Jiangling and Yue Jin to defend Xiangyang.

Taking Jing Province[link]

Sun Quan's forces led by Zhou Yu attacked Cao Ren after their resounding victory to wrestle for control of Jiangling. Liu Bei recommended Liu Qi to be the new Inspector of Jing Province (荊州刺史) and led his men to capture the four commanderies south of the Yangtze River - Changsha, Lingling (present day Yongzhou, Hunan), Guiyang and Wuling (武陵). Liu Bei set up his base at Gong'an and continued to strengthen his army. When Liu Qi died shortly after Liu Bei secured his position in the area, the latter succeeded the former as the new governor of Jing Province, and went to Jianye to marry Sun Quan's younger sister Lady Sun in order to legitimatize his succession. After the marriage, not only was Liu Bei's succession recognized by Sun Quan, but the land of Nan Commandery was also "lent" to him.

Subsequently, former subordinates of Liu Biao who were unwilling to serve Cao Cao came to join Liu Bei. After the death of Zhou Yu in 210 and Liu Bei's growing influence in southern Jing Province, Sun Quan's position in the north became more untenable. Lu Su succeeded Zhou Yu as the Grand Viceroy of Sun Quan's armies and moved the headquarters to Lukou (陸口), yielding all commanderies of Jing Province (except Jiangxia commandery) and access to the Yi Province to Liu Bei. In diplomatic terms, Sun Quan's side thought that they were "lending" Jing Province to Liu Bei as a temporary base that should be returned to them after Liu found another stronghold. In Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Sun Quan sent envoys several times to ask Liu Bei to return Jing Province but Liu always dismissed those requests with excuses suggested by Zhuge Liang.

Establishing the Shu regime[link]

Conquering Yi Province[link]

In 211, Liu Zhang, governor of Yi Province (present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), heard that Cao Cao planned to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong. As Hanzhong was a strategic location and the "gateway" for attacks into Yi Province, Liu Zhang sent Fa Zheng to form an alliance with Liu Bei after persuasion from Zhang Song. Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to join him in Yi Province to capture Hanzhong before Cao Cao did.

Liu Bei led an expedition force into Sichuan after leaving behind Zhuge Liang, Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and Zhao Yun to guard Jing Province. Liu Zhang received Liu Bei warmly and provided him with more troops under his command as well as provisions and equipment. Liu Bei headed to Jiameng Pass (southwest of present day Guangyuan, Sichuan) at the border between Liu Zhang and Zhang Lu's territories. Instead of engaging Zhang, Liu Bei halted his advance and focused on building up connections and gaining influence around the area.^[11]