- published: 22 Nov 2012
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- author: ficky wigiat
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France
France (English
i/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] (
listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
wn.com/France -
Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel (
/ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Togo
Togo, officially the Togolese Republici/ˈtoʊɡoʊ/, is a country in West Africa bordered by Ghana to the west, Benin to the east, and Burkina Faso to the north. It extends south to the Gulf of Guinea, on which the capital Lomé is located. Togo covers an area of approximately 57,000 square kilometres (22,000 sq mi) with a population of approximately 6.7 million.
Togo is a tropical, sub-Saharan nation, highly dependent on agriculture, with a climate that provides good growing seasons. The official language is French, with many other languages spoken in Togo, particularly those of the Gbe family. The largest religious group in Togo are those with indigenous beliefs, and there are significant Christian and Muslim minorities. Togo is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, La Francophonie and Economic Community of West African States.
From the 11th to the 16th century, various tribes entered the region from all directions. From the 16th century to the 18th century, the coastal region was a major trading centre for Europeans in search of slaves, earning Togo and the surrounding region the name "The Slave Coast". In 1884, Germany declared Togoland a protectorate. After World War I, rule over Togo was transferred to France. Togo gained its independence from France in 1960.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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Ian Maddieson
Ian Maddieson is a linguist at UC Berkeley, an Adjunct Professor Emeritus at the University of New Mexico, Vice-President of the International Phonetic Association, and Secretary of the Association for Laboratory Phonology. He wrote the books Patterns of Sounds and Sounds of the World's Languages.
wn.com/Ian_Maddieson -
Khitan large script
The Khitan large script was one of two Khitan writing systems used for the now-extinct Khitan language. It was used during the 10th-12th centuries by the Khitan people, who had created the Liao Empire in north-eastern China. In addition to the large script, the Khitans simultaneously also used a functionally independent writing system known as the Khitan small script. Both Khitan scripts continued to be in use to some extent by the Jurchens for several decades after the fall of the Liao Dynasty, until the Jurchens fully switched to a script of their own. Examples of the scripts appeared most often on epitaphs and monuments, although other fragments sometimes surface.
Abaoji of the Yelü clan, founder of the Khitan, or Liao, Dynasty, introduced the original Khitan script in 920 CE. “Large script”, or “big characters" (大字), as it was referred to in some Chinese sources, was established to keep the record of the new Khitan state. The Khitan script was based on the idea of the Chinese script.
wn.com/Khitan_large_script -
Khitan small script
The Khitan small script was one of two Khitan writing systems used for the now-extinct Khitan language. It was used during the 10th-12th century by the Khitan people, who had created the Liao Empire in north-eastern China. In addition to the small script, the Khitans simultaneously also used a functionally independent writing system known as the Khitan large script. Both Khitan scripts continued to be in use to some extent by the Jurchens for several decades after the fall of the Liao Dynasty, until the Jurchens fully switched to a script of their own. Examples of the scripts appeared most often on epitaphs and monuments, although other fragments sometimes surface.
The Khitan small script was invented in about 924 or 925 CE by a scholar named Yelü Diela. He drew his inspiration from “the Uyghur language and script,” which he was shown by a visiting Uyghur ambassador at the Khitan court. For this reason, Khitan small script was originally thought to be a daughter script of the Old Uyghur alphabet.
wn.com/Khitan_small_script -
Kpelle syllabary
The Kpelle syllabary was invented circa 1935 by Chief Gbili of Sanoyie, Liberia. It was intended for writing the Kpelle language, a member of the Mande group of Niger-Congo languages spoken by about 490,000 people in Liberia and around 300,000 people in Guinea.
The syllabary consists of 88 graphemes and is written from left to right in horizontal rows. Many of the glyphs have more than one form.
It was used to some extent by speakers of Kpelle in Liberia and Guinea during the 1930s and early 1940s but never achieved popular acceptance. It has been classed as a failed script.
Today Kpelle is written with a version of the Latin alphabet.
wn.com/Kpelle_syllabary -
Luciano Canepari
Luciano Canepari [luˈtʃaːno ˌkaneˈpaːri] (b. 19 January 1947 in Venice), is a professor in the Department of Linguistics at the University of Venice. He received his academic training at that university. He developed a phonetic transcription system called canIPA ([kaˈniːpa]), based on the official IPA. The canIPA consists of 500 basic, 300 complementary and 200 supplementary symbols. It is a work in progress, intended to permit the transcription of all world languages in more exact detail than the official IPA.
He has also published a number of workbooks and recordings used in connection with these books.
wn.com/Luciano_Canepari -
Nico Castel
Nico Castel (born August 1, 1931) is a comprimario tenor and well-known language and diction coach, as well as a prolific translator of libretti and writer of books on singing diction.
Castel was born in Lisbon, Portugal, and raised in Venezuela by multilingual parents and a German nanny and attended a French school. He is the descendant of a Sephardic Jewish family with roots in 15th century Castile. He moved to New York City at the age of 16 to pursue a singing career. In 1958, he became the first winner of the "Joy in Singing" award, which launched his career with a New York Town Hall debut recital. In June 1958 he made his debut with the Santa Fe Opera as Fenton in Verdi Falstaff. On the following July 16 he portrayed Joseph in the world premiere of Carlisle Floyd's Wuthering Heights in Santa Fe. Soon afterwards he made his debut with the New York City Opera, and then the Metropolitan Opera in 1969, where he has sung for over 35 years and has served for over 25 years as staff diction coach. A polyglot, Castel speaks Portuguese, German, French, Spanish, Italian and English with native or near-native fluency. Castel is an internationally known language and diction coach and teacher.
wn.com/Nico_Castel -
Paul Passy
Paul Édouard Passy (13 January 1859, Versailles – 21 March 1940, Bourg-la-Reine) was a French linguist, founder of the International Phonetic Association in 1886. He took part in the elaboration of the International Phonetic Alphabet.
Paul Passy was born into a notable French family: his father Frédéric, a noted economist and politician, was the first recipient (along with Henry Dunant) of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1901. Passy mastered English, German, and Italian as a child, and studied Sanskrit and Gothic Latin at the École des Hautes Études. He graduated from university at 19 and spent ten years as a language teacher (English and German) in public schools as an alternative to military service. Around this time he also became a committed Christian.
Passy was largely self-taught in phonetics; his interest was prompted by his dissatisfaction with the methods of language teaching at the time. In 1886, Passy founded the Phonetic Teachers' Association, which later became the International Phonetic Association; his friend Otto Jespersen was an early member of the association.
wn.com/Paul_Passy -
Peter Ladefoged
Nielsen Peter Ladefoged ( /ˈlædɪfoʊɡɪd/; September 17, 1925 – January 24, 2006) was an English-American linguist and phonetician who traveled the world to document the distinct sounds of endangered languages and pioneered ways to collect and study data [1]. He was active at the universities of Edinburgh, Scotland and Ibadan, Nigeria 1953–61 [2]. At Edinburgh he studied phonetics with David Abercrombie, who himself had studied with Daniel Jones and was thus connected to Henry Sweet.
At the time of his death, he was Professor of Phonetics Emeritus at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), where he taught from 1962 to 1991. His book A Course in Phonetics is a common introductory text in phonetics, and The Sounds of the World's Languages (co-authored with Ian Maddieson) is widely regarded as a standard phonetics reference. Ladefoged also wrote several books on the phonetics of African languages.
Peter Ladefoged was born on September 17, 1925, in Sutton (then in Surrey, now in Greater London), England to Niels, an importer of Danish bacon and cheese, and his wife, Marie Frances. He attended Haileybury College from 1938–43, and Caius College, a constituent college of Cambridge University from 1943–44. His university education was then interrupted by service in the Royal Sussex Regiment during World War II from 1944–47. He resumed his education at the University of Edinburgh, intending to study English literature but soon became fascinated by the sounds of speech. He received an M.A. (1951) and a Ph.D. (1959) in Phonetics.
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Semyon Novgorodov
Semyon Andreyevich Novgorodov (Sakha: Семен Андреевич Новгородов, Semen Andreyevich Novgorodov, the older orphography Sakha: Сэмэн Ноҕоруодап, Səmən Noğoruodap, Russian: Семён Андреевич Новогородов; February 13, 1892 – 28 February 1924) was a Yakut politician and linguist, the creator of a Yakut written language.
Semyon Andreyevich Novgorodov was born in the 2nd Khatlinsky nasleg of Boturus Ulus (now Boltoginsky nasleg of Churapchinsky Ulus of Sakha). His father was poor, but later acquired some wealth. He taught his son to read Old Church Slavonic. Later, Novgorodov studied under sexton Andrey Vinokurov, who taught him Russian and arithmetic. Then he visited the private school of exiled I. T. Tsypenko in Churapcha. As Semyon was a brilliant pupil, in 1905 he entered Yakutsk Realschule (Реальное училище). During his time at the college, Novgorodov read widely. Novgorodov started to collect Yakut folklore, his works were published in the first Yakut literature magazine Saqa sanata, which was published in 1912–1913.
wn.com/Semyon_Novgorodov -
Victoria Fromkin
Victoria Fromkin (May 16, 1923 – January 19, 2000) was an American linguist who taught at UCLA. She studied slips of the tongue, mishearing, and other speech errors and applied this to phonology, the study of how the sounds of a language are organized in the mind.
Fromkin was born in Passaic, New Jersey as Victoria Alexandra Landish on May 16, 1923. She earned a bachelor's degree in economics from the University of California at Berkeley in 1944. She married Jack Fromkin, a childhood friend from Passaic, in 1948, and they settled in Los Angeles, California. Their son, Mark, was born in 1950 and died in a car accident in 1966.
Fromkin was active in the Communist Party USA, reaching positions of party leadership in California, but she resigned from membership shortly after the revelations of Stalinist crimes by Nikita Krushchev in 1956. She decided to head back to school to study linguistics in her late 30s. She enrolled at UCLA, received her master's in 1963 and her Ph.D in 1965; her thesis was entitled, "Some phonetic specifications of linguistic units: an electromyographic investigation".
wn.com/Victoria_Fromkin
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ficky wp XI ipa 4 09
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 22 Nov 2012
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http://wn.com/ficky_wp_XI_ipa_4_09
New Albany High School Winter Percussion @ ipa March 6th, 2010 New Albany Invitational
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:57
- Updated: 27 Sep 2011
This is the New Albany High School Winter Percussion team at the March 6th, 2010 New Albany Invitational. NAHS WP team placed #1 with a score of 83.50
http://wn.com/New_Albany_High_School_Winter_Percussion_@_ipa_March_6th,_2010_New_Albany_Invitational
This is the New Albany High School Winter Percussion team at the March 6th, 2010 New Albany Invitational. NAHS WP team placed #1 with a score of 83.50
- published: 08 Mar 2010
- views: 1379
- author: indianajones47150
Download Cracked .ipa Files For iPhone and iTouch.avi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 17 Jan 2013
iphonecake.com www.iphoneapplist.net appcrack.net idownloads.ru
http://wn.com/Download_Cracked_ipa_Files_For_iPhone_and_iTouchavi
iphonecake.com www.iphoneapplist.net appcrack.net idownloads.ru
- published: 16 Feb 2011
- views: 1645
- author: abdelmesih farah
WP D.wmv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:56
- Updated: 07 Mar 2011
First World Plumbing Day saw a lot of activities happening across the country, thanks to an aggressive campaign of IPA, for creating much-needed awareness about better plumbing practices and its pivotal role in better health, hygiene and environment besides better management of energy and of course, water!
http://wn.com/WP_Dwmv
First World Plumbing Day saw a lot of activities happening across the country, thanks to an aggressive campaign of IPA, for creating much-needed awareness about better plumbing practices and its pivotal role in better health, hygiene and environment besides better management of energy and of course, water!
- published: 07 Mar 2011
- views: 113
- author: rajwadi1
Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard test part 1/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:28
- Updated: 04 Jul 2012
Part 2: www.youtube.com Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard testing. Applying on a clean glass. Glass has been polished with Wolf's Chemicals WP-2N and Flexipads soft 80mm pad to get rid of some odd dried marks on the glass. After an IPA wipe with 50% IPA, Glass Guard was applied with a piece of microfiber cloth.
http://wn.com/Wolf's_Chemicals_Glass_Guard_test_part_1_2
Part 2: www.youtube.com Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard testing. Applying on a clean glass. Glass has been polished with Wolf's Chemicals WP-2N and Flexipads soft 80mm pad to get rid of some odd dried marks on the glass. After an IPA wipe with 50% IPA, Glass Guard was applied with a piece of microfiber cloth.
- published: 10 Oct 2011
- views: 861
- author: Wolffstein
Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard test part 2/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:29
- Updated: 04 Jul 2012
Part 1: www.youtube.com Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard testing. Applied on a clean glass. Glass had been polished with Wolf's Chemicals WP-2N and Flexipads soft 80mm pad to get rid of some odd dried marks on the glass. After an IPA wipe with 50% IPA, Glass Guard was applied with a piece of microfiber cloth. Glass Guard was left to dry for 15mins after application. Then it was buffed with some water and a clean microfiber cloth until clear.
http://wn.com/Wolf's_Chemicals_Glass_Guard_test_part_2_2
Part 1: www.youtube.com Wolf's Chemicals Glass Guard testing. Applied on a clean glass. Glass had been polished with Wolf's Chemicals WP-2N and Flexipads soft 80mm pad to get rid of some odd dried marks on the glass. After an IPA wipe with 50% IPA, Glass Guard was applied with a piece of microfiber cloth. Glass Guard was left to dry for 15mins after application. Then it was buffed with some water and a clean microfiber cloth until clear.
- published: 10 Oct 2011
- views: 986
- author: Wolffstein
Tribute Double IPA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:57
- Updated: 14 Jan 2012
http://wn.com/Tribute_Double_IPA
New Fruit ninja hack v1.6.1 UPDATE: ultimate link in des
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
new version!!!!!!! here: www.youtube.com if you like the hack tell me and and i will post the patched ipa just tell me what you want in your fruit ninja ill make it and send you :) my original thread with more hacked versions and mirrors xsellize.com Download links: fileape: fileape.com filedude: www.filedude.com mediafire: www.mediafire.com
http://wn.com/New_Fruit_ninja_hack_v161_UPDATE_ultimate_link_in_des
new version!!!!!!! here: www.youtube.com if you like the hack tell me and and i will post the patched ipa just tell me what you want in your fruit ninja ill make it and send you :) my original thread with more hacked versions and mirrors xsellize.com Download links: fileape: fileape.com filedude: www.filedude.com mediafire: www.mediafire.com
- published: 29 May 2011
- views: 35060
- author: dxdiadora
Exit Recovery Mode With ONE CLICK! - Fixes 1015 iTunes Error!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
Ever get an annoying 1015 error? Or maybe you don't want to hold your power + home button for like an hour while trying to get into recovery mode? Well now there's a solution! RECBOOT! Steps: 1. Just download it: PC: www.sebby.net MAC: www.sebby.net LINKS provided by XSELLIZE! 2. Just hit enter or exit recovery mode and your good to go! 3. PLEASE Subscribe if this helped! Winrar Download: www.rarlab.com
http://wn.com/Exit_Recovery_Mode_With_ONE_CLICK!_Fixes_1015_iTunes_Error!
Ever get an annoying 1015 error? Or maybe you don't want to hold your power + home button for like an hour while trying to get into recovery mode? Well now there's a solution! RECBOOT! Steps: 1. Just download it: PC: www.sebby.net MAC: www.sebby.net LINKS provided by XSELLIZE! 2. Just hit enter or exit recovery mode and your good to go! 3. PLEASE Subscribe if this helped! Winrar Download: www.rarlab.com
- published: 29 Jun 2010
- views: 216816
- author: iCrackUriDevice
Cigar City Jai Alai IPA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:47
- Updated: 02 Sep 2011
http://wn.com/Cigar_City_Jai_Alai_IPA
NOVA 2 Near Orbit Vanguard Alliance HD na Defy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:25
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
ip team speak 3 : 37.28.155.40:9999 Download: www.wrzuc.to Witam jest to gra pt. NOVA 2 Near Orbit Vanguard Alliance HD no mojej defy zapraszam do obejrzenia i komentowania. Dziękuje i Pozdrawiam Thanks for 13000 views video
http://wn.com/NOVA_2_Near_Orbit_Vanguard_Alliance_HD_na_Defy
ip team speak 3 : 37.28.155.40:9999 Download: www.wrzuc.to Witam jest to gra pt. NOVA 2 Near Orbit Vanguard Alliance HD no mojej defy zapraszam do obejrzenia i komentowania. Dziękuje i Pozdrawiam Thanks for 13000 views video
- published: 15 May 2011
- views: 14211
- author: canyon512wp
Polska gwiazda w więzieniu
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:36
- Updated: 19 Jan 2013
Zobacz więcej: GWIAZDY.wp.tv Tego jeszcze nie było! Premiera płyty w więzieniu to nietuzinkowy pomysł.
http://wn.com/Polska_gwiazda_w_więzieniu
Zobacz więcej: GWIAZDY.wp.tv Tego jeszcze nie było! Premiera płyty w więzieniu to nietuzinkowy pomysł.
- published: 19 Apr 2011
- views: 56296
- author: wptvwppl
Roi Vaara - 'Follow Me'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:52
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
'Follow Me', a street performance by artist Roi Vaara. Interview with Roi: wp.me . 'Follow Me' was the Opening Performance at the 'IPA Istanbul 2012 Performance Artists' Festival. Video by artıkişler/wastedworks, 9 Sep 2012. Video edit by Gil Dekel 2013.
http://wn.com/Roi_Vaara_'Follow_Me'
'Follow Me', a street performance by artist Roi Vaara. Interview with Roi: wp.me . 'Follow Me' was the Opening Performance at the 'IPA Istanbul 2012 Performance Artists' Festival. Video by artıkişler/wastedworks, 9 Sep 2012. Video edit by Gil Dekel 2013.
- published: 13 Jan 2013
- views: 35
- author: wordimagespirit
The Keg Tap: Avery Maharaja review
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:39
- Updated: 28 Mar 2012
Video review of Avery Maharaja Visit the link here for the full page on our site: wp.me
http://wn.com/The_Keg_Tap_Avery_Maharaja_review
Video review of Avery Maharaja Visit the link here for the full page on our site: wp.me
- published: 28 Mar 2012
- views: 43
- author: renuca1
Espirito de Equipe
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:41
- Updated: 19 Aug 2010
a galera comemorando unida o resultado da gincana!! VAleu gurizada, tava muito bala!!!!!!
http://wn.com/Espirito_de_Equipe
a galera comemorando unida o resultado da gincana!! VAleu gurizada, tava muito bala!!!!!!
- published: 08 Nov 2008
- views: 212
- author: Felipe Goldani
How To Fix WhatsApp For iPod 3g/4g iPad 1/2/3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:22
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Thnx For Watching Please Subscribe,Like,Rate,Favorate
http://wn.com/How_To_Fix_WhatsApp_For_iPod_3g_4g_iPad_1_2_3
Thnx For Watching Please Subscribe,Like,Rate,Favorate
- published: 01 Jun 2012
- views: 12043
- author: TeachHelpDude
Folders for Windows Phone: Create Folders on Windows Phone
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:44
- Updated: 20 Jan 2012
Full: withwindows.com Quick video walkthrough on how to create custom folders on Windows Phone using 'Folders for Windows Phone' tool created by WindowsPhoneHacker team. Step1: Download Folders for Windows Phone from windowsphonehacker.com Step 2: From the zip archive open FolderConfig.exe Step 3: Now, click on 'Add Folder' and give your folder and appropriate name eg for all social networking sites create a folder called 'Social' Step 4: Search marketplace for the appropriate file or select XAP file from your PC Step 5: Add as many files you want to add in folder. Once done press 'Okay' Step 6: Now connect your device to PC via USB. Make sure that Zune is running and your device has been detected by it. Step 7: Pin unlock Windows Phone and press 'Deploy' option to install Folder on your Windows Phone. Alternatively, you can also save the folder on your PC. Later, you can use tool like Tom XAP Installer to install XAP file on your Windows Phone. Blog: withwindows.com
http://wn.com/Folders_for_Windows_Phone_Create_Folders_on_Windows_Phone
Full: withwindows.com Quick video walkthrough on how to create custom folders on Windows Phone using 'Folders for Windows Phone' tool created by WindowsPhoneHacker team. Step1: Download Folders for Windows Phone from windowsphonehacker.com Step 2: From the zip archive open FolderConfig.exe Step 3: Now, click on 'Add Folder' and give your folder and appropriate name eg for all social networking sites create a folder called 'Social' Step 4: Search marketplace for the appropriate file or select XAP file from your PC Step 5: Add as many files you want to add in folder. Once done press 'Okay' Step 6: Now connect your device to PC via USB. Make sure that Zune is running and your device has been detected by it. Step 7: Pin unlock Windows Phone and press 'Deploy' option to install Folder on your Windows Phone. Alternatively, you can also save the folder on your PC. Later, you can use tool like Tom XAP Installer to install XAP file on your Windows Phone. Blog: withwindows.com
- published: 20 Dec 2011
- views: 870
- author: wp7talk
BooqPad Review - iPad 2 Folio With Paper For Note Taking
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:55
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
wp.me The BooqPad is a folio case for the iPad 2 which has a built in notepad that allows you to take notes faster than on the digital screen. After you write them, send your notes to Evernote and get them OCR'd for easy searching.
http://wn.com/BooqPad_Review_iPad_2_Folio_With_Paper_For_Note_Taking
wp.me The BooqPad is a folio case for the iPad 2 which has a built in notepad that allows you to take notes faster than on the digital screen. After you write them, send your notes to Evernote and get them OCR'd for easy searching.
- published: 06 May 2011
- views: 34733
- author: notebooks
(4/11) GNDEM Exchange, NAMFREL: Technology in 2010 Philippine elections
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:44
- Updated: 06 Apr 2011
Part 4 of GNDEM's Exchange with NAMFREL on the use of technology in the 2010 Philippine general elections. This segment discusses the public's reception of the 2010 election, the official certification of results and the audit performed by the Filipino elections commission, the COMELEC. It also discusses the relationship between the COMELEC and its electronic technology vendor Smartmatic in regards to the perceived outsourcing of the election.
http://wn.com/4_11_GNDEM_Exchange,_NAMFREL_Technology_in_2010_Philippine_elections
Part 4 of GNDEM's Exchange with NAMFREL on the use of technology in the 2010 Philippine general elections. This segment discusses the public's reception of the 2010 election, the official certification of results and the audit performed by the Filipino elections commission, the COMELEC. It also discusses the relationship between the COMELEC and its electronic technology vendor Smartmatic in regards to the perceived outsourcing of the election.
- published: 01 Apr 2011
- views: 44
- author: GNDEMexchanges
HOW TO INSTALL CRACKED APPS ON IPHONE 100% SECURE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:27
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
GUYS DO THIS ITS SECURE AND SOORY FOR VIDEO QUALITY LINK FOR iFINBOX IS www.i-funbox.com download ifunbox connect iphone to ur pc Download this .deb(cydia.hackulo.us and this(www.iphoneleaks.net/wp-content/plugins/download-monitor/download.php?id=400) and migrate to var/root/Media/Cydia/AutoInstall and add the downloaded .deb file . You can do this addition by iPhoneBrowser, iFile or iPhone Explorer . Reboot your iPhone or iDevice twice and start syncing your cracked apps.
http://wn.com/HOW_TO_INSTALL_CRACKED_APPS_ON_IPHONE_100_SECURE
GUYS DO THIS ITS SECURE AND SOORY FOR VIDEO QUALITY LINK FOR iFINBOX IS www.i-funbox.com download ifunbox connect iphone to ur pc Download this .deb(cydia.hackulo.us and this(www.iphoneleaks.net/wp-content/plugins/download-monitor/download.php?id=400) and migrate to var/root/Media/Cydia/AutoInstall and add the downloaded .deb file . You can do this addition by iPhoneBrowser, iFile or iPhone Explorer . Reboot your iPhone or iDevice twice and start syncing your cracked apps.
- published: 26 Mar 2012
- views: 560
- author: Aditya Kapur
How to hack infinity blade 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:23
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
New updated hack and link code see here, bit.ly
http://wn.com/How_to_hack_infinity_blade_2
PWT-Service Merseburg
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:18
- Updated: 14 Jun 2012
Referenz von Bernd Hartmann als Projektleiter
http://wn.com/PWT-Service_Merseburg
Referenz von Bernd Hartmann als Projektleiter
- published: 26 May 2012
- views: 203
- author: Bernd Hartmann
Sprinkle: Water splashing fire fighting fun! - iPad Video Review
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
Using a water cannon mounted on a crane, players must adjust the height and angle of the cannon to fight fires, move obstacles, spin wheels and activate traps in this challenging water-physics based puzzler! Read the full review at wp.me
http://wn.com/Sprinkle_Water_splashing_fire_fighting_fun!_iPad_Video_Review
Using a water cannon mounted on a crane, players must adjust the height and angle of the cannon to fight fires, move obstacles, spin wheels and activate traps in this challenging water-physics based puzzler! Read the full review at wp.me
- published: 27 Jun 2012
- views: 45
- author: simontay78
photo: Creative Commons / Gage Skidmore
18 Jan 2013
Angelina Jolie likes being a sex symbol. The Oscar-winning actress is regarded as one of the world's most beautiful women and she enjoys being told she looks good as it's important to feel sexy ... ....(size: 1.0Kb)
photo: AP / Sergei Chuzavkov
19 Jan 2013
MOSCOW — The government of President Viktor F. Yanukovich of Ukraine said Friday that it planned to bring murder charges against his political rival, the jailed former prime minister, Yulia V. Tymoshenko, in connection with the 1996 assassination of a member of Parliament. Connect With Us on Twitter. Follow @nytimesworld for international breaking news and headlines. Twitter List. Reporters and Editors ... He said that Ms ... Ms ... Ms ... ... ....(size: 8.0Kb)
photo: US Army / Staff Sgt. Michael R. Noggle
18 Jan 2013
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction” is Newton’s third law of physics. Its counterpart in geopolitics is “blowback,” when military action in one sphere produces an unintended and undesirable consequence in another. September 11, 2001, was blowback. George H.W. Bush had sent an army of half a million to hurl Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait, a triumph ... bases in Saudi Arabia ... Patrick J....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: AP / SITE Intel Group
18 Jan 2013
He's known as Mr Marlboro because of his cigarette smuggling. The French intelligence service calls him "The Uncatchable".. The truth is Mokhtar Belmokhtar and his fellow North African Jihadists are rapidly emerging as Europe's most potent strategic threat.. Born in central Algeria in 1972 he grew obsessed with Jihadi ideology in his teens. At 19 he volunteered to fight alongside the mujahedeen in Afghanistan. ... "He is very cold ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
20 Jan 2013
The world's 100 richest people earned enough money last year to end world extreme poverty four times over, according to released by international rights group and charity Oxfam. The $240 billion net income of the world's 100 richest billionaires would have ended poverty four times over, according to the London-based group's report released on Saturday ... [...] We're anti-poverty agency ... You don't normally hear us talking about wealth ... ....(size: 18.5Kb)
The Examiner
20 Jan 2013
The Examiner
20 Jan 2013
Rating for craft beer nyc. 4. The Culinary Historians of New York know a thing or two about a Knickerbocker. Rich Buceta, a lifelong beer enthusiast and home brewer who had been making beer in his Upper East Side kitchen as a hobby, decided in 2008 to quit his job in advertising ... Singlecut Beersmiths ... He started off cleaning kegs, and worked his way up to brewer within eight months ... 18-Watt IPA. Half Stack IPA ... LeVon ... Neil (IPA with Stout) ... ....(size: 4.4Kb)
my SA
20 Jan 2013
For a long time, the flavors in beer had little in common with those in wine and sprits. Brewers faithfully reproduced the classic styles without much experimentation. However, the development of the American craft beer movement has drastically changed that ... A growing number of brewers are also barrel aging hoppy beer styles such as barleywines and imperial IPAs ... The Small Batch No ... It's almost assured that they will continue the series....(size: 3.9Kb)
The Verge
20 Jan 2013
The end of PC dominance. What it means for iOS. Posted by Pellet on January 19, 2013 07.32 pm 0. A 9.7" iPad is here to stay. A larger display iPhone is coming. Why? The PC era is ending. To paraphrase SJ, we'll always need trucks, but most of us will be better off with cars ... An old (last March) graph, but you can get the general trend.. http.//www.asymco.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Screen-Shot-2012-03-02-at-3-2-12.09.42-PM.png ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
WorldNetDaily
20 Jan 2013
By Nick Adams ... At the heart of the proposed changes is a reversal of the burden of proof in discrimination claims, forcing defendants to justify their conduct ... “The Gillard government’s changes to anti-discrimination laws undermine fundamental legal rights like the presumption of innocence,” IPA Legal Rights Director Simon Brenehy said in a statement ... George Brandis said ... Often forgotten was former President George W ... ....(size: 5.7Kb)
Tampa Bay Online
20 Jan 2013
TAMPA HEIGHTS --. The year is 1528, and Juan Ortiz has only minutes to live ... Ortiz's life is spared. And Ulele's name graces the still-bubbling spring that once was Tampa's first source of drinking water. Not a bad story ... That trend is rooted in another ... Tampa history also flavors the labels of Cigar City Brewery, which named its Jai Alai IPA and Bolita Double Nut Brown Ale for Tampa gambling traditions ... * * * * * ... he said ... * * * * * ... Another....(size: 6.6Kb)
Tampa Bay Online
20 Jan 2013
TAMPA HEIGHTS --. The year is 1528, and Juan Ortiz has only minutes to live ... Ortiz's life is spared. And Ulele's name graces the still-bubbling spring that once was Tampa's first source of drinking water. Not a bad story ... That trend is rooted in another ... Tampa history also flavors the labels of Cigar City Brewery, which named its Jai Alai IPA and Bolita Double Nut Brown Ale for Tampa gambling traditions ... * * * * * ... he said ... * * * * * ... Another....(size: 6.6Kb)
Detroit news
20 Jan 2013
By Melody Baetens The Detroit News Comments. More than 100 beers will be available at the Winter Beer Fest. (Beer Fest). With a new year comes new beers, and a new season of beer festivals, dinners and events. Here are some highlights of what's to come in the next few weeks.Winter Beer Fest returns ... Other titles include Naughty Girl Stout, Second Coming IPA and Fat Lad Russian Imperial Stout.New Bud product boasts higher alcohol content ... ....(size: 10.3Kb)
Syracuse
20 Jan 2013
Alpine Ski Conditions. Ski Area Report Updated New Snow. (24 Hrs) New Snow. (5 Days) Surface Base Depth. (Lo-High) Slopes Open ... Key to Surface Conditions P Powder PP Packed Powder WP Wet Powder LG Loose Granular FG Frozen Granular WG Wet Granular HP Hard Pack V Variable Conditions BS Bare Spots SC Spring Conditions CS Corn Snow IP Icy Patches IS Icy Surface MG Machine Groomed Surface TC Thin Cover For Travel Conditions call 1-800-THRUWAY....(size: 10.0Kb)
Joystiq
19 Jan 2013
Kelly Clarkson - "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)" (160 MSP / 200 WP / $1.99)˚ Living ... *Pro Guitar/Bass expansion available (80 MSP / 100 WP / $0.99)....(size: 0.8Kb)
Indian Express
19 Jan 2013
The domestic paint industry is expected to touch Rs 50,000 crore mark in the next three years on the back of rising urbanisation and economic revival, according to the Indian Paint Association (IPA) ... We estimate the industry to touch around Rs 49,545 crore by FY16," IPA President Ramakanth Akula told reporters here ... The IPA President expects to see ......(size: 1.8Kb)
The Verge
19 Jan 2013
A non-tech oriented friends opinion of Windows Phone & how he came about to owning one. Posted by nittx on January 18, 2013 08.44 pm 0 ... After much pleading i gave up and left him to learn for himself ... Just wanted to share my story and see if anyone else had similar situations with WP's. Maybe more phones need to shatter to get Windows Phone the attention it needs to convert people off the big two OS's and actually give WP a chance. ....(size: 3.5Kb)
The Examiner
19 Jan 2013
Not to be confused with NATO phonetic alphabet.
"IPA" redirects here. For other uses, see IPA (disambiguation).
| This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. |
For usage of IPA in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:IPA or Wikipedia:IPA/Introduction
| International Phonetic Alphabet |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Type | Alphabet , partially featural |
| Languages | Used for phonetic and phonemic transcription of any language |
| Time period | since 1888 |
| Parent systems |
Romic alphabet
|
The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)[note 1] is an alphabetic system of phonetic notation based primarily on the Latin alphabet. It was devised by the International Phonetic Association as a standardized representation of the sounds of spoken language.[1] The IPA is used by foreign language students and teachers, linguists, Speech-Language Pathologists, singers, actors, lexicographers, constructed language creators (conlangers), and translators.[2][3]
The IPA is designed to represent only those qualities of speech that are distinctive in spoken language: phonemes, intonation, and the separation of words and syllables.[1] To represent additional qualities of speech such as tooth gnashing, lisping, and sounds made with a cleft palate, an extended set of symbols called the Extensions to the IPA may be used.[2]
IPA symbols are composed of one or more elements of two basic types, letters and diacritics. For example, the sound of the English letter ⟨t⟩ may be transcribed in IPA with a single letter, [t], or with a letter plus diacritics, [t̺ʰ], depending on how precise one wishes to be.[4] Often, slashes are used to signal broad or phonemic transcription; thus, /t/ is less specific than, and could refer to, either [t̺ʰ] or [t] depending on the context and language.
Occasionally letters or diacritics are added, removed, or modified by the International Phonetic Association. As of 2008, there are 107 letters, 52 diacritics, and four prosodic marks in the IPA.
Contents |
History[link]
Main article: History of the IPA
In 1886, a group of French and British language teachers, led by the French linguist Paul Passy, formed what would come to be known from 1897 onwards as the International Phonetic Association (in French, l’Association phonétique internationale).[5] Their original alphabet was based on a spelling reform for English known as the Romic alphabet, but in order to make it usable for other languages, the values of the symbols were allowed to vary from language to language.[6] For example, the sound [ʃ] (the sh in shoe) was originally represented with the letter ⟨c⟩ in English, but with the letter ⟨x⟩ in French.[5] However, in 1888, the alphabet was revised so as to be uniform across languages, thus providing the base for all future revisions.[5][7]
Since its creation, the IPA has undergone a number of revisions. After major revisions and expansions in 1900 and 1932, the IPA remained unchanged until the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989. A minor revision took place in 1993 with the addition of four letters for mid-central vowels[2] and the removal of letters for voiceless implosives.[8] The alphabet was last revised in May 2005 with the addition of a letter for a labiodental flap.[9] Apart from the addition and removal of symbols, changes to the IPA have consisted largely in renaming symbols and categories and in modifying typefaces.[2]
Extensions to the alphabet are relatively recent; "Extensions to the IPA" was created in 1990 and officially adopted by the International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association in 1994.[10]
Description[link]
For a guide to pronouncing IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English dialects.
The general principle of the IPA is to provide one letter for each distinctive sound (speech segment).[11] This means that it does not use combinations of letters to represent single sounds, the way English does with ⟨sh⟩ and ⟨ng⟩, or single letters to represent multiple sounds the way ⟨x⟩ represents /ks/ or /ɡz/ in English. There are no letters that have context-dependent sound values, as ⟨c⟩ does in English and other European languages, and finally, the IPA does not usually have separate letters for two sounds if no known language makes a distinction between them, a property known as "selectiveness".[2][note 2]
Among the symbols of the IPA, 107 letters represent consonants and vowels, 31 diacritics are used to modify these, and 19 additional signs indicate suprasegmental qualities such as length, tone, stress, and intonation.[note 3]
Letterforms[link]
The letters chosen for the IPA are meant to harmonize with the Latin alphabet.[note 4] For this reason, most letters are either Latin or Greek, or modifications thereof. Some letters that are neither: for example, the letter denoting the glottal stop, ⟨ʔ⟩, has the form of a dotless question mark, and derives originally from an apostrophe. A few letters, such as that of the voiced pharyngeal fricative, ⟨ʕ⟩, were inspired by other writing systems (in this case, the Arabic letter ﻉ, `ain).[8]
Despite its preference for harmonizing with the Latin script, the International Phonetic Association has occasionally admitted other letters. For example, before 1989, the IPA letters for click consonants were ⟨ʘ⟩, ⟨ʇ⟩, ⟨ʗ⟩, and ⟨ʖ⟩, all of which were derived either from existing IPA letters, or from Latin and Greek letters. However, except for ⟨ʘ⟩, none of these letters was widely used among Khoisanists or Bantuists, and as a result they were replaced by the more widespread symbols ⟨ʘ⟩, ⟨ǀ⟩, ⟨ǃ⟩, ⟨ǂ⟩, and ⟨ǁ⟩ at the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989.[12] Although the IPA diacritics are fully featural, there is little systemicity in the letter forms. A retroflex articulation is consistently indicated with a right-swinging tail, as in ⟨ɖ ʂ ɳ⟩, and implosion by a top hook, ⟨ɓ ɗ ɠ⟩, but other pseudo-featural elements are due to haphazard derivation and coincidence. For example, all nasal consonants but uvular ⟨ɴ⟩ are based on the form ⟨n⟩: ⟨m ɱ n ɲ ɳ ŋ⟩. However, the similarity between ⟨m⟩ and ⟨n⟩ is a historical accident, ⟨ɲ⟩ and ⟨ŋ⟩ are derived from ligatures of gn and ng, and ⟨ɱ⟩ is an ad hoc imitation of ⟨ŋ⟩. In none of these is the form consistent with other letters that share these places of articulation.[citation needed]
Some of the new letters were ordinary Latin letters turned upside-down, such as ɐ ɔ ə ɟ ɥ ɯ ɹ ᴚ ʇ ʌ ʍ ʎ (turned a c e f h m r ʀ t v w y). This was easily done with mechanical typesetting machines, and had the advantage of not requiring the casting of special type for IPA symbols.
Symbols and sounds[link]
The International Phonetic Alphabet is based on the Latin alphabet, using as few non-Latin forms as possible.[5] The Association created the IPA so that the sound values of most consonant letters taken from the Latin alphabet would correspond to "international usage".[5] Hence, the letters ⟨b⟩, ⟨d⟩, ⟨f⟩, (hard) ⟨ɡ⟩, (non-silent) ⟨h⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨k⟩, ⟨l⟩, ⟨m⟩, ⟨n⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨p⟩, (voiceless) ⟨s⟩, (unaspirated) ⟨t⟩, ⟨v⟩, ⟨w⟩, and ⟨z⟩ have the values used in English; and the vowel letters from the Latin alphabet (⟨a⟩, ⟨e⟩, ⟨i⟩, ⟨o⟩, ⟨u⟩) correspond to the (long) sound values of Latin: [i] is like the vowel in machine, [u] is as in rule, etc. Other letters may differ from English, but are used with these values in other European languages, such as ⟨j⟩, ⟨r⟩, and ⟨y⟩.
This inventory was extended by using capital or cursive forms, diacritics, and rotation. There are also several symbols derived or taken from the Greek alphabet, though the sound values may differ. For example, ⟨ʋ⟩ is a vowel in Greek, but an only indirectly related consonant in the IPA. Three of these (⟨β⟩, ⟨θ⟩ and ⟨χ⟩) are used unmodified in form; for others (including ⟨ɣ⟩, ⟨ɛ⟩, ⟨ɸ⟩, and ⟨ʋ⟩) subtly different glyph shapes have been devised, which may be encoded in Unicode separately from their "parent" letters.
The sound values of modified Latin letters can often be derived from those of the original letters.[13] For example, letters with a rightward-facing hook at the bottom represent retroflex consonants; and small capital letters usually represent uvular consonants. Apart from the fact that certain kinds of modification to the shape of a letter generally correspond to certain kinds of modification to the sound represented, there is no way to deduce the sound represented by a symbol from its shape (unlike, for example, in Visible Speech).
Beyond the letters themselves, there are a variety of secondary symbols which aid in transcription. Diacritic marks can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified phonetic values or secondary articulations. There are also special symbols for suprasegmental features such as stress and tone that are often employed.
Brackets and phonemes[link]
There are two principal types of brackets used to set off IPA transcriptions:
- [square brackets] are used for phonetic details of the pronunciation, possibly including details that may not be used for distinguishing words in the language being transcribed, but which the author nonetheless wishes to document.
- /slashes/ are used to mark off phonemes, all of which are distinctive in the language, without any extraneous detail.
For example, while the /p/ sounds of pin and spin are pronounced slightly differently in English (and this difference would be meaningful in some languages), the difference is not meaningful in English. Thus phonemically the words are /pɪn/ and /spɪn/, with the same /p/ phoneme. However, to capture the difference between them (the allophones of /p/), they can be transcribed phonetically as [pʰɪn] and [spɪn].
Two other conventions are less commonly seen:
- Double slashes //...//, pipes |...|, double pipes ||...||, or braces {...} may be used around a word to denote its underlying structure, more abstract even than that of phonemes. See morphophonology for examples.
- Angle brackets are used to clarify that the letters represent the original orthography of the language, or sometimes an exact transliteration of a non-Latin script, not the IPA; or, within the IPA, that the letters themselves are indicated, not the sound values that they carry. For example, ⟨pin⟩ and ⟨spin⟩ would be seen for those words, which do not contain the ee sound [i] of the IPA letter ⟨i⟩. Italics are perhaps more commonly used for this purpose when full words are being written (as pin, spin above), but this convention may not be considered sufficiently clear for individual letters and digraphs. The true angle brackets ⟨...⟩ (U+27E8, U+27E9) are not supported by many non-mathematical fonts as of 2010. Therefore chevrons ‹...› (U+2039, U+203A) are sometimes used in substitution, as are the less-than and greater-than signs <...> (U+003C, U+003E).
Handwritten forms[link]
IPA letters have handwritten forms designed for use in manuscripts and when taking field notes; they are occasionally seen in publications when the printer did not have fonts that supported IPA, and the IPA was therefore filled in by hand.
Usage[link]
Further information: Phonetic transcription
Although the IPA offers over a hundred and sixty symbols for transcribing speech, only a relatively small subset of these will be used to transcribe any one language. It is possible to transcribe speech with various levels of precision. A precise phonetic transcription, in which sounds are described in a great deal of detail, is known as a narrow transcription. A coarser transcription which ignores some of this detail is called a broad transcription. Both are relative terms, and both are generally enclosed in square brackets.[1] Broad phonetic transcriptions may restrict themselves to easily heard details, or only to details that are relevant to the discussion at hand, and may differ little if at all from phonemic transcriptions, but they make no theoretical claim that all the distinctions transcribed are necessarily meaningful in the language.
For example, the English word little may be transcribed broadly using the IPA as [ˈlɪtəl], and this broad (imprecise) transcription is an accurate (approximately correct) description of many pronunciations. A more narrow transcription may focus on individual or dialectical details: [ˈɫɪɾɫ] in General American, [ˈlɪʔo] in Cockney, or [ˈɫɪːɫ] in Southern US English.
It is customary to use simpler letters, without many diacritics, in phonemic transcriptions. The choice of IPA letters may reflect the theoretical claims of the author, or merely be a convenience for typesetting. For instance, in English, either the vowel of pick or the vowel of peak may be transcribed as /i/ (for the pairs /pik, piːk/ or /pɪk, pik/), and neither is identical to the vowel of the French word pique which is also generally transcribed /i/. That is, letters between slashes do not have absolute values, something true of broader phonetic approximations as well. A narrow transcription may, however, be used to distinguish them: [pʰɪk], [pʰiːk], [pik].
Linguists[link]
Although IPA is popular for transcription by linguists, it is also common to use Americanist phonetic notation or IPA together with some nonstandard symbols, for reasons including reducing the error rate on reading handwritten transcriptions or avoiding perceived awkwardness of IPA in some situations. The exact practice may vary somewhat between languages and even individual researchers, so authors are generally encouraged to include a chart or other explanation of their choices.[14]
Language study[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130120174159/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
File:English-2nd grade-Vereshchagina-Russian-textbook-page 39.png
A page from an English language textbook used in Russia. The IPA is used to teach the different pronunciations of the digraph ⟨th⟩ (/θ/, /ð/) and to show the pronunciation of newly introduced words polite, everything, always, forget.
Some language study programs use the IPA to teach pronunciation. For example, in Russia (and earlier in the Soviet Union), mainland China, and Taiwan[citation needed], textbooks for children[15] and adults[16] for studying English and French consistently use the IPA.
Dictionaries[link]
English[link]
Many British dictionaries, including learner's dictionaries such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary and the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary, now use the International Phonetic Alphabet to represent the pronunciation of words.[17] However, most American (and some British) volumes use one of a variety of pronunciation respelling systems, intended to be more comfortable for readers of English. For example, the respelling systems in many American dictionaries (such as Merriam-Webster) use ⟨y⟩ for IPA [j] and ⟨sh⟩ for IPA [ʃ], reflecting common representations of those sounds in written English,[18] using only letters of the English Roman alphabet and variations of them. (In IPA, [y] represents the sound of the French ⟨u⟩ (as in tu), and [sh] represents the pair of sounds in grasshopper.)
Other languages[link]
The IPA is also not universal among dictionaries in languages other than English. Monolingual dictionaries of languages with generally phonemic orthographies generally do not bother with indicating the pronunciation of most words, and tend to use respelling systems for words with unexpected pronunciations. Dictionaries produced in Israel use the IPA rarely and sometimes use the Hebrew script for transcription of foreign words. Monolingual Hebrew dictionaries use pronunciation respelling for words with unusual spelling; for example, Even-Shoshan Dictionary respells תָּכְנִית as תּוֹכְנִית because this word uses kamatz katan. Bilingual dictionaries that translate from foreign languages into Russian usually employ the IPA, but monolingual Russian dictionaries occasionally use pronunciation respelling for foreign words; for example, Ozhegov's dictionary adds нэ́ in brackets for the French word пенсне (pince-nez) to indicate that the е doesn't iotate the н.
The IPA is more common in bilingual dictionaries, but there are exceptions here too. Mass-market bilingual Czech dictionaries, for instance, tend to use the IPA only for sounds not found in the Czech language.[19]
Standard orthographies and capital variants[link]
Main article: Case variants of IPA letters
IPA letters have been incorporated into the alphabets of various languages, notably in Sub-Saharan Africa: Hausa, Fula, Akan, Gbe languages, Manding languages, Lingala, etc. This has created the need for capital variants. For example, Kabiyé of northern Togo has Ɔ ɔ, Ɛ ɛ, Ɖ ɖ, Ŋ ŋ, Ɣ ɣ, Ʃ ʃ, Ʊ ʊ (or Ʋ ʋ):
- MBƱ AJƐYA KIGBƐNDƱƱ ŊGBƐYƐ KEDIƔZAƔ SƆSƆƆ TƆM SE.
These, and others, are supported by Unicode, but appear in Latin ranges other than the IPA extensions.
Classical singing[link]
IPA has widespread use among classical singers for preparation, especially among English-speaking singers who are expected to sing in a variety of foreign languages. Opera librettos are authoritatively transcribed in IPA, such as Nico Castel's volumes[20] and Timothy Cheek's book Singing in Czech.[21] Opera singers' ability to read IPA was recently used by the Visual Thesaurus, which employed several opera singers "to make recordings for the 150,000 words and phrases in VT's lexical database. ...for their vocal stamina, attention to the details of enunciation, and most of all, knowledge of IPA."[22]
Letters[link]
The International Phonetic Alphabet organizes its letter symbols into three categories: pulmonic consonants, non-pulmonic consonants, and vowels.[23][24] Each character is assigned a number, to prevent confusion between similar letters (such as ɵ and θ), for example in printing manuscripts. Different categories of sounds are assigned different ranges of numbers.
Consonants[link]
Main article: Consonant
|
IPA pulmonic consonants chartchart image • audio |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Place → | Labial | Coronal | Dorsal | Radical | Glottal | |||||||||||||||||||
| ↓ Manner | Bilabial | Labiodental | Dental | Alveolar | Postalv. | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Epiglottal | Glottal | ||||||||||||
| Nasal | m̥ | m | ɱ | n̪ | n̥ | n | n̠ | ɳ | ɲ̥ | ɲ | ŋ̊ | ŋ | ɴ | |||||||||||
| Stop | p | b | p̪ | b̪ | t̪ | d̪ | t | d | ʈ | ɖ | c | ɟ | k | ɡ | q | ɢ | ʡ | ʔ | ||||||
| Fricative | ɸ | β | f | v | θ | ð | s | z | ʃ | ʒ | ʂ | ʐ | ç | ʝ | x | ɣ | χ | ʁ | ħ | ʕ | ʜ | ʢ | h | ɦ |
| Approximant | ʋ | ɹ | ɻ | j | ɰ | |||||||||||||||||||
| Trill | ʙ | r | ɽ͡r | ʀ | я * | |||||||||||||||||||
| Flap or tap | ⱱ̟ | ⱱ | ɾ | ɽ | ɢ̆ | ʡ̯ | ||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral Fric. | ɬ | ɮ | ɭ˔̊ | ʎ̥˔ | ʟ̝̊ | ʟ̝ | ||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral Appr. | l | ɭ | ʎ | ʟ | ||||||||||||||||||||
| Lateral flap | ɺ | ɺ̠ | ʎ̯ | |||||||||||||||||||||
| Clicks | ʘ | ǀ | ǃ | ǂ | ǁ | ||
| ʘ̃ | ʘ̃ˀ | ʘ͡q | ʘ͡qʼ | ||||
| Implosives | ɓ | ɗ | ʄ | ᶑ | ɠ | ʛ | |
| Ejectives | pʼ | tʼ | cʼ | ʈʼ | kʼ | qʼ | |
| fʼ | θʼ | sʼ | ɬʼ | xʼ | χʼ | ||
| tsʼ | tɬʼ | cʎ̝̥ʼ | tʃʼ | ʈʂʼ | kxʼ | kʟ̝̊ʼ | |
| p̪f | b̪v | ts | dz | tʃ | dʒ | tɕ | dʑ | ʈʂ | ɖʐ |
| tɬ | dɮ | cç | ɟʝ | cʎ̥˔ | kʟ̝̊ |
| Fricatives | ɕ | ʑ | ɧ | |
| Approximants | ʍ | w | ɥ | ɫ |
| Stops | k͡p | ɡ͡b | ŋ͡m | |
| These tables contain phonetic symbols, which may not display correctly in some browsers. [Help] |
| Where symbols appear in pairs, left—right represent the voiceless—voiced consonants. |
| Shaded areas denote pulmonic articulations judged to be impossible. |
| * Symbol not defined in IPA. |
- Notes
- Asterisks (*) indicate unofficial IPA symbols for attested sounds. See the respective articles for ad hoc symbols found in the literature.
- In rows where some letters appear in pairs (the obstruents), the letter to the right represents a voiced consonant (except breathy-voiced [ɦ]). However, [ʔ] cannot be voiced, and the voicing of [ʡ] is ambiguous.[25] In the other rows (the sonorants), the single letter represents a voiced consonant.
- Although there is a single letter for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the letters may be treated as specifically dental, alveolar, or post-alveolar, as appropriate for that language, without diacritics.
- Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
- The letters [ʁ, ʕ, ʢ] represent either voiced fricatives or approximants.
- In many languages, such as English, [h] and [ɦ] are not actually glottal, fricatives, or approximants. Rather, they are bare phonation.[26]
- It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives [ʃ ʒ], [ɕ ʑ], and [ʂ ʐ].
- The labiodental nasal [ɱ] is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.[27]
Pulmonic consonants[link]
A pulmonic consonant is a consonant made by obstructing the glottis (the space between the vocal cords) or oral cavity (the mouth) and either simultaneously or subsequently letting out air from the lungs. Pulmonic consonants make up the majority of consonants in the IPA, as well as in human language. All consonants in the English language fall into this category.[28]
The pulmonic consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate manner of articulation, meaning how the consonant is produced, and columns that designate place of articulation, meaning where in the vocal tract the consonant is produced. The main chart includes only consonants with a single place of articulation.
Co-articulated consonants[link]
Co-articulated consonants are sounds that involve two simultaneous places of articulation (are pronounced using two parts of the vocal tract). In English, the [w] in "went" is a coarticulated consonant, because it is pronounced by rounding the lips and raising the back of the tongue. Other languages, such as French and Swedish, have different coarticulated consonants.
- Note
- [ɧ] is described as a "simultaneous [ʃ] and [x]".[29] However, this analysis is disputed. (See voiceless palatal-velar fricative for discussion.)
Affricates and double articulated consonants[link]
Affricates and doubly articulated stops are represented by two letters joined by a tie bar, either above or below the letters.[30] The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage,[1] because a great number of ligatures would be required to represent all affricates this way. Alternatively, a superscript notation for a consonant release is sometimes used to transcribe affricates, for example tˢ for t͡s, paralleling kˣ ~ k͡x. The letters for the palatal plosives c and ɟ, are often used as a convenience for t͡ʃ and d͡ʒ or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care.
| View this table as an image. | ||
|---|---|---|
| Tie bar | Ligature | Description |
| t͡s | ʦ | voiceless alveolar affricate |
| d͡z | ʣ | voiced alveolar affricate |
| t͡ʃ | ʧ | voiceless postalveolar affricate |
| d͡ʒ | ʤ | voiced postalveolar affricate |
| t͡ɕ | ʨ | voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate |
| d͡ʑ | ʥ | voiced alveolo-palatal affricate |
| t͡ɬ | – | voiceless alveolar lateral affricate |
| k͡p | – | voiceless labial-velar plosive |
| ɡ͡b | – | voiced labial-velar plosive |
| ŋ͡m | – | labial-velar nasal stop |
- Note
- On browsers that use Arial Unicode MS to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font: ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡.
Non-pulmonic consonants[link]
Non-pulmonic consonants are sounds whose airflow is not dependent on the lungs. These include clicks (found in the Khoisan languages of Africa), implosives (found in languages such as Swahili) and ejectives (found in many Amerindian and Caucasian languages).
| View this table as an image | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clicks | Implosives | Ejectives | |||
| ʘ | Bilabial | ɓ | Bilabial | ʼ | For example: |
| ǀ | Laminal alveolar ("dental") | ɗ | Alveolar | pʼ | Bilabial |
| ǃ | Apical (post-) alveolar ("retroflex") | ʄ | Palatal | tʼ | Alveolar |
| ǂ | Laminal postalveolar ("palatal") | ɠ | Velar | kʼ | Velar |
| ǁ | Lateral coronal ("lateral") | ʛ | Uvular | sʼ | Alveolar fricative |
- Notes
- Clicks are double articulated and have traditionally been described as having a forward 'release' and a rear 'accompaniment', with the click letters representing the release. Therefore all clicks would require two letters for proper notation: ⟨k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ⟩ etc., or ⟨ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ⟩. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a [k] may usually be assumed. However, recent research disputes the concept of 'accompaniment'.[31] In these approaches, the click letter represents both articulations, with the different letters representing different click 'types', there is no velar-uvular distinction, and the accompanying letter represents the manner, phonation, or airstream contour of the click: ⟨ǂ, ᶢǂ, ᵑǂ⟩ etc.
- Letters for the voiceless implosives ⟨ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ⟩ are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA typically uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: ⟨ɓ̥, ʛ̥⟩, etc..
- Although not confirmed as contrastive in any language, and therefore not explicitly recognized by the IPA, a letter for the retroflex implosive, ⟨ᶑ⟩, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite ⟨ɗ̢⟩.
- The ejective diacritic often stands in for a superscript glottal stop in glottalized but pulmonic sonorants, such as [mˀ], [lˀ], [wˀ], [aˀ]. These may also be transcribed as creaky [m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰].
Vowels[link]
Main article: Vowel
| IPA vowel chart | |||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
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| Paired vowels are: unrounded • rounded | |||||||||||||||||||
| This table contains phonetic symbols. They may not display correctly in some browsers (Help). | |||||||||||||||||||
|
IPA help • IPA key • chart • chart with audio • view |
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The IPA defines a vowel as a sound which occurs at a syllable center.[32] Below is a chart depicting the vowels of the IPA. The IPA maps the vowels according to the position of the tongue.
The vertical axis of the chart is mapped by vowel height. Vowels pronounced with the tongue lowered are at the bottom, and vowels pronounced with the tongue raised are at the top. For example, [ɑ] (said as the "a" in "palm") is at the bottom because the tongue is lowered in this position. However, [i] (said as the vowel in "meet") is at the top because the sound is said with the tongue raised to the roof of the mouth.
In a similar fashion, the horizontal axis of the chart is determined by vowel backness. Vowels with the tongue moved towards the front of the mouth (such as [ɛ], the vowel in "met") are to the left in the chart, while those in which it is moved to the back (such as [ʌ], the vowel in "but") are placed to the right in the chart.
In places where vowels are paired, the right represents a rounded vowel (in which the lips are rounded) while the left is its unrounded counterpart.
Diphthongs[link]
Diphthongs are typically specified with a non-syllabic diacritic, as in ⟨aɪ̯⟩. However, sometimes a tie bar is used, especially if it is difficult to tell if the vowel is characterized by an on-glide or an off-glide: ⟨a͡ɪ⟩ or ⟨a͜ɪ⟩.
- Notes
- ⟨a⟩ officially represents a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and ⟨a⟩ is frequently used for an open central vowel.[14] However, if disambiguation is required, the retraction diacritic or the centralized diacritic may be added to indicate an open central vowel, as in ⟨a̠⟩ or ⟨ä⟩.
[edit] Diacritics
Diacritics are small markings which are placed around the IPA letter in order to show a certain alteration or more specific description in the letter's pronunciation.[33] Sub-diacritics (markings normally placed below a letter) may be placed above a letter having a descender (informally called a tail), e.g. ŋ̊, ȷ̈.[33]
The dotless i, ⟨ı⟩, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA letters may appear as diacritic variants to represent phonetic detail: tˢ (fricative release), bʱ (breathy voice), ˀa (glottal onset), ᵊ (epenthetic schwa), oʊ (diphthongization). Additional diacritics were introduced in the Extensions to the IPA, which were designed principally for speech pathology.
| View the diacritic table as an image | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Syllabicity diacritics | |||||
| ◌̩ | ɹ̩ n̩ | Syllabic | ◌̯ | e̯ ʊ̯ | Non-syllabic |
| Consonant-release diacritics | |||||
| ◌ʰ | tʰ | Aspirated[a] | ◌̚ | d̚ | No audible release |
| ◌ʱ | dʱ | ||||
| ◌ⁿ | dⁿ | Nasal release | ◌ˡ | dˡ | Lateral release |
| Phonation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̥ | n̥ d̥ | Voiceless | ◌̬ | s̬ t̬ | Voiced |
| ◌̤ | b̤ a̤ | Breathy voiced[b] | ◌̰ | b̰ a̰ | Creaky voiced |
| Articulation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̪ | t̪ d̪ | Dental | ◌̼ | t̼ d̼ | Linguolabial |
| ◌̺ | t̺ d̺ | Apical | ◌̻ | t̻ d̻ | Laminal |
| ◌̟ | u̟ t̟ | Advanced | ◌̠ | i̠ t̠ | Retracted |
| ◌̈ | ë ä | Centralized | ◌̽ | e̽ ɯ̽ | Mid-centralized |
| ◌̝ | e̝ ɹ̝ | Raised (ɹ̝ = voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative) | |||
| ◌˔ | ˔ | ||||
| ◌̞ | e̞ β̞ | Lowered (β̞ = bilabial approximant) | |||
| ◌˕ | ˕ | ||||
| Co-articulation diacritics | |||||
| ◌̹ | ɔ̹ x̹ | More rounded | ◌̜ | ɔ̜ x̜ʷ | Less rounded |
| ◌ʷ | tʷ dʷ | Labialized or labio-velarized | ◌ʲ | tʲ dʲ | Palatalized |
| ◌ˠ | tˠ dˠ | Velarized | ◌ˤ | tˤ aˤ | Pharyngealized |
| ◌ᶣ | tᶣ dᶣ | Labio-palatalized | ◌̴ | ɫ z̴ | Velarized or pharyngealized |
| ◌̘ | e̘ o̘ | Advanced tongue root | ◌̙ | e̙ o̙ | Retracted tongue root |
| ◌̃ | ẽ z̃ | Nasalized | ◌˞ | ɚ ɝ | Rhotacized |
- Notes
- a^ With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice.
- b^ Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as bʱ.
The state of the glottis can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis phonation are:
| Open glottis | [t] | voiceless |
|---|---|---|
| [d̤] | breathy voice, also called murmured | |
| [d̥] | slack voice | |
| Sweet spot | [d] | modal voice |
| [d̬] | stiff voice | |
| [d̰] | creaky voice | |
| Closed glottis | [ʔ͡t] | glottal closure |
Suprasegmentals[link]
These symbols describe the features of a language above the level of individual consonants and vowels, such as prosody, tone, length, and stress, which often operate on syllables, words, or phrases: that is, elements such as the intensity, pitch, and gemination of the sounds of a language, as well as the rhythm and intonation of speech.[34] Although most of these symbols indicate distinctions that are phonemic at the word level, symbols also exist for intonation on a level greater than that of the word.[34]
| View this table as an image | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Length, stress, and rhythm | ||||||
| ˈa | Primary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) |
ˌa | Secondary stress (symbol goes before stressed syllable) |
|||
| aː kː | Long (long vowel or geminate consonant) |
aˑ | Half-long | |||
| ə̆ | Extra-short | a.a | Syllable break | |||
| s‿a | Linking (absence of a break) | |||||
| Intonation | ||||||
| | | Minor (foot) break | ‖ | Major (intonation) break | |||
| ↗ | Global rise | ↘ | Global fall | |||
| Tone diacritics and tone letters | ||||||
| ŋ̋ e̋ | e˥ | Extra high / top | ꜛke | Upstep | ||
| ŋ́ é | e˦ | High | ŋ̌ ě | Rise | ||
| ŋ̄ ē | e˧ | Mid | ||||
| ŋ̀ è | e˨ | Low | ŋ̂ ê | Fall | ||
| ŋ̏ ȅ | e˩ | Extra low / bottom | ꜜke | Downstep | ||
Finer distinctions of tone may be indicated by combining the tone diacritics and letters shown here, though not many fonts support this. The primary examples are high (mid) rising ɔ᷄, ɔ˧˥; low rising ɔ᷅, ɔ˩˧; high falling ɔ᷇, ɔ˥˧; low (mid) falling ɔ᷆, ɔ˧˩; peaking ɔ᷈, ɔ˧˥˧; and dipping ɔ᷉, ɔ˧˩˧. A work-around for diacritics sometimes seen when a language has more than one rising or falling tone, and the author does not wish to completely abandon the IPA, is to restrict generic rising ɔ̌ and falling ɔ̂ for the higher-pitched of the rising and falling tones, ɔ˥˧ and ɔ˧˥, and to use the non-standard subscript diacritics ɔ̗ and ɔ̖ for the lower-pitched rising and falling tones, ɔ˩˧ and ɔ˧˩. When a language has four level tones, the two mid tones are sometimes transcribed as high-mid ɔ̍ (non-standard) and low-mid ɔ̄.
Obsolete and nonstandard symbols[link]
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is ⟨ɷ⟩ which has been standardized to ⟨ʊ⟩. Several letters indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: ⟨ƍ⟩ for ⟨zʷ⟩ is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series ⟨ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ⟩ has been dropped; they are now written ⟨ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̊ ɠ̊ ʛ̥⟩ or ⟨pʼ↓ tʼ↓ cʼ↓ kʼ↓ qʼ↓⟩. A rejected competing proposal for transcribing clicks, ⟨ʇ, ʗ, ʖ⟩, is still sometimes seen, as the official letters ⟨ǀ, ǃ, ǁ⟩ may cause problems with legibility, especially when used with brackets, the letter ⟨l⟩, or the prosodic marks ⟨|, ‖⟩.[35]
There are also unsupported or ad hoc letters from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as the "barred lambda" ⟨ƛ⟩ for [t͜ɬ].
IPA extensions[link]
Main article: Extensions to the IPA
The "Extensions to the IPA," often abbreviated as "extIPA," and sometimes called "Extended IPA," are symbols whose original purpose was to accurately transcribe disordered speech. At the IPA Kiel Convention in 1989, a group of linguists drew up the initial extensions.[36] The extensions were first published in 1990, then modified, and published again in 1994 in the Journal of the International Phonetic Association, when they were officially adopted by the ICPLA.[37] While the original purpose was to transcribe disordered speech, linguists have used the extensions to designate a number of unique sounds within standard communication, such as hushing, gnashing teeth, and smacking lips. The extensions have also been used to record certain peculiarities in an individual's voice, such as nasalized voicing.[2]
The Extensions to the IPA do not include symbols used for voice quality (VoQS), such as whispering.
Segments without letters[link]
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ad hoc letters have appeared in the literature for the retroflex lateral flap, the voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. (See the grey letters in the PDF chart.) Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones.[38]
Consonants[link]
Representations of consonant sounds outside of the core set are created by adding diacritics to letters with similar sound values. The Spanish bilabial and dental approximants are commonly written as lowered fricatives, [β̞] and [ð̞] respectively. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, [ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]. A few languages such as Banda have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap letter and the advanced diacritic, [ⱱ̟].[39]
Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written [ʙ̪] (bilabial trill and the dental sign), and labiodental stops [p̪ b̪] rather than with the ad hoc letters sometimes found in the literature. Other taps can be written as extra-short plosives or laterals, e.g. [ɟ̆ ɢ̆/ʀ̆ ʟ̆], though in some cases the diacritic would need to be written below the letter. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted [r̠], just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals (ʟ̠ etc.) and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.
Vowels[link]
The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering.[40] For example, the unrounded equivalent of [ʊ] can be transcribed as mid-centered [ɯ̽], and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised [ɶ̝]. True mid vowels are lowered [e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞], while centered [ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä] are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The only known vowels that cannot be represented in this scheme are vowels with unexpected roundedness, which would require a dedicated diacritic, such as [ʏ̫] and [u͍] or [ʏʷ] and [uᵝ].
Symbol names[link]
An IPA symbol is often distinguished from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not necessarily a one-to-one correspondence between letter and sound in broad transcription, making articulatory descriptions such as 'mid front rounded vowel' or 'voiced velar stop' unreliable. While the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association states that no official names exist for its symbols, it admits the presence of one or two common names for each.[41] The symbols also have nonce names in the Unicode standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls ɛ "epsilon", but Unicode calls it "small letter open E".
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are usually used for unmodified letters.[note 5] Letters which are not directly derived from these alphabets, such as [ʕ], may have a variety of names, sometimes based on the appearance of the symbol, and sometimes based on the sound that it represents. In Unicode, some of the letters of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the letters from the Greek section.
For diacritics, there are two methods of naming. For traditional diacritics, the IPA notes the name in a well known language; for example, é is acute, based on the name of the diacritic in English and French. Non-traditional diacritics are often named after objects they resemble, so d̪ is called bridge.
Pullum and Ladusaw list a variety of names in use for IPA symbols, both current and retired, in addition to names of many other non-IPA phonetic symbols.[8] Their collection is extensive enough that the Unicode Consortium used it in the development of Unicode.
ASCII and keyboard transliterations[link]
Several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Notable systems include Kirshenbaum, Arpabet, SAMPA, and X-SAMPA. The usage of mapping systems in on-line text has to some extent been adopted in the context input methods, allowing convenient keying of IPA characters that would be otherwise unavailable on standard keyboard layouts.
See also[link]
- Articulatory phonetics
- Index of phonetics articles
- International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration
- ICAO spelling alphabet
- IPA chart for English dialects
- List of international common standards
- Luciano Canepari
- Phonetic transcription
- Semyon Novgorodov – inventor of IPA-based Yakut alphabet
- TIPA provides IPA support for LaTeX
- Unicode Phonetic Symbols
- Wikipedia:IPA for English
- English Phonetic Alphabet
Notes[link]
- ^ "The acronym 'IPA' strictly refers [...] to the 'International Phonetic Association'. But it is now such a common practice to use the acronym also to refer to the alphabet itself (from the phrase 'International Phonetic Alphabet') that resistance seems pedantic. Context usually serves to disambiguate the two usages." (Laver 1994:561)
- ^ For instance, flaps and taps are two different kinds of articulation, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a distinction between, say, an alveolar flap and an alveolar tap, the IPA does not provide such sounds with dedicated letters. Instead, it provides a single letter (in this case, [ɾ]) for both. Strictly speaking, this makes the IPA a partially phonemic alphabet, not a purely phonetic one.
- ^ There are five basic tone diacritics and five basic tone letters, both sets of which are compounded for contour tones.
- ^ "The non-roman letters of the International Phonetic Alphabet have been designed as far as possible to harmonize well with the roman letters. The Association does not recognize makeshift letters; It recognizes only letters which have been carefully cut so as to be in harmony with the other letters." (IPA 1949)
- ^ For example, [p] is called "Lower-case P" and [χ] is "Chi." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 171)
References[link]
- ^ a b c d International Phonetic Association (IPA), Handbook.
- ^ a b c d e f MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). "Phonetic Notation". In P. T. Daniels and W. Bright (eds.). The World's Writing Systems. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 821–846. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
- ^ Wall, Joan (1989). International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction. Pst. ISBN 1-877761-50-8. http://www.amazon.com/International-Phonetic-Alphabet-Singers-Language/dp/1877761508.
- ^ The inverted bridge under the ⟨t⟩ specifies it as apical (pronounced with the tip of the tongue), and the superscript h shows that it's aspirated (breathy), both qualities which cause the English [t] to sound different from the French or Spanish [t], which is a laminal (pronounced with the blade of the tongue) and unaspirated [t̻]. ⟨t̺ʰ⟩ and ⟨t̻⟩ are thus two different IPA symbols for two different, though similar, sounds.
- ^ a b c d e International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 194–196
- ^ "Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 195–196)
- ^ Passy, Paul (1888). "Our revised alphabet". The Phonetic Teacher: 57–60.
- ^ a b c Pullum and Ladusaw, Phonetic Symbol Guide, pp. 152, 209
- ^ Nicolaidis, Katerina (September 2005). "Approval of New IPA Sound: The Labiodental Flap". International Phonetic Association. http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/flap.htm. Retrieved 2006-09-17.
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 186
- ^ “From its earliest days...the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide ‘a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word’.” (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27)
- ^ Laver, Principles of Phonetics,pp. 174–175
- ^ "The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 196)
- ^ a b Sally Thomason (January 2, 2008). "Why I Don't Love the International Phonetic Alphabet". Language Log. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005287.html.
- ^ For example, the English school textbooks by I. N. Vereshagina, K. A. Bondarenko and T. A. Pritykina.
- ^ For example, "Le Français à la portée de tous" by K. K. Parchevsky and E. B. Roisenblit (1995) and "English Through Eye and Ear" by L.V. Bankevich (1975).
- ^ "Phonetics". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. 2002. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/help/phonetics.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
- ^ "Merriam-Webster Online Pronunciation Symbols". http://mw1.merriam-webster.com/pronsymbols.html. Retrieved 2007-06-04.
Agnes, Michael (1999). Webster's New World College Dictionary. New York, NY: Macmillan USA. xxiii. ISBN 0-02-863119-6.
Pronunciation respelling for English has detailed comparisons. - ^ (Czech) Fronek, J. (2006) (in Czech). Velký anglicko-český slovník. Praha: Leda. ISBN 80-7335-022-X. "In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed."
- ^ "Nico Castel's Complete Libretti Series". Castel Opera Arts. http://www.castelopera.com/libretti.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-29.
- ^ Cheek, Timothy (2001). Singing in Czech. The Scarecrow Press. p. 392. ISBN 0-8108-4003-0 ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4. http://scarecrowpress.com/Catalog/SingleBook.shtml?command=Search&db=%5EDB/CATALOG.db&eqSKUdata=0810840030.
- ^ Zimmer, Benjamin (2008-05-14). "Operatic IPA and the Visual Thesaurus". Language Log. University of Pennsylvania. http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=155. Retrieved 2009-09-29.
- ^ "Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3)
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6.
- ^ Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §2.1.
- ^ Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §9.3.
- ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996). The Sounds of the World's Languages. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-19814-8. p 18
- ^ Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert (1998) [1974]. An Introduction to Language (6th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. ISBN 0-03-018682-X.
- ^ Ladefoged, Peter; Ian Maddieson (1996). The sounds of the world's languages. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 329–330. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
- ^ It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in Niesler, Louw, & Roux (2005) [Phonetic analysis of Afrikaans, English, Xhosa and Zulu using South African speech databases http://www.ajol.info/index.php/salas/article/viewFile/6562/13287]
- ^ Amanda L. Miller et al., "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops". Submitted to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. Retrieved 2007-05-27.
- ^ International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 10.
- ^ a b International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 14–15.
- ^ a b International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 13.
- ^ "John Wells's phonetic blog". Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com. 2009-09-09. http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2009/09/click-symbols.html. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
- ^ "At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech." ("Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186.)
- ^ "Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart" in International Phonetic Association, Handbook, pp. 186–187.
- ^ "Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 27)
- ^ Olson, Kenneth S.; & Hajek, John. (1999). The phonetic status of the labial flap. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), pp. 101–114.
- ^ "The diacrtics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 16)
- ^ "...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 31)
Further reading[link]
- Ball, Martin J.; John H. Esling & B. Craig. Dickson (1995). "The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality". Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet 25 (2): 71–80. DOI:10.1017/S0025100300005181.
- Duckworth, M.; G. Allen, M.J. Ball (December 1990). "Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech". Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics 4 (4): 273–280. DOI:10.3109/02699209008985489.
- Hill, Kenneth C.; Pullum, Geoffrey K.; Ladusaw, William (March 1988). "Review of Phonetic symbol guide by G. K. Pullum & W. Ladusaw". Language 64 (1): 143–144. DOI:10.2307/414792. JSTOR 414792.
- International Phonetic Association (1989). "Report on the 1989 Kiel convention". Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet 19 (2): 67–80.
- International Phonetic Association (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb).
- Jones, Daniel (1988). English pronouncing dictionary (revised 14th ed.). London: Dent. ISBN 0-521-86230-2. OCLC 18415701.
- Ladefoged, Peter (September 1990). "The revised International Phonetic Alphabet". Language 66 (3): 550–552. DOI:10.2307/414611. JSTOR 414611.
- Ladefoged, Peter; Morris Hale (September 1988). "Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet". Language 64 (3): 577–582. DOI:10.2307/414533. JSTOR 414533.
- Laver, John (1994). Principles of Phonetics. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45031-4 (hb); ISBN 0-521-45655-X (pb).
- Pullum, Geoffrey K.; William A. Laduslaw (1986). Phonetic symbol guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
- Skinner, Edith; Timothy Monich, and Lilene Mansell (1990). Speak with Distinction. New York, NY: Applause Theatre Book Publishers. ISBN 1-55783-047-9.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: International Phonetic Alphabet |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: IPA charts |
- The International Phonetic Association web site
- York University IPA Interactive Flash Charts
- Video recordings of the sounds of IPA by The University of Sheffield
- Information on IPA by Omniglot
- IPA Chart in Unicode and XHTML/CSS
- IPA copy & paste charts, keyboards, etc by IPA.Webstuff.org
- Learning the IPA for English, (Standard American English)
- Various resources including a glossary by Peter Roach.
- The International Phonetic Alphabet (revised to 2005) Symbols for all languages are shown on this one-page chart
- Using IPA fonts with Mac OS X: The Comprehensive Guide, an article explaining how to install and use freeware fonts and keyboard layouts to type in the International Phonetic Alphabet on OS X
- Visual Thesaurus
- IPA – Introduction This site was especially designed to act as an introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet as used for English.
Education[link]
- Interactive Saggital Section
- Phonetics: the Sounds of English and Spanish Note: requires Flash 7 or higher.
- IPA Charts with an interactive chart of all IPA letters with their sounds (Flash)
IPA font downloads[link]
- Charis SIL, a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols. Based on Bitstream Charter, this font suffers from extremely bad hinting when rendered by FreeType on Linux.
- DejaVu fonts Sourceforge.net have full Unicode IPA support. Sourceforge.net
- Doulos SIL, a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
- Gentium, a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap. For bold typefaces but only the most basic IPA letters, Gentium Basic may be used.
- TIPA, a font and system for entering IPA phonetic transcriptions in LaTeX documents.
Keyboard input[link]
- Extended IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows: for Unicode IPA input
- Complete Guide: Beginners’ guide to using IPA on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, covering many office applications and browsers
- Downloadable IPA keyboard layout for Microsoft Windows for Unicode IPA input
- Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X for Unicode IPA input
- IPA Character Picker Web-based input method
- IPAPalette is the Mac OS X input method on which IPACharMap is based.
- IPACharMap (scroll down to see it) is an on-screen keyboard for point and click character entry, which can then be copied and pasted into a Unicode-aware word processor. Based on IPA Palette.
- IPATotal keyboard – This free UNICODE based keyboard encodes the whole character and diacritics charts of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), designed to represent all the sounds of speech in any language.
- IPA Writer: The IPA Writer. Online tool to write IPA.
- Microsoft Template – Creates a Toolbar for Microsoft Word. (This uses macros)
- Online keyboard[dead link]
- IPAEdit Unicode-compliant Transcription Editor for Linux, Mac OS X and Windows from the University of Marburg
- PhonPad online IPA editor.
- Lenz Windows program that allows typing IPA symbols directly into other programs.
- Online Smart IPA Keyboard quickly type IPA phonetics without memorizing symbol codes
- IPANow! - Automatic Foreign Language IPA Transcription : IPANow! is shareware that automatically creates phonetic transcriptions of texts in Latin, Italian, German, and French.
- PhoTransEdit - English Phonetic Transcription Editor : PhoTransEdit is an on-line and off-line application created to make typing phonetic transcriptions easier. It includes automatic phonemic transcription (in RP and General American) of English texts and an IPA phonetic keyboard to edit them. The transcription can be pasted into other editors (e.g. Microsoft Word) or exported to use it in HTML pages.
Sound files[link]
- An introduction to the sounds of languages
- Complete IPA chart with sound samples, including English diphthongs
- IPA chart with MP3 sound files for all IPA letters on the chart (limited version is available to anyone)
- IPA chart with AIFF sound files for IPA symbols
- Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)
Unicode charts[link]
- International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode
- Unicode chart for main IPA lettersPDF (246.8 KB)
- Unicode chart for IPA modifier lettersPDF (203 KB)
- Unicode chart including IPA diacriticsPDF (231.2 KB)
- IPA with Unicode superimposedPDF (1.6 MB) from the University of Marburg
- MySQL Unicode collation chart for IPA and other phonetic blocks
- Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols: Tables of symbol names, character entity references and/or numeric character references at Penn State.
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Technical note[link]Most IPA symbols are not included in the most widely used form of Times New Roman (though they are included in the version provided with Windows Vista), the default font for Latin scripts in Internet Explorer for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in that browser, you must set it to use a font which includes the IPA extensions characters. Such fonts include Lucida Sans Unicode, which comes with Windows XP; Gentium, Charis SIL, Doulos SIL, DejaVu Sans, or TITUS Cyberbit, which are freely available; or Arial Unicode MS, which comes with Microsoft Office. On this page, we have forced Internet Explorer to use such a font by default, so it should appear correctly, but this has not yet been done to all the other pages containing IPA. This also applies to other pages using special symbols. Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as "" in articles. Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with Mozilla Firefox, Konqueror, Opera, Safari and most other recent browsers. |
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http://ru.wn.com/Международный фонетический алфавит
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