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The historic taboo associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. This 1822 drawing by Jacques-Pierre Maygnier shows a "compromise" procedure, in which the physician is kneeling before the woman but cannot see her genitalia. Modern gynaecology has shed these inhibitions.

Gynaecology or gynecology^[1] is the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system (uterus, vagina, and ovaries). Literally, outside medicine, it means "the science of women". Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system.

Almost all modern gynaecologists are also obstetricians (see obstetrics and gynaecology). In many areas, the specialties of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap. Gynaecology has been considered to end at 28 weeks gestation, but practically there is no clear cut-off. Since 1st October 1992, this cut-off may be considered to occur at 24 weeks gestation in the United States, since the law and definition of abortion changed to bring it closer to the gestation at which a fetus becomes viable.

Etymology[link]

The word "gynaecology" comes from the Greek ancient Greek gyne, γυνή, modern Greek gynaika, γυναίκα, meaning woman + logia meaning study, so gynaecology literally is the study of women.

History[link]

The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus is the oldest known medical text of any kind. Dated to about 1800 B.C., it deals with women's complaints—gynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc. The text is divided into thirty-four sections, each section dealing with a specific problem and containing diagnosis and treatment, no prognosis is suggested. Treatments are non surgical, comprising applying medicines to the affected body part or swallowing them. The womb is at times seen as the source of complaints manifesting themselves in other body parts.^[2]

The Hippocratic Corpus contains several gynaecological treatises dating to the 5th/4th centuries BC. The gynaecological treatise Gynaikeia by Soranus of Ephesus (1st/2nd century AD) is extant (together with a 6th-century Latin paraphrase by Muscio, a physician of the same school). He was the chief representative of the school of physicians known as the "Methodists".

J. Marion Sims is considered the father of American gynaecology. He developed many of his techniques by operating on slaves, many of whom were not given anesthesia.

Examination[link]

Gynaecology is typically considered a consultant specialty. In some countries, women must first see a general practitioner (GP; also known as a family practitioner (FP)) prior to seeing a gynaecologist. If their condition requires training, knowledge, surgical technique, or equipment unavailable to the GP, the patient is then referred to a gynaecologist. In the United States, however, law and many health insurance plans allow gynaecologists to provide primary care in addition to aspects of their own specialty. With this option available, some women opt to see a gynaecological surgeon for non-gynaecological problems without another physician's referral.

As in all of medicine, the main tools of diagnosis are clinical history and examination. Gynaecological examination is quite intimate, more so than a routine physical exam. It also requires unique instrumentation such as the speculum. The speculum consists of two hinged blades of concave metal or plastic which are used to retract the tissues of the vagina and permit examination of the cervix, the lower part of the uterus located within the upper portion of the vagina. Gynaecologists typically do a bimanual examination (one hand on the abdomen and one or two fingers in the vagina) to palpate the cervix, uterus, ovaries and bony pelvis. It is not uncommon to do a rectovaginal examination for complete evaluation of the pelvis, particularly if any suspicious masses are appreciated. Male gynaecologists may have a female chaperone for their examination. An abdominal and/or vaginal ultrasound can be used to confirm any abnormalities appreciated with the bimanual examination or when indicated by the patient's history.

Diseases[link]

The main conditions dealt with by a gynaecologist are:

1. Cancer and pre-cancerous diseases of the reproductive organs including ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, and vulva
2. Incontinence of urine.
3. Amenorrhoea (absent menstrual periods)
4. Dysmenorrhoea (painful menstrual periods)
5. Infertility
6. Menorrhagia (heavy menstrual periods). This is a common indication for hysterectomy.
7. Prolapse of pelvic organs
8. Infections of the vagina, cervix and uterus (including fungal, bacterial, viral, and protozoal)

There is some crossover in these areas. For example, a woman with urinary incontinence may be referred to a urologist.

Therapies[link]

As with all surgical specialties, gynaecologists may employ medical or surgical therapies (or many times, both), depending on the exact nature of the problem that they are treating. Pre- and post-operative medical management will often employ many standard drug therapies, such as antibiotics, diuretics, antihypertensives, and antiemetics. Additionally, gynaecologists make frequent use of specialized hormone-modulating therapies (such as Clomifene citrate and hormonal contraception) to treat disorders of the female genital tract that are responsive to pituitary and/or gonadal signals.

Surgery, however, is the mainstay of gynaecological therapy. For historical and political reasons, gynaecologists were previously not considered "surgeons", although this point has always been the source of some controversy. Modern advancements in both general surgery and gynaecology, however, have blurred many of the once rigid lines of distinction. The rise of sub-specialties within gynaecology which are primarily surgical in nature (for example urogynaecology and gynaecological oncology) have strengthened the reputations of gynaecologists as surgical practitioners, and many surgeons and surgical societies have come to view gynaecologists as comrades of sorts. As proof of this changing attitude, gynaecologists are now eligible for fellowship in both the American College of Surgeons and Royal Colleges of Surgeons, and many newer surgical textbooks include chapters on (at least basic) gynaecological surgery.

Some of the more common operations that gynaecologists perform include:

1. Dilation and curettage (removal of the uterine contents for various reasons, including completing a partial miscarriage and diagnostic sampling for dysfunctional uterine bleeding refractive to medical therapy)
2. Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus)
3. Oophorectomy (removal of the ovaries)
4. Tubal ligation
5. Hysteroscopy
6. Diagnostic laparoscopy – used to diagnose and treat sources of pelvic and abdominal pain; perhaps most famously used to provide definitive diagnosis of endometriosis.
7. Exploratory laparotomy – may be used to investigate the level of progression of benign or malignant disease, or to assess and repair damage to the pelvic organs.
8. Various surgical treatments for urinary incontinence, including cystoscopy and sub-urethral slings.
9. Surgical treatment of pelvic organ prolapse, including correction of cystocele and rectocele.
10. Appendectomy – often performed to remove site of painful endometriosis implantation and/or prophylactically (against future acute appendicitis) at the time of hysterectomy or Caesarean section. May also be performed as part of a staging operation for ovarian cancer.
11. Cervical Excision Procedures (including cryosurgery) – removal of the surface of the cervix containing pre-cancerous cells which have been previously identified on Pap smear.

Specialist training[link]

In the UK the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, based in London, encourages the study and advancement of the science and practice of obstetrics and gynaecology. This is done through postgraduate medical education and training development, and the publication of clinical guidelines and reports on aspects of the specialty and service provision. The RCOG International Office works with other international organisations to help lower maternal morbidity and mortality in under-resourced countries.

Gynaecologic oncology is a subspecialty of gynaecology, dealing with gynaecology-related cancer.

See also[link]

• Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity
• Genital schistosomiasis
• Hydatiform mole
• Gynography

References[link]

External links[link]

• Ingenious: archive of historical images related to obstetrics, gynaecology, and contraception.
• U.S. Federal Government Website for Women's Health Information.
• World Congress on Controversies in Obstetrics, Gynecology & Infertility (COGI).

Brian McKnight
Background information
Born	(1969-06-05) June 5, 1969 (age 43)
Origin	Buffalo, New York, United States
Genres	R&B, soul, quiet storm
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, Producer
Instruments	Vocals, Piano, Keyboards, Guitar, Bass guitar, Trumpet, Flugelhorn, Trombone, Tuba, Percussion
Years active	1988–present
Labels	Mercury (1988–1997) Motown (1998–2005) Warner Bros. (2006–2008) E1 Music (2009-Present)
Website	bmcknight.com

Brian McKnight (born June 5, 1969) is an American singer-songwriter, arranger, producer, and R&B musician. He is a multi-instrumentalist who plays eight instruments including piano, guitar, bass guitar, percussion, trombone, tuba, flugelhorn and trumpet.^[1]. McKnight is perhaps most recognized for his strong falsetto range, and is widely regarded as one of the strongest talents in the adult urban contemporary R&B genre, although his recent efforts have received mixed reviews.

McKnight's work has earned him 16 Grammy Awards nominations, but currently holds the record for having won none.

Biography[link]

1969-1986: Early life and career beginnings[link]

McKnight was born in Buffalo, New York. His musical career began in childhood when he became a member of his church choir and a band leader for his high school, Sweet Home High School.^[2].

1987-1997: Mercury Records[link]

In 1987, McKnight's older brother, Claude McKnight III, and his band, Take 6, signed a record deal with Warner Brothers. This encouraged McKnight to shop his own demo tapes and by the age of 19, he'd signed his first recording deal with Mercury Records subsidiary, Wing Records.^[2] In 1992, Brian McKnight was released, and his self-titled debut peaked at fifty-eight in the Billboard 200 chart, which primarily featured the ballad (and top twenty single) "One Last Cry". It was followed by two more albums for Mercury, 1995's I Remember You and 1997's Anytime. Anytime, McKnight's final album with Mercury, sold over two million copies and was nominated for a Grammy. The video for "Anytime", directed by Darren Grant, was nominated for Best Male Video at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards.

In 1997, McKnight recorded "Remember the Magic" for Disney World's 25th anniversary.

1997-2003: Motown Records[link]

McKnight signed with Motown in 1998 and released the Christmas album Bethlehem. In 1999, McKnight released Back at One, his most successful album at date, which eventually went on to sell over 3 million copies.

2004-2012: Warner Brothers and Television/Radio Career[link]

In 2004, McKnight co-wrote with Australian Soul artist Guy Sebastian the song "Wait", off Sebastian's Beautiful Life album.

In October 2007, McKnight made his Broadway debut in the show Chicago.

From 2006 to 2010 he hosted a radio show, The Brian McKnight Morning Show with Pat Prescott on KTWV The Wave in Los Angeles, CA. The show was briefly simulcast on KHJZ-FM, Smooth Jazz 95.7 The Wave in Houston, TX from 6AM-9AM CST.

On January 26, 2009, McKnight hosted "The Brian McKnight Show" from 7PM-Midnight on 98.7 KISS FM in New York City.

In 2009, he appeared in the second season of Celebrity Apprentice.^[3] Each celebrity played to raise money for the charity of his or her choice; McKnight elected to play for Youthville USA.

From September 2009 to May 2010, McKnight hosted ^[4] The Brian McKnight Show, a late night talk show billed as a combination of talk and variety, aired in syndication. The show was cancelled on May 29, 2010 after one season.

On March 31, 2011 McKnight sang the National Anthem for MLB Opening Day in Cincinnati, Ohio with his sons Brian, Jr. and Niko. He had previously sung the National Anthem for the 1997 NBA All-Star Game in Cleveland, Ohio, Game 6 of the 2002 World Series in Anaheim, California, near his Los Angeles home, and the 2005 Major League Baseball All-Star Game in Detroit. McKnight has also made numerous other "National Anthem" appearances throughout his career.

On April 23, 2012 McKnight posted to youtube "If You're Ready To Learn", which has been characterized by Billboard as a "filthy jam." Billboard selected this lyric from the work to quote: "Let me show you how your p---y works/Since you didn't bring it to me first." ^[5] Other media outlets such as MTV and the Toronto Sun have also written about McKnight's recent, more adult-orientated efforts.^[6][7]

Artistry[link]

McKnight's vocal style draws from Stevie Wonder (particularly in his use of melisma), Michael Sembello, Michael McDonald, Kenny Loggins, and his own brother, Take 6 co-founder Claude V. McKnight. Soul singer James Ingram also strongly influenced McKnight. His music production sensibilities, including his penchant for piano based pop ballads, method of background vocal recording and melismatic voice inflections all draw from Ingram. McKnight also has the uncanny ability to mimic the timbre and style of other singers such as Nat King Cole, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye and Prince.

Throughout his career, McKnight has collaborated with a variety of musicians including Mariah Carey, Sin Bandera, Mase, Sean "Puffy" Combs, Marcus Cole, Mary J. Blige, Justin Timberlake, Nelly, Vanessa Williams, Ivete Sangalo, Kirk Franklin, For Real, Canibus, Quincy Jones, Boyz II Men, Christina Aguilera, Regine Velasquez, Shoshana Bean, Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band, Rascal Flatts, Willie Nelson, Talib Kweli, MJG (of the Southern Rap duo Eightball & MJG), Josh Groban (on his 2007 #1 Christmas album Noel Schajris), and CeCe Peniston.

In 1992, he released his self-titled debut album, Brian McKnight, which peaked at fifty-eight in the Billboard 200 chart and features the Billboard Hot 100 top twenty hit single "One Last Cry".

McKnight's work has earned him 16 Grammy Awards nominations but holds the record for having won none.

Personal life[link]

McKnight is divorced and has three sons: Brian Jr., Niko and Clyde. McKnight currently lives in Los Angeles, California.^[8]

Religion[link]

Brian McKnight was previously a Seventh-day Adventist. He grew up attending Emmanuel Temple. He also attended Oakwood University, a Seventh-day Adventist university, in Huntsville, Alabama from 1987-1989. McKnight explains, concerning his musical beginnings in the church^{[citation needed]}:

"I'm the fifth generation of Seventh Day Adventists and the youngest of four brothers. When I was still very small, we formed a gospel quartet. Our models were the great gospel groups, the Swan Silvertones and Mighty Clouds of Joy. The McKnight brothers were serious singers. The reputation went out: these boys could shout. My big brothers—Claude (a part of the gospel group Take 6), Freddie and Michael—man, they were my heroes. Each was a leader in his own right. Outside church, they listened to jazz. Church music thrilled me, but jazz stimulated me."^{[citation needed]}

Discography[link]

Studio

• Brian McKnight (1992)
• I Remember You (1995)
• Anytime (1997)
• Bethlehem (1998)
• Back at One (1999)
• Superhero (2001)
• U Turn (2003)
• Gemini (2005)
• Ten (2006)
• Evolution of a Man (2009)
• Just Me (2011)

Compilation

• From There to Here: 1989-2002 (2002)
• Gold (2007)
• 20th Century Masters: The Millennium Collection – The Best of Brian McKnight (2007)
• Ultimate Collection (2009)
• Icon: Love Songs (2011)

Awards and nominations[link]

• American Music Awards

• • 1999, Favorite R&B/Soul Album: Anytime (Nominated)

2010

• BET Awards
  • 2007, BET J Cool Like Dat: (Nominated)

• Grammy Awards
  • 2005, Best R&B Male Vocal Performance: "What We Do Here" (Nominated)
  • 2004, Best R&B Male Vocal Performance: "Shoulda, Coulda, Woulda" (Nominated)
  • 2003, Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group: "All the Way" w/ Kenny G (Nominated)
  • 2002, Outstanding Song Written for a Motion Picture of Television Series: "Win" from Men of Honor (Nominated)
  • 2002, Best Male Pop Vocal Performance: "Still" (Nominated)
  • 2002, Best Pop Collaboration w/ Vocals: "My Kind of Girl" w/ Justin Timberlake (Nominated)
  • 2002, Best R&B Song: "Love of My Life" (Nominated)
  • 2002, Best R&B Male Vocal Performance: "Love of My Life" (Nominated)
  • 2001, Best Male Pop Vocal Performance: "6, 8, 12" (Nominated)
  • 2001, Best R&B Male Vocal Performance: "Stay or Let It Go" (Nominated)
  • 2001, Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group: "Coming Back Home" w/ Bebe Winans & Joe (singer) (Nominated)
  • 2000, Best R&B Album: Back at One (Nominated)
  • 2000, Best Short-Form Music Video: "Back at One" (Nominated)
  • 1999, Best R&B Male Vocal Performance: "The Only One For Me" (Nominated)
  • 1999, Best Male Pop Vocal Performance: "Anytime" (Nominated)
  • 1994, Best Pop Collaboration w/ Vocals: "Love Is" w/ Vanessa L. Williams (Nominated)

McKnight holds a Grammy Awards record having received 16 nominations without a win.

• Image Awards
  • 2002, Outstanding Male Artist: Superhero (Nominated)
  • 2001, Outstanding Male Artist: "Stay or Let It Go" (Nominated)
  • 2000, Outstanding Male Artist: "Back at One" (Winner)

• MTV Video Music Awards
  • 2000, Best R&B Video: "Back at One" (Nominated)
  • 1998, Best R&B Video: "Anytime" (Nominated)

• Soul Train Awards
  • 2002, Best R&B/Soul Male Single: "Love of My Life" (Nominated)
  • 2000, Best R&B/Soul Single Male: "Back at One" (Nominated)
  • 2000, Best R&B/Soul Male Album: Back at One (Nominated)
  • 1999, Best R&B/Soul Male Album: "Anytime" (Winner)

References[link]

• Music.Yahoo.com

External links[link]

• Brian McKnight official website
• Brian McKnight entertainment website
• Brian McKnight's Biography from VH1
• Brian McKnight's Profile from VIBE
• Brian McKnight Fans Website
• Blogs.OrlandoSentinel.com
• Brian McKnight JUST ME 2011 World Tour