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A. J. Ayer
http://wn.com/A_J_Ayer -
Adam Kuper
Adam Kuper (born 1941) is an anthropologist most closely linked to the school of social anthropology. In his works, he often treats the notion of "culture" skeptically, focusing as much on how it is used as on what it means.
http://wn.com/Adam_Kuper -
Alain Badiou
http://wn.com/Alain_Badiou -
Albert Camus
http://wn.com/Albert_Camus -
Alexandre Kojève
http://wn.com/Alexandre_Kojève -
Alf Sommerfelt
Alf Sommerfelt (1892-1965), was a Norwegian linguist and the first professor of linguistics in Norway, working at the University of Oslo from 1931 to 1962.
http://wn.com/Alf_Sommerfelt -
Althusser
http://wn.com/Althusser -
Antoine Meillet
http://wn.com/Antoine_Meillet -
Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci () (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian philosopher, writer, politician and political theorist. A founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy, he was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. His writings mostly deal with the analysis of culture and political leadership. He is notable as a highly original thinker within the Marxist tradition. He is renowned for his concept of cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
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Aristotle
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Arthur Schopenhauer
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Averroes
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Benjamin Lee Whorf
Benjamin Lee Whorf (April 24, 1897 in Winthrop, Massachusetts – July 26, 1941) was an American linguist. Whorf is widely known for his ideas about linguistic relativity, the hypothesis that language influences thought. An important theme in many of his publications, he has been credited as one of the fathers of this approach, often referred to as the "Sapir-Whorf hypothesis", named after him and his mentor Edward Sapir. Originally educated as a chemical engineer, he took up an interest in linguistics late in his life, studying with Sapir at Yale University. In the last ten years of his life he dedicated his spare time to linguistic studies, doing field work on Native American languages in the US and Mexico. He managed to become one of the most influential linguists of his time, even while still working as a fire inspector for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company. He published a grammar of the Hopi language, studies of Nahuatl dialects, Maya hieroglyphic writing, and the first attempt at a reconstruction of Uto-Aztecan. He also published many articles in the most prestigious linguistic journals, many of them dealing with the ways in which he saw that different linguistic systems affected the thought systems and habitual behaviour of language users.
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Bertrand Russell
http://wn.com/Bertrand_Russell -
Canguilhem
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Carl Schmitt
Carl Schmitt (July 11, 1888 – April 7, 1985) was a German jurist, Catholic philosopher, political theorist, and professor of law.
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Claude Lévi-Strauss
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Confucius
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Derrida
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Edmund Husserl
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Edmund Leach
Sir Edmund Ronald Leach (7 November 1910 – 6 January 1989) was a British social anthropologist of whom it has been said
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Edward Sapir
Edward Sapir (), (January 26, 1884 – February 4, 1939) was a German-born American anthropologist-linguist and a leader in American structural linguistics. He was one of the creators of what is now called the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. He was a highly influential figure in American linguistics, influencing several generations of linguists across several schools of the discipline.
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Emmanuel Levinas
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Eric Wolf
Eric Robert Wolf (February 1, 1923 – March 6, 1999) was an anthropologist, best known for his studies of peasants, Latin America, and his advocacy of Marxian perspectives within anthropology.
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Franz Boas
Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 – December 21, 1942) was a German American anthropologist a pioneer of modern anthropology who has been called the "Father of American Anthropology" and "the Father of Modern Anthropology." Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in physics, and did post-doctoral work in geography. He applied the scientific method to the study of human cultures and societies; previously this discipline was based on the formulation of grand theories around anecdotal knowledge.
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François Châtelet
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French people
French people can refer to:
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Friedrich Nietzsche
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (; in English , ) (October 15, 1844 August 25, 1900) was a 19th-century German philosopher and classical philologist. He wrote critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.
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Gilbert Ryle
Gilbert Ryle (19 August 1900, Brighton – 6 October 1976, Oxford), was a British philosopher, and a representative of the generation of British ordinary language philosophers that shared Wittgenstein's approach to philosophical problems, and is principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism, for which he coined the phrase "the ghost in the machine". Some of his ideas in the philosophy of mind have been referred to as "behaviourist" (not to be confused with the psychological behaviourism of B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson). Ryle's best known book is The Concept of Mind (1949), in which he writes that the "general trend of this book will undoubtedly, and harmlessly, be stigmatised as 'behaviourist'." Ryle, having engaged in detailed study of the key works of Bernard Bolzano, Franz Brentano, Alexius Meinong, Husserl, and Heidegger, himself suggested instead that the book "could be described as a sustained essay in phenomenology, if you are at home with that label."
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Gilles Deleuze
http://wn.com/Gilles_Deleuze -
Giorgio Agamben
Giorgio Agamben (born 1942) is an Italian philosopher best known for his work investigating the concepts of the state of exception and homo sacer.
http://wn.com/Giorgio_Agamben -
Gottlob Frege
http://wn.com/Gottlob_Frege -
Gustav Bergmann
http://wn.com/Gustav_Bergmann -
Hannah Arendt
http://wn.com/Hannah_Arendt -
Hans-Georg Gadamer
Hans-Georg Gadamer (; February 11, 1900 – March 13, 2002) was a German philosopher of the continental tradition, best known for his 1960 magnum opus, Truth and Method (Wahrheit und Methode).
http://wn.com/Hans-Georg_Gadamer -
Henri Bergson
http://wn.com/Henri_Bergson -
Ibn Khaldun
http://wn.com/Ibn_Khaldun -
Immanuel Kant
http://wn.com/Immanuel_Kant -
J. L. Austin
http://wn.com/J_L_Austin -
Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida () (15 July 1930 – 8 October 2004) was a French philosopher born in Algeria. He developed the critical technique known as deconstruction, and his work has been associated both with post-structuralism and postmodern philosophy. His prolific output of more than 40 published books, together with essays and public speaking, has had a significant impact upon the humanities, particularly on literary theory and continental philosophy. His best known assertion with regard to his methodology is that "there is no outside-the-text."
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Jacques Lacan
http://wn.com/Jacques_Lacan -
Jean Baudrillard
http://wn.com/Jean_Baudrillard -
Jean Piaget
http://wn.com/Jean_Piaget -
Jean-Paul Sartre
Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (, ; 21 June 1905 – 15 April 1980) was a French existentialist philosopher, playwright, novelist, screenwriter, political activist, biographer, and literary critic. He was one of the leading figures in 20th century French philosophy, existentialism, and Marxism, and his work continues to influence fields such as Marxist philosophy, sociology, and literary studies. Sartre was also noted for his long relationship with the author and social theorist, Simone de Beauvoir. He was awarded the 1964 Nobel Prize in Literature but refused the honour.
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John Searle
John Rogers Searle (born July 31, 1932 in Denver, Colorado) is an American philosopher and currently the Slusser Professor of Philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. Searle began his college education at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, and subsequently became a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University where he earned an undergraduate degree and a doctorate in philosophy and ethics. Widely noted for his contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind and social philosophy, he began teaching at Berkeley in 1959, where, among his many distinctions, he was the first tenured professor to join the Free Speech Movement. He received the Jean Nicod Prize in 2000, and the National Humanities Medal in 2004.
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Jürgen Habermas
http://wn.com/Jürgen_Habermas -
Karl Jaspers
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Leonard Bloomfield
http://wn.com/Leonard_Bloomfield -
Leszek Kołakowski
http://wn.com/Leszek_Kołakowski -
Lev Vygotsky
http://wn.com/Lev_Vygotsky -
Louis Althusser
http://wn.com/Louis_Althusser -
Ludwig Wittgenstein
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Marcel Mauss
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Marshall Sahlins
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Martin Heidegger
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Maurice Godelier
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Meyer Fortes
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Michel Foucault
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Nicos Poulantzas
Nicos Poulantzas (; 30 September 1936, Athens, Greece – 3 October 1979, Paris, France) was a Greek Marxist political sociologist. In the 1970s, Poulantzas was known, along with Louis Althusser, as a leading Structural Marxist and, while at first a Leninist, eventually became a proponent of eurocommunism. He is most well-known for his theoretical work on the state. But he also offered Marxist contributions to the analysis of fascism, social class in the contemporary world, and the collapse of the dictatorships in Southern Europe in the 1970s (e.g. Franco's rule in Spain, Salazar's in Portugal, and Papadopoulos's in Greece).
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Nikolai Trubetzkoy
Prince Nikolai Sergeyevich Trubetzkoy (also Trubetskoy; Russian: ; Moscow, April 16, 1890 - Vienna, June 25, 1938) was a Russian linguist and historian whose teachings formed a nucleus of the Prague School of structural linguistics. He is widely considered to be the founder of morphophonology. He was also associated with the Russian Eurasianists.
http://wn.com/Nikolai_Trubetzkoy -
Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
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Northrop Frye
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P. F. Strawson
Sir Peter Frederick Strawson FBA (23 November 1919 – 13 February 2006) was an English philosopher. He was the Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at the University of Oxford (Magdalen College) from 1968 to 1987. Before that he was appointed as a college lecturer at University College, Oxford in 1947 and became a tutorial fellow the following year until 1968. On his retirement in 1987, he returned to the college and continued working there until shortly before his death.
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Paul Grice
Herbert Paul Grice (March 13, 1913, Birmingham, England – August 28, 1988, Berkeley, California), usually publishing under the name H. P. Grice, H. Paul Grice, or Paul Grice, was a British-educated philosopher of language, who spent the final two decades of his career in the United States.
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Paul Ricœur
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Paul Tillich
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Pierre Bourdieu
http://wn.com/Pierre_Bourdieu -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Robert Jaulin
Robert Jaulin (Le Cannet, 1928 - Grosrouvre, 1996) was a French ethnologist. After several journeys to Chad, between 1954 and 1959, among the Sara people, he published in 1967 La Mort Sara (The Sara Death) in which he exposed the various initiation rites through which he had passed himself, and closely analyzed Sara geomancy . In La Paix blanche (The White peace, 1970), he redefined the notion of ethnocide in relation to the extermination by the Western world of the Bari culture, located between Venezuela and Colombia. If a genocide designs the physical extermination of a people, an ethnocide refers to the extermination of a culture.
http://wn.com/Robert_Jaulin -
Rodney Needham
Rodney Needham (15 May 1923] - 4 December 2006 in Oxford, United Kingdom) was one of the leading British social anthropologists.
http://wn.com/Rodney_Needham -
Roman Jakobson
Roman Osipovich Jakobson () (October 11, 1896, Moscow – July 18, 1982, Boston) was a Russian linguist and literary theorist.
http://wn.com/Roman_Jakobson -
Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a leading member of the Vienna Circle and a prominent advocate of logical positivism.
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Sartre
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Saul Kripke
Saul Aaron Kripke (born November 13, 1940) is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at CUNY Graduate Center. Since the 1960s Kripke has been a central figure in a number of fields related to mathematical logic, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, epistemology, and set theory. Much of his work remains unpublished or exists only as tape-recordings and privately circulated manuscripts (see "Unpublished Manuscripts and Online Lectures" below). Kripke was the recipient of the 2001 Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy. A recent poll conducted among philosophers ranked Kripke among the top ten most important philosophers of the past 200 years.
http://wn.com/Saul_Kripke -
Simon Blackburn
Simon Blackburn (born 1944) is a British academic philosopher known for his efforts to popularise philosophy. He attended Clifton College and went on to receive his bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1965 from Trinity College, Cambridge and his doctorate in 1970 from Churchill College, Cambridge. He is currently Professor of Philosophy at the University of Cambridge's Faculty of Philosophy and Research Professor of Philosophy at the University of North Carolina. He is also a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. He was previously a Fellow of Pembroke College, Oxford and has also taught at the University of North Carolina as an Edna J. Koury Professor. He is the current president of the Aristotelian Society, serving the 2009-2010 term.
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Søren Kierkegaard
http://wn.com/Søren_Kierkegaard -
Theodor W. Adorno
http://wn.com/Theodor_W_Adorno -
Thomas Hobbes
http://wn.com/Thomas_Hobbes -
Thomas Kuhn
http://wn.com/Thomas_Kuhn -
Victor Turner
http://wn.com/Victor_Turner -
Vladimir Propp
Vladimir Yakovlevich Propp (; — 22 August 1970) was a Russian and Soviet formalist scholar who analyzed the basic plot components of Russian folk tales to identify their simplest irreducible narrative elements.
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Wilhelm von Humboldt
http://wn.com/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt -
World War I
World War I was a military conflict centered on Europe that began in the summer of 1914. The fighting ended in late 1918. This conflict involved all of the world's great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (centred around the Triple Entente) and the Central Powers. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilized in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, due largely to great technological advances in firepower without corresponding ones in mobility. It was the second deadliest conflict in history.
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Zygmunt Bauman
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Émile Benveniste
http://wn.com/Émile_Benveniste
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8. Semiotics and Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 51:31
- Updated: 14 Sep 2012
Introduction to Theory of Literature (ENGL 300) In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the semiotics movement through the work of its founding theorist, Ferdinand de Saussure. The relationship of semiotics to hermeneutics, New Criticism, and Russian formalism is considered. Key semiotic binaries--such as langue and parole, signifier and signified, and synchrony and diachrony--are explored. Considerable time is spent applying semiotics theory to the example of a "red light" in a variety of semiotic contexts. 00:00 - Chapter 1. What is Semiology? 08:34 - Chapter 2. "Langue" and "Parole," "Signified" and "Signifier" 27:08 - Chapter 3. Positive and Negative Knowledge: Arbitrary and Differential 33:11 - Chapter 4. Example: the Red Stoplight 45:55 - Chapter 5. Synchrony and Diachrony Complete course materials are available at the Open Yale Courses website: open.yale.edu This course was recorded in Spring 2009.
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39. Theories Lecture: Post Structuralism Explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
jasonjcampbell.org
http://wn.com/39_Theories_Lecture_Post_Structuralism_Explained
Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:26
- Updated: 22 Oct 2012
This is a lecture for my PSYC 487 Capstone History & Systems students at Boise State University.
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Psychology 101 - Wundt & James: Structuralism & Functionalism - Vook
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:11
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
This is the "Wundt & James: Structuralism & Functionalism" video from "Psychology 101: The Animated TextVook". For more information on this or other titles from Vook, please visit www.vook.com.
http://wn.com/Psychology_101_Wundt_James_Structuralism_Functionalism_Vook
ART THOUGHTZ: Post-Structuralism (THE CLEAN VERSION)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Updated: 05 Aug 2012
AFTER 21000 VIEWS YOUTUBE TOOK THE ORIGINAL VERSION DOWN DUE TO A LITTLE WEE-WEE. TO SEE THE ORIGINAL UNCENSORED VERSION OF THIS VIDEO GO TO: vimeo.com WHAT THE FUCK IS POST-STRUCTURALISM? I DON'T KNOW BUT IM STILL GOING TO EXPLAIN IT TO YOU ANYWAY! LET YA BOY HENROCK OPEN UP THAT DOME PEICE OF YOURS AND DROP SOME KNOWLEDGE INSIDE IT LIKE A RED CROSS CLOTHING DONATION DROP.
http://wn.com/ART_THOUGHTZ_Post-Structuralism_THE_CLEAN_VERSION
43. Theories Lecture: Post Structuralism Explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
jasonjcampbell.org
http://wn.com/43_Theories_Lecture_Post_Structuralism_Explained
Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:37
- Updated: 01 Sep 2012
Psychology in the work context Wundt's Laboratory Fechner Edward Bradford Titchener Introspection
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Basics of Structuralism and Functionalism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
Structuralism and functionalism are two related schools of thought on studying a person's mental state. This psychology video from About.com will explain the differences between structuralism and functionalism.
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Structuralism Large
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:51
- Updated: 26 Jun 2012
http://wn.com/Structuralism_Large
Partially Examined Life podcast - Semiotics and Structuralism - Saussure, Levi-Strauss, Derrida
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:45
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
This is an excerpt from a prior episode of The Partially Examined Life podcast, discussing Ferdinand de Saussure's Course in General Linguistics (1916) (Part I and Part II, Ch. 4), Claude Levi-Strauss's "The Structural Study of Myth" (1955), and Jacques Derrida's "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences" (1966). You can find the entire unabridged Semiotics and Structuralism podcast, along with dozens of others discussing philosophers from Aristotle to Wittgenstein, at the Partially Examined Life website: www.partiallyexaminedlife.com About PEL The podcasters were all graduate students in philosophy at the University of Texas at Austin back in the Clinton years. They all left the program at some point before getting their doctorates and have consequently since had time to get outside that whole weird world of academia and reflect on it and the various philosophical topics with a different, and probably much more lazy, perspective.
http://wn.com/Partially_Examined_Life_podcast_Semiotics_and_Structuralism_Saussure,_Levi-Strauss,_Derrida
MIND AND BRAIN 3 - Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:08
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
Structuralism in psychology refers to the theory founded by Edward B. Titchener (1867--1927), with the goal to describe the structure of the mind in terms of the most primitive elements of mental experience. This theory focused on three things: the individual elements of consciousness, how they organized into more complex experiences, and how these mental phenomena correlated with physical events. The mental elements structure themselves in such a way to allow conscious experience. Reference: Wikipedia Legendas em português - english subtitles AVENIDACULT The CULT channel Subscribe to our channel www.youtube.com
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Saylor ENGL301: Semiotics and Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 51:31
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
This video is a lecture used in ENGL301 as part of our English Literature area of study on www.saylor.org The above video is reposted from Yale University Yale Courses YouTube channel. The original version can be found here http This video is released under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 Unported License.
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41. Theories Lecture: Post Structuralism Explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 02 Nov 2012
jasonjcampbell.org
http://wn.com/41_Theories_Lecture_Post_Structuralism_Explained
Structuralism and Structuralist Literary Theory; Saussure, Levi Strauss, Barthes, Todorov;
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:43
- Updated: 27 Oct 2012
what is structuralism and why do deleuze and guattari and derrida oppose it so much?
http://wn.com/Structuralism_and_Structuralist_Literary_Theory;_Saussure,_Levi_Strauss,_Barthes,_Todorov;
46. Theories Lecture: Post Structuralism Explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
jasonjcampbell.org
http://wn.com/46_Theories_Lecture_Post_Structuralism_Explained
42. Theories Lecture: Post Structuralism Explained
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:01
- Updated: 25 May 2012
jasonjcampbell.org
http://wn.com/42_Theories_Lecture_Post_Structuralism_Explained
Post Structuralism and Cultural Studies - SIO Film Studies Camp
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:13
- Updated: 24 Aug 2010
MT Ansari From Hyderabad Central University Handles the session in SIO Film Studies Camp organised by Samvedanavedi
http://wn.com/Post_Structuralism_and_Cultural_Studies_SIO_Film_Studies_Camp
Aristotelean Fictionalism and Eliminative Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:41
- Updated: 17 Dec 2011
philosophy of mathematics in fictionalism and structuralism concerning ontological commitment.
http://wn.com/Aristotelean_Fictionalism_and_Eliminative_Structuralism
1 Structuralism: The Linguistic Sign
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:54
- Updated: 12 Oct 2012
This is the second part of the 'Introduction to English Linguistics I' lecture by Thomas Hoffmann (University of Osnabrück) on 'Properties of Language'. This particular video introduces Saussure's notion of the linguistic sign.
http://wn.com/1_Structuralism_The_Linguistic_Sign
1 Structuralism: Language as a System
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
This is the first part of the 'Introduction to English Linguistics I' lecture by Thomas Hoffmann (University of Osnabrück) on 'Properties of Language'. In this video, Saussure's notion of language as a system is discussed and the two fundamental unit finding principles (paradigmatic substitution and syntagmatic relationships) are introduced.
http://wn.com/1_Structuralism_Language_as_a_System
Alternatives to Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 30:02
- Updated: 21 Feb 2012
This lecture Alternatives to Structuralism is intended for my Boise State University students enrolled in PSYC 487 Capstone: History & Systems.
http://wn.com/Alternatives_to_Structuralism
Post-Structuralism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 08 Apr 2012
Turn off the stupid water!
http://wn.com/Post-Structuralism
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For other uses, see Structuralism (disambiguation).
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Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes that elements of culture must be understood in terms of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or "structure." Alternately, as summarized by philosopher Simon Blackburn, Structuralism is "the belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract culture".[1]
Structuralism originated in the early 1900s, in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure and the subsequent Prague[2], Moscow[2] and Copenhagen schools of linguistics. In the late 1950s and early '60s, when structural linguistics was facing serious challenges from the likes of Noam Chomsky and thus fading in importance in linguistics, an array of scholars in the humanities borrowed Saussure's concepts for use in their respective fields of study. French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss was arguably the first such scholar, sparking a widespread interest in Structuralism.[1].
The structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, psychology, literary criticism, economics and architecture. The most prominent thinkers associated with structuralism include Lévi-Strauss, linguist Roman Jakobson, and psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan. As an intellectual movement, structuralism was initially presumed the heir apparent to existentialism. However, by the late 1960s, many of Structuralism's basic tenets came under attack from a new wave of predominantly French intellectuals such as the philosopher and historian Michel Foucault, the philosopher and social commentator Jacques Derrida, the Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, and the literary critic Roland Barthes.[2] Though elements of their work necessarily relate to structuralism and are informed by it, these theorists have generally been referred to as post-structuralists.
In the 1970s, structuralism was criticised for its rigidity and ahistoricism. Despite this, many of structuralism's proponents, such as Jacques Lacan, continue to assert an influence on continental philosophy and many of the fundamental assumptions of some of structuralism's critics (who have been associated with "post-structuralism") are a continuation of structuralism.[3]
Contents |
Overview[link]
The origins of structuralism can be attributed to the work of Ferdinand de Saussure on linguistics, along with the linguistics of the Prague and Moscow schools. In brief, Saussure's structural linguistics can be understood as three related concepts.[1]
- (1) He argued for a distinction between langue (an idealized abstraction of language) and parole (language as actually used in daily life). He argued that the "sign" was composed of both a signified, an abstract concept or idea, and a "signifier," the perceived sound/visual image.
- (2) Because different languages have different words to describe the same objects or concepts, there is no intrinsic reason why a specific sign is used to express a given signifier. It is thus "arbitrary."
- (3) Signs thus gain their meaning from their relationships and contrasts with other signs. As he wrote, "in language, there are only differences 'without positive terms.'"
As summarized by philosopher John Searle,[4] Saussure established that 'I understand the sentence "the cat is on the mat" the way I do because I know how it would relate to an indefinite—indeed infinite—set of other sentences, "the dog is on the mat," "the cat is on the couch," etc."
The term "structuralism" itself appeared in the works of French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss. This gave rise, in France, to the "structuralist movement", which spurred the work of such thinkers as Louis Althusser, the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan, as well as the structural Marxism of Nicos Poulantzas. Most members of this movement did not describe themselves as being a part of any such movement. Structuralism is closely related to semiotics.
Blending Freud and De Saussure, the French (post)structuralist Jacques Lacan applied structuralism to psychoanalysis and, in a different way, Jean Piaget applied structuralism to the study of psychology. But Jean Piaget, who would better define himself as constructivist, considers structuralism as "a method and not a doctrine" because for him "there exists no structure without a construction, abstract or genetic"[5]
Michel Foucault's book The Order of Things examined the history of science to study how structures of epistemology, or episteme, shaped the way in which people imagined knowledge and knowing (though Foucault would later explicitly deny affiliation with the structuralist movement).
In much the same way, American historian of science Thomas Kuhn addressed the structural formations of science in his seminal work The Structure of Scientific Revolutions - its title alone arguably[who?] evincing a stringent structuralist approach. Though less concerned with "episteme", Kuhn nonetheless remarked at how coteries of scientists operated under and applied a standard praxis of 'normal science,' deviating from a standard 'paradigm' only in instances of irreconcilable anomalies that question a significant body of their work.
Blending Marx and structuralism was another French theorist, Louis Althusser, who introduced his own brand of structural social analysis, giving rise to "structural Marxism". Other authors in France and abroad have since extended structural analysis to practically every discipline.
The definition of 'structuralism' also shifted as a result of its popularity. As its popularity as a movement waxed and waned, some authors considered themselves 'structuralists' only to later eschew the label.
Proponents of structuralism would argue that a specific domain of culture may be understood by means of a structure—modelled on language—that is distinct both from the organizations of reality and those of ideas or the imagination—the "third order".[6] In Lacan's psychoanalytic theory, for example, the structural order of "the Symbolic" is distinguished both from "the Real" and "the Imaginary"; similarly, in Althusser's Marxist theory, the structural order of the capitalist mode of production is distinct both from the actual, real agents involved in its relations and from the ideological forms in which those relations are understood. According to Alison Assiter, four ideas are common to the various forms of structuralism. First, that a structure determines the position of each element of a whole. Second, that every system has a structure. Third, structural laws deal with co-existence rather than change. Fourth, structures are the "real things" that lie beneath the surface or the appearance of meaning.[7]
History[link]
Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, existentialism, such as that propounded by Jean-Paul Sartre, was the dominant European intellectual movement. Structuralism rose to prominence in France in the wake of existentialism, particularly in the 1960s. The initial popularity of structuralism in France led to its spread across the globe.
Structuralism rejected the concept of human freedom and choice and focused instead on the way that human experience and thus, behavior, is determined by various structures. The most important initial work on this score was Claude Lévi-Strauss's 1949 volume The Elementary Structures of Kinship. Lévi-Strauss had known Jakobson during their time together in New York during WWII and was influenced by both Jakobson's structuralism as well as the American anthropological tradition. In Elementary Structures he examined kinship systems from a structural point of view and demonstrated how apparently different social organizations were in fact different permutations of a few basic kinship structures. In the late 1950s he published Structural Anthropology, a collection of essays outlining his program for structuralism.
By the early 1960s structuralism as a movement was coming into its own and some believed that it offered a single unified approach to human life that would embrace all disciplines. Roland Barthes and Jacques Derrida focused on how structuralism could be applied to literature.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]
Structuralism in linguistics[link]
See also: Structural linguistics
In Ferdinand de Saussure's Course in General Linguistics (written by Saussure's colleagues after his death and based on student notes), the analysis focuses not on the use of language (called "parole", or speech), but rather on the underlying system of language (called "langue"). This approach examines how the elements of language relate to each other in the present, synchronically rather than diachronically. Saussure argued that linguistic signs were composed of two parts:
- a "signifier" (the "sound pattern" of a word, either in mental projection—as when one silently recites lines from a poem to one's self—or in actual, physical realization as part of a speech act)
- a "signified" (the concept or meaning of the word)
This was quite different from previous approaches that focused on the relationship between words and the things in the world that they designate.[8] Other key notions in structural linguistics include paradigm, syntagm, and value (though these notions were not fully developed in Saussure's thought). A structural "idealism" is a class of linguistic units (lexemes, morphemes or even constructions) that are possible in a certain position in a given linguistic environment (such as a given sentence), which is called the "syntagm". The different functional role of each of these members of the paradigm is called "value" (valeur in French).
Saussure's Course influenced many linguists between World War I and World War II. In the United States, for instance, Leonard Bloomfield developed his own version of structural linguistics, as did Louis Hjelmslev in Denmark and Alf Sommerfelt in Norway. In France Antoine Meillet and Émile Benveniste continued Saussure's project. Most importantly[says who?], however, members of the Prague school of linguistics such as Roman Jakobson and Nikolai Trubetzkoy conducted research that would be greatly influential. However, by the 1950s Saussure's linguistic concepts were under heavy criticism and were soon largely abandoned by practicing linguists: "Saussure's views are not held, so far as I know, by modern linguists, only by literary critics and the occasional philosopher. [Strict adherence to Saussure] has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale. One can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to Chomsky."[9]
The clearest and most important example of Prague school structuralism lies in phonemics. Rather than simply compiling a list of which sounds occur in a language, the Prague school sought to examine how they were related. They determined that the inventory of sounds in a language could be analyzed in terms of a series of contrasts. Thus in English the sounds /p/ and /b/ represent distinct phonemes because there are cases (minimal pairs) where the contrast between the two is the only difference between two distinct words (e.g. 'pat' and 'bat'). Analyzing sounds in terms of contrastive features also opens up comparative scope—it makes clear, for instance, that the difficulty Japanese speakers have differentiating /r/ and /l/ in English is because these sounds are not contrastive in Japanese. While this approach is now standard in linguistics, it was revolutionary at the time. Phonology would become the paradigmatic basis for structuralism in a number of different fields.
Structuralism in anthropology and sociology[link]
Main article: Structural anthropology
According to structural theory in anthropology and social anthropology, meaning is produced and reproduced within a culture through various practices, phenomena and activities that serve as systems of signification. A structuralist approach may study activities as diverse as food-preparation and serving- rituals, religious rites, games, literary and non-literary texts, and other forms of entertainment to discover the deep structures by which meaning is produced and reproduced within the culture. For example, Lévi-Strauss analyzed in the 1950s cultural phenomena including mythology, kinship (the alliance theory and the incest taboo), and food preparation. In addition to these studies, he produced more linguistically focused writings in which he applied Saussure's distinction between langue and parole in his search for the fundamental structures of the human mind, arguing that the structures that form the "deep grammar" of society originate in the mind and operate in us unconsciously. Lévi-Strauss took inspiration from information theory and mathematics[citation needed].
Another concept utilised in structual anthropology came from the Prague school of linguistics, where Roman Jakobson and others analyzed sounds based on the presence or absence of certain features (such as voiceless vs. voiced). Lévi-Strauss included this in his conceptualization of the universal structures of the mind, which he held to operate based on pairs of binary oppositions such as hot-cold, male-female, culture-nature, cooked-raw, or marriageable vs. tabooed women.
A third influence came from Marcel Mauss (1872–1950), who had written on gift-exchange systems. Based on Mauss, for instance, Lévi-Strauss argued that kinship systems are based on the exchange of women between groups (a position known as 'alliance theory') as opposed to the 'descent' based theory described by Edward Evans-Pritchard and Meyer Fortes. While replacing Marcel Mauss at his Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes chair, Lévi-Strauss' writing became widely popular in the 1960s and 1970s and gave rise to the term "structuralism" itself.
In Britain authors such as Rodney Needham and Edmund Leach were highly influenced by structuralism. Authors such as Maurice Godelier and Emmanuel Terray combined Marxism with structural anthropology in France. In the United States, authors such as Marshall Sahlins and James Boon built on structuralism to provide their own analysis of human society. Structural anthropology fell out of favour in the early 1980s for a number of reasons. D'Andrade suggests that this was because it made unverifiable assumptions about the universal structures of the human mind. Authors such as Eric Wolf argued that political economy and colonialism should be at the forefront of anthropology. More generally, criticisms of structuralism by Pierre Bourdieu led to a concern with how cultural and social structures were changed by human agency and practice, a trend which Sherry Ortner has referred to as 'practice theory'.
Some anthropological theorists, however, while finding considerable fault with Lévi-Strauss's version of structuralism, did not turn away from a fundamental structural basis for human culture. The Biogenetic Structuralism group for instance argued that some kind of structural foundation for culture must exist because all humans inherit the same system of brain structures. They proposed a kind of Neuroanthropology which would lay the foundations for a more complete scientific account of cultural similarity and variation by requiring an integration of cultural anthropology and neuroscience—a program that theorists such as Victor Turner also embraced.
Structuralism in literary theory and criticism[link]
Main article: Semiotic literary criticism
In literary theory, structuralist criticism relates literary texts to a larger structure, which may be a particular genre, a range of intertextual connections, a model of a universal narrative structure, or a system of recurrent patterns or motifs.[10] Structuralism argues that there must be a structure in every text, which explains why it is easier for experienced readers than for non-experienced readers to interpret a text. Hence, everything that is written seems to be governed by specific rules, or a "grammar of literature", that one learns in educational institutions and that are to be unmasked.[11] A potential problem of structuralist interpretation is that it can be highly reductive, as scholar Catherine Belsey puts it: "the structuralist danger of collapsing all difference."[12] An example of such a reading might be if a student concludes the authors of West Side Story did not write anything "really" new, because their work has the same structure as Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. In both texts a girl and a boy fall in love (a "formula" with a symbolic operator between them would be "Boy + Girl") despite the fact that they belong to two groups that hate each other ("Boy's Group - Girl's Group" or "Opposing forces") and conflict is resolved by their death. Structuralist readings focus on how the structures of the single text resolve inherent narrative tensions. If a structuralist reading focuses on multiple texts, there must be some way in which those texts unify themselves into a coherent system. The versatility of structuralism is such that a literary critic could make the same claim about a story of two friendly families ("Boy's Family + Girl's Family") that arrange a marriage between their children despite the fact that the children hate each other ("Boy - Girl") and then the children commit suicide to escape the arranged marriage; the justification is that the second story's structure is an 'inversion' of the first story's structure: the relationship between the values of love and the two pairs of parties involved have been reversed.
Structuralistic literary criticism argues that the "literary banter of a text" can lie only in new structure, rather than in the specifics of character development and voice in which that structure is expressed. Literary structuralism often follows the lead of Vladimir Propp, Algirdas Julien Greimas, and Claude Lévi-Strauss in seeking out basic deep elements in stories, myths, and more recently, anecdotes, which are combined in various ways to produce the many versions of the ur-story or ur-myth.
There is considerable similarity between structural literary theory and Northrop Frye's archetypal criticism, which is also indebted to the anthropological study of myths. Some critics have also tried to apply the theory to individual works, but the effort to find unique structures in individual literary works runs counter to the structuralist program and has an affinity with New Criticism.
Reactions to structuralism[link]
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Today structuralism is less popular than approaches such as post-structuralism and deconstruction. Structuralism has often been criticized for being ahistorical and for favoring deterministic structural forces over the ability of people to act. As the political turbulence of the 1960s and 1970s (and particularly the student uprisings of May 1968) began affecting academia, issues of power and political struggle moved to the center of people's attention. The ethnologist Robert Jaulin defined another ethnological method which clearly pitted itself against structuralism.
In the 1980s, deconstruction and its emphasis on the fundamental ambiguity of language rather than its crystalline logical structure—became popular. By the end of the century structuralism was seen as an historically important school of thought, but the movements that it spawned, rather than structuralism itself, commanded attention.
Some observers have strongly criticized structuralism or even dismissed it in toto. Anthropologist Adam Kuper[13] argued that "'Structuralism' came to have something of the momentum of a millennial movement and some of its adherents felt that they formed a secret society of the seeing in a world of the blind. Conversion was not just a matter of accepting a new paradigm. It was, almost, a question of salvation."
Bibliography[link]
- Qu'est ce que le structuralisme ?, Gilles Deleuze, in Histoire de la philosophie, directed by François Châtelet
- Writings in General Linguistics, Ferdinand de Saussure
- Essais de linguistique générale, Roman Jakobson
- The Elementary Structures of Kinship, Claude Lévi-Strauss
- Structural Anthropology, Claude Lévi-Strauss
- Mythologiques, Claude Lévi-Strauss
- Writings, Jacques Lacan
- Reading Capital, Althusser
- S/Z, Roland Barthes
- The order of things, Michel Foucault
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c Blackburn, Simon (2008). Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, second edition revised. Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0
- ^ a b c Deleuze, Gilles. 2002. "How Do We Recognise Structuralism?" In Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974. Trans. David Lapoujade. Ed. Michael Taormina. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents ser. Los Angeles and New York: Semiotext(e), 2004. 170-192. ISBN 1-58435-018-0. p.170.
- ^ John Sturrock, Structuralism and Since, Introduction.
- ^ Searle, John R (1983). Word Turned Upside Down. New York Review of Books, Volume 30, Number 16.
- ^ Jean Piaget, Le structuralisme, ed. PUF, 1968
- ^ Deleuze, Gilles. 2002. "How Do We Recognise Structuralism?" In Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974. Trans. David Lapoujade. Ed. Michael Taormina. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents ser. Los Angeles and New York: Semiotext(e), 2004. 170-192. ISBN 1-58435-018-0. p.171-173.
- ^ Assiter, A 1984, 'Althusser and structuralism', The British journal of sociology, vol. 35, no. 2, Blackwell Publishing, pp.272-296.
- ^ Roy Suryo and Talbot Roosevelt, Landmarks in Linguistic Thought, 1st ed. [1989], pp.178–179.
- ^ Holland, Norman N. (1992) The Critical I, Columbia University Press, ISBN ISBN 0-231-07650-9, p. 140.
- ^ Barry, P 2002, 'Structuralism', Beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory, Manchester University Press, Manchester, pp. 39-60.
- ^ Selden, Raman / Widdowson, Peter / Brooker, Peter: A Reader's Guide to Contemporary Literary Theory Fifth Edition. Harlow: 2005. Page 76
- ^ Belsey, Catherine. "Literature, History, Politics". Literature and History 9 (1983): 17-27.
- ^ Kuper, Adam. (1973) Anthropologists and Anthropology: The British School 1922–72, Penguin, p. 206.
Further reading[link]
- Elisabeth Roudinesco, Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida, Columbia University Press, New York, 2008.
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| The Clean | |
|---|---|
| Origin | Dunedin, New Zealand |
| Years active | 1978–present |
| Labels | Flying Nun Records, Merge Records |
| Members | |
| Hamish Kilgour David Kilgour Robert Scott |
|
| Past members | |
| Peter Gutteridge Doug Hood |
|
The Clean are an influential indie rock band that formed in Dunedin, New Zealand in 1978, and have been described as the most influential band to come from the Flying Nun label, whose repertoire included many major proponents of the "Dunedin Sound".[1] Led through a number of early rotating line-ups by brothers Hamish and David Kilgour, the band settled down to their well-known and current line-up with bassist Robert Scott. Early incarnations of The Clean included Peter Gutteridge on bass (who wrote "Point That Thing") and Doug Hood on vocals (who later worked with Toy Love and founded the "Looney Tours" touring company). The Clean forged a distinctive and quirky sound that relied heavily on organ melodies and simple, Ramones-style chord progressions.
Contents |
History[link]
The band's auspicious 1981 debut single "Tally Ho!" was the second release on Roger Shepherd's Flying Nun label. Featuring a chugging rhythm and instantly memorable descending farfisa line played by Martin Phillipps of The Chills, "Tally Ho!" reached number 19 on the New Zealand Singles Charts, giving the fledgling label its first hit. Tally Ho was recorded for $50. A follow-up track on the band's Great Sounds Great EP titled "Beatnik" also achieved success, as did their second single, "Getting Older".
The Flying Nun label went on to become New Zealand's biggest independent record company, championing the Dunedin Sound, a loosely-connected style of music largely produced by bands from the southern city. Other artists on the label included The Chills, The Verlaines, The Bats, and Sneaky Feelings. The line-ups of these bands were often interrelated, with Peter Gutteridge being a founding member of The Chills, David Kilgour briefly in The Chills off-shoot band Time Flies, and Robert Scott being the founder of The Bats.
During much of the 1980s, The Clean disbanded, and during this time the Kilgour brothers worked together on an experimental album and EP using the deliberately punning titles "The Great Unwashed" and "Clean Out of Our Minds". Reforming in the late 1980s, the band explored a slightly poppier vein of music while still retaining their experimental edge.
Although they released several chart-topping singles in their native country, The Clean are a little-known cult band outside of New Zealand, although their influence is surprisingly far-reaching. They became a staple of college radio in the 1980s, Stephen Malkmus of Pavement cites them as a major influence, and the band's droney 80s output is a direct forerunner of bands such as Yo La Tengo and Camper Van Beethoven.
The Clean continue to produce music, with Flying Nun recently issuing a comprehensive collection of their previously hard-to-find singles. Output from the band has been sporadic over the years, with members involved in other projects and Hamish Kilgour living in New York. Other projects involving members of the band include The Bats and The Magick Heads (Scott), Stephen, The Heavy Eights (David Kilgour), and The Mad Scene (Hamish Kilgour).
In early 2007, The Clean toured New Zealand on their "Bangers and Mash" tour, during which they celebrated Hamish Kilgour's 50th birthday while playing at "The Studio" in Auckland on Saturday 17 March 2007. Later that same year, the band's best-known incarnation (Kilgour/Scott/Kilgour) reunited for a short East Coast tour of the USA. The tour began in Manhattan, NYC with four shows: an in-store performance at Other Music and a three night stand at the Cake Shop on the Lower East Side. Although the tour officially concluded with a performance at Johnny Brenda's in Philadelphia, the following week the band played an extra show at Maxwell's in Hoboken, NJ, opening for Yo la Tengo at one of the group's annual Hannukah concerts.
In June 2008 a live album recorded during the 2007 New Zealand tour was released in New Zealand on Arch Hill Records, entitled "Mashed". A new studio album, titled Mister Pop was released on 7 September 2009 on Arch Hill, and on 8 September in the United States on the Merge label.
The Clean announced their first European dates in more than 20 years, supporting the cult U.S band Pavement at Brixton Academy on 10 May 2010. They also played at Butlins Minehead on 14 May. Other dates on the tour included Amsterdam (22 May), Hamburg (23 May), Berlin (25 May) and Barcelona's Primavera Sound festival (29 May).
Discography[link]
Main article: The Clean discography
Filmography[link]
- 1999: Scarfies, in which they are seen performing the song Tally Ho! in a performance at the Empire Tavern, Dunedin (the line-up for this performance was David Kilgour, Robert Scott, Robbie Yates, and Thomas Bell).
References[link]
- ^ ed. Cargill, Angus (2008). Hang the DJ: An Alternative Book of Music Lists. London: Faber and Faber. p. 138. ISBN 978-0-571-24172-9.
External links[link]
- The Clean and David Kilgour discography
- MySpace page
- Interview at Acetone Magazine
- The Clean on Flying Nun Records
- The Clean on Film Archive
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This article is about the clothing manufacturer. For the anthropologist, see Claude Lévi-Strauss.
| Levi Strauss | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | Löb Strauß February 26, 1829 Buttenheim, Bavaria, German Confederation |
| Died | September 26, 1902(1902-09-26) (aged 73) San Francisco, California, U.S. |
| Known for | Founded the first company to manufacture blue jeans, known as Levi Strauss & Co. |
Levi Strauss (
/ˌliːvaɪ ˈstrɔːs/, born Löb Strauß, German pronunciation: [løːb ˈʃtʁaʊs]; February 26, 1829 – September 26, 1902) was a German-born American businessman who founded the first company to manufacture blue jeans. His firm, Levi Strauss & Co., began in 1853 in San Francisco, California.[1]
Contents |
Origins[link]
Levi Strauss was born in Buttenheim, in the Franconian region of Bavaria, Germany, to an Ashkenazi Jewish family.[2] He was the son of Hirsch Strauss and his wife Rebecca (Haass) Strauss. At the age of 18, Strauss, his mother and two sisters sailed for the United States to join his brothers Jonas and Louis, who had begun a wholesale dry goods business in New York City called J. Strauss Brother & Co.[3]
Business career[link]
The family decided to open a West Coast branch of the family dry goods business in San Francisco, which was the commercial hub of the California Gold Rush. Levi was chosen to represent the family, and after becoming an American citizen in January 1853, he then caught another steamship for San Francisco, arriving in early March 1853.
Strauss opened his dry goods wholesale business as Levi Strauss & Co. and imported fine dry goods—clothing, bedding, combs, purses, handkerchiefs—from his brothers in New York. He sold the goods to the small general stores and men's mercantiles of California and the West. Around 1856 Levi's sister Franny, her husband David Stern and their infant son Jacob moved from New York to San Francisco to join the business.
Levi's Jeans[link]
In late 1872 Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor, started making men's work pants with metal points of strain for greater strength. He wanted to patent the process but needed a business helper, so he turned to Levi Strauss, from whom he purchased some of his fabric.[4] On May 20, 1873, Strauss and Davis received United States patent[5] for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants. Levi Strauss & Co. began manufacturing the famous Levi's brand of jeans, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire.
The "Arcuate", the double arch stitching on the back pocket, is a Levi's trademark, which the company has repeatedly defended in court. During World War II it was deemed by the US Government to be decorative only, and prohibited from being stitched into the pockets because items needed for the war effort, including thread, were being rationed. Rather than lose its trademark, the company had the Arcuate hand-painted onto the pockets.[6]
Death[link]
Levi Strauss died on September 26, 1902 in San Francisco at the age of 73. He never married, so he left the business to his four nephews, Jacob, Sigmund, Louis, and Abraham Stern, the sons of his sister Fanny and her husband David Stern. He also left bequests to a number of charities such as the Pacific Hebrew Orphan Asylum and the Roman Catholic Orphan Asylum. Levi's fortune was estimated to be around 6 million dollars.[7] He was buried in Colma, California.
Legacy[link]
A Levi Strauss museum is maintained in Buttenheim, Germany, located in the 1687 house where Strauss was born. There is also a Visitors Center at Levi Strauss & Co. world headquarters in San Francisco, which features a number of historical exhibits.
References[link]
- ^ Downey, Lynn (2008). "Levi Strauss: a short biography". Levi Strauss & Co.. http://www.levistrauss.com/sites/default/files/librarydocument/2010/4/History_Levi_Strauss_Biography.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
- ^ Dinkelspiel, Frances (2010). Towers of Gold: How One Jewish Immigrant Named Isaias Hellman Created California. St. Martin's Press. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-312-35527-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=yc_xK2K_PeMC&pg=PA145&dq=Levi+Strauss+birthplace. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
- ^ Carey, Charles W. (2002). American inventors, entrepreneurs and business visionaries. Facts on File. pp. 331–332. ISBN 978-0-8160-4559-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=XKiGgl36bkgC&pg=PA331&dq=Levi+Strauss+birthplace++Buttenheim. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
- ^ Transcript, Levi Strauss vs. H.B. Elfelt, District of California Circuit Court of the United States Ninth Judicial Circuit, 1874. National Archives, Pacific Sierra Region.
- ^ US 139121, Davis, Jacob & Levi Strauss, "Improvement in fastening pocket-openings", published 9 August 1892, issued 20 May 1873
- ^ Downey, Lynn (2007). Levi Strauss & Co.. Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishers. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-7385-5553-9. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8iAjxdfLDgsC&pg=PA70&dq=decorative+arcuate+levis. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
- ^ Associated Press (28 September 1902). "Levi Strauss Dead". Los Angeles Times. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/327612322.html?dids=327612322:327612322&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&type=historic&date=Sep+28%2C+1902&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=LEVI+STRAUSS+DEAD+AT+SAN+FRANCISCO.&pqatl=google. Retrieved 1 May 2012. "Levi Strauss, one of the last of the oldtime merchants of San Francisco. and one of the best-known men from the most southerly limit of California to Puget Sound."
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Levi Strauss |
- Levi Strauss & Company
- Biography of Levi Strauss from the Official Levi Strauss Site.
- Levi Strauss at Findagrave
- Levi's
- Levi's India
- Levi Strauss Museum in Buttenheim, Germany (German)
- Levi Strauss designer profile at Fashion Model Directory
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Strauss, Levi |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | February 26, 1829 |
| Place of birth | Buttenheim, Bavaria, German Confederation |
| Date of death | September 26, 1902 |
| Place of death | San Francisco, California, United States |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
