For the mythological stories about
Kerala, see
Kerala Kingdom, for the district of Kuala Lumpur, see
Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, for the town in Spain, see
Chera, Valencia, for the town in Selangor, see
Cheras, Selangor.
Chera dynasty (Tamil: சேரர்), ruling from before the Sangam Age (3rd century BC to 3rd century AD) until the 12th century AD, is one of the most ancient ruling dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas, they formed the three principal warring Iron Age Tamil kingdoms in India in the early centuries of the Christian Era.
During the time of Mauryas in northern India (c. 4th-3rd century BC) the Cheras (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) were in a late megalithic phase on the western coast of ancient Tamil land. The cultural exchange with the northern India and the flourishing trade with the Roman Empire later contributed to the state formation. The Cheras probably expanded their kingdom from Kuttanad region (central Kerala) to northward (Kudanad, Puzhinadu) and eastward (Kongunad).
The Cheras were in continues conflict with neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. Some Chera rules are said to have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally states. They also made battles with the Kadambas of Banavasi and the "Yavanas" (Romans) on the Indian coast.
The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line of Chera rulers. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the court poets who extolled them. The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan, Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, Narmudi Cheral, Selva Kadumko Valiathan, Senguttuvan Chera, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Illam Cheral Irumporai are some of the rulers referred in the Sangam poems.
Senguttuvan Chera (the Red/Good Chera), the most celebrated and powerful Chera king is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, the heroine of the legendary Tamil epic Silapathikaram. Under him, the Chera kingdom stretched ruled from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai on the western coast. Senguttuvan Chera established his cousin securely on the Chola throne and defeated the Kadambas, "Yavanas" and the Kongu rulers. He is mentioned in the context of King Gajabahu’s rule in Sri Lanka, which can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century AD.[1]
After second century AD, the Chera power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with the Romans.[2] The domination of first Chera dynasty lasted till circa 5th century AD[3]
The reign of the Cheras was interrupted by the Kalabhra Interregnum. The Later Cheras ruled from the 9th century. Little is known about the Cheras between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulasekharas ruled from a city on the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur).[4] Though never, regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerous wars with their powerful neighbors and diminished to history in 12th century as a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.
The early Cheras ruled parts of Kerala (Malabar) State, Kongu Nadu, Salem and Dharmapuri from time immemorial. The dynasty probably added the Southern Nagapattanam and Thiruvarur districts to their kingdom later. There were two important lines of Chera Kings (Vanavaramban and Irumporai clans) and the kings belonging to these two lines ruled the Chera kingdom. The first one started from King Uthiyan Cheralathan and the second from Prince Antuvan Cheral Irumporai.[5]
The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the Romans. The geographical advantages, like the abundance of black pepper and other spices, the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the Arabian sea and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing ships directly from the Arabian coast to Chera Kingdom in less than forty days, combined to produce a veritable boom in Cheras's foreign trade. Muziris, the famous sea port with two Roman regiments,[2] was in the Chera kingdom and throughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to their kingdom, with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to the Middle East and to southern Europe. It is said that the Romans built a temple of Augustus at Muziris. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from ancient times can be seen throughout the Malabar coast, Karur and Coimbtore districts. Although weakened by wars with the Cholas and Pandyas, the Chera state very much profited from their natural resources and foreign trade.[2]
Their ancient capitals were Kuzhumur, Vanchi,[3] Karur and Tondi. The Second Cheras ruled from Mahodayapuram and Quilon. During the time of Cheras, Jewish, Christian, and Muslim immigrants established Nasrani Mappila, Juda Mappila and Muslim Mappila communities.
The word Chera meaning "hill country" is derived from Cheral, meaning "declivity or mountain slope" in Classical Tamil.[6] The Chera Kings were called Chera-alatan ("Lord of the Hills/Slopes").[7] The word "Kerala" was derived from "Cheralam", another variation. Sangam Literature never uses the name "Kerala" but Asoka's edicts mention his tributary dynasty known by the name Kedalaputho ("Keralaputra") who were outside Asoka's empire in 261 BC. Kharavela, the Kalinga king who ruled during the 2nd century BCE, in his Hathigumpha inscription, claims to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states which had lasted 132 years.[8]
The only literary sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are the anthologies of Sangam literature, now generally agreed to created in the first few centuries AD.[9] Sangam literature is full of names of kings and princes, along with the poets who extolled them but these are not worked into connected history so far and the chronology is not settled.
Pathirruppaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers of the Chera dynasty. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by the Court Poet and they are in the following order:
- Unknown ruler -
- (King) Nedum Cheralathan - Kumatturk Kannanar
- (Prince) Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan -Palaik Kantamanar
- (Prince) Narmudi Cheral - Kappiyarruk Kappiyanar
- (King) Senguttuvan Chera - Paranar
- (Prince) Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan - Kakkaipatiniyar Nacellaiyar
- (King) Selva Kadumko Valiathan - Kapilar
- (Prince) Perum Cheral Irumporai - Aricil Kilar
- (King) Ilam Cheral Irumporai - Perunkunrurk Kilar
- Unknown ruler
Only few of these ascended the throne, the others being "yuvarajas" ("princes") only.
Archaeology has found epigraphic evidence of the early Cheras in the recorded history of South India:[10] some inscriptions trace the dynasty even from the mythical Puranic kings of the Lunar dynasty. Two identical inscriptions at Pugalur dated to 2nd century describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai clan. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of the Crown Prince Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo, and the grandson of Athan Cheral Irumporai (perhaps Selva Kadumko Valiathan). Inscriptions found at Edakkal caves, Wynad also describes the Cheras as "kadummipudha chera".
The earliest extant Tamil literary works, such as Kalittokai, mention a legendary and supposedly submerged continent called Kumari Kandam, which was believed to have been located to the south of the present-day Kanyakumari tens of thousands of years ago, between the then Kumari and Pahrali Rivers. Pandya kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras, supposedly ruled this country. Sangam literature further says that they fought and defeated the Nāga tribes. Kalittokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of Villavars and the Meenavars (perhaps the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), and the Nāgas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war. The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas are the three ruling dynasties of the southern region (Bharatavarsha) in the Hindu epic Ramayana.[11][12] They are also mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka, and Mahabharata, where they take the sides with the Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War.[3][13][14][15]
- The Greek Ambassador Megasthenes (4th century BC) as "Charmae". He says that the force of the rulers of the Charmae is highly depended on their 60 war elephants. Megasthenes also describes the state of the "Pandae" with 500 war elephants.
- Pliny the Elder (1st century AD) as "Calobotras (Caelobothras)".[16]
- Author of Perplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century AD) as "Keprobotras (Cerobothra)". He describes the two important ports in the kingdom, Muziris and Tyndis.
The Aranttar Malai iscription at Pugalur, Tamil Nadu assigned by historians to the 1st century AD mentions three generations of Chera kings whose names are in the Tamil Sangam poems. The trade with Greeks and Romans ("Yavanas") are corroborated by accounts of Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy and the author of Periplus. These foreign sources were written around the early centuries of the Christian era.
In the Silappatikaram, there is reference to a certain Kayavaku, the king of Ilankai (Sri Lanka). He is said to have visited Vanchi during the reign of the Chera king Senguttuvan. Kayavaku here, despite some disagreement has been conjectured to mean Gajabahu. The Pali historical poem Mahavamsa places King Gajabahu in the latter half of the second century AD. This, in turn, has been used to imply that Senguttuvan, who, according to the Pathirruppaththu ruled for 55 years may also be dated to 2nd century AD. This Gajabahu synchronism often serves as a "sheet anchor" of Sangam chronology.
Family tree of the kings of the Chera dynasty based on Sangam literature. The monarchs ruled in the first two centuries of the Christian era.
South India in BC 300, showing the Chera, Pandya and Chola tribes
The Chera, Chola and Pandya were the three ancient Tamil rulers of southern India (called "Tamilakam"). Chera Kingdom means the "Hill Country", Pandya Kingdom means the "Old Country" and Chola Kingdom means the "New Country". The Cheras ruled western Malabar Coast, the Cholas ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the Pandyas in the south-central peninsula. There were also numerous small vassal kingdoms and city-states called "Vels".
The revolutionary change from pre-historic age to historic age in southern India as a whole started from c. third-second century BC. Up to this period, the upland portions of southern India were inhabited by people known as "megalith builders".[2] These people are identified at present with reference to their burial practices. It is clear from the grave relics that the megalithic builders had long emerged out of the Stone Age into the Iron Age without passing through a Bronze Age. In fact, there is very little evidence of the Old and the New Stone Ages in the region.[17]
Along with the Pandyas, Cholas and Satyaputras, Cheras ("Keralaputras") in the late megalithic phase are also mentioned in the inscriptions of third century BC Maurya Emperor Asoka. These tribes were just emerging from the tribal status of civilization. According Asoka inscriptions, the Cheras lived on the borders of the Maurya empire. Later in the third century BC, the megalith people moved from uplands into fertile river basins and delta-ic ares.[2]
It seems that an important stimulus to state formation in southern India came from the Maurya empire in the north.[2] It is quite possible that the Maurya army who reached the Mysore borders in their conquest southwards, encountered the megalith making tribes who lived in hill forts and controlled the surrounding countryside. Under the contact the with the material culture brought from northern India by traders, kings and the Jaina, Budhhist and Brahmana missionaries, the people of southern India came to practice wet paddy cultivation, and founded a number of cities and villages. The southern kingdoms such as that of the Cheras would not have been developed without the rapid spread of iron technology. The famous route to the south, known as "the Dakshina Patha", became extremely important from the fourth century BC. The cultural exchange with the north and the flourishing trade with the Roman empire also contributed to the state formation.[2]
In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Chera Kingdom was as important as the kingdom of the Pandyas and the Cholas. The following is a general description based mainly on Pathirruppaththu and other Sangam works.
The Chera ruler is said to have killed the Chola ruler Ilamcetcenni in a battle. But, the Chera king also lost his life in the battle. Later the Cheras and Cholas temporarily became friends and concluded a matrimonial alliance between them.
Image of a Chera ruler created from a silver coin acquired by R. Krishnamurthy. The coin has a diameter of 1.6 cm and weighs 1.8 gm.
The first of the known rulers of the Chera kingdom was "Vanavaramban" Perumchottu Uthiyan Cheralathan. He had his capital at a place called Kuzhumur in Kuttanad. He expanded the kingdom northward and eastward from their original home in Kuttanad. Uthiyan Cheralathan was a contemporary of the Chola ruler Karikala Chola. Mamulanar credits him with having conducted a feast in honour of his ancestors. In a battle at Venni, Uthiyan Cheralathan was wounded on the back by Karikala Chola (Pattinappalai ). Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by starvation.[5] His queen was Veliyan Nallini.
It is said that he fed the rival armies during the Kurukshetra war.
Uthiyan Cheralathan was succeeded by his son "Imayavaramban" "Kudakko" Nedum Cheralathan. He ruled for 58 years as a Crown Prince first and as an absolute king later. Nedum Cheralathan probably consolidated the Chera kingdom, and literature and art developed highly during his period. Nedum Cheralathan is praised in the Second Ten of Pathirruppaththu composed by his court poet Kannanar. Nedum Cheralathan, famous for his hospitality, even gifted a part of Umbarkkattu (Anamalai) to Kannanar.[5]
The title "Kudakko" (King of Kudanad) proves that the Cheras had by this time brought Kudanad under their sway. During the reing of Nedum Cheralathan five junior princes helped the him in the military expansions and conquests. They were Antuvan Cheral, Palayanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, Selva Kadumko Valiatan, Narmudi Cheral and Vel Kelu Kuttuvan. The greatest enemies of Nedum Cheralathan were Kadambas of Banavasi. He also won another victory over the "Yavanas" on the coast. The chief of the Yavanas was captured and paraded in public with hands pinioned to his back and head poured over with ghee. Later,this Yavana was released on ransom. Mamulanar refers to a sea coast township called "Mantai" and the exhibition ornaments and diamonds captured by Nedum Cheralathan there.[5]
Nedum Cheralathan was killed in a battle with a Chola ruler. But, the Chola ruler was also killed in the battle by a spear thrown at him by Nedum Cheralathan.[5]
Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan is claimed to have even conquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his royal emblem on the face of the mountains.
"Puzhiyarkon" Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, a brother of Nedum Cheralathan, spent 25 years as Crown Prince and never became a king. He helped his brother in the conquests of northern Malabar. At least a part of northern Malabar came under the Chera rule in this period as is proven by the title "Puzhiyarkon". He later led the army and conquered Kongunad (Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan is also called "Karuvureriya Olavalko Perum Cheral Irumporai", Kongunad had earlier conquered by Ay Antiran with capital at Vanchi on the banks of Periyar). In the later years of his life, Palyani retired from military life and spent time in arts, letters, gifts and helping Brahmins.[5]
"Kalangaikkani" Narmudi Cheral (son of Nedum Cheralthan; never became the king, was a Crown Prince under his father for 25 years) is praised in the 4th set, written by Kappiyanar. He, famous for his genoricity over the defeated, won a series of victories of the enemies. After an attack by Nannan of Ezhimalai on Punnadu (in Kodagu), the Chera army under Narmudi Cheral marched against the Mushika forces. In following battle of Pazhi, Narmudi Cheral was defeated. However in the battle of Vakai-perum-turai Narmudi Cheral defeated and killed Nannan, annexing Puzhinad.[5]
Son of Anthuvan Cheral and the hero of the 7th set of poems composed by Kapilar, Selva Kadumko ruled Chera kingdom for 25 years. His residence was at the city of Tondi. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheralathan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas. He is sometimes identified the Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur.[5]
Main article:
SenguttuvanVel Kelu Kuttuvan, son of Nedum Cheralathan, ascended the Chera throne after the death of his father. Vel Kelu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary Kadal Pirakottiya "Senguttuvan Chera"- the most illustrious ruler of the early Cheras of the Sangam Age. This warrior king is said to have ruled for 55 years, defeating many chieftains. Under his reign, the Chera kingdom extended from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. The queen of Senguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). The son of Senguttuvan Chera was Kuttuvan Cheral. It is not clear whether Prince Kuttuvan Chera ascended the throne or not. During Senguttuvan Chera's reign, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Ilam Cheral and Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan helped him in his expansions as Crown Princes or Junior Princes.[5]
In his early years of rule, Senguttuvan successfully intervened in a civil war in the Chola Kingdom. The civil war was among the Chola princes and the Cheras stood on the side of their relative Killi. The rivals of Prince Killi were defeated in a battle at Neriyavil, Uraiyur and he established firmly on the Chola throne.
The land and naval expedition against the Kadambas was also successful. The Kadambas had the support of the "Yavanas", they were routed in the Battle of Idumbil and Valyur. The Fort Kodukur in the which the Kadamba army took shelter was stormed and the Kadambas was beaten. In the following naval expedition the Yavana supported Kadamba army was crushed. He is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan.
Ilango Adigal (probably the brother of Senguttuvan Chera) wrote the legendary Tamil epic Silappatikaram sitting at a Jain monastery at Kunavayilkottam (Trikkanamathilakam) near Vanchi. Silapathikararam describes Senguttuvan Chera's decision to propitiate a temple (Virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini (Kannagi) at Vanchi. According the Silappadikaram, an astrologer appeared in the court of King Nedum Cheralathan and predicted that Ilango, the younger son of the king, would become the ruler. The prediction displeases Prince Senguttuvan. In order to respect the sentiments of his elder brother, Illango abdicated all his claims to the throne and took to the life of a Jain ascetic.
Senguttuvan Chera was perhaps a contemporary King Gajabahu of Sri Lanka. King Gajabahu, according to the Sangam poems, visited the Chera country during the Pattini festival at Vanchi.[18] He is mentioned in the context of King Gajabahu’s rule in Sri Lanka, which can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century AD, depending on whether he was the earlier or the later Gajabahu.[1]
Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan was a Crown Prince for a long 38 years. Trade and commerce flourished in the Chera kingdom during his rule. He is said to have gifted some villages to Brahmins in Kuttanad.[5]
"Tagadur Erinta" Perum Cheral Irumporai (son of Selva Kadumko, Crown Prince under Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur. He destroyed the famous city of Tagadur which was ruled by the a powerful ruler Adigaman Ezhni. He is also called as "the lord of Puzhinad and Kollimala" and "the lord of Puhar". Puhar was in fact the Chola capital. Perum Cheral Irumporai also annexed the territories of a minor chief called Kaluval.[5]
Illam Cheral Irumporai (son of Perum Cheral Irumporai, probably succeeded Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He also defeated the Pandyas and the Cholas and brought immense wealth to his capital at a city called Vanchi. He is said to have distributed these treasures among the Pana poets.[5]
King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai preserved the territorial integreaty of the Chera Kingdom under his rule. But, by the time of Mantaran Cheral the decline of the kingdom had began. The Chera ruled from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle a place called Vilamkil.[5]
The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian captured Mantaran Cheral as a prisoner. But, the Chera was managed to escape and regain the lost kingdom.[5]
Chera Kingdom in the Sangam Period
Kanaikkal Irumporai said to have defeated a local chief called Muvan. The Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of his prisoner and planted them on the gates of the city of Tondi. The later Kanaikkal Irumporai was captured by the Chola ruler Sengannan (Kalavali by Poygayar) and he later committed suicide by starvation.[5]
Monarchy was the most important political institution of the Chera kingdom. There was a high degree of pomp and pageantry associated with the person of the king. The King wore a gold crown studded with precious stones. The king was an autocrat, but his powers limited by a counsel of ministers and scholars. The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of the common men and to redress them on spot.[19]
The Royal Queen had a very important and privileged status and she took her seat by the side of the king in all religious ceremonies.[19]
Another important institution was the "manram" which functioned in each village of the Chera kingdom. Its meeting were usually held by the village elders under a banyan tree and they helped in the local settlement disputes. The manrams were the venues for the village festivals as well.[19]
In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the members of the royal family set up residence at several places of the kingdom (at Vanchi, Karur and Tondi). They followed the collateral system of succession according to which the eldest member of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling king in the administration.[20]
The Chera rulers engaged in frequent intermarriage as well as warfare with the Pandyas and Cholas for decades. In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan, Irumporai, Kollipurai or Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai or Makothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called "Cheraman" in general.
King Uthiyan Cheralathan and his sons grandsons belonged to one branch of the Chera royal family called "Vanavaramban line". Prince Antuvan Cheral and his sons grandsons belonged to to another branch called "Irumporai line". The prince Antuvan Cheral mentioned below is the father of King Selva Kadungo. He is some times identified with Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan (younger brother of King Uthiyan Cheralathan) as is evidenced by Madamisyar in Purananuru. Antuvan Cheral had his seat at a city called Karur. The Ay ruler Ay Antiran was an elder contemporary of Antuvan Cheral. The Ays were probably more powerful than the Cheras during the time of Ay Antiran. Antuvan Cheral and three others in his line are regarded as contemporaries of Nedum Cheralathan and his sons. It is important to note that King Selva Kadumko Valiathan and King Nedum Cheralathan married two sisters.[5]
Apart from these two clans, are also some other Chera rulers who figure in Sangam works. These rulers did not belonged to the main Chera line. One of the most important of them is Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai. Probably, he is the son and successor of King Illam Cheral Irumporai and the hero of the lost 10th decade. Another Chera ruler Kanaikkal Irumporai is also referred in the Sangam poems. "Palai Paitiya" Perum Kadungo was a Chera ruler based on the city of Vanchi. Kothai Marpan with capital at Tondi also figure in the Sangam literature.[5]
The traditional Chera Kingdom was generally divided into five divisions on the basis of topography.
- Puzhinadu- former Ezhil Malai kingdom (the sandy land)
- Kudanadu (the western land)
- Karkainadu (the impregnable rocky land, east of Kudanad)
- Kuddanadu/Kuttanadu (the land of lakes)
- Velnadu
The main ports in the Chera Kingdom were,
Tondi on the banks of Makkali river, south of the Lueke Island, Bramagara, Kalaikkarias, Muziris on the banks of Chulli/Psuedostomos river, Podoperoura, Semne, Koreoura/Kothora, and Bakarei at the mouth of river Baris.
In land cities between Tondi and Muziris were,
Naroulla, Kouba, and Paloura.
In land cities between Psuedostomos and Baris were,
Pasage, Mastanour, Kourellour, Pounnata, Aloe, Karoura, Arembour Bideris/Videris, Pantipolis, Adarima Koreour.
The Cheras had a well-equipped army which consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephants and chariots. There was also an efficient navy. The Chera soldiers made offering to the War Godess Kottavai before any military operation. It was tradition that the Chera rulers emerged victorious in a battle to wear the anklets made out of the crowns of the defeated rulers.[19]
They were in contact with the Satavahanas in the north and with the Romans and Greeks. Throughout the era trade continued to bring prosperity to the area with spices, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia. Evidence of extensive foreign trade from the ancient period is available throughout the Malabar Coast, from the Greek, Roman and Arabic coins unearthed from Kollam, Kodungallur, Eyyal (near Thrissur) etc in Kerala. Sangam Chera coins are found in Pattanam, near Kodungallur in Kerala, Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore regions of modern-day Tamil Nadu. These foreigners were called Yavana in the ancient times. Trade flourished overseas and there was a considerable exchange of gold and coins, as seen by archaeological evidence and literature. The Romans brought vast amounts of gold in exchange of 'Kari' (Pepper) from Malainadu.[21] Muziris has been referred to by the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea as an inland port probably near Kodungallur.
Roman ships reached the Chera kingdom through two ways. First through the ports of northwest India from Indus to the Tamil lands and the second directly from the Gulf of Aden to southern India. Most of the Chera ports had begun as large fishing villages where territorial product could be collected and exchanged. Then these villages became more urbanized and commercial as a response to growing trade contacts.[22]
The Chera trading stations of Naura and Tyndis began as busy fishing villages, but later large number of sea pirates began to operate in the region. These pirates became on the "Pirate coast" a major threat to the Roman shipping and Roman merchants began to head directly for the more southerly ports of Muziris and Nelcynda. Hundred of Romans must have spent months in the Chera kingdom awaiting favorable conditions for returning to Europe. And some Roman officials remained in the Chera ports throughout the year to make arrangements on behalf of sailors arrived seasonally. These Roman agents conducted trade dealing with the Tamils and used facilities like the Temple. According to Periplus, special consignments of grain were sent to places like Muziris. This was probably to support the resident Romans who needed something to supplement the local diet of rice.[22]
Greeks and Romans were obligated to perform some religious observances before conducting major sea voyages. This explains the "Augustan Temple" at Muziris by Peutinger Table. Roman gold was used as an exchange item to acquire black pepper. Roman ships did not sail further east in this period. Consequently, the Chera ports became more significant.[22]
Black Pepper is known as "Kari" in Tamil literature
The Periplus says about short black eels with dragon-shaped heads coming out of the Chera coast as the Roman ships neared India.[22]
Muziris was the main trade port of the Chera kingdom. It was not possible to deep-hulled ships to reach Muziris (the port was situated upriver). The Romans were forced to wait at the edge of the lagoon while their cargoes were transferred upstream on smaller crafts. Muziris was a large settlement owed its prosperity to shipping from the Roman empire and northern India. Black pepper from the inland hills was brought to Muziris by local producers and stacked in warehouses to await the arrival of Roman merchants.[22]
By the time of Pliny's writing Muziris too was full of pirates. It was no longer favored by Romans and the strange loading operations were causing problems. The Cheras faced more difficulties as a Pandya prince sacked the port. The Akananuru describes a battle of Muziris between the Cheras and Pandyas, involving war elephants and flag-bearing chariots.[22]
"Riding on his great and superior war elephant the Pandya prince has conquered in the battle. He has seized the "sacred images" after the winning the difficult battle for rich Muziris"[22]
The attacks seems to have succeeded in diverting Roman trade wealth away from the Chera kingdom. The Sangam literature give no information regarding the fate of the Roman temple after the occupation, or what kind of sacred images the Pandyas removed from Muziris.[22]
A number of coins belonging to Chera rulers have been discovered from both Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Silver coins coins with the portrait of a Chera king and legend "Makkotai" written in Tamil-Brahmi script have been found near Karur. There are also coins with legend "Kuttuvan Kotai" and "Kollipurai" along with the Chera symbols of bow and arrow.
The Chera population was not divided into castes and communities. The Varna system had not taken a clear shape. Social exclusiveness and un-approachability were unknown. Communities such as the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya and Veta were held in high esteem by the rulers. These people educated and enjoyed social freedom and equality. Many great poets of the Sangam age were Panas.
Women enjoyed a high status in the Chera realms. They educated and never covered their faces. Auvvaiyar (c. 500 AD) was the most outstanding poet of her age. Child marriage was unknown and widow marriage was permitted.
Most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian practices. The worship of departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera kingdom along with tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The war goddess Kottavai was propitiated with complex sacrifices. The Cheras probably worshiped this mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the present day form of goddess Devi.[23] There is no evidence of snake worship in the Chera realms and till 7th century AD there is no proof of Ganesha worship either. Perhaps the Brahmins came to the Chera Kingdom in the 3rd century BC following the Jains and Budhhists. It was only in the 8th century AD, the Arynisation of the Chera country reached its climax.
A small percentage of the population followed Jainism, Buddhism and Brahmanism. These three philosophies came from northern India to the Chera kingdom. A small Jewish and Saint Thomas Christian population also lived in the Chera territories.
Kalabhras controlled large parts of southern India in the 5th and 6th centuries AD
The fourth and fifth centuries witnessed the decline and fall of the Western Roman Empire. Also in the post-Sangam, the Chera kingdom was invaded by a number of northern powers. A Kadamba record of the 5th century at the Edakkal cave in Wayanad bears testimony to the Kadamba presence in the deep south.[17] Chera Kingdom seems to have affected by the Kalabhra upheaval in the 5th and 6th centuries AD. According to Buddhist works, Kalabhra ruler Achuta Vikkanta kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in his confinement and established control over large portion of southern India. The Kalabhras were defeated around the 6th century with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.
The Chalukyas of Badami must have conducted temporary conquests of Malabar. An inscription of King Pulakesin I claims that he conquered the Chera ruler. A number of other inscriptions mentions their victories over the kings of Chera kingdom and Ezhil Malai rulers. King Pulakesin II (610-642) is also said to have conquered Chera, Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Soon the three rulers made an alliance and marched against the Chalukyas. But the Chalukyas defeated the confederation. King Vinayaditya also subjugated Chera king, and made him pay tribute to the Chalukyas. King Vikramaditya is also said to have defeated the Cheras.
King Simhavishnu and Mahendra Varman are first Pallava rulers to claim sovereignty over the Chera kingdom. Narasimha Varman and the Pandya ruler Sendan (654-670) also won victories over the Cheras. King Nandivarman II of the Pallavas allied with the Cheras in fight against the Pandyas under Varaguna I. Rashtrakutas also claim control over Cheras. King Dantidurga and Govinda III is said to have defeated the Cheras.
The Ay Kingdom, situated south of the Chera kingdom, functioned for long as an effective buffer state between a declining Chera kingdom and an emerging Pandya Kingdom. Later, the Pandyas conquered the Ays and a made it a tributary state. As late as 788 AD, the Pandyas under King Maranjadayan or Jatilavarman Parantaka invaded the Ay kingdom and took the port city of Vizhinjam. But, the Ays does not seem to have submitted the Pandyas and fought against them for almost a century.
The Chera power re-emerged into light c. 9th century AD under King "Alwar" Kulasekhara Varman, who succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in 800 AD. By this the Chera capital was at Tiruvanchikkulam (Mahodayapuram) near present day Kodungallur. The ancient capital of Vanchi had fell into the hands of the Pandyas. He established the "Second Chera Kingdom" from the new capital at Mahodayapuram.[17] But his sovereignty was constrained by the pre-existing power of the Aryan-Brahmin settlements across his kingdom and the hereditary chieftains called "Naduvazhis". The Second Cheras allied with the Cholas against the Pallavas, and with Pandyas against the Cholas between 8-10th century AD. By the last centuries of their rule, Kulasekharas became an active ally of the Pandyas and Lambakannas of Sri Lanka, against the raising Later Chola power. In 805 AD, Rashtrakutas conquered the Later Cheras and during a brief period between 855 and 865 AD Rashtrakutas continually ruled over them.[24]
According to Bishop Cadwell, it was under the Brahmana influence the rulers changed their Dravidian names to Aryan titles in this period. The second ruler Rajasekhara Varma has been identified with famous Saivite saint Cheraman Perumal "Nayanar". By this time, the Cheras had close contacts with the Ays in the south. They helped the Ays to fight the Pandyas. The relations between Cholas and Cheras were very friendly during there decades. Chera ruler Sthanu Ravi Varman even helped the Cholas with an army to fight against the Pallavas. The royal court of Sthanu Ravi Varman was adorned by the famous astronomer Sankaranarayana and there was an observatory at the capital city Mahodayapuram.[5]
The annexation of the Ay kingdom (now a under the Cholas) into the Chera kingdom by King Goda Ravi Varma created tensions between the Cholas and Cheras. The Cheras further provoked the Cholas by granting political asylum the defeated Pandya ruler Maravarman Rajasimha II. Along with the Cheras, the Ays under King Vikramaditya Varaguna (885-925) also seems to have helped the Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas.
During the reign of King Indu Kotha Varma Chola emperor Parantaka Chola invaded and annexed the north-western parts of the Kongunadu. This area was ruled by a relatives of the Cheras called "Kongu Cheras"(in the middle of the 10th century, Kongu region of the Chera Kingdom became an independent entity under the rule of the members of a collateral Chera family called "Kongu Cheras". Kongu Cheras bore the titles and the names of the neighboring Cholas).[25] Immediately, the Chera army joined with Pandyas in their fight against the Cholas.[5]
King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I issued the famous Jewish Copper Plate conferring a Jewish chief. The prolonged Chola-Chera war ("Hundred Years War") began during the era of Bhaskara Ravi Varman. Emperor Raja Raja Chola (985-1016 AD) defeated the Chera armies at multiple locations (such as at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, probably at Quilon, Mahodayapuram-Udagai etc.) in the their kingdom. The Cholas had annexed the whole of southern Travancore south of Kuzhithara from the Cheras by the end of Raja Raja Chola's rule. During the time of Emperor Rajendra Chola, the Chera regained southern Travancore and sent an army to Sri Lanka to help them against the Cholas. But, soon the Cholas sacked Vizhinjam and Kandalur and advanced into Malabar by Palghat pass. In the following battle at Mahodayapuram, King Bhaskara Ravi Varman I along with his numerous generals and chiefs was killed. But, the Cholas failed to bring the whole Chera kingdom under their control. Only regions south of Trivandrum continued under Chola hegemony. Cheras under King Vira Kerala rebelled against the Cholas in 1028 AD. But, Cholas suppressed the uprising and won several victories in campaigns ensued. Vira Kerala was captured and executed, ruler of Venadu and the Mushaka chief of Iramakutam were killed. The prolonged wars had weakened the Chera power considerably. Some chiefs ("Naduvazhis") took advantage of the chaotic opportunity and asserted their independence.[5]
Later, the Cholas established supremacy over vast regions of the Chera kingdom. The Cheras acknowledged the supremacy of the Cholas, but made sustained efforts to to re-establish themselves. Finally, the Cheras reorganized their defences and became completely free of Chola control. The Cheras also helped the Pandyas to recover their territories from the Cholas. The Chola Emperor Kulattunga Chola defeated the Pandyas in retaliation and attacked the Chera kingdom (at Kandalur, Vizhinjam, Quilon, Mahodayapuram). The newly crowned King Rama Varma Kulasekhara faced with an unprecedented and chaotic crisis. He transformed large body of his army to suicide squads (known as "the Chavers") and resisted heroically. After the sacking of Mahodayapuram, he shifted his capital to Quilon. Finally the Cholas were defeated and forced to withdraw to the south. The retreat marked the virtual end of Chola domination in Kerala. Rama Varma Kulasekhara seems to have abdicated the throne in favour of his son Kotha Varma and retired from public life.[5]
- Vazhapalli inscription of Rajasekhara Varman
- An inscription dated to 11th regnal year of Sthanu Ravi from Kudalmanikyam temple.
- Inscriptions of Goda Ravi Varma discovered from various temples such as Avittathur, Tripunithura, Udayamperur, Nedumpuramtali, Chokkur, Triprangode etc.
- Inscriptions of Bhaskara Ravi from Tirunelli, Trikkakkara, Trikodithanam and Perunna. Jewish Copper Plate of 1000 AD.
- Chalappuram temple, Eramam village, North Kerala have a stone inscription dating to 1020 AD. This refers to the Chola invasion under Rajendra Chola and a Mushaka ruler called Kandan Kari Varman.
- Tazhakad church near Iringalakuda contains an inscription dating to the rule of Rajasimha. This inscription refers Iravi Chathan and Chathan Vadukakan.
- Rameswarathukoil inscription (1102 AD)
In the absence of a central power at Mahodayapuram, the divisions of the Later Chera kingdom soon emerged as principalities under separate chieftains. The post-Chera period witnessed a gradual decadence of the Nambudiri-Brahmans and rise of the Nairs.
Venad ruler Kotha Varma (1102–1125) probably conquered Kottar and portions of Nanjanadu from the Pandyas. Under the reign of Vira Ravi Varma the system of government became very efficient, and village assemblies functioned vigorously. Udaya Marthanda Varma's tenure was noted for the close relationship between the Venadu and Pandyas. By the time of Ravi Kerala Varma (1215–1240), Odanadu Kingdom had acknowledged the authority of the Venadu rulers. The next Venadu ruler Padmanabha Marthanda Varma is alleged to have been killed by Vikrama Pandya in 1264 AD.[5]
Probably, the Pandyas led a successful military expedition to Venadu and captured the capital city of Quilon between 1250 to 1300 AD. The records of Jatavarman Sundara Pandya and Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandya testify the establishment of Pandya rule over Venadu.[5]
The death of the celebrated King Jayasimha initiated a civil war in Venadu. Ravi Varma Kulasekhara, the last of the Venadu kings came to throne according to patrilineal system, came out successful in this battles. Ravi Varma ruled Venadu as a vassal of the Pandyas till the death of King Maravarman Kulasekhara. But, after death of the king he became independent and even claimed the throne of the Pandyas (Ravi Varma had married the daughter of deceased Pandya ruler). He later annexed large parts of southern India and raised Venadu to the position of a powerful military state for a short time. The chaotic situation in the Pandya kingdom helped his conquests. The Venadu ruler invaded Pandya kingdom and defeated the prince Vira Pandya. After annexing the entire Pandya state, he crowned as "Emperor of South India" in 1312 at Madurai. He later annexed Tiruvati and Kanchi (the Chola Kingdom). Under Ravi Varma Venadu attained a high degree of economic prosperity.[5]
The success of Ravi Varma was short lived and soon after his the death, the region became a conglomeration of warring states. And Venadu itself transformed into one these states. The line of Venadu kings after Ravi Varma continued through the law of matrilineal succession.
Aditya Varma Sarvanganatha (1376–1383) is known have defeated the Muslim in raiders of the south and checked the tide of Islamic advance. During the rule of Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma, Venad gradually extended their sway over the Tirunelveli region. Ravi Ravi Varma (1484–1512) was the ruler Venad during the arrival of Portuguese in India.[5]
- Uthiyan Cheralathan
- Nedum Cheralathan
- Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan
- Narmudi Cheral
- Vel Kelu Kuttuvan
- Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan
- Antuvan Cheral
- Selva Kadumko Valiathan
- Perum Cheral Irumporai
- Illam Cheral Irumporai
- According to Prof. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai;[5]
- Kulashekhara Varman (800–820 AD)
- Rajashekhara Varman (820- 844 AD)
- Sthanu Ravi Varman (844- 885 AD)
- Rama Varma Kulashekhara (885- 917 AD)
- Goda Ravi Varma (917- 944 AD)
- Indu Kotha Varma (944- 962 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman I (962- 1019 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman II (1019- 1021 AD)
- Vira Kerala (1021- 1028 AD)
- Rajasimha (1028- 1043 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Varman III (1043–1082 AD)
- Ravi Rama Varma (1082-1090 AD)
- Rama Varma Kulashekhara (1090- 1102 AD)
- According to Prof. M. G. S. Narayanan;[5]
- Rama Rajasekhara (800-844 AD)
- Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara (844-883 AD)
- Kota Ravi Vijayaraga (883-913)
- Kota Kota Kerala Kesari (913-943 AD)
- Indu Kota (943-962 AD)
- Bhaskara Ravi Manukuladilya (962-1021)
- Ravi Kota Rajasimha (1021-1036 AD)
- Raja Raja (1036-1089 AD)
- Ravi Rama Rajaditya (1036-1089 AD)
- Aditya Kota Ranaditya (1036-1089 AD)
- Rama Kulasekhara (1089-1122 AD)
- ^ a b http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46862/From-150-bce-to-300-ce?anchor=ref485312
- ^ a b c d e f g "Ancient India: A History Textbook for Class XI (1999)" Ram Mohan Sharma; National Council of Educational Research and Training, India
- ^ a b c [1][dead link]
- ^ (Ancient name, Chully ref: Akam. 149)
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Menon, A Sreedhara A Survey Of Kerala History – Kerala (India) – 1967
- ^ A Survey of Kerala History by A. Sreedhara Menon – Kerala (India) – 1967
- ^ Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology of the Early Tamils – Based on the Synchronistic Tables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature.
- ^ Keay, John (2000) [2001]. India: A history. India: Grove Press. ISBN 0802137970.
- ^ Nilakanta Sastri, K.A., History of South India, pp 106
- ^ See report in Frontline, June/July 2003
- ^ "The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri Mountains". Sacred-texts.com. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/dutt/rama07.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ V.Jayaram (2007-01-09). "The Ramayana Kishkindha". Hinduwebsite.com. http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/hinduism/ramayana/bk07.asp. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Britannica Article on Dravidian". Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 2004-01-09. http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/sars238/shortencybrit.html. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "Mahabharata: The Great War and World History". Bvashram.org. http://www.bvashram.org/articles/105/1/Mahabharata-The-Great-War-and-World-History/Page1.html. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ "The Sampradaya Sun - Independent Vaisnava News - Feature Stories - October 2007". Harekrsna.com. http://www.harekrsna.com/sun/features/10-07/features806.htm. Retrieved 2011-03-16.
- ^ Cerobothra
- ^ a b c [2]
- ^ See Mahavamsa – http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (Kadal Pirakottiya Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka he was perhaps the Chera King during second century AD.
- ^ a b c d Menon, A Sreedhara Political history of modern Kerala – Kerala (India) – D C Books, 1987
- ^ Menon, A Sreedhara A Survey Of Kerala History
- ^ http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&
- ^ a b c d e f g h Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the distant East: trade routes to the ancient lands of Arabia, India and China Continuum International Publishing Group, 06-Jul-2010
- ^ P. 104 Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association By Indian Anthropological Association
- ^ [3]
- ^ [4]
