Hakka
客家 Hak-kâ
客家漢族[1]
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Top: Liu Yongfu, Soong Ching-ling, Shing-Tung Yau, Sun Yat-sen
Bottom: Deng Xiaoping, Lee Kuan Yew, Chow Yun-Fat, Soong May-ling |
| Total population |
| estimated 80 million worldwide[2] |
| Regions with significant populations |
| Greater China (Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Hong Kong, Taiwan), Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Singapore) |
| Languages |
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Hakka + language(s) of their country of residence
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| Religion |
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Predominantly Mahayana Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, Traditional Chinese religion. Minority Christianity
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| Related ethnic groups |
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Other Han Chinese
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The Hakka (Hakka: Hak-kâ; Chinese: 客家; pinyin: Kèjiā), sometimes Hakka Han,[1][3] are Han Chinese who speak the Hakka language and have links to the provincial areas of Guangdong, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan and Fujian in China.
The Chinese characters for Hakka (客家) literally means "guest families".[4] The Hakka's ancestors were often said to have arrived from what is today's central China centuries ago.[5] In a series of migrations, the Hakkas moved, settled in their present locations in southern China, and then often migrated overseas to various countries throughout the world.[6] The worldwide population of Hakkas is about 80 million, though the number of Hakka-language speakers is fewer.[2] Hakka people have had a significant influence on the course of Chinese and world history: in particular, they have been a source of many revolutionary, government, and military leaders.
Hakka distribution in
China
It is commonly held that the Hakka are a subgroup of the Han Chinese that originated in northern China.[7][8] To trace their origins, three accepted theories so far have been brought forth among anthropologists, linguists, and historians:[9] firstly, the Hakka are Han Chinese originating solely from the Central Plain in China containing today's Shanxi and Henan provinces;[9] secondly, the Hakka are Han Chinese from the Central Plain, with some inflow of those already in the south;[9] or thirdly, the majority of the Hakka are Han Chinese from the south, with portions coming from those in the north.[9] The latter two are the most likely and are together supported by multiple scientific studies.[8][9] Clyde Kiang stated that the Hakka's origins may also be linked with the Han's ancient neighbors, the Dongyi and Xiongnu people (a.k.a. Huns),[10] who later had a considerable and sometimes dominating presence in parts of northern China from the Han Dynasty (202 BC–AD 220) period to the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589 AD),[11][page needed], and eventually merged and assimilated within the general Han populace.[citation needed] This is disputed, however, by many scholars and Kiang's theories are considered controversial.[12] It is known that the earliest major waves of Hakka migration began due to the attacks of the two afore-mentioned tribes during the Jin Dynasty (265–420).[13]
Since the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BC), the ancestors of the Hakka have migrated southwards several times because of social unrest, upheaval and invasions.[14] Subsequent migrations also occurred at the end of the Tang Dynasty in the 10th century and during the end of the Northern Song Dynasty in 1125, the last of which saw a massive flood of refugees fleeing southward when the Jurchens captured the northern Song capital of Bianliang. A further southward migration may have continued[original research?], as the Mongols defeated the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and proceeded to take down the Southern Song, establishing the Yuan Dynasty in 1271. The precise movements of the Hakka people remain unclear during the 14th century when the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Yuan and subsequently fell to the Manchus who formed the Qing Dynasty in 17th century. Hakka have suffered persecution and discrimination ever since they started migrating to southern parts of China.
During the reign of Qing Emperor Kangxi (1654–1722), the coastal regions were evacuated by imperial edict for almost a decade, due to the dangers posed by the remnants of the Ming court who had fled to the island of Taiwan. When the threat was eliminated, the Kangxi Emperor issued an edict to re-populate the coastal regions. To aid the move, each family was given monetary incentives to begin their new lives; newcomers were registered as "Guest Families" (客戶, kèhù).
The existing Cantonese speaking inhabitants (Punti or 本地, "original land") of these areas were protective of their own more fertile lands, and the newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of fertile plains, despite having migrated legitimately, or they settled in more mountainous regions to eke out a living. Conflict between the two groups grew and it is thought that "Hakka" became a term of derision used by the Punti aimed at the newcomers. Eventually, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years and could not be regarded as migrants in any sense) would lead to a series of 19th century skirmishes in the Pearl River Delta known as the Punti–Hakka Clan Wars (土客械鬥). The problem was not that the two groups spoke a different tongue. In fact, the "locals" comprised different peoples speaking several mutually unintelligible tongues, as was typical of the Chinese countryside all over southern China, but they would regard each other as "locals" or Puntis, but exclude the Hakka from such designation.
The term "Punti" is not synonymous with "Cantonese", as a Cantonese in any other part of China, Beijing for example, would not be able to call himself a "Punti", as the Punti of that area would be the Beijing or Hebei people.
The term "Punti" is a Hakka word given to the Cantonese by the Hakka people. Speakers of Cantonese pronounce the Hakka word "Punti" as boon-day.
Over time, the newcomers adopted the term "Hakka" to refer to themselves, not least due to the migratory tendencies inherent in their own culture. However, because the term also covers Hakka language-speakers, (in the same way that Punti covered several people speaking different tongues) and because the Han Chinese registered as Guest Families who migrated may not have been Hakka language-speakers, and because of intermarriages among Hakka and Punti members (which showed that relation between the two were very good at times), identification as Hakka was largely a matter of self-selection. Through studies of both Cantonese and Hakka genealogies, some Hakka and Punti people with the same surnames claim the same ancestors, although their descendants strongly identify with one group to the exclusion of the other.
The Hakka ancestors are thus but one group of many who migrated southwards, becoming linguistically marked by differences yet unified through cultural assonances. As of 2010[update] Hakka people live in the southern Chinese provinces, chiefly in Guangdong, south-western Fujian, southern Jiangxi, southern Hunan, Guangxi, southern Guizhou, south-eastern Sichuan, and on Hainan and Taiwan islands, where there are television news-broadcasts in the Hakka language. The Hakka dialects across these various provinces differ phonologically, but the Meixian (Meizhou) dialect of Hakka is considered[by whom?] the archetypal spoken form of the language. Migratory patterns have been established for some groups, for example in Taiwan, northern and southern migrations from corresponding provinces in China.
Although different in some social customs and culture (e.g. linguistic differences) from the surrounding population, Hakka are not a separate ethnic group: they belong to the Han Chinese majority. Historical sources shown in census statistics relate only to the general population, irrespective of particular districts, provinces, or regions. These census counts were made during imperial times. They did not distinguish what language the population spoke. Therefore they do not directly document Hakka migrations. The study by Luo Xianglin, K'o-chia Yen-chiu Tao-Liu / An Introduction to the Study of the Hakkas (Hsin-Ning & Singapore, 1933) used genealogical sources of family clans from various southern counties.
According to the 2009 studies published in the American Journal of Human Genetics, Hakka genes are slightly tilted towards northern Han people compared with other southern Han people.[15] Nevertheless, the study has also shown a strong common genetic relationship between all Han Chinese with only a small difference of 0.3%.[15]
Lingnan Hakka place names indicate a long history of the Hakka being culturally Han Chinese.[16][17]
Due to their agrarian lifestyle, Hakka have a unique architecture based on defense and communal living (see Hakka architecture), and a hearty savory cuisine based on an equal balance between texturised meat and vegetables, and fresh vegetables (see Hakka cuisine).
When Hakka expanded into areas with pre-existing populations, there was often little agricultural land left for them to farm. As a result, many Hakka men turned towards careers in the military or in public service. Consequently, the Hakka culturally emphasized education.
Hakka people built several types of Tulou and fortified villages in the southwestern Fujian and adjacent areas of Jiangxi and Guangdong. A representative sample of Fujian Tulou (consisting of 10 buildings or building groups) in Fujian were inscribed in 2008 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[18]
Historically, Hakka women did not bind their feet when the practice was commonplace in China.[19]
The Hakka community is also a source for a variety of martial arts. Those systems in general are referred to as Hakka Kuen (Hakka Fist); Southern Praying Mantis, Bak Mei and Dragon Kung Fu are examples of styles practiced by Hakka.
The religious practices of Hakka people are almost identical to those of other Han Chinese. Ancestor veneration is the primary form of religious expression.[20]
Hakka who live in Guangdong comprise about 60% of the total Hakka population. Worldwide, over 95% of the overseas-descended Hakka came from this Guangdong region, usually from Meizhou and Heyuan: Hakka there live mostly in the northeast part of the province, particularly in the so-called Xing-Mei (Xingning-Meixian) area. Jiangxi contains the second largest Hakka community. Unlike their kin in Fujian, Hakka in the Xingning and Meixian area developed a non-fortress-like unique architectural style, most notably the weilongwu (Chinese: 圍龍屋, wéilóngwū or Hakka: Wui Lung Wuk) and sijiaolou (Chinese: 四角樓, sìjǐaolóu or Hakka: Si Kok Liu).
Tradition states that the early Hakka ancestors traveling from north China entered Fujian first, then by way of the Tingjiang River they traveled to Guangdong and other parts of China, as well as overseas. Thus the Tingjiang River is also regarded as the Hakka Mother River.
The Hakka who settled in the mountainous region of south-western Fujian province developed a unique form of architecture known as tu lou (土樓), literally meaning earthen structures. The tu lou are round or square and were designed as a combined large fortress and multi-apartment building complex. The structures typically had only one entrance-way, with no windows at ground level. Each floor served a different function: the first floor contained a well and livestock, the second food storage, and the third and higher floors living spaces. Tu-lou were built to withstand attack from bandits and marauders.
Nearly all of southern Jiangxi province is Hakka, especially in Ganzhou. In the Song Dynasty, a large number of Han Chinese migrated to the delta area as the Court moved southward because invasion of northern minority. They lived in Jiangxi and intermixed with the She and Yao minorities. Ganzhou was the place that the Hakka have settled before migrating to western Fujian and eastern Guangdong. During the early Qing Dynasty, a massive depopulation in Gannan due to the ravage of pestilence and war. However, while western Fujian and eastern Guangdong suffered population explosion at that time. Some edicts were issued to block the coastal areas, ordering coastal residents to move to the inland. The population pressure and the sharp contradiction of the land redistribution drove a few residents to leave. Some of them moved back to Gannan, integrating with other Hakka people who lived there already for generations. Thus, the modern Gannan Hakka community was finally formed.[21]
Emperor Kangxi (reigned AD 1662 to AD 1722), after a tour of the land, decided the province of Sichuan had to be repopulated after the devastation caused by Zhang Xianzhong. Seeing the Hakka were living in poverty in the coastal regions in Guangdong province, the Emperor encouraged the Hakka in the south to emigrate to Sichuan province. He offered financial assistance to those willing to resettle in Sichuan: eight ounces of silver per man and four ounces per woman or child.
As with those in Sichuan, many Hakka emigrated to Xinyang prefecture (in southern Henan province), where Li Zicheng carried out a massacre in Guangzhou (now in Huangchuan) on Jan. 17th, 1636.[22]
During the late Ming and Qing Dynasties, Hong Kong was in the imperial district of Xin-An (Now Shenzhen) County.[23] The 1819 gazetteer lists 570 Punti and 270 Hakka contemporary settlements in the whole district.[24] However, the area covered by Xin-An county is greater than what was to become the British imperial enclave of Hong Kong by 1899. Although there had been settlers originating from the mainland proper even before the Tang Dynasty, historical records of those people are non-extant, only evidence of settlement from archaeological sources can be found.[25] The New Territories lowland areas had been settled originally by several clan lineages in Kam Tin, Sheung Shui, FanLing, Yuen Long, Lin Ma Hang and Taipo, and hence termed the Punti before the arrival of the Hakka, and fishing families of the Tanka and Hoklo groups to the area.[26] Since the prime farming land had already been farmed, the Hakka land dwellers settled in the less accessible and more hilly areas. Hakka settlements can be found widely distributed around the Punti areas, but in smaller communities. Many are found on coastal areas in inlets and bays surrounded by hills.
Hakka dialect speaking communities are thought to have arrived in the Hong Kong area after the rescinding of the coastal evacuation order in 1688.,[27] such as the Hakka speaking Lee clan lineage of Wo Hang, one of whose ancestors is recorded as arriving in the area in 1688.
As the strong Punti lineages dominated most of the north western New Territories, Hakka communities began to organise local alliances of lineage communities such as the Sha Tau Kok Alliance of Ten or Shap Yeuk as Patrick Hase writes.[28] Hakka villages from Wo Hang to the west and YanTian to the east of Sha Tau Kok came to use it as a local market town and it became the center of Hakka dominance. Further, the Shap Yeuk's land reclamation project transforming marshland to arable farmland with the creation of dykes and levees to prevent storm flooding during the early 19th century shows an example of how local cooperation and the growing affluence of the landed lineages in the Alliance of Ten provided the strong cultural, socioeconomic Hakka influence on the area.
Farming and cultivation has been the traditional occupations of Hakka families from imperial times up until the 1970s. Farming was mostly done by Hakka women while their menfolk sought labouring jobs in the towns and cities. Many men entered indentured labour abroad as was common from the end of the 19th century to Second World War. Post war, males took the opportunity to seek work in Britain and other countries later to send for their families to join them once they sent enough money back to cover travel costs.
As post war education became available to all children in Hong Kong, a new educated class of Hakka became more mobile in their careers. Many moved to the government planned new towns which sprung up from the 1960s. The rural Hakka population began to decline as people moved abroad, and away to work in the urban areas. By the end of the 1970s, agriculture was firmly in the decline in Hakka villages.[29] Today, there are still Hakka villages around Hong Kong, but being remote, many of their inhabitants have moved to the post war new towns like Sheung Shui, Tai Po, Sha tin and further afield.
The Hakka people have a marked cuisine and style of Chinese cooking which is little known outside the Hakka home. Hakka cuisine concentrates on the texture of food – the hallmark of Hakka cuisine. Whereas preserved meats feature in Hakka delicacy, stewed, braised, roast meats – 'texturized' contributions to the Hakka palate – have a central place in their repertoire. In fact, the raw materials for Hakka food are no different from raw materials for any other type of regional Chinese cuisine: what you cook depends on what is available in the market. Hakka cuisine may be described as outwardly simple but tasty. The skill in Hakka cuisine lies in the ability to cook meat thoroughly without hardening it, and to naturally bring out the proteinous flavour (umami taste) of meat.
The Hakka who settled in the harbour and port areas of Hong Kong placed great emphasis on seafood cuisine. Hakka cuisine in Hong Kong is less dominated by expensive meats; instead, emphasis is placed on an abundance of vegetables. Pragmatic and simple, Hakka cuisine is garnished lightly with sparse or little flavouring. Modern Hakka cooking in Hong Kong favours offal, an example being Deep-Fried Intestines (炸大腸 or Zha Da Chang). Others include tofu with preservatives, along with their signature dish Salt Baked Chicken (鹽焗雞 or Yam Guk Gai). Another specialty is the Poon Choi (盆菜).[30] While it may be difficult to prove these were the actual diets of the old Hakka community, it is presently a commonly accepted view. The above dishes and their variations are in fact found and consumed throughout China including Guangdong, and are not particularly unique or confined to the Hakka Chinese population.
The Hakka's modern societal structure and experience includes far more diverse and complex global elements than the Hong Kong landscape, where only a small fraction of the Hakka reside or have transitioned through.
In the latter half of the 20th century, a stronger emphasis has been placed on Hakka preservation through folk art and customs. A Hakka language dictionary has also been completed auspiciously in 1997 by Dr. C.F. Lau [ISBN Reference: ISBN 962-201-750-9], a devoted contributor to the preservation of the Hakka language in Hong Kong.
The Hakka have emigrated to many regions worldwide, notably Suriname, India, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand and Burma.
Hakka people also emigrated to Australia, Brunei, Canada, the United States, and to many countries in Europe, including Great Britain, France, Spain, Germany, Austria, Belgium, and the Netherlands. Hakka people also are found in South Africa and Mauritius, on the islands of the Caribbean (Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago), and in Central and South America, particularly in Panama and Brazil. Most expatriate Hakka in Great Britain have ties to Hong Kong; many emigrated when Hong Kong still was a British colony during a period coinciding with the Cultural Revolution of China and economic depression in Hong Kong. There was once a sizable Hakka community in Calcutta, but most have migrated to Canada, the United States, Australia, Taiwan or Austria. In Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia, Hakka people are sometimes known as Khek, the Hokkien (Minnan) pronunciation of the Hak in Hakka.
Migration of Hakka people to Indonesia happened in several waves. The first wave landed in Riau Islands such as in Bangka Island and Belitung as tin miners in the 18th century. The second group of colonies were established along the Kapuas River in Borneo in the 19th century, predecessor to early Singapore residents. In the early 20th century, new arrivals joined their compatriots as traders, merchants and labourers in major cities such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Bandung, etc.
Hakka also live in Indonesia's largest tin producer islands of Bangka Belitung province.[31] They are the second majority ethnic group after Malay at about 330,000.[32] The Hakka population in the province is also the second largest in Indonesia after West Kalimantan's and one of the highest percentages of Chinese living in Indonesia.
The first ancestors of Hakka in Bangka and Belitung reached the islands in the 18th century from Guangdong. Many of them worked as tin mining labourers. Since then, they have remained on the island along with the native Malay. Their situation was much different from those of Chinese and native populations of other regions, where legal cultural conflicts were prevalent since the 1960s until 1999, by which Indonesian Chinese had finally regained their cultural freedoms. Here they lived together peacefully and still practiced their customs and cultural festivals, such as in celebrating the Chinese New Year and Qingming, while in other regions they were strictly banned by government legislation prior to 1999.[33] The majority religions of Chinese Babel are Confucianism and Buddhism, with a significant number who are Christian. A small number are of confessed Islam as some have married Malays.
Hakka on the island of Bangka have an unusual accent, said to be heavily influenced by Malay, especially in younger generations. The younger generations speak much more Malay than the older Hakka. As Chinese languages employ tones to distinguish different words, differences in tone can change a word's meaning entirely; the Hakka dialect spoken by the islanders has such a different tonal system that their spoken language is hardly intelligible to Hakka of other regions. However, they still refer to themselves as Thong ngin as do the younger people, and speak Thong boi. Hakka ngin words are unpopular, as well as Hakkafa. The Hakka spoken in the Muntok area in Bangka is considered to be standard. Many Hakka in the province have moved outside the islands, especially to Jakarta. There are more than 30,000 - 50,000 Chinese Babel in Jakarta who speak both Malay and Thong boi. Younger generations living outside Babel will always gladly admit their hometown Babel.
Today increasing numbers of Thong Ngin parents from Bangka Belitung proudly send their children to mainland China to especially seek higher study at colleges and universities in Guangzhou, Xiamen, Wuhan, Shanghai up to Beijing, majoring in various subjects like Chinese language, art and culture, engineering, medicine, etc.
There is also a large Chinese population from Bangka and Belitung who live abroad, such as in China and Hongkong. They are proud to be Chinese Bangka Belitung, so they regularly return home once or twice a year to celebrate Chinese New Year, or to pay their respects at Qingming.[34][35]
Hakka people in Pontianak live alongside with teochew speaking Chinese. Whilst the teochews are dominant in the centre of Pontianak, the Hakka are more dominant in small towns along the Kapuas River in the regencies of Sanggau, Sekadau and Sintang. Their Hakka dialect is originally of Mei Xien (Hakka: MoiYan) standard but heavily influenced by the teochew dialect and vocabulary from the local Malay and Dayak tribes.
The Hakka in this region are descendants of gold prospectors who migrated from China in the late 19th century.
The Hakka in Singkawang and the surrounding regencies of Sambas, Bengkayang, Ketapang and Landak speak a different standard of Hakka dialect to the Hakkas along the Kapuas River. Their place of origin in China is tai phu (Dabu 大埔), a district in Mei Xien. also Fuk Luk Hoi which means winds of the six seas.
Hakka can still be heard in some commercial districts in Jakarta. Their numbers increase with internal migrations from the three regions mentioned above.
There was a relatively large and vibrant Hakka community in East Timor before the Indonesian invasion in 1975. According to the local Chinese Timorese association's estimation, the Hakka population in 1975 was estimated to be around 25,000 (including a small minority of other Chinese ethnicity from Macau). During the invasion, many Hakka were killed. According to a book source, it was estimated that about 700 Hakka were killed on the first week of invasion in Dili alone. No clear numbers had been recorded since many Hakka evacuated and escaped to Australia. Recent re-establishment of Hakka associations registered approximately about 2,400 Hakkas remaining (400 families, including part Timorese families) in East Timor.
Now Hakka diaspora can be found in Darwin and spread-out in major cities such as Brisbane, Sydney and Melbourne of Australia, Portugal, Macau and small numbers in other parts of the world. They often are highly educated, and many continue their education in Taiwan or China, while a majority of the younger generation study in Australia. The Australian government took some years to assess their claims to political asylum in order to establish their credentials as genuine refugees and not illegal immigrants, as partially related to the political situation in East Timor during that time. As no Asian country was willing to accept them as residents, nor to grant political asylum to displaced Hakka and other Timorese, they were forced to live as stateless persons for a time. Despite this condition, many Hakka had become successful, and established restaurant chains, shops, supermarkets, and import operations in Australia. Since the independence of East Timor in 2000, some Hakka families had returned and invested in businesses in the newborn nation.
Hakka form the second largest subgroup of the ethnic Chinese population of Malaysia. During this time, Chung Keng Quee, Capitan China of Perak and Penang was founder of Taiping, leader of the Hai San, a millionaire philanthropist, an innovator in the mining of tin and was respected by both Chinese and European communities in the early colonial settlement. A well known Hakka man was Yap Ah Loy, a Kapitan in Kuala Lumpur from 1868 to 1885, where he brought significant economic contributions, founded Kuala Lumpur and also was an influential figure among the ethnic Chinese. There are also less significant numbers of Hakka people in the East Malaysian state of Sarawak, particularly in the town of Miri where there is a notable population of Hakka people who speak the 'Ho Poh' variant of Hakka. In the district of Jelebu, Negeri Sembilan, Hakka people make up more than 90% of the Chinese subgroup and the dialect itself acts as a lingua franca there. This has contributed greatly to the fact that the place is commonly known among Hakka Chinese to be Hakka Village.
The greatest concentration of Hakkas in northern peninsular Malaysia is in Ipoh, Perak and in Kuala Lumpur and its satellite cities in Selangor; however, even in areas of Hakka majority amongst the Chinese in these areas, Cantonese tends to be used as a lingua franca when conducting business or eating out whereas the Hakka language is generally only spoken locally or at home. Concentrations of Hakka people in Ipoh and surrounding areas are particularly high.
In the Bornean state of Sabah, most of the ethnic Chinese are of Hakka descent. According to the 1991 census, there were 113000 Hakkas in the state. This constituted 57% of the total ethnic Chinese population in Sabah. The second largest Chinese subgroup were the Cantonese with only 28000 persons.[36] This shows that Sabah is one of very few regions in the world where Hakkas clearly outnumber other Chinese subgroups. Most of the Hakkas in Sabah speak with the Huiyang accent (Hakka: Fuiyong, 惠陽). Hakka is the lingua franca among the Chinese in Sabah to such an extent that Chinese of other subgroups who migrate to Sabah from other states in Malaysia and elsewhere usually end up learning the Hakka dialect.
In 1882 the North Borneo Chartered Company opted to bring in Hakka labourers from Longchuan County, Guangdong to solicit Hakka industrious workers. The first batch of 96 Hakkas brought to Sabah landed in Kudat on April 4, 1883 under the leadership of Luo Tai Feng. In the following decades Hakka immigrants settled throughout the state, with their main population centres in Kota Kinabalu (then known as Jesselton), Sandakan (mainly ex-Taiping revolutionist), Tawau and Kudat. The British felt the development of North Borneo was too slow and in 1920 they decided to encourage Hakka immigration into Sabah.[37] In 1901, the total Chinese population in Sabah was 13897; by 1911, it had risen 100% to 27801.[38] Hakka immigration began to taper off during World War 2 and declined to a negligible level in the late 1940s.
Most Chinese Jamaicans are Hakka; they have a long history in Jamaica. Between 1845 and 1884, nearly 5000 Hakka arrived in Jamaica in three major voyages. Most came to Jamaica under contract as indentured servants. The terms of the contracts made free return-passage available for any Hakka who wanted to return to China. Most of them did.[39] In 1854, 205 Chinese workers who had been working on the Panama canal arrived in Jamaica. They had demanded re-settlement due to the threat of yellow fever in Panama. Many were ill upon arrival in Jamaica and were immediately hospitalized in Kingston. Fewer than 50 of these immigrants survived - the rest died of yellow fever.
Chin Pa-kung (a.k.a. Jackson Chin), opened a wholesale business in Kingston where the Desnoes and Geddes building now stands. Chang Si-Pah and Lyn Sam opened groceries nearby. These gentleman provided guidance for other Chinese immigrants to Jamaica.[40]
During the 1960s and 1970s substantial migration of Hakka Jamaican Chinese to the USA and Canada occurred.
The vast majority of Mauritian Chinese are Hakkas. Most of the Mauritian Hakkas emigrated to Mauritius in the mid 1940's came from the Guangdong province, especially from the Meizhou or Meixian region.
As of 2008, the total population of Sino-Mauritian, consisting of Hakka and Cantonese, is around 35,000.
Many Chinese people in Réunion are of Hakka origin.[41] They either came to Réunion as indentured workers or as voluntary migrants.[41] Today, most do not speak the Hakka language.[41]
In Taiwan, Hakka people comprise about 15 to 20% of the population and are descended largely from Guangdong immigrants: they form the second-largest ethnic group on the island.
Taiwan's Hakka population concentrates in Hsinchu City and Hsinchu County, Miaoli County, and around Chungli in Taoyuan County, and Meinong District in Kaohsiung City, and in Pingtung County, with smaller presences in Hualian and Taitung County. In recent decades[when?] many Hakka have moved to the largest metropolitan areas, including Taipei, Taichung, and Kaohsiung.
Many people in Taiwan are of mixed Hoklo, Hakka, and Taiwanese aborigines heritage. Approximately half of the population of Hakka in Taiwan also speaks Taiwanese Hokkien, and it is highly likely[original research?] that many Taiwanese-speaking households descend from Hakka families in Taiwan who lost their language a few generations back.
The Taiwanese variant of the Hakka language resembles other variants of Hakka spoken in other parts of the world, but differs vastly in terms of pronunciation due to the influence of Taiwanese Hokkien.[citation needed] Therefore it is difficult, though not impossible, for speakers of other Hakka variants to understand Taiwanese Hakka.[citation needed]
There are no records as to when Hakka descendants arrived in Thailand. In 1901, Mr. Yu Cipeng, a Hakka member of The League Society of China came to visit Thailand and found that the establishment of many varied organizations among the Hakka was not good for unity. So, he tried to bring the two parties together and persuaded them to dissolve the associations in order to set up a new united one. In 1909 "The Hakka Society of Siam" was established, and Chao Phraya Yommarat, then Interior Minister, was invited to preside over the opening ceremony for the establishment of the society's nameplate, located in front of the Chinese shrine "Lee Tee Biao". Mr. Yang Liqing was its first President.[42]
| No |
Year |
City |
Country |
| 1 |
1971 |
Hong Kong |
Hong Kong |
| 2 |
1973 |
Taipei |
Taiwan |
| 3 |
1976 |
Taipei |
Taiwan |
| 4 |
1978 |
San Francisco |
USA |
| 5 |
1980 |
Tokyo |
Japan |
| 6 |
1982 |
Bangkok |
Thailand |
| 7 |
1984 |
Taipei |
Taiwan |
| 8 |
1986 |
Mauritius |
Mauritius |
| 9 |
1988 |
San Francisco |
USA |
| 10 |
1990 |
Kota Kinabalu, Sabah |
Malaysia |
| 11 |
1992 |
Kaoshiung |
Taiwan |
| 12 |
1994 |
Meixian, Guangdong |
China |
| 13 |
1996 |
Singapore |
Singapore |
| 14 |
1998 |
Miaoli |
Taiwan |
| 15 |
1999 |
Kuala Lumpur |
Malaysia |
| 16 |
2000 |
Longyan, Fujian |
China |
| 17 |
2001 |
Jakarta |
Indonesia |
| 18 |
2003 |
Zhengzhou, Henan |
China |
| 19 |
2004 |
Ganzhou, Jiangxi |
China |
| 20 |
2005 |
Chengdu, Sichuan |
China |
| 21 |
2006 |
Taipei |
Taiwan |
| 22 |
2008 |
Xi'an, Shaanxi |
China |
| 23 |
2010 |
Heyuan, Guangdong |
China |
| 24 |
2011 |
Beihai, Guangxi |
China |
The Hakka pronunciation of each name listed below is included unless the vernacular name is itself based on Hakka pronunciation. Take note, however, that this is a work in progress; some vernacular names are still without their Hakka pronunciations. This will be rectified as soon as possible.
The Hakka have had a significant influence, disproportionate to their smaller total numbers, on the course of Chinese and overseas Chinese history, particularly as a source of revolutionary, political and military leaders.[19]
Hakka were active during the Taiping Rebellion,[43] the largest uprising in the modern history of China. The uprising, also known as Jintian Uprising, originated at the Hakka village of Jintian in Guiping, Guangxi. It was led by the failed Qing scholar, Hong Xiuquan, who was influenced by Protestant missionaries. Hong's charisma tapped into a consciousness of national dissent which identified with his personal interpretations of the Christian message. His following, who were initially Hakka peasants from Guangxi, grew across the southern provinces. The hugely disciplined Taiping army, which included women in their ranks, captured stoutly defended towns and cities from the Qing defenders. In 1851, less than a year after the uprising, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (太平天囯) was established. It had, at one stage, occupied one-third of China, and almost toppled the Qing Dynasty. The kingdom lasted for eleven years.
Hakka continued to play prominent roles during the revolutionary and republican years of the Kuomintang, as well as during the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party of China, in which many of the leaders on both sides were Hakka.
Lee Kuan Yew, Sun Yat Sen, and Deng Xiaoping were among four Hakka Chinese named as "the 20th Century's 20 Most Influential Asians" by Time magazine.[44]
Hakka influence is also evident in Guangdong, China, where the "Hakka Gang" "客家帮" has consistently dominated the provincial government. Presently, the governor, Huang Huahua, and four deputy governors are Hakka.[45]
- Heavenly Kingdom
- Hong Xiuquan 洪秀全 (1812-1864; Huaxian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Fung Siew Chen), Heavenly King; Leader, Taiping Rebellion
- Feng Yunshan 馮雲山/冯云山 (1815-1852; Huaxian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Fung Yun San), South King
- Yang Xiuqing 楊秀清/杨秀清 (1821-1856; Guiping, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Yong Siew Tshin), East King
- Shi Dakai 石達開/石达开 (1831-1863; Guiping, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Sak Tat Hoi), Wing King
- Li Xiucheng 李秀成 (1823-1864; Tengxian, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Siew Sin), Loyal King
- Chen Yucheng 陳玉成/陈玉成 (1837-1862; Tengxian, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Nyuk Sin), Heroic King
- Hong Rengan 洪仁玕 (1822-1864; Huaxian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Fung Yin Kon), Premier and Shield King; First person in China to advocate modern-style government and opening-up reform
- Qing Dynasty
- Feng Zicai 馮子才/冯子才 (1818-1903; Bobai, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Fung Tse Choi), Commanding general, Sino-French War (the only war that Qing Dynasty had won against foreign countries), 1884–1885
- Liu Yongfu 劉永福/刘永福 (1837-1917; Bobai, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Liew Yun Fook), Commander, Black Flag Army; President, Republic of Formosa, 1895
- Qiu Fengjia 丘逢甲 (1864-1912; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Hiew Fung Kap), Leader, Taiwanese resistance forces, Japanese invasion of Taiwan, 1895; Feng Chia University in Taichung is named in honor of him
- Republic of China
- Sun Yatsen 孫中山/孙中山[4][46] (1886-1925; Zhongshan, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Soon Tsung San), Founding father of modern China
- Charlie Soong 宋嘉樹/宋嘉树 (1863-1918; Wenchang, Hainan; Hakka pronunciation: Soong Ka Su), Financier and staunch supporter in the early days of Kuomintang; Father of the Soong Sisters, who along with their husbands, were the most influential figures of China in the early 20th century
- Soong Ai-ling 宋藹齡/宋蔼龄 (1890-1973; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai; Hakka pronunciation: Soong Oi Lin), Eldest of the Soong Sisters; Wife of H H Kung
- Soong Ching-ling 宋慶齡/宋庆龄 (1893-1981; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Kunshan, Jiangsu; Hakka pronunciation: Soong Khin Lin), Second of the Soong Sisters; Wife of Sun Yat-sen; Honorary President of the People's Republic of China, 1981
- Soong May-ling 宋美齡/宋美龄 (1898-2003; Wenchang, Hainan; Hakka pronunciation: Soong Mui Lin), Youngest of the Soong Sisters; Wife of Chiang Kai-shek
- T. V. Soong 宋子文 (1894-1971; Wenchang, Hainan; born in Shanghai; Hakka pronunciation: Soong Tse Vun), Premier of the Republic of China, 1930, 1945–1947
- Liao Zhongkai 廖仲愷 (1877-1925; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in USA), Leader and financier, Kuomintang; Was one of the three most powerful figures in Kuomintang when Sun Yatsen died
- Sun Ke 孫科/孙科 (1891–1973; Zhongshan, Guangdong), Premier of the Republic of China, 1931–1932, 1948–1949
- Chen Jitang 陳濟棠/陈济棠 (1890-1954; Fangcheng, Guangxi), General, Nationalist China
- Xue Yue 薛岳 (1896-1998; Lechang, Guangdong), Nationalist China most outstanding general during 2nd Sino-Japanese War; Nicknamed "Patton of Asia"
- Zhang Fakui 張發奎/张发奎 (1896-1980; Shixing, Guangdong), Commander-in-Chief during Second Sino-Japanese war
- Xie Jinyuan 謝晉元/谢晋元 (1905-1941; Jiaoling, Guangdong), Commander, Defence of Sihang Warehouse; Heroism of the defenders of the warehouse, known as the Eight Hundred Heroes 八百壯士, was made into a movie of the same name
- Lee Teng-hui 李登辉[47][48] (1923-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Taiwan), President of the Republic of China, 1988–2000; First freely elected president in Chinese history
- Annette Lu 呂秀蓮/吕秀莲[49] (1944-; Nanjing, Fujian; born in Taiwan), Vice-President, Republic of China, 2000–2008
- Wu Po-hsiung 吳伯雄/吴伯雄 (1939-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Ng Pak Hiung), Chairman, Kuomintang, 2007-; Mayor, Taipei, 1988–1990
- Hsu Hsin-liang 許信良/许信良 (1941-; Raoping, Guangdong; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Hee Sin Leong), Co-founder and chairman, Democratic Progressive Party, 1991–1994, 1996–1998
- Tsai Ing-wen 蔡英文 (1956-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Chai Yin Vun), Present and first female Chairperson, Democratic Progressive Party, 2008-; Vice-premier, Republic of China, 2006–2007
- Yeh Chu-lan 葉菊蘭/叶菊兰 (1949-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Yap Kiuk Lan), Vice-premier, Republic of China, 2004–2005; Acting mayor, Kaohsiung, 2005–2006
- Chen Shui-bian 陳水扁/陈水扁 (1950-; northern parts of Zhao'an - disputed; born in Taiwan), President of the Republic of China, 2000–2008
- Yu Shyi-kun 游錫堃, former chairman of the DPP and premier of the ROC.
- Su Tseng-chang 蘇貞昌, DPP politician and former premier of the ROC.
- Lee Ying-yuan 李應元/李应元 (1953; Zhao'an, Fujian; born in Taiwan), Secretary-General, Executive Yuan, 2005; Secretary-General, Democratic Progressive Party, 2008; Ran and lost to Ma Ying-jeou, Taipei Mayor Elections, 2002
- Ma Ying-jeou 馬英九 ('born July 13, 1950'; Hakka pronunciation: Mah Yin Kiew) is the current President of the Republic of China
- People's Republic of China
- Deng Xiaoping 鄧小平/邓小平[4] (1904-1997; Guang An, Sichuan; Hakka pronunciation: Thien Siau Phin), a prominent Chinese revolutionary, politician, pragmatist and reformer, as well as the late leader of the Communist Party of China (CPC). Paramount Leader of the People's Republic of China from 1978 to the early 1990s.
- Zhu De 朱德, one of the Ten Marshals and possibly the founder of the Chinese Red Army, later the People's Liberation Army.
- Marshal Ye Jianying 葉劍英/叶剑英 (1897-1986; Meixian, Guangdong, Hakka pronunciation: Yap Kiam Yin), Leader and general; Chairman, National People's Congress, 1978–1983; President, People's Republic of China, 1978–1983; Governor of Guangdong, 1949–1953
- Hu Yaobang 胡耀邦 (1915-89; Liuyang, Hunan; Hakka pronunciation: Fu Yau Bong), General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, 1980–1987
- Zeng Qinghong 曾慶紅/曾庆红[50] (1939-; Ji'an, Jiangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Tsen Khin Fung), Vice-President, People's Republic of China, 2003–2008; Was second in ranking after Hu Jintao in the fourth generation leadership
- Liao Chengzhi 廖承志 (1908-1983; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Japan; Hakka pronunciation: Liau Sin Chee), Well-respected politician; died a week before he was expected to be elected Vice-President, People's Republic of China[51]
- Ye Ting 葉挺/叶挺 (1896-1946; Huiyang, Guangdong), Commander-In-Chief, New Fourth Army, one of the two main Chinese communist forces, Second Sino-Japanese War
- Yang Chengwu 楊成武/杨成武 (1914-2004; Changting, Fujian; Hakka pronunciation: Yong Sin Woo), General; Vice-Chairman, Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 1983–1988
- Li Peng 李鹏, fourth Premier of the People's Republic of China.
- Ye Xuanping 葉選平/叶选平 (1924-; Meixian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Yap Sen Phin), Vice-Chairman, Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, 1991–2003; Governor of Guangdong, 1985–1991
- Xie Fei 謝非/谢非 (1932-1999; Lufeng, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Chia Fui), Vice-chairman, National People's Congress, 1998–1999
- Huang Huahua 黃華華/黄华华 (1946-; Xingning, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Wong Fah Fah), Present governor of Guangdong, 2003-
- Hong Kong
- Martin Lee 李柱銘/李柱铭 (1938-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong), Founding chairman, Democratic Party, 1994–2002; Leading figure of the pro-democracy movement in Hong Kong
- Lee Wing Tat 李永達/李永达 (1955-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Yun Tat), Chairman, Democratic Party, 2004–2006
- Tam Yiu Chung 譚耀宗/谭耀宗 (1949-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Tham Yau Tsung), Chairman, Democratic Alliance for Betterment of Hong Kong, the largest pro-Beijing political party in Hong Kong, 2007-
- Singapore
- Lee Kuan Yew 李光耀[4] (1923-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Kong Yau), Founding father of modern Singapore; Prime Minister of Singapore, his mother Chua (蔡), is a Min Nan Nyonya 1959-1990
- Lee Hsien Loong 李顯龍/李显龙 (1952-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Hen Loong), Present Prime Minister of Singapore, his mother Kwa (柯) is of Min Nan Tong'an ancestry
- Yong Nyuk Lin 楊玉麟/杨玉麟 (1918-, born in Malaysia), Cabinet Minister, 1959–1976
- Hon Sui Sen 韓瑞生/韩瑞生 (1916-83; Jiexi, Guangdong, born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Hon Sui Sang), Finance Minister, 1970–1983
- Howe Yoon Chong 侯永昌 (1923-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China), Cabinet Minister, 1979–1984
- Dr Hu Tsu Tau Richard 胡賜道/胡赐道 (1926-; Yongding, Fujian; born in Singapore), Finance Minister, 1985–2001
- Elizabeth Choy (Yong Su Moi) 蔡楊素梅/蔡杨素梅 (1910-2006; born in Malaysia), War heroine; First and only woman to be on the Legislative Council of Singapore, 1951
- Malaysia
- Yap Ah Loy 葉亞來/叶亚来 (1837-1885; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in China), founder of Kuala Lumpur
- Chung Keng Quee 鄭景貴/郑景贵 (1827-1901; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Chang Kin Gui), founder of Taiping, Perak; Kapitan China, Penang and Perak
- Yap Kwan Seng 葉觀盛/叶观盛[52] (1846-1902; Chixi, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Yap Kon Sin), Last Kapitan China, Kuala Lumpur, 1989-1902; A major road, Jalan Yap Kwan Seng, in Kuala Lumpur was named after him
- Chung Thye Phin 鄭大平/郑大平 (1879-1935; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Last Kapitan China, Perak
- Datuk Seri Lau Pak Khuan 劉伯群/刘伯群 (1894-1971; Zengcheng, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Liew Pak Khiun), Founding member of Malaysian Chinese Association; First Chinese to be conferred the "Datuk Seri" title by a Malaysian Sultan; Led the unsuccessful bid for Chinese equal citizenship rights and official language status during drafting of Malaysia Constitution
- Tan Sri Wong Pow Nee 王保尼, (1911-2002; born in Malaysia), Chief Minister of Penang, 1957–1969
- Datuk Peter Lo Sui Yin 羅思仁/罗思仁 (Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1965–67
- Datuk Yong Teck Lee 楊德利/杨德利 (1958-; Longchuan, Guangdong), Chief Minister of Sabah, 1996–1998
- Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Yong Kuet Tze 楊國斯/杨国斯 (1921-2001; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), former Minister of Science, Technology & Environment
- Peter Chin Fah Kui 陳華貴/陈华贵 (1945-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Plantation Industries and Commodities Minister, Malaysia, 2004-
- Liow Tiong Lai 廖中莱 (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Liau Tsung Loi), Health Minister, Malaysia, 2008-
- Teresa Kok 郭素沁 (1964-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Malaysia), Member of Parliament, 1999-; Won by the highest majority among 200 seats contested in the 2008 General Elections
- Cheong Fatt Tze 張弼士 (1840–1916; Dabu, Guangdong) Appointed the Chinese Consul (based in Penang) in 1890. Minister for agriculture, industries, roads and mines for the provinces of Fujian and Guangdong for the Qing Dynasty government in 1899, Member of the Legislative Assembly of the Republic of China (1912)
- Philip Lee Tau Sang 李道生 (died 1959), Member of the Advisory Council of North Borneo (now the state of Sabah, 1947–1950), Legislative Council of North Borneo (1950–1958) and Executive Council of North Borneo (1950–1953, 1956–1957)
- Thailand
- Thaksin Shinawatra 丘達新/丘达新[53][54] (1949-; Fengshun, Guangdong; born in Thailand; Hakka pronunciation: Hiew Tat Sin), founder Thai Rak Thai political party; only Prime Minister of Thailand to finish a term of office and be reelected, 2001–2006; exiled, 2008.
- Abhisit Vejjajiva (1964-; born in United Kingdom), Leader, Democrat Party (Thailand), 2005- ; former Opposition Leader; elected Prime Minister of Thailand, 2008.
- Yingluck Shinawatra, first female Prime Minister of Thailand
- Sudarat Keyuraphan (1961-; born in Thailand), Cabinet Minister, 2002–2006
- Indonesia
- Low Lan Pak 羅芳伯/罗芳伯 (1738-1778; Meixian, Guangdong), Founder and President, Hakka Lanfang Republic (present Western Kalimantan, now part of Indonesia), 1777–1884
- Hasan Karman 黄少凡 (Meixian; Guangdong; born in Indonesia; Hakka pronunciation: Wong Sau Fan), Mayor of Singkawang, West Kalimantan; Indonesia's first Chinese mayor
- Timor-Leste
- Pedro Lay (born in East Timor), Minister of Infrastructure, 2007-
- Gil Alves (born in East Timor), Minister of Tourism, Commerce & Industry, 2007-
- Mauritius
- Sir Moilin Jean Ah-Chuen 朱梅麟 (1909-1991; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius; Hakka pronunciation: Chu Moi Lin), First Chinese member, Legislative Council, 1949; Minister of Local Government, 1967–1976; Second Hakka after Sun Yatsen to have his portrait printed on the bills of a country's currency[55]
- Noel Lee Cheong Lem 李國華/李国华 (1951-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Ket Fah), Minister of Tourism, 1993–1995
- Joseph Tsang Mang Kin 曾繁興/曾繁兴 (1938-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Art and Culture, 1995–2000
- Emmanuel Jean Leung Shing 陳念汀/陈念汀 (1944-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Minister of Justice and Human Rights, 2000–2005
- Sylvio Tang Wah Hing 鄧學升/邓学升 (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius; Hakka pronunciation: Thien Hock Sin), Minister of Youth and Sports, 2005–2008, Minister For Consumer Protection And Citizens' Charter, Sep 2008 - May 2010
- Australia
- Penny Wong 黃英賢/黃英贤 (1968, born in Malaysia), the current Australian Minister for Climate Change and Water, Australia's first Asian Cabinet Minister, 2007-
- Alfred Huang 黃國鑫/黄国鑫[56] (Jiaoling, Guangdong, born in China), Lord Mayor, Adelaide, 2000–2003; Australia's first Chinese Lord Mayor
- Henry Tsang 曾筱龍/曾筱龙 (1943-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in China), Deputy Lord Mayor, Sydney, 1991–1999
- Robert Chong 鐘富喜/钟富喜[57] (Meixian, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Tsung Foo Hee), Mayor, Whitehorse, Victoria, 2001–2002, 2004
- Li Hiam Lai 賴利賢 (1958, born in East Timor), Councillor, Yarra, Victoria, 1996–2004
- Guyana
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- He Ruzhang 何如璋 (1838-1891; Dabu, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Ho Yee Chong), China's first ambassador to Japan, Qing Dynasty, 1877–1882
- Zhang Dingcheng 張鼎丞/张鼎丞 (1898-1981; Yongding, Fujian), Procurator-General, Supreme People's Procuratorate, 1954–1975
- Liu Fuzhi 劉復之/刘复之 (1917-; Meixian, Guangdong), Procurator-General, Supreme People's Procuratorate, 1988–1993
- Yong Pung How 楊邦孝/杨邦孝 (1926-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Yong Bong Hau), Second Chief Justice, Singapore, 1990–2006
- Marie Madeleine Lee nee Ah Chuen 朱志筠 (1927-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Mauritius' first ambassador to China, 1999–2000
- Xiao Yang 肖扬 (1938-; Heyuan, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Siau Yong), President, Supreme People's Court of the People's Republic of China, 1998–2008
- Perng Fai-nan 彭淮南 (1939-; born in Taiwan), Governor, Central Bank of Taiwan, 1988-; Best Central Banker in the world, 2000, 2005. 2006, 2007, Global Finance
- Supachai Panitchpakdi, (1946-; born in Thailand), First and only Asian Director-General of World Trade Organization, 1999–2005
- Zhang Jiuhuan 張九桓/张九桓[58][59] (1947-; Bobai, Guangxi), Ambassador of China to Nepal (1995–1998), Singapore (2000–2004), Thailand (2004-); Youngest-ever ambassador, People's Republic of China
- Yeung Kam John Yeung Sik Yuen 楊欽俊/杨钦俊 (1950-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Mauritius), Chief Justice, Mauritius, 2008-
- Adrienne Louise Clarkson PC CC CMM COM CD (née Adrienne Louise Poy) 伍冰枝 (1939-; born in Hong Kong), First Canadian-Chinese (and first visible minority) Governor General of Canada (1999–2005)
- Cheong Fatt Tze 張弼士/张弼士 (1840-1916; Dabu, Guangdong), Powerful industralist in South-east Asia who contributed to the interests of Overseas Chinese during China's Qing Dynasty and Republican era
- Aw Boon Haw 胡文虎 (1882-1954; Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma) and Aw Boon Par 胡文豹 (1888-1944; Yongding, Fujian; born in Burma), Philanthropists of Haw-Par Villa, Tiger Balm fame
- Yong Koon 楊坤/杨坤, Founder, Royal Selangor, Malaysia
- Lee Loy Seng, Kuala Lumpur Kepong (KLK), Malaysia
- Raymond Chow 鄒文懷/邹文怀 (1929-; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong); Founder, Golden Harvest; Producer who launched the careers of Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan and Tsui Hark
- Tjong A Fie, (1860-1921), Chinese Businessman and Philanthropist who built a large plantation business in Sumatra
- Woon Wing Yip 葉煥榮/叶焕荣 (1940-; Dongguan, China; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Yap Fon Yin), Founder, The Wing Yip Supermarkets, United Kingdom; First Chinese tycoon in United Kingdom
- Prajogo Pangestu (Phang Jun Phen) 彭雲鵬/彭云鹏 (1944-; born in Indonesia; Hakka pronunciation: Pang Yun Pen), Timber tycoon, Indonesia
- Alan Yau 丘德威 (1962-; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Hiew Tet Wui), Founder, Wagamama restaurant chain, Hakkasan and Yauatcha, United Kingdom
- Khun Bantoon Lamsam 伍捷仆 (Meixian, Guangdong), Founder, Kasikorn Bank (Thai Farmers Bank), Thailand
- Robert Wan 温惠仁[60] (Guangdong; born in Tahiti, French Polynesia; Hakka pronunciation: Vun Fui Yin), Pearl producer (See Robert Wan Pearl Museum)
- Tan Sri Jeffrey Cheah 謝富年/谢富年 (Dongguan, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Chia Foo Ngen), Founder and chairman of The Sunway Group of Companies, Malaysia
- Michael Lee-Chin (born in Jamaica), Chairman and CEO, AIC Limited, one of Canada's largest mutual fund companies
- Huang Zunxian 黃遵憲/黄遵宪 (1848-1905; Meixian, Guangdong), Poet, writer and diplomat
- Yong Mun Sen (Yong Yen Lang) 楊曼生/杨曼生 (1896-1962; Dabu, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Yong Man Sang); Pioneer artist and the father of Malaysian painting
- Jimmy Choo 周仰杰 (1961-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Chiu Yong Ket), Renowned designer of shoes and handbags, United Kingdom
- Lo Hsiang-lin 羅香林/罗香林 (1906-1978, Xingning, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Lo Heong Lim), Scholar on Hakka culture and language
- Ivan Taslimson 林遵憲 (Meixian, Guangdong), architect, scientist, US tech tycoon
- Teng Yu-hsien 鄧雨賢/邓雨贤 (1906-1944; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Thien Yee Hen), Taiwanese composer
- Li Guohao 李國豪/李国豪 (1913-2005; Meixian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Ket Hau), One of the top bridge experts in the world
- Chung Li-ho 鐘理和/钟理和 (1915-1960; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Tsung Lee Foh), Famous Taiwanese novelist
- Han Suyin 韓素音/韩素音 (1917-; Xinyang, Henan), Author of books on modern China
- Lin Haiyin 林海音 (1918-2001; Jiaoling, Guangdong; born in Japan; Hakka pronunciation: Lim Hoi Yim), Taiwanese novelist whose memoirs, 城南旧事 (My Memories of Old Beijing), was made into a movie of the same name
- Shing-Tung Yau 丘成桐 (1949-; Jiaoling, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Hiew Sin Tung), Chinese-American mathematician
- Chin Liew Ten (born in Malaysia), Professor of Philosophy and former Head of the Philosophy Department, National University of Singapore; noted scholar of John Stuart Mill
- Hong Kong
- Chor Yuen 楚原 (1934-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Chu Ngian), Hong Kong film director
- Leslie Cheung 張國榮/张国荣[61] (1956-2003; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Zhong Guet Rhin), Famous singer/actor
- Chow Yun-fat 周潤發/周润发[62][63] (1955-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Zhiu Rhun Fat), One of the most famous actors in Asia; Lead actor in several Hollywood movies
- Leon Lai 黎明 (1966-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Le Min), Singer/actor; One of the "Four Great Heavenly Kings" of Chinese pop music
- Alex Man 萬梓良/万梓良 (1957-; Bao'an, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Van Zih Liong), Actor; Best Actor, Golden Horse Awards, 1988
- Cherie Chung 鍾楚紅/钟楚紅 (1960-; Boluo, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Zhung Chu Fung), Actress
- Jordan Chan 陳小春/陈小春[64](1967-, Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Siau Chun), Actor/singer
- Eric Tsang 曾志偉/曾志伟 (1953-; Wuhua, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Zen Zhi Vui), Actor/comedian
- Frances Yip 葉麗儀/叶丽仪 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Rhap Li Ngi), Singer/entertainer
- Deanie Ip 葉德嫻/叶德娴 (1947-; Huiyang, Guangdong; born in Dapengcheng; Hakka pronunciation: Rhap Det Han), Singer/actress
- Teresa Cheung Tak Lan 張德蘭/张德兰 (Dabu, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Zhong Det Lan), Popular Hong Kong singer in the 1970s-1980s
- Chan Wai-Man 陳惠敏/陈惠敏[65] (1946-; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Fui Mian); Actor who is well known for triad chief roles
- Shing Fui-On 成奎安 (1955-2009; Xingning, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Shin Kui On ), Actor who is well known for bad guy roles
- Angeline Leung 梁韵蕊 (Meixian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Liong Rhun Lui ), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1982
- Shallin Tse 謝寧/谢宁 (1963-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Cia Nen), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1985
- Shirley Yeung 楊思琦/杨思琦 (1978-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Rhong Sih Ki), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2001
- Fiona Yuen 袁彩雲 (1976-; born in Germany; Hakka pronunciation: Rhen Cai Rhun), Second runner-up, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 1996
- Kate Tsui 徐子珊 (1979-; Huizhou, Guangdong; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Ci Zih San), Winner, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2004
- Shermon Tang 鄧上文/邓上文 (1983-; born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Ten Shong Vun), Miss Photogenic, Miss Hong Kong pageant, 2005
- Taiwan
- Hou Hsiao-Hsien 侯孝賢/侯孝贤 (1947-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Heu Hau Hian), Award-winning film director and a leading figure of Taiwan's New Wave cinema movement
- Edward Yang 楊德昌/杨德昌 (1947-2007; Meixian, Guangdong; born in China; Hakka pronunciation: Rhong Det Chong), Film director; Best Director, Cannes Film Festival, 2000
- Luo Dayou 羅大佑/罗大佑 (1954-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Lo Tai Rhiu), Influential singer-songwriter who revolutionized Chinese pop and rock music in the 1980s
- Hebe Tien 田馥甄 (1983-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Tian Fuk Zhin), Member of S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
- Ella Chen 陳嘉樺 (1981-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Ga Fa), Member of S.H.E, Taiwanese female pop group
- Joe Zhang Shu Wei 張書偉 (1980-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Zhong Su Vui), Members of ENERGY, Male pop group
- Chen Qiao En 陳喬恩/陈乔恩 (1979-; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Kiau En), Leading actress of Taiwan idol dramas, co-leader of 7 Flowers, Taiwanese female pop group
- Shino Lin 林曉培/林晓培 (born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Lim Hiao Pui), Singer
- Julia Peng 彭佳慧 (1972-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Pang Ga Fui), Singer
- Alec Su 蘇有朋/苏有朋[66] (1973-, born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Su Rhiu Pen), Actor/singer
- Bowie Tsang 曾寶儀/曾宝仪 (1973-; Wuhua, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Zen Bo Ngi), Compere/singer/actress
- Chen Chien-Chou 陳建洲/陈建洲 (Blackie 黑人) (1977-; Meixian, Guangdong; born in Taiwan; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Kian Zhiu), Compere; Former national basketball player, Chinese Taipei national basketball team
- China
- Huang Wanqiu 黄婉秋 (1943-; Meixian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Vong Van Ciu), Actor, Lead actress of the classic movie, "Third Sister Liu" 刘三姐
- Li Ai 李艾 (Meixian, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Li Ngioi), Supermodel and one of China's most recognizable media personalities; Host, "China's Next Top Model"
- Singapore
- Fann Wong 范文芳 (1971-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Fam Vun Fong), Actress/singer/model
- Adrian Pang 彭耀順/彭耀顺 (1966-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Pang Rheu Shun), Actor; Best Actor for Comedy Performance, Asian Television Awards, 2002
- Xie Shaoguang 謝韶光/谢韶光 (1960-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Cia Sheu Guong), Actor; Best Actor, Asian Television Awards, 1998; Five-time winner of Singapore's best television actor award
- Felicia Chin 陳靚瑄/陈靓瑄 (1984-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Ciang Sian), Actress; Female winner, Star Search, 2003; Member of the Singapore national softball team at the age of 15[citation needed]
- Wong Lilin 黃麗玲/黄丽玲 (born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Vong Li Len), Actress
- Michelle Chong 莊米雪/庄米雪 (1977-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Zong Mi Siat), Actress/compere
- Maggie Teng 鄧妙華/邓妙华 (born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Ten Miao Fa), Singer; First Singaporean to break into Taiwan pop music industry in the 1980s[citation needed]
- Lee Wei Song 李偉菘/李伟菘 (1966-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Li Vui Siung) and Lee Shih Shiong 李偲菘 (1966-; born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Li Sih Siung), Well-known songwriters[citation needed]
- Ho Yeow Sun 何耀珊 (born in Singapore; Hakka pronunciation: Ho Rheu San), Singer; First and only Asian singer to top the US Billboard Dance Chart and the UK MusicWeek Chart; Performed the Olympic Hymn, which was sung in Mandarin for the first time, accompanied by a choir of Overseas Chinese from 16 different nationalities for 2008 Beijing Olympics
- Yew Hong Chow 遊宏釗/游宏钊, Classical musician and harmonica virtuso
- Malaysia
- Eric Moo 巫啟賢/巫启贤 (1963-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Muu Ki Hien), Award winning singer/composer/producer
- Michael Wong 王光良 (1970-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Vong Guong Liong) and Victor Wong 黄品冠 (1972-; Jieyang, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Vong Pin Guan), Singer-songwriters of "Guang Liang Pin Guan" 光良品冠 / "Wu Yin Liang Pin" 无印良品 fame
- Penny Tai ; 戴佩妮 (1978-; Haifeng, Guangdong; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Dai Pui Nee), Singer-songwriter; Best Composer, Golden Melody Awards, 2006
- Z-Chen 張智成/张智成 (1973-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Zhong Zhi Shin), Singer; Known as "The Little Prince of R&B"
- Gary Chaw 曹格 (1979-; born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Co Get), Singer; Winner, Best Male Mandarin Singer, Golden Melody Awards, 2008
- Wong Sze Zen (born in Malaysia), Miss Malaysia/World, 2003
- Lim Pey Yeng 林佩盈 (born in Malaysia; Hakka pronunciation: Lim Pui Rhin), First Runner Up, Miss Astro Chinese International Pegeant 2000, Famous TV / Event Host
- Indonesia
- China
- Lu Qin 呂欽/吕钦 (1962-; Huiyang, Guangdong), xiangqi grandmaster; Winner, World Xiangqi Individual Championships, 1990, 1995, 1997, 2001 and 2005
- Ye Qiaobo 葉喬波/叶乔波 (1964-; Hexian, Guangxi; Hakka pronunciation: Yap Kiau Poh), Winner, World Sprint Speed Skating Championships, 1992, 1993
- Xie Yuxin 謝育新/谢育新 (1968-; Xingning, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Chia Yuk Sin), National footballer, 1987–1996; First Chinese to play professional football overseas, 1987; Was the youngest footballer and youngest scorer, China national football team
- Sun Caiyun 孫彩雲/孙彩云 (1973-; Shenzhen, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Soon Choi Yun), World record-holder, Pole Vault, 1992–1995
- Yang Jinghui 楊景輝/杨景辉 (1983-; Guangzhou, Guangdong; Hakka pronunciation: Yong Kin Fui), Gold medalist, Diving, 2004 Athens Olympics
- Chen Hong 陳宏/陈宏 (1979-; Changting, Fujian; Hakka pronunciation: Chin Fen), Number 1 badminton player on the world ranking list from 2002 to 2003.
- Lin Dan 林丹 (1983-; Longyan, Fujian; Hakka pronunciation: Lim Dan), Individual and Team gold medalist, 2008 Beijing Olympics; Winner, World Badminton Championships, 2006, 2007, 2009
- Zhang Xiangxiang 張湘祥/张湘祥 (1983-; Longyan, Fujian; Hakka pronunciation: Chong Seong Seong), Gold medalist, Weightlifting, 2008 Beijing Olympics
- He Wenna 何雯娜 (1989-; Longyan, Fujian; Hakka pronunciation: Ho Vun Na), Gold medalist, Gymnastics (Trampoline), 2008 Beijing Olympics
- Taiwan
- Hong Kong
- Lee Wai Tong 李惠堂 (1905-1979; ;Wuhua, Guangdong, born in Hong Kong; Hakka pronunciation: Lee Fui Tong), One of the greatest Asian footballer
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Specific references:
- ^ a b Rubinstein, M. A (2004), Rethinking Taiwanese and Chinese Identity: Melissa J. Brown's Is Taiwan Chinese?, 40, Institute of International Relations, pp. 454–458, ISBN 1013-2511, http://iir.nccu.edu.tw/attachments/journal/add/4/40-0304-12-2-6.pdf
- ^ a b "Hakka", Encyclopædia Britannica online, 2011, accessed 31 March 2011.
- ^ Guangdong Hakka culture Newsgd.com.2009-August-24.Retrieved on 2010-March 6
- ^ a b c d LaCroix, Frederick E. (2009). The sky rained heroes: A journey from war to remembrance. Austin: Synergy Books. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-9821601-3-8.
- ^ http://www.asiawind.com/hakka/history.htm
- ^ http://english.longyan.gov.cn/hakka/200810/t20081031_66680.htm
- ^ Constable, Nichole. Guest People: Hakka Identity in China and Abroad. University of Washington Press, 2005, p. 9
- ^ a b Hu, SP; Luan, JA, Li, B, Chen, JX, Cai, KL, Huang, LQ, Xu, XY (2007 Jan). "Genetic link between Chaoshan and other Chinese Han populations: Evidence from HLA-A and HLA-B allele frequency distribution.". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 132 (1): 140–50. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.20460. PMID 16883565.
- ^ a b c d e Wang, WZ; Wang, CY, Cheng, YT, Xu, AL, Zhu, CL, Wu, SF, Kong, QP, Zhang, YP (2010 Jan). "Tracing the origins of Hakka and Chaoshanese by mitochondrial DNA analysis.". American Journal of Physical Anthropology 141 (1): 124–30. DOI:10.1002/ajpa.21124. PMID 19591216.
- ^ http://www.taiwandocuments.org/language.htm
- ^ Kiang, Clyde. The Hakka Odyssey and Their Taiwan Homeland. Allegheny Pr, 1992.[page needed]
- ^ Cheung, Sidney C.H. (1998). On the south China track: Perspectives on anthropological research and teaching. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 160. ISBN 978-962-441-540-7.
- ^ Lee, Khoon Choy (2006). Pioneers of modern China : understanding the inscrutable Chinese. River Edge, NJ: World Scientific Publishing. p. 62. ISBN 978-981-256-618-8.
- ^ http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/lang/hakka/english/a/a.htm
- ^ a b Chen, Jieming; Zheng, Houfeng, Bei, Jin-Xin, Sun, Liangdan, Jia, Wei-hua, Li, Tao, Zhang, Furen, Seielstad, Mark, Zeng, Yi-Xin, Zhang, Xuejun, Liu, Jianjun (1 December 2009). "Genetic Structure of the Han Chinese Population Revealed by Genome-wide SNP Variation". The American Journal of Human Genetics 85 (6): 775–785. DOI:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.10.016.
- ^ Original from the University of Michigan Digitized Jul 23, 2011Herold Jacob Wiens (1967). Han Chinese expansion in South China (reprint ed.). Shoe String Press. p. 270. http://books.google.com/books?ei=7UtQT6mdAoTv0gGdurnnDQ&id=qMomAQAAMAAJ&dq=Ling+Shun-sheng+mentioned+them+in+1947+only+in+Shu-p%27u%2C+Chien-yang%2C+Wu-kang%2C+Tao+Hsien+and+Yung-ming.zl+4.&q=ranks+in+yung-cheng++and+ling+hsien+excellent. Retrieved March 1 2012. "taste which alone are sufficient to demonstrate that the ancestors of the Hakka had long been in the ranks of the Han-Chinese civilization. In the Hakka region more than elsewhere in Ling-nan are such excellent old names as Fu-yung-chang (Hibiscus Range), Chin-p'ing Shan (Brocade-screen Mountains), Sung-yuan-ch'i (Pine-springs"
- ^ Herold Jacob Wiens (1954). China's march toward the tropics: a discussion of the southward penetration of China's culture, peoples, and political control in relation to the non-Han-Chinese peoples of south China and in the perspective of historical and cultural geography. Shoe String Press. p. 270. http://books.google.com/books?id=tOToAAAAIAAJ&q=taste+which+alone+are+sufficient+to+demonstrate+that+the+ancestors+of+the+Hakka+had+long+been+in+the+ranks+of+the+Han-Chinese+civilization&dq=taste+which+alone+are+sufficient+to+demonstrate+that+the+ancestors+of+the+Hakka+had+long+been+in+the+ranks+of+the+Han-Chinese+civilization&hl=en&sa=X&ei=AE9QT6iQLcfr0gH5oJT6DQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ. Retrieved March 1 2012. "taste which alone are sufficient to demonstrate that the ancestors of the Hakka had long been in the ranks of the Han-Chinese civilization. In the Hakka region more than elsewhere in Ling-nan are such excellent old names as Fu-yung-chang (Hibiscus Range), Chin-p'ing Shan (Brocade-screen Mountains), Sung-yuan-ch'i (Pine-springs"
- ^ "Fujian Tulou", UNESCO, accessed 31 March 2011.
- ^ a b Lawrence Davis, Edward (2005). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Chinese Culture, Routledge, p. 333.
- ^ Lozada, Eriberto P., Jr. in Ember, Melvin; Ember, Carol R.; Skoggard, Ian. (eds) (2005). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World (Volume 2), Springer Science+Business Media, pp. 92–103.
- ^ "The Formation and Development of Gannan Hakka Community"
- ^ 明季北略, chapter 12
- ^ New Peace County, A Chinese Gazetteer of the Hong Kong Region Peter Y.L. Ng, Hong Kong University Press, 1983. ISBN 962-209-043-5.
- ^ Ng (1983), p. 84.
- ^ See p.12, 圖片 香港今昔 by 高添強 (Gao TianQiang), 三聯書店. (1997 2nd Ed.) ISBN 962-04-1180-3
- ^ Gao 1997, p.16.
- ^ Down to Earth. The Territorial Bond in South China. ed. David Faure & Helen Siu, Stanford University Press. (1995) ISBN 0-8047-2434-2. See p.123-160, in Patrick Hase's article 'Alliance of Ten'.
- ^ p.123-160, Faure & Siu, (1995)
- ^ Gao, (1997)
- ^ Sterling, Richard. Chong, Elizabeth. Qin, Lushan Charles. [2001] (2001) World Food Hong Kong. Hong Kong: Lonely Planet Publishing. ISBN 1-86450-288-6
- ^ "Dari Tiongkok ke Pulau Bangka Bedol Desa ala Kuli Tionghoa". AMCA. August 19, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. http://merito.wordpress.com/2007/08/19/dari-tiongkok-ke-pulau-bangka-bedol-desa-ala-kuli-tionghoa.
- ^ "Hakka ngin in Bangka Islands, Indonesia". Asiawind. October 27, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=1&i=9449&t=9449.
- ^ "Kebersamaan Tanpa Prasangka". KOMPAS. August 23, 2006. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0608/23/humaniora/2898211.htm.
- ^ "Menengok Kelenteng-kelenteng Tua di Bangka". KOMPAS. April 15, 2005. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. http://www.kompas.com/kompas-cetak/0504/15/tanahair/1653384.htm.
- ^ "Ribuan Warga Tionghoa Rayakan Ceng Beng". KOMPAS. August 19, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-September 10. http://www.kompas.com/ver1/Nusantara/0704/05/095115.htm.
- ^ http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=1&i=4039&t=4028
- ^ http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=1&i=4039&t=4028
- ^ Tet Loi, Chong (2002), 'The Hakkas of Sabah: A Survey on Their Impact on the Modernization of the Bornean Malaysian State', Sabah Theological Seminary, pg. 28, ISBN 983-40840-0-5
- ^ Hakka Chinese Jamaican
- ^ Jamaica Gleaner: Pieces of the Past: The Arrival Of The Chinese
- ^ a b c Thunø, Mette (2007). Beyond Chinatown: new Chinese migration and the global expansion of China. NIAS Press. p. 234. ISBN 87-7694-000-4, 9788776940003. http://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=tSY__ozPK0sC&oi=fnd&pg=PA234&dq=sinwa+la+reunion&ots=AdgxojSwTS&sig=e4r8kLw6kRQbmH1cjLK_776GjmA#v=onepage&q=sinwa%20la%20reunion&f=false. Retrieved 2009-11-24.
- ^ http://www.hakkathailand.com/home/default_English.php?lang=English
- ^ God's Heavenly Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan, by Jonathan D. Spence. (pub. W.W. Norton, reprint) 1997. (ISBN 978-0-393-31556-1)
- ^ "Asians of the Century". Time. August 23, 1999. http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/cover1.html. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
- ^ "港报:黄华华传调京 跻身中国领导人". http://www.suizhou.org/?viewthread-39809.html.
- ^ "浓浓乡情系中原—访孙中山先生孙女孙穗芳博士 - 我的祖父是客家人". http://www.chinanews.com.cn/n/2003-12-04/26/376869.html.
- ^ "李登辉助选新招：客家人厉害 连战很客气". http://www.zaobao.com.sg/zaobao/special/china/taiwan/pages1/election120300.html.
- ^ "福建办世界客属恳亲会不欢迎李登辉". http://www.zaobao.com.sg/chinese/region/others/pages/other_chinese021100.html.
- ^ "忘记就是背叛——福建南靖吕氏宗亲痛责吕秀莲". http://www.people.com.cn/GB/channel1/10/20000414/38105.html.
- ^ "China has new chief, but power may lie elsewhere". http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/1118/p01s04-woap.htm.
- ^ "LIAO CHENGZHI, 75, A CHINESE LEADER". The New York Times. June 11, 1983. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30A17FB3F5F0C728DDDAF0894DB484D81. Retrieved May 4, 2010.
- ^ "Last Kapitan's legacy lives on". http://www.thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2007/4/28/central/17551213&sec=central.
- ^ "Thai PM seeks out roots in Meizhou". http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-07/04/content_456688.htm.
- ^ "泰国总理他信：我是华裔客家人". http://www.hsm.com.cn/news/2005/0701/68/596.shtml.
- ^ "Mauritius Bank Notes". http://tomchao.com/af/af49a.html.
- ^ "亚洲人在澳洲的骄傲 阿得雷德华人市长黄国鑫". http://www.zaobao.com.sg/chinese/region/others/pages/australia_chinese010900.html.
- ^ "Robert Chong". http://www.actv.com.au/robertchong/.
- ^ "Guangxi Hakka Zhang Jiuhuan, China's Ambassador to Singapore". http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=1&i=2815&t=2815.
- ^ "张九桓：桂东南小山村走出来的外交官". http://www.bobai.cn/Article_Show.asp?ArticleID=2190.
- ^ "大溪地珍珠王助华裔馆出版《海外华人百科全书》法文版". http://www.zaobao.com.sg/chinese/region/singapore/pages/singapore_chinese260900.html.
- ^ "張綠萍談弟弟張國榮". http://lesliecheung.cc/Special/Misc/articles/sister2.htm.
- ^ "Honorary Doctor of Letters - Mr CHOW Yun-fat" (PDF). https://www.cityu.edu.hk/cityu/about/honorary/doc/chow-en.pdf.
- ^ "Martial parts - Artist: Yun-Fat, Chow". http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Artists/Y/Yun_Fat_Chow/2003/04/13/762802.html.
- ^ "金曲獎／陳小春當頒獎人 用功聽專輯". http://www.nownews.com.tw/2001/05/01/37-443104.htm.
- ^ "Chan Wai Man's Biography". http://www.fortunecity.com/lavender/westside/70/chanwaimanbio.htm.
- ^ "苏有朋出演《原乡人》 将返台抢当客家一哥". http://gb1.chinabroadcast.cn/19720/2008/04/28/3465@2035972.htm.
General references:
- The Hakka Dialect. A Linguistic Study of its Phonology, Syntax and Lexicon, by Mantaro J. Hashimoto. (Cambridge University Press, 1973).
- The secret history of the Hakkas: the Chinese revolution as a Hakka enterprise by Mary S. Erbaugh, The China Quarterly, No. 132, December 1992, pp. 937–968.
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