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A masonry arch
1. Keystone 2. Voussoir 3. Extrados 4. Impost 5. Intrados 6. Rise 7. Clear span 8. Abutment

An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports a load. Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick architecture ^[1] and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.

Technical aspects[link]

The arch is significant because, in theory at least, it provides a structure which eliminates tensile stresses in spanning a great amount of open space. All the forces are resolved into compressive stresses. This is useful because several of the available building materials such as stone, cast iron and concrete can strongly resist compression but are very weak when tension, shear or torsional stress is applied to them. By using the arch configuration, significant spans can be achieved. This is because all the compressive forces hold it together in a state of equilibrium. This even applies to frictionless surfaces. However, one downside is that an arch pushes outward at the base, and this needs to be restrained in some way, either with heavy sides and friction or angled cuts into bedrock or similar.

This same principle holds when the force acting on the arch is not vertical such as in spanning a doorway, but horizontal, such as in arched retaining walls or dams.

Even when using concrete, where the structure may be monolithic, the principle of the arch is used so as to benefit from the concrete's strength in resisting compressive stress. Where any other form of stress is raised, it has to be resisted by carefully placed reinforcement rods or fibres. (See Arch bridge.)

History[link]

Roman arch architecture in Ostia Antica, Italy

True arches, as opposed to corbel arches, were known by a number of civilizations in the Ancient Near East, the Levant, and Mexico, but their use was infrequent and mostly confined to underground structures such as drains where the problem of lateral thrust is greatly diminished.^[2] A rare exception is the bronze age arched city gate of Ashkelon (modern day Israel), dating to ca. 1850 B.C.^[3] An early example of a voussoir arch appears in the Greek Rhodes Footbridge.^[4] In 2010, a robot discovered a long arch-roofed passageway underneath the Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl which stands in the ancient city of Teotihuacan north of Mexico City, dated to around 200 AD.^[5]

The ancient Romans learned the arch from the Etruscans, refined it and were the first builders to tap its full potential for above ground buildings:

The Romans were the first builders in Europe, perhaps the first in the world, fully to appreciate the advantages of the arch, the vault and the dome.^[6]

Throughout the Roman empire, their engineers erected arch structures such as bridges, aqueducts, and gates. They also introduced the triumphal arch as a military monument. Vaults began to be used for roofing large interior spaces such as halls and temples, a function which was also assumed by domed structures from the 1st century BC onwards.

The segmental arch was first built by the Romans who realized that an arch in a bridge did not have to be a semicircle,^[7][8] such as in Alconétar Bridge or Ponte San Lorenzo. They were also routinely used in house construction as in Ostia Antica (see picture).

The semicircular arch was followed in Europe by the pointed Gothic arch or ogive whose centreline more closely followed the forces of compression and which was therefore stronger. The semicircular arch can be flattened to make an elliptical arch as in the Ponte Santa Trinita. Both the parabolic and the catenary arches are now known to be the theoretically strongest forms. Parabolic arches were introduced in construction by the Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí, who admired the structural system of Gothic style, but for the buttresses, which he termed “architectural crutches”. The catenary and parabolic arches carry all horizontal thrust to the foundation and so do not need additional elements.

The horseshoe arch is based on the semicircular arch, but its lower ends are extended further round the circle until they start to converge. The first known built horseshoe arches are known from Aksum (modern day Ethiopia and Eritrea) from around the 3rd–4th century, around the same time as the earliest contemporary examples in Roman Syria, suggesting either an Aksumite or Syrian origin for the type of arch.^{[9][page needed]}

Construction[link]

An arch requires all of its elements to hold it together, raising the question of how an arch is constructed. One answer is to build a frame (historically, of wood) which exactly follows the form of the underside of the arch. This is known as a centre or centring. The voussoirs are laid on it until the arch is complete and self-supporting. For an arch higher than head height, scaffolding would in any case be required by the builders, so the scaffolding can be combined with the arch support. Occasionally arches would fall down when the frame was removed if construction or planning had been incorrect. (The A85 bridge at Dalmally, Scotland suffered this fate on its first attempt, in the 1940s^{[citation needed]}). The interior and lower line or curve of an arch is known as the intrados.

Old arches sometimes need reinforcement due to decay of the keystones, forming what is known as bald arch.

The gallery shows arch forms displayed in roughly the order in which they were developed.

Construction of adobe arches[link]

Below a set of pictures of various stages of construction of Arches made of adobe- mud- bricks using local materials and local labor in Merzouga, Morocco. They rest upon concrete pillars and have a concrete bar across them for strength.

• 

  Adobe Arches in Merzouga Morocco

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  Ready for final touches

• 

  Notice the adobe bricks

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  Bricks made from local mud.

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  Arches supported by concrete pillars

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  Similar to Arches in the Mosque in Cordoba,Spain

Completed Arches

• 

  Construction in Merzoura Morocco

• 

  Arches are made of Adobe and have to be protected from the rain. Roof is being constructed and is partially finished|

• 

Other types[link]

The Delicate Arch, a natural arch near Moab, Utah

A blind arch is an arch infilled with solid construction so it cannot function as a window, door, or passageway.

Natural rock formations may also be referred to as arches. These natural arches are formed by erosion rather than being carved or constructed by man. See Arches National Park for examples.

A special form of the arch is the triumphal arch, usually built to celebrate a victory in war. A famous example is the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France.

Gallery[link]

• 

  The dry stone bridge, so called Porta Rosa (4th century BC), in Elea

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  Arch of Constantine, Rome, Italy commemorating a victory by Constantine I in 312 AD

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  The Gateway Arch in Saint Louis, Missouri; a sculpture based on a catenary arch

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  Doubled round archivolts – Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Assunção, Linhares da Beira, Portugal.

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  Stonework arches seen in a ruined stonework building – Burg Lippspringe, Germany

• 

  Several arches at the Casa Simón Bolívar in Havana, Cuba

• 

  Arches in the Armenian monastery of Geghard.

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  Arches in the nave of the church in monastery of Alcobaça, Portugal

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  The Arc de Triomphe, Paris; a 19th-century triumphal arch modeled on the classical Roman design

• 

  The Second Wembley Stadium, in London, built in 2007

• 

  Catenary arches inside Casa Milà in Barcelona, Spain by Antoni Gaudí

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  Arches in one of the porticos of Mosque of Uqba also known as the Great Mosque of Kairouan, city of Kairouan, Tunisia

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  Lucerne railway station, Switzerland

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  Arcade at Campeche, Mexico.

See also[link]

• Arcade (architecture)
• Arch bridge
• Corbelled arch
• Blind arch
• Natural arch
• Order moulding
• Skew arch
• Suspension bridge
• Triumphal arch
• Golden Arches

References[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Arch

Notes

• Boyd, Thomas D. (1978), "The Arch and the Vault in Greek Architecture", American Journal of Archaeology 82 (1): 83–100 (91), DOI:10.2307/503797 
• Galliazzo, Vittorio (1995), I ponti romani, Vol. 1, Treviso: Edizioni Canova, ISBN 88-85066-66-6 
• O’Connor, Colin (1993), Roman Bridges, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39326-4 
• Rasch, Jürgen (1985), "Die Kuppel in der römischen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruktion", Architectura 15: 117–139 
• Roth, Leland M (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements History and Meaning. Oxford, UK: Westview Press. ISBN 0-06-430158-3.  pp. 27–8

External links[link]

• DIYinfo.org's Constructing Brick Arches Wiki - A wiki on how to construct brick arches around the house
• DIYinfo.org's Constructing Timber Framed Arches Wiki - Similar to the brick arches but extra information for timber arches

William Trubridge

William Trubridge

William Trubridge (born on 24 May 1980) is a world champion and double world record holding free-diver from New Zealand.^[1]

Trubridge currently holds the world record in the Free Immersion and the Constant Weight without fins disciplines, and is the first human ever to break the 100m barrier unassisted.

World Records:

• 81 m (265.74 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 9 April 2007

• 82 m (269.02 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 11 April 2007

• 84 m (275.59 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 4 April 2008

• 107 m (351.04 ft) Free Immersion, 8 April 2008

• 86 m (282.15 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 10 April 2008

• 108 m (354.33 ft) Free Immersion, 11 April 2008

• 88 m (288.71 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 10 April 2009

• 90 m (295.27 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 3 December 2009

• 92 m (301.83 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 19 April 2009

• 116 m (380.57 ft) Free Immersion, 22 April 2010

• 95 m (311.67 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 26 April 2010

• 96 m (314.96 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 10 December 2010

• 100 m (328.08 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 14 December 2010

• 101 m (331.36 ft) Constant Weight without fins, 16 December 2010

• 121 m (396.98 ft) Free Immersion, 10 April 2011

Though Trubridge's passion lies in the depth disciplines, he accumulated the highest total number of points for an individual at the 2010 Freediving Team's World Championships held in Okinawa, Japan.

On 18 January 2011, Trubridge won the World's Absolute Freediver Award (WAFA) naming him best all around freediver, with the highest combined score in six freediving disciplines: static apnea, dynamic apnea with fins, dynamic apnea without fins (pool disciplines), constant weight apnea with fins, constant weight without fins, and free immersion (depth disciplines).

Trubridge is an Apnea Academy instructor and he currently operates a freediving school and annual competition both called Vertical Blue at Dean's Blue Hole in Long Island, Bahamas from September-May. During the summer he teaches courses in Europe and trains at Tenerife Top Training Center.

Trubridge is also sponsored by Suunto and Orca.

His website is www.verticalblue.net

References[link]

External links[link]

• Vertical Blue Freediving homepage
• Current Freediving World Records
• Deeperblue.net Free-diving forum
• Apnea Academy - A global teaching organisation for underwater apnea - presided over by Umberto Pelizzari
• AIDA New Zealand website

Vivienne Westwood
Westwood in 2008.
Born	Vivienne Isabel Swire (1941-04-08) 8 April 1941 (age 71) Tintwistle, Derbyshire, England
Nationality	British
Education	University of Westminster, Middlesex University
Occupation	Fashion designer/Businesswoman
Spouse	Sam Westwood (1962–65) (divorced); 1 child Andreas Kronthaler (since 1992)
Children	Ben Westwood (born 1963) Joseph Corré (born 1967)
Awards	British Fashion Designer of the Year 1990, 1991 and 2006.
Labels	Vivienne Westwood

Dame Vivienne Westwood, DBE, RDI (born Vivienne Isabel Swire on 8 April 1941) is a British fashion designer and businesswoman, largely responsible for bringing modern punk and new wave fashions into the mainstream.^[1]

Life and career[link]

Early life of Vivienne Westwood[link]

Westwood was born Vivienne Isabel Swire in the village of Tintwistle, Derbyshire^{[N 1]} on 8 April 1941,^[2] the daughter of Gordon Swire and Dora Swire (née Ball), who had married two years previously, two weeks after the outbreak of World War II.^[3] At the time of Vivienne's birth, her father was employed as a storekeeper in an aircraft factory; he had previously worked as a greengrocer.^[3]

Aged 17, Vivienne and her family moved to Harrow, London. She studied at the Harrow School of Art - University of Westminster, taking fashion and silversmithing, but she left after one term saying, "I didn't know how a working-class girl like me could possibly make a living in the art world".^[4] After taking up a job in a factory and studying at a teacher-training college, she became a primary school teacher.^[2] During this period, she also created her own jewellery, which she would sell at a stall on Portobello Road.^[2]

In 1961, Vivienne Swire met Derek Westwood, a Hoover factory apprentice, in Harrow.^[5] They married on 21 July 1962 and Vivienne made her own wedding dress for the ceremony.^[5] In 1963, she gave birth to a son, Benjamin Westwood.^[5]

Malcolm McLaren[link]

When she met Malcolm McLaren, it signified the end of Westwood's marriage to Derek. Westwood and McLaren moved to a council flat in Clapham. Westwood continued to teach until 1971 when Malcolm decided to open a boutique at 430 King's Road called "Let It Rock" (later known variously as "Sex", "Too Fast To Live Too Young To Die", and "Seditionaries") and now Worlds Ends, where Westwood sells her Vivienne Westwood label clothing.

Westwood created clothes which McLaren conceived, drawing inspiration from bikers, fetishists and prostitutes.^[6] During this period, McLaren became manager of the punk band Sex Pistols and subsequently the two garnered attention as the band wore Westwood and McLaren's designs. While living in their flat in Clapham, Westwood and McLaren had a child, another son, named Joseph.^{[citation needed]}

Punk era[link]

Westwood was deeply interested in the punk fashion phenomenon of the 1970s, saying "I was messianic about punk, seeing if one could put a spoke in the system in some way".^[5] The "punk style" included BDSM fashion, bondage gear, safety pins, razor blades, bicycle or lavatory chains on clothing and spiked dog collars for jewellery, as well as outrageous make-up and hair. Essential design elements include the adoption of traditional elements of Scottish design such as tartan fabric. Amongst the more unusual elements of her style is the use of historical 17th and 18th century cloth cutting principles, and reinterpreting these in, for instance, radical cutting lines to men's trousers. Use of these traditional elements make the overall effect of her designs more shocking.

Vivienne Westwood company[link]

Westwood has five exclusively-owned shops; three in London, one in Leeds, and one in Milan. Franchise stores are located in Liverpool, Newcastle, Glasgow, three in Manchester (Spring Gardens in the city centre and two others)^{[citation needed]} and most recently, in FH Mall, Nottingham (20 March 2008), and in Blake Street, York (11 September 2008).^{[citation needed]} She also has showrooms in Milan, Paris and Los Angeles.^{[citation needed]}

Artistic collections[link]

The pair of heels designed by Westwood in which Naomi Campbell famously stumbled while modelling at Westwood's fashion show in 1993^[7]