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Ephesus
Ephesus (/ˈɛfəsəs/);Ancient Greek Ἔφεσος, Ephesos; Turkish Efes) was an ancient Greek city, and later a major Roman city, on the west coast of Asia Minor, near present-day Selçuk, Izmir Province, Turkey. It was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League during the Classical Greek era. In the Roman period, Ephesus had a population of more than 250,000 in the 1st century BC, which also made it one of the largest cities in the Mediterranean world.
The city was famed for the Temple of Artemis (completed around 550 BC), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Emperor Constantine I rebuilt much of the city and erected new public baths. Following the Edict of Thessalonica from emperor Theodosius I, the temple was destroyed in 401 AD by a mob led by St. John Chrysostom. The town was partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614 AD. The city's importance as a commercial center declined as the harbor was slowly silted up by the Cayster River (Küçük Menderes).
Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia that are cited in the Book of Revelation. The Gospel of John may have been written here. The city was the site of several 5th century Christian Councils, see Council of Ephesus. It is also the site of a large gladiators' graveyard.
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Nalanda
Nālandā was an ancient center of higher learning in Bihar, India. The site of Nalanda is located in the Indian state of Bihar, about 88 kilometers south east of Patna, and was a Buddhist center of learning from the fifth or sixth century CE to 1197 CE. It has been called "one of the first great universities in recorded history". Nalanda flourished between the reign of the Śakrāditya (whose identity is uncertain and who might have been either Kumara Gupta I or Kumara Gupta II) and 1197 CE, supported by patronage from the Hindu Gupta rulers as well as Buddhist emperors like Harsha and later emperors from the Pala Empire.
The complex was built with red bricks and its ruins occupy an area of 14 hectares. At its peak, the university attracted scholars and students from as far away as Tibet, China, Greece, and Persia. Nalanda was ransacked and destroyed by Turkic Muslim invaders under Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1193. The great library of Nalanda University was so vast that it is reported to have burned for three months after the invaders set fire to it, ransacked and destroyed the monasteries, and drove the monks from the site. In 2006, Singapore, China, India, Japan, and other nations, announced a proposed plan to restore and revive the ancient site as Nalanda International University.
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Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic (Weimarer Republik [ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk] (
listen)) is the name given by historians to the federal republic and parliamentary representative democracy established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It was named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. Its official name was German Reich (Deutsches Reich)
Following World War I, the republic emerged from the German Revolution in November 1918. In 1919, a national assembly convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the German Reich was written, then adopted on 11 August of that same year. The ensuing period of liberal democracy lapsed in the early 1930s, leading to the ascent of the nascent Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler in 1933. The legal measures taken by the Nazi government in February and March 1933, commonly known as Gleichschaltung ("coordination") meant that the government could legislate contrary to the constitution. The republic nominally continued to exist until 1945, as the constitution was never formally repealed. However, the measures taken by the Nazis in the early part of their rule rendered the constitution irrelevant. Thus, 1933 is usually seen as the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of Hitler's Third Reich.
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Antonie Pannekoek
Antonie (Anton) Pannekoek (2 January 1873, Vaassen, Gelderland–28 April 1960, Wageningen) was a Dutch astronomer, Marxist theorist, and social revolutionary. He was one of the main theorists of council communism (Dutch: radencommunisme).
Pannekoek studied mathematics and physics in Leiden from 1891. Even before he went to college he was interested in astronomy and studied the variability of Polaris. He published his first article, On the Necessity of Further Researches on the Milky Way, as a student. Some years after he had finished his study he started work at the Leidse Sterrewacht (Leiden observatory), where he wrote his thesis.
After reading Edward Bellamy's Equality, Pannekoek became a convinced socialist and started studying Karl Marx's theories. Soon Pannekoek became a well-known Marxist writer, writing for both Dutch and German magazines. Dissatisfaction with his job at the observatory led him to move to Berlin, where he became a lecturer at the school funded by the Social Democratic Party of Germany. His radical opinions soon got him in trouble with both the German government and the unions.
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Antonio Gramsci
Antonio Gramsci (Italian pronunciation: [anˈtɔːnjo ˈɡramʃi]) (January 22, 1891 – April 27, 1937) was an Italian writer, politician, political theorist, and linguist. He was a founding member and onetime leader of the Communist Party of Italy and was imprisoned by Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime.
Gramsci was one of the most important Marxist thinkers in the 20th century. His writings are heavily concerned with the analysis of culture and political leadership and he is notable as a highly original thinker within modern European thought. He is renowned for his concept of cultural hegemony as a means of maintaining the state in a capitalist society.
Gramsci was born in Ales, on the island of Sardinia. He was the fourth of seven sons of Francesco Gramsci (1860–1937), a low-level official from Gaeta, and his wife, Giuseppina Marcias (1861–1932). Gramsci's father was of Arbëreshë, Albanian descent, while his mother belonged to a local landowning family. The senior Gramsci's financial difficulties and troubles with the police forced the family to move about through several villages in Sardinia until they finally settled in Ghilarza.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
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Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer (22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher known for his pessimism and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the four separate manifestations of reason in the phenomenal world.
Schopenhauer's most influential work, The World as Will and Representation, claimed that the world is fundamentally what humans recognize in themselves as their will. His analysis of will led him to the conclusion that emotional, physical, and sexual desires can never be fully satisfied. The corollary of this is an ultimately painful human condition. Consequently, he considered that a lifestyle of negating desires, similar to the ascetic teachings of Vedanta, Buddhism and the Church Fathers of early Christianity, was the only way to attain liberation.
Schopenhauer's metaphysical analysis of will, his views on human motivation and desire, and his aphoristic writing style influenced many well-known thinkers, including Friedrich Nietzsche,Richard Wagner, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Erwin Schrödinger, Albert Einstein,Sigmund Freud, Otto Rank, Carl Jung, Joseph Campbell, Leo Tolstoy, Thomas Mann, and Jorge Luis Borges.
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Averroism
Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century: (a) the Arab philosopher Averroës or Ibn Rushd's interpretations of Aristotle and his reconciliation of Aristotelianism with Islamic faith; and (b) the application of these ideas in the Latin Christian and Jewish intellectual traditions, such as Siger of Brabant, Boetius of Dacia, and Maimonides. The term was originally coined by Ernst Renan.
Averroes at the time of Dante Alighieri was probably the most widely condemned thinker in the medieval Christian world... Averroism became virtually synonymous with atheism in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance . As an historiographical category it was first developed by Ernest Renan in Averroès et l'averroïsme (1852). Later historians applied the name to significant uses and expressions of elements of Averroes' doctrines and to the exegetical tradition of Aristotle by Jewish and Christian thinkers as it had come down through the Latin and Hebrew traditions. "Averroist" can therefore describe a range of positions, up to and including scholars interested in the historical phenomenon of Averroes' influence[citation needed].
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Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur Sina [ˈpuːr ˈsiːnɑː] "son of Sina"; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persianpolymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.
His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. The Canon of Medicine was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's Canon of Medicine provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).
His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
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Baruch Spinoza
Baruch Spinoza and later Benedict de Spinoza (24 November 1632 – 21 February 1677) was a Dutch philosopher. Revealing considerable scientific aptitude, the breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment[citation needed] and modern biblical criticism, he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. His magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes's mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important contributors. In the Ethics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely." Philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel said of all contemporary philosophers, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."
Spinoza's name in different languages is Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה Baruch Spinoza, Portuguese: Benedito or Bento de Espinosa and Latin: Benedictus de Spinoza; in all these languages, the given name means "the Blessed". Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.
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Bertell Ollman
Bertell Ollman (born April 30, 1935 in Milwaukee) is a professor of politics at New York University. He teaches both dialectical methodology and socialist theory. He is the author of several academic works relating to Marxist theory (see 'Works' below).
Ollman attended the University of Wisconsin, receiving a BA in political science in 1956 and an MA in political science in 1957. He went on to study at Oxford University, earning an A.B. in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1959, an MA in political theory in 1963, and a PhD in political theory in 1967. He already had gained much teaching experience before receiving his PhD, and began teaching at NYU in 1967, immediately after earning his PhD.
Ollman is also the creator of Class Struggle, a board game based around his Marxist beliefs, and from 1978-1983 was president of Class Struggle, Inc., the company that initially produced and marketed the game. The game was later released by a major board game company, Avalon Hill. It received publicity due to its unusual and controversial theme[1].
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Boethius
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, commonly called Boethius (ca. 480–524 or 525 AD) was a philosopher of the early 6th century. He was born in Rome to an ancient and prominent family which included emperors Petronius Maximus and Olybrius and many consuls. His father, Flavius Manlius Boethius, was consul in 487 after Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman Emperor. Boethius, of the noble Anicia family, entered public life at a young age and was already a senator by the age of 25. Boethius himself was consul in 510 in the kingdom of the Ostrogoths. In 522 he saw his two sons become consuls. Boethius was imprisoned and eventually executed by King Theodoric the Great, who suspected him of conspiring with the Eastern Roman Empire. While jailed, Boethius composed his Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise on fortune, death, and other issues. The Consolation became one of the most popular and influential works of the Middle Ages. A link between Boethius and a mathematical boardgame Rithmomachia has been made.
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Che Guevara
Ernesto "Che" Guevara (Spanish pronunciation: [ˈtʃe ɣeˈβaɾa]; June 14, 1928 – October 9, 1967), commonly known as el Che or simply Che, was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, author, intellectual, guerrilla leader, diplomat, and military theorist. A major figure of the Cuban Revolution, his stylized visage has become a ubiquitous countercultural symbol of rebellion and global insignia within popular culture.
As a young medical student, Guevara traveled throughout Latin America and was radically transformed by the endemic poverty and alienation he witnessed. His experiences and observations during these trips led him to conclude that the region's ingrained economic inequalities were an intrinsic result of capitalism, monopolism, neocolonialism, and imperialism, with the only remedy being world revolution. This belief prompted his involvement in Guatemala's social reforms under President Jacobo Arbenz, whose eventual CIA-assisted overthrow solidified Guevara's political ideology. Later, while living in Mexico City, he met Raúl and Fidel Castro, joined their 26th of July Movement, and sailed to Cuba aboard the yacht, Granma, with the intention of overthrowing U.S.-backed Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. Guevara soon rose to prominence among the insurgents, was promoted to second-in-command, and played a pivotal role in the victorious two-year guerrilla campaign that deposed the Batista regime.
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Dharmakirti
Dharmakīrti (ca. 7th century) also known as Serlingpa Dharmakīrti or Suvarnadvipi Dharmakīrti, was a Buddhist scholar of Srivijayan origin, Suvarnadvipa (Sumatra). He was one of the Buddhist founders of Indian philosophical logic. He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism, according to which the only items considered to exist are momentary states of consciousness.
Born around the turn of the 7th century in Sumatra, Dharmakirti was a Srivijayan prince of Sailendra dynasty. He became a revered scholar monk in Srivijaya and moved to India to became a teacher at the famed Nalanda University, as well as a poet. He built on and reinterpreted the work of Dignaga, the pioneer of Buddhist Logic, and was very influential among Brahman logicians as well as Buddhists. His theories became normative in Tibet and are studied to this day as a part of the basic monastic curriculum.
Collins (2000: p. 240) colourfully contextualized Dharmakirti and his experience of disaffection and collegiate misunderstanding at Nalanda:-
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Eduard Bernstein
Eduard Bernstein (6 January 1850 – 18 December 1932) was a German social democratic political theoretist and politician, a member of the SPD, and the founder of evolutionary socialism and revisionism.
Bernstein was born in Schöneberg (now part of Berlin) to Jewish parents, although they did not practice religion. His father was a locomotive driver. From 1866 to 1878, after leaving school, he was employed in banks as a banker's clerk. His political career began in 1872, when he joined the Eisenach (named after the German town Eisenach) wing of the German socialist movement, a socialist party with Marxist tendencies formally known as Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Eisenacher Programms and soon became prominent as an activist. Bernstein's party contested two elections against a rival socialist party, the Lassalleans (Ferdinand Lassalle's Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein), but in both elections neither party was able to win a significant majority of the left-wing vote. Consequently, together with August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, Bernstein prepared the Einigungsparteitag ("unification party congress") with the Lassalleans in Gotha in 1875. Karl Marx's famous Critique of the Gotha Program criticized what he saw as a Lassallean victory over the Eisenachers whom he favored; interestingly, Bernstein later noted that it was Liebknecht, considered by many to be the strongest Marxist advocate within the Eisenacher faction, who proposed the inclusion of many of the ideas which so thoroughly irritated Marx.
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Emil Brunner
Heinrich Emil Brunner (December 23, 1889, Winterthur – April 6, 1966, Zurich) was a Swiss Protestant (Reformed) theologian. Along with Karl Barth (see Relationship with Karl Barth), he is commonly associated with neo-orthodoxy or the dialectical theology movement.
Emil Brunner was born in Winterthur, near Zurich, Switzerland.
He studied at the universities of Zurich and Berlin, receiving his doctorate in theology from Zurich in 1913, with a dissertation on The Symbolic Element in Religious Knowledge. Brunner served as pastor from 1916 to 1924 in the mountain village of Obstalden in the Swiss Canton of Glarus. In 1919–1920 he spent a year in the United States studying at Union Theological Seminary in New York.
In 1921 Brunner published his Habilitationsschrift (a post-doctoral dissertation traditionally required in many countries in order to attain the position of a fully tenured professor) on Experience, Knowledge and Faith and in 1922 was appointed a Privatdozent at the University of Zurich. Soon after, another book followed: Mysticism and the Word (1924), which was a devastating critique of the liberal theology of Friedrich Schleiermacher. Brunner was rewarded for his literary efforts with his appointment in 1924 as Professor of Systematic and Practical Theology at the University of Zurich, a post which he held until his retirement in 1953. Following this appointment Brunner's reputation as a theologian continued to increase, particularly after the publication of two further important works in 1927, the first being The Philosophy of Religion from the Standpoint of Protestant Theology and second The Mediator.
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Erich Fromm
Erich SeligmannFromm (March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, sociologist, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.
Erich Fromm was born on March 23, 1900, at Frankfurt am Main, the only child of Orthodox Jewish parents. He started his academic studies in 1918 at the University of Frankfurt am Main with two semesters of jurisprudence. During the summer semester of 1919, Fromm studied at the University of Heidelberg, where he switched from studying jurisprudence to sociology under Alfred Weber (brother of the better known sociologist Max Weber), the psychiatrist-philosopher Karl Jaspers, and Heinrich Rickert. Fromm received his PhD in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922. During the mid 1920s, he was trained to become a psychoanalyst through Frieda Reichmann's psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg. He began his own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930, he joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training.
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Evald Ilyenkov
Evald Vassilievich Ilyenkov (Russian: Э́вальд Васи́льевич Илье́нков; 18 February 1924, Smolensk–21 March 1979, Moscow) was a Marxist author and Soviet philosopher who did original work on the materialist development of Hegel's dialectics. His works include Dialectical Logic (1977), Leninist Dialectics and the Metaphysics of Positivism (1982) and The Dialectics of the Abstract and Concrete in Marx's Capital (Russian, 1960; English trans. 1982). Ilyenkov committed suicide in 1979.
David Bakhurst wrote in his article; "Meaning, Normativity and the Life of Mind":
An abridged version of his article, "Marx and the Western World," was published in English in a book of the same name in 1967, but this work is little known.
On the other hand, Ilyenkov's work (especially his masterpiece, the study on Dialectics of the Abstract and the Concrete in Marx’s Capital from 1960, and the collection of essays entitled Dialectical Logic from 1974) deeply influenced the reception of Marx' economic writings from the 1960s onwards, in the Soviet Union and the GDR as well as in the West. His influence can be witnessed in the international research effort concerned with the publication of Marx' economic manuscripts (in Marx/Engels: Gesamtausgabe, or MEGA, section II, 1976 ff.). His influence is also evident in the intense debates on economic reform that was going on in the Soviet Union in the 1970s (e.g., in the works of A. K. Pokrytan).
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Friedrich Engels
Friedrich Engels (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɛŋəls]; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German-English industrialist, social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital.
Friedrich (Frederick) Engels was born on November 28, 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany). At the time, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropole and Frederick was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. As his father, Friederich Sr., was a Methodist. Accordingly, Fredrick was raised Christian Pietist. As he grew up, his relationship with his parents became strained because of his atheist beliefs. Parental disapproval of his revolutionary activities is recorded in an October, 1848 letter from his mother, Elizabeth Engels. In this letter his mother berates him for having "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further.". "You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest." At the point this letter was written Frederick Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium and was soon to make his way to Switzerland and then in 1849 make his way back into Germany to participate in the revolutionary uprising in Baden and Palatinate.
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Friedrich Hölderlin
Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (German pronunciation: [ˈjoːhan ˈkʁɪsti.aːn ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhœldɐliːn]; 20 March 1770 – 7 June 1843) was a major German lyric poet, commonly associated with the artistic movement known as Romanticism. Hölderlin was also an important thinker in the development of German Idealism, particularly his early association with and philosophical influence on his seminary roommates and fellow Swabians Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling.
Hölderlin was born in Lauffen am Neckar in the Duchy of Württemberg. His father, the manager of a church estate, died when the boy was two years old. He was brought up by his mother, who in 1774 married the Mayor of Nürtingen and moved there. He had a full sister, born after their father's death, and a half-brother. His stepfather died when he was nine. He went to school in Denkendorf and Maulbronn and then studied theology at the Tübinger Stift, where his fellow-students included Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (who had been a fellow-pupil at his first school) and Isaac von Sinclair.
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Friedrich Pollock
Friedrich Pollock (22 May 1894 – 16 December 1970) was a German social scientist and philosopher. He was one of the founders of the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt am Main, and a member of the Frankfurt School of neo-Marxist theory.
Friedrich Pollock was born to a leather factory owner in Freiburg im Breisgau. Pollock's Jewish-born father turned away from Judaism, and raised his son accordingly. Pollack was educated in finance 1911 to 1915. During this time he met Max Horkheimer, with whom he became a lifelong friend. He then studied economy, sociology and philosophy in Frankfurt am Main, where he wrote his thesis on Marx's Labor theory of value and received his doctorate in 1923.
The Institute for Social Research was founded in 1924 by Pollock and fellow Marxist Felix Weil, who funded the group. Weil was inspired to found the institute after the success of his week long conference, the First Marxist Workweek, in 1923. Weil's goal was to bring together different schools of Marxism, and included György Lukács, Karl Korsch, Karl August Wittfogel, and Friedrich Pollock.
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Garlandus Compotista
Garlandus Compotista also known as Garland the Computist was an early medieval logician of the eleventh-century school of Liège. Little is known of his life; the Dialectica published under his name by L. M. de Rijk is now commonly attributed to Gerlandus of Besançon (early 12th century): see John Marenbon, Medieval Philosophy. An Historical and Philosophical Introduction, NY: Routledge, 2007, p. 133.
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Georgi Plekhanov
Georgi Valentinovich Plekhanov (Russian: Гео́ргий Валенти́нович Плеха́нов) (November 29, 1856 – May 30, 1918) was a Russian revolutionary and a Marxist theoretician. He was a founder of the Social-Democratic movement in Russia and was one of the first Russians to identify himself as "Marxist." Facing political persecution, Plekhanov emigrated to Switzerland in 1880, where he continued in his political activity attempting to overthrow the Tsarist regime in Russia. During World War I Plekhanov rallied to the cause of the Entente powers against Germany and he returned home to Russia following the 1917 February Revolution. Plekhanov was hostile to the Bolshevik party headed by Vladimir Lenin, however, and was an opponent of the Soviet regime which came to power in the autumn of 1917. He died the following year. Despite his vigorous and outspoken opposition to Lenin's political party in 1917, Plekhanov was held in high esteem by the Russian Communist Party following his death as a founding father of Russian Marxism and a philosophical thinker.
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Gotthard Günther
Gotthard Günther (also Gunther, Guenther; June 15, 1900 in Arnsdorf, Landkreis Hirschberg im Riesengebirge, Prussian Silesia (modern day Jelenia Góra, Poland) - November 29, 1984, Hamburg), was a German (Prussian) philosopher.
From 1921 to 1933, Günther studied sinology and philosophy at the universities of Heidelberg and Berlin, and wrote his doctor's thesis on Hegel in 1933 under the guidance of Eduard Spranger. From 1935 to 1937, he worked at the institute of Arnold Gehlen at the University of Leipzig, publishing “Christliche Metaphysik und das Schicksal des modernen Bewusstseins” (“Christian metaphysics and the fate of modern consciousness”, together with Helmut Schelsky in 1937). He was a member of the Leipzig School.
In the same year, following his wife, the Jewish psychologist Dr. Marie Günther-Hendel, he emigrated from Germany first to Italy, afterwards to Stellenbosch University in South Africa and, in 1940, to the United States. There he completed his system of place-valued logics and morphogrammatics. His great study “Die philosophische Idee einer nicht-Aristotelischen Logik” (“The philosophical concept of a non-Aristotelian logic”) went to print in 1957 (Hamburg, Meiner). As a research professor, he joined the department of electrical engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1960, working together with Warren Sturgis McCulloch, Heinz von Foerster, Humberto Maturana and others. In 1962, he published Cybernetic ontology and transjunctional operations. Later he lectured at the University of Hamburg, until he died, in 1984.
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Gregory Vlastos
Gregory Vlastos (Greek: Γρηγόριος Βλαστός; July 27, 1907 – October 12, 1991) was a scholar of ancient philosophy, and author of several works on Plato and Socrates. He was also a Christian and has written on Christian faith as well.
Vlastos was born in Istanbul, to a Scottish mother and a Greek father, where he received a Bachelor of Arts from Robert College before moving to Harvard University where he received a PhD in 1931. After teaching for several years at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, Canada, he moved to Cornell University in 1948. He was Stuart Professor of Philosophy at Princeton University between 1955 and 1976, and then Mills Professor of Philosophy at University of California, Berkeley until 1987. He received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 1990. He was twice awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship, was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, a corresponding fellow of the British Academy, and a member of the American Philosophical Society. Vlastos died in 1991, before finishing a new compilation of essays on Socratic philosophy.
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György Lukács
György Lukács (
/ˈluːkɑːtʃ/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˌɟørɟ ˈlukaːtʃ]; (13 April 1885 – 4 June 1971) was a Hungarian philosopher, æsthetician, literary historan, critic, and Marxist. He was the founder of Western Marxism, the interpretive tradition that departed from the Marxist ideologic orthodoxy of the USSR; as such, he developed the theory of reification, and contributed to Marxist theory with developments of the class consciousness theory by Karl Marx. As a literary critic György Lukács was especially influential, because of his theoretical developments of realism and of the novel as a literary genre. In 1919, he was the Hungarian Minister of Culture of the government of the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (March–August 1919).
Georg Lukács was born Löwinger György Bernát, in Budapest Hungary, to the investment banker József Löwinger (later Szegedi Lukács József; 1855–1928) and his wife Adele Wertheimer (Wertheimer Adél; 1860–1917), who were a wealthy Jewish family. As an Austro–Hungarian subject, the full names of Georg Lukács were the German Georg Bernhard Lukács von Szegedin, and the Hungarian Szegedi Lukács György Bernát; as a writer, he published under the names Georg Lukács and György Lukács. As a student, Georg Lukács studied at the universities of Budapest and Berlin, and received his doctorate in 1906 in Kolozsvár.
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Heraclitus
Heraclitus of Ephesus (Ancient Greek: Ἡράκλειτος ὁ Ἐφέσιος—Hērákleitos ho Ephésios; c. 535 – c. 475 BCE) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, a native of the Greek city Ephesus, Ionia, on the coast of Asia Minor. He was of distinguished parentage. Little is known about his early life and education, but he regarded himself as self-taught and a pioneer of wisdom. From the lonely life he led, and still more from the riddling nature of his philosophy and his contempt for humankind in general, he was called "The Obscure" and the "Weeping Philosopher".
Heraclitus is famous for his insistence on ever-present change in the universe, as stated in the famous saying, "No man ever steps in the same river twice" (see panta rhei, below). He believed in the unity of opposites, stating that "the path up and down are one and the same", all existing entities being characterized by pairs of contrary properties. His cryptic utterance that "all entities come to be in accordance with this Logos" (literally, "word", "reason", or "account") has been the subject of numerous interpretations.
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Herbert Marcuse
Herbert Marcuse (German pronunciation: [maʁˈkuːzə]; July 19, 1898 – July 29, 1979) was a German Jewish philosopher, sociologist and political theorist, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Active in the United States after 1934, his intellectual concerns were the dehumanizing effects of capitalism and modern technology. Celebrated as the "Father of the New Left," his best known works are Eros and Civilization (1955) and One-Dimensional Man (1964). His Marxist scholarship inspired many radical intellectuals and political activists in the 1960s and '70s, both in the U.S. and internationally.
Herbert Marcuse was born in Berlin to Carl Marcuse and Gertrud Kreslawsky and raised in a Jewish family. In 1916 he was drafted into the German Army, but only worked in horse stables in Berlin during World War I. He then became a member of a Soldiers' Council that participated in the aborted socialist Spartacist uprising. He completed his Ph.D. thesis at the University of Freiburg in 1922 on the German Künstlerroman after which he moved back to Berlin, where he worked in publishing. In 1924 he married Sophie Wertheim, a mathematician. He returned to Freiburg in 1928 to study with Edmund Husserl and write a Habilitation with Martin Heidegger, which was published in 1932 as Hegel's Ontology and Theory of Historicity. This study was written in the context of the Hegel renaissance that was taking place in Europe with an emphasis on Hegel's ontology of life and history, idealist theory of spirit and dialectic. With his academic career blocked by the rise of the Third Reich, in 1933 Marcuse joined the Frankfurt Institute for Social Research.
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (German pronunciation: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from Königsberg (today Kaliningrad of Russia), who researched, lectured, and wrote on philosophy and anthropology during the Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. At the time, there were major successes and advances in the sciences (for example, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Robert Boyle) applying reason and logic.
Kant’s major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781), aimed to unite reason with experience to move beyond what he took to be failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He hoped to end an age of speculation where objects outside experience were used to support what he saw as futile theories, while opposing the skepticism of thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley and Hume.
He stated:
Kant proposed a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in reverse, saying that:
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788) and the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics. And the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology. He aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was both a theme of the Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy.
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Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida ( /ʒɑːk ˈdɛrɨdə/; French pronunciation: [ʒak dɛʁida]; July 15, 1930 – October 9, 2004) was a French philosopher, born in French Algeria. He developed the critical theory known as deconstruction and his work has been labeled as post-structuralism and associated with postmodern philosophy.
His more than 40 published books, together with essays and public speaking, has had a significant impact upon the humanities, particularly on Anthropology, Sociology, Semiotics, Jurisprudence, Literary Theory and Cultural Studies in general. His influence in the academe in Continental Europe, South America and all countries where continental philosophy is predominant, is enormous; becoming crucial in debates around Ontology, Epistemology (especially concerning Social Sciences), Ethics, Esthetics, Hermeneutics and Philosophy of Language.
His work also influenced architecture (in the form of deconstructivism), music and plastic arts. and art critics. Particularly in his later writings, he frequently addressed ethical and political themes, and his work influenced various activist and other political movements.
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James Connolly
James Connolly (Irish: Séamas Ó Conghaile, 5 June 1868 – 12 May 1916) was an Irish republican and socialist leader. He was born in the Cowgate area of Edinburgh, Scotland, to Irish immigrant parents and spoke with a Scottish accent throughout his life. He left school for working life at the age of 11, but became one of the leading Marxist theorists of his day. He also took a role in Scottish and American politics. He was executed by a British firing squad because of his leadership role in the Easter Rising of 1916.
Connolly was born in an Irish slum in Edinburgh in 1868. His parents had emigrated to Scotland from Monaghan and settled in the Cowgate, an Irish ghetto where thousands of Irish settled.
He was born in St Patrick's Roman Catholic parish, which was known as "Little Ireland". His father and grandfathers were labourers. He had an education up to the age of about ten in the local Catholic primary school. He then left and worked in labouring jobs. Because of the economic difficulties he was having, like his eldest brother John, he joined the British Army.
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Je Tsongkhapa
Tsongkhapa (1357–1419), whose name means “The Man from Onion Valley”, was a famous teacher of Tibetan Buddhism whose activities led to the formation of the Geluk school. He is also known by his ordained name Lobsang Drakpa (blo bzang grags pa) or simply as Je Rinpoche (rje rin po che).
Tsongkhapa heard Buddha’s teachings from masters of all Tibetan Buddhist traditions, and received lineages transmitted in the major schools.
His main source of inspiration was the Kadampa tradition, the legacy of Atiśa. Based on Tsongkhapa’s teaching, the two distinguishing characteristics of the Gelug tradition are:
Born into a nomadic family in Amdo province in 1357, Tsongkhapa received the layman ordination (skt. Upasaka) at the age of three from the 4th Karmapa, Rolpe Dorje, and was entitled “Kunga Nyingpo” (kun dga’ snying po). At the age of seven he took the novice ordination (skt. Sramanera, tib. Getsul) from Choje Dhondup Rinchen (chos rje don ’grub rin chen) and was given the name “Lobsang Drakpa” (blo bzang grags pa). It was at this early age that he was able to receive the empowerments of Heruka Chakrasamvara, Hevajra, and Yamantaka, three of the most prominent wrathful deities of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as being able to recite a great many Sutras, not the least of which was Manjushri-nama-samgiti. He would go on to be a great student of the Buddhist Vinaya, the doctrine of behaviour, and even later of the Six Yogas of Naropa, the Kalachakra Tantra, and the acclaimed practice of Mahamudra. At the age of 24 Tsongkhapa received the ordination of a full monk (skt. Bhikshu, tib. Gelong) in the Sakya Tradition.
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Joseph Dietzgen
Joseph Dietzgen (1828 – 1888) was a German socialist philosopher, Marxist and journalist. Joseph was born in Blankenberg in the Rhine Province of Prussia. He was the first of five children of father Johann Gottfried Anno Dietzgen (1794–1887) and mother Anna Margaretha Lückerath (1808–1881). He was, like his father, a tanner by profession; inheriting his uncle's business in Siegburg. Entirely self-educated, he developed the notion of dialectical materialism independently from Marx and Engels as an independent philosopher of socialist theory. His publications had major influences on Vladimir Lenin and the Russian Revolution of 1917, which are rarely commented on today. Ludwig Feuerbach's works had a great influence on his early theories. He had one son, Eugene Dietzgen.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Jürgen Habermas
Jürgen Habermas ( /ˈjɜrɡən/ or /ˈjʊərɡən ˈhɑːbərmɑːs/;German: [ˈjʏʁɡən ˈhaːbɐmaːs]; born June 18, 1929) is a German sociologist, geographer and philosopher in the tradition of critical theory and pragmatism. He is perhaps best known for his theory on the concepts of 'communicative rationality' and the 'public sphere'. His work focuses on the foundations of social theory and epistemology, the analysis of advanced capitalistic societies and democracy, the rule of law in a critical social-evolutionary context, and contemporary politics, particularly German politics. Habermas's theoretical system is devoted to revealing the possibility of reason, emancipation, and rational-critical communication latent in modern institutions and in the human capacity to deliberate and pursue rational interests. Habermas is known for his work on the concept of modernity, particularly with respect to the discussions of "rationalization" originally set forth by Max Weber. While influenced by American pragmatism, action theory, and even poststructuralism, many of the central tenets of Habermas' thought remain broadly Marxist in nature. Global polls identified him as one of the leading intellectuals of the present day.
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Kamalaśīla
Kamalaśīla (fl. 713-763) was an Indian Buddhist of Nalanda Mahavihara who accompanied Śāntarakṣita (725–788) to Tibet at the request of Trhisongdetsen.
Dargyay, et. al. (1977, 1998: p. 7) convey a lineage of transmission and translation of Śīla, Sutrayana Buddhavacana and the Six Pāramitā (viewed principally through the Mahayana teachings of Nāgārjuna), from India to Tibet (paṇḍit in this context denotes a Sanskrit scholar):
The Indian pandits, represented mainly by Śāntarakṣita, Kamalaśīla, and his disciple Ye-śes-dbang-po, form a known group. These scholars were all defenders of the Madhyamaka school, which is based upon Nāgārjuna's teachings. First of all, however, they taught the ten rules of behaviour of the Buddhist ethics (śīla) and a summary of the teachings according to the canonic Sūtras of the Mahāyāna, as well as the virtuous works of the six pāramitās. These exercises are supposed to lead, in a long seemingly endless way, to the gradual ascent to the acquisition of higher intellectual abilities finally culminating in Buddhahood. This trend was intensified after the debate of bSam-yas had taken place in the years 792 to 794; the exact outcome of this debate is still debatable.
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Karl Barth
Karl Barth ((1886-05-10)May 10, 1886 – December 10, 1968(1968-12-10)) (pronounced "Bart") was a Swiss Reformed theologian whom many scholars hold to be among the most important thinkers of the 20th century; Pope Pius XII described him as the most important theologian since Thomas Aquinas. Beginning with his experience as a pastor, he rejected his training in the predominant liberal theology typical of 19th-century European Protestantism.
Instead he embarked on a new theological path initially called dialectical theology, due to its stress on the paradoxical nature of divine truth (e.g., God's relationship to humanity embodies both grace and judgment). Other critics have referred to Barth as the father of neo-orthodoxy — a term emphatically rejected by Barth himself. The most accurate description of his work might be "a theology of the Word." Barth's theological thought emphasized the sovereignty of God, particularly through his interpretation of the Calvinistic doctrine of election.
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Karl Kautsky
Karl Johann Kautsky (October 16, 1854– October 17, 1938) was a Czech-German philosopher, journalist, and Marxist theoretician. Kautsky was recognized as among the most authoritative promulgators of Orthodox Marxism after the death of Friedrich Engels in 1895 until the coming of World War I in 1914 and was called by some the "Pope of Marxism." Following the war, Kautsky was an outspoken critic of the Bolshevik Revolution and its excesses, engaging in polemics with V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky on the nature of the Soviet state.
Karl Kautsky, born in Prague to artistic middle-class parents, moved with his family to Vienna at the age of seven. He studied history, philosophy and economics at the University of Vienna from 1874, and became a member of the Social Democratic Party of Austria (SPÖ) in 1875. In 1880 he joined a group of German socialists in Zurich who were supported financially by Karl Höchberg, and who smuggled socialist material into the Reich at the time of the Anti-Socialist Laws (1878- ). Influenced by Eduard Bernstein, Karl Höchberg's secretary, he became a Marxist and in 1881 visited Marx and Engels in England.
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Karl Korsch
Karl Korsch (August 15, 1886 - October 21, 1961) was a German Marxist theorist.
Korsch was born in Tostedt, near Hamburg, to Carl August Korsch, a secretary at the cantonal court and his wife Therese. His childhood friend, Brian Karlson, was one of his greatest inspirations. In 1898 the family moved to Meiningen, Thuringia and Korsch senior attained the position of a managing clerk in a bank. Karl then attended the local grammar school, Bernhardinum.
He attended universities at Munich, Berlin, Geneva and Jena, studying law, economics and philosophy. He acquired a Doctorate at Jena in 1910. From 1917 to 1933 he was active in leftwing politics in Germany, leaving on the night of the Reichstag fire. After a brief stay in England and Denmark, he and his wife settled in the USA in 1936, teaching at Tulane University, New Orleans, and working at the International Institute for Social Research, New York.
He died in Belmont, Massachusetts in 1961.
Korsch studied in London between 1912 and 1914, becoming a member of the Fabian Society. In 1913 he married Hedda Gagliardi, a grandchild of feminist Hedwig Dohm, who would be closely involved in his theoretical work. Hedda Korsch from 1916 was a teacher at the free school Wickersdorf. Korsch's wartime experiences in Germany radicalised him, especially the ferment within the leftwing parties of Germany following the Russian Revolution. Korsch focused his studies and writings on working-out a replacement economic system for workers' councils to implement across Germany, published under the title What is Socialization? in March 1919. Korsch joined the German Communist Party in 1920. He became Communist Minister of Justice in the regional Thuringian government in October 1923.
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Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
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Karl Popper
Sir Karl Raimund Popper, CH FRSFBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-Britishphilosopher and professor at the London School of Economics. He is generally regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
Popper is known for his attempt to repudiate the classical observationalist/inductivist form of scientific method in favour of empirical falsification. He is also known for his opposition to the classical justificationist account of knowledge which he replaced with critical rationalism, "the first non justificational philosophy of criticism in the history of philosophy". In political discourse, he is known for his vigorous defence of liberal democracy and the principles of social criticism that he came to believe made a flourishing "open society" possible.
Karl Popper was born in Vienna (then in Austria-Hungary) in 1902, to upper middle-class parents. All of Karl Popper's grandparents were Jewish, but the Popper family converted to Lutheranism before Karl was born. Karl's father Simon Siegmund Carl Popper was a lawyer from Bohemia, and mother Jenny Schiff was of Silesian and Hungarian descent. After establishing themselves in Vienna, the Poppers made a rapid social climb in Viennese society: Simon Siegmund Carl became a legal partner[clarification needed] of Vienna's liberal mayor Raimond Grübl and, after his death in 1898, took over the firm (Karl received his middle name from the mayor).
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Leo Löwenthal
Leo Löwenthal (3 November 1900 – 21 January 1993) was a German-Jewish sociologist usually associated with the Frankfurt School.
Born in Frankfurt as the son of assimilated Jews (his father was a physician), Löwenthal came of age during the turbulent early years of the Weimar Republic. He joined the newly founded Institute for Social Research in 1926 and quickly became its leading expert on the sociology of literature and mass culture as well as the managing editor of the journal it launched in 1932, the Zeitschrift für Sozialforschung. Heterodox and independent Marxists, open to new intellectual currents such as psychoanalysis, and predominantly Jewish, the Institute's members swiftly fled Germany when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. After a year in Geneva, they settled in New York, where Columbia University gave them shelter.
Löwenthal maintained a close relationship with his colleagues, even during the war when several of them moved to California and he began to work with the Office of War Information in Washington. Although Horkheimer, Adorno, and Friedrich Pollock returned to Frankfurt to reestablish the Institute after the war, Löwenthal, like former members Herbert Marcuse, Franz Neumann, Otto Kirchheimer, and Erich Fromm, chose to remain in the United States. After seven years as research director of the Voice of America, and another year at the Stanford Center for the Advanced Study of the Behavioral Sciences, he joined the Berkeley Speech Department in 1956 and shortly thereafter the Department of Sociology. Although officially retiring in 1968, Löwenthal remained vigorously active in departmental and University affairs until virtually the end of his life. From 1968 to 1972, he served on the Budget Committee, and in 1973-74, chaired the Sociology Department.
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Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky (Russian: Лев Троцкий, pronounced [ˈlʲef ˈtrot͡skʲɪj] (
listen); 7 November [O.S. 26 October] 1879 – 21 August 1940), born Lev Davidovich Bronshtein, was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and theorist, Soviet politician, and the founder and first leader of the Red Army.
Trotsky was initially a supporter of the Menshevik Internationalists faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. He joined the Bolsheviks immediately prior to the 1917 October Revolution, and eventually became a leader within the Party. During the early days of the Soviet Union, he served first as People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and later as the founder and commander of the Red Army as People's Commissar of Military and Naval Affairs. He was a major figure in the Bolshevik victory in the Russian Civil War (1918–20). He was also among the first members of the Politburo.
After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was successively removed from power, expelled from the Communist Party, deported from the Soviet Union and assassinated on Stalin's orders. An early advocate of Red Army intervention against European fascism, Trotsky also opposed Stalin's non-aggression pact with Adolf Hitler in the late 1930s.
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Louis Althusser
Louis Pierre Althusser (French pronunciation: [altyˈsɛʁ]; 16 October 1918 – 22 October 1990) was a French Marxist philosopher. He was born in Algeria and studied at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris, where he eventually became Professor of Philosophy.
Althusser was a longtime member—although sometimes a strong critic—of the French Communist Party. His arguments and thesis were set against the threats that he saw attacking the theoretical foundations of Marxism. These included both the influence of empiricism on Marxist theory, and humanist and reformist socialist orientations which manifested as divisions in the European communist parties, as well as the problem of the "cult of personality" and of ideology.
Althusser is commonly referred to as a structural Marxist, although his relationship to other schools of French structuralism is not a simple affiliation and he was critical of many aspects of structuralism.
Althusser's life was marked by periods of intense mental illness. During one of his bouts, he killed his wife by strangling her.
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Mao Zedong
Mao Zedong, also transliterated as Mao Tse-tung listen (help·info), and commonly referred to as Chairman Mao (December 26, 1893 – September 9, 1976), was a Chinese Communist revolutionary, guerrilla warfare strategist, Marxist political philosopher, and leader of the Chinese Revolution. He was the architect and founding father of the People's Republic of China (PRC) from its establishment in 1949, and held authoritarian control over the nation until his death in 1976. His theoretical contribution to Marxism–Leninism, along with his military strategies and brand of policies, are collectively known as Maoism.
Mao rose to power by commanding the Long March, forming a Second United Front with Kuomintang (KMT) during the Second Sino-Japanese War to repel a Japanese invasion, and leading the Communist Party of China (CPC) to victory against Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang (KMT) in the Chinese Civil War. After solidifying the reunification of China through his Campaign to Suppress Counterrevolutionaries, Mao enacted sweeping land reform, by using violence and terror to overthrow the feudal landlords before seizing their large estates and dividing the land into people's communes. During the years when Mao was China’s 'Great Helmsman', a range of positive changes came to China. These included promoting the status of women, improving popular literacy, doubling the school population, providing universal housing, abolishing unemployment and inflation, increasing health care access, and dramatically raising life expectancy. In addition, China's population almost doubled during the period of Mao's leadership (from around 550 to over 900 million). As a result, Mao is still officially held in high regard by many in China as a great political strategist, military mastermind, and savior of the nation. Maoists further promote his role as a theorist, statesman, poet, and visionary, while anti-revisionists continue to defend most of his policies.
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Max Horkheimer
Max Horkheimer (February 14, 1895 – July 7, 1973) was a German-Jewish philosopher-sociologist, famous for his work in critical theory as a member of the 'Frankfurt School' of social research. His most important works include The Eclipse of Reason (1947) and, in collaboration with Theodor Adorno, The Dialectic of Enlightenment (1947). Through the Frankfurt School, Horkheimer planned, supported and made other significant works possible.
Horkheimer was born in the Zuffenhausen district of Stuttgart, then capital of the Kingdom of Württemberg within the German Empire, to a wealthy Jewish family. Due to parental pressure, Horkheimer left secondary school at the age of sixteen to work in his father's factory. In 1916, his manufacturing career ended and he was drafted into World War I. After World War I, he enrolled at Munich University, where he studied philosophy and psychology. After university, Horkheimer moved to Frankfurt am Main, where he studied under Hans Cornelius. There, he met Theodor Adorno, several years his junior, with whom he would strike a lasting friendship and a fruitful collaborative relationship.
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Mazdak
Mazdak (in Persian مزدک) (died c. 524 or 528) was a proto-socialistPersian reformer and religious activist who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian Shahanshah Kavadh I. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs.
Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which he viewed as a reformed and purified version of Zoroastrianism, although his teaching has been argued to display influences from Manichaeism as well. Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of Sassanid Persia, and Mazdak himself was a Zoroastrian priest, or mobed, but most of the Zoroastrian clergy regarded his teaching as a heresy. Information about it is scarce and little is known beyond what is listed below; some further details may be inferred from the later doctrine of Khurramism, which has been seen as a continuation of Mazdakism.
Some sources claim that the original founders of this sect lived earlier than Mazdak. These were another mobed named Zardusht (of the same name, but not the same person as the founder of Zoroastrianism) and/or a Zoroastrian philosopher known as Mazdak the Elder, who taught a combination of altruism and hedonism: "he directed his followers to enjoy the pleasures of life and satisfy their appetite in the highest degree with regard to eating and drinking in the spirit of equality,to aim at good deeds; to abstain from shedding blood and inflicting harm on others; and to practice hospitality without reservation". This doctrine was further developed by the best known Mazdak, Mazdak the Younger, son of Bāmdād. At later stages the opposition to Mazdak blamed them for heresy and sharing women etc. which is not true. They are considered to be the first real socialists of human history who emphasized the community work and benefits for all.
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Myles Burnyeat
Myles Fredric Burnyeat CBE FBA (born 1 January 1939) is an English scholar of ancient philosophy.
Educated at Bryanston School and King’s College, Cambridge, Burnyeat was a student of Bernard Williams at University College London.
He became an assistant lecturer in philosophy at University College London in 1964, and a lecturer in 1965. In 1978, he was appointed a lecturer in classics at the University of Cambridge, and became a fellow of the new Robinson College, Cambridge, where he remained until 1996.
In 1984, he was elected a Fellow of the British Academy and appointed as the fifth Laurence Professor of Ancient Philosophy at Cambridge, a position he held until 1996.
From 1996, he was Senior Research Fellow in Philosophy at All Souls College, Oxford, before returning in 2006 to Robinson College.
He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 2005 to 2006.
In 2007, he was made CBE and a Festschrift in his honour (Maieusis: Essays in Ancient Philosophy in Honour of Myles Burnyeat) was published.
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Nagarjuna
Acharya Nāgārjuna (Devanagari:नागार्जुन, Telugu: నాగార్జున, Tibetan: ཀླུ་སྒྲུབ་ klu sgrub, Chinese: 龍樹, Sinhala නාගර්පුන) (ca. 150–250 CE) was an important Buddhist teacher and philosopher. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is credited with founding the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The Mādhyamaka school was in turn transmitted to China under the name of the Sānlùn School (Ch. 三論宗, "Three Treatise School").
Nāgārjuna is sometimes credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, and being associated with the Buddhist university of Nālandā. In the Jodo Shinshu and Shingon schools of Buddhism in Japan he is considered the First Patriarch. In some Mahāyāna traditions, Nāgārjuna is regarded as a second buddha.
According to most available accounts, Nāgārjuna was originally from Southern India. Archaeological discoveries at Amarāvatī confirm the fact that Nāgārjuna maintained a friendship with the Sātavāhana king Gautamīputra Śātakarṇi, to whom he addressed his Letter to a Friend (Skt. Sahṛd-lekhā). On this basis, Nāgārjuna is conventionally placed at around 150–250 CE.
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Nicholas Rescher
Nicholas Rescher (born July 15, 1928 in Hagen, Germany) is an American philosopher at the University of Pittsburgh. He is the Co-Chairman of the Center for Philosophy of Science. In a productive research career extending over six decades, Rescher has established himself as a systematic philosopher of the old style and author of a system of pragmatic idealism which weaves together threads of thought from continental idealism and American pragmatism. He is the exponent of a realistic pragmatism which, rejecting the deconstructive approach of some recent pragmatists, construes pragmatic efficacy as an evidential index for such normative features as truth and validity rather than being a substitute or replacement for them. And apart from this larger program Rescher’s many-sided work has made significant contributions to logic (the conception autodescriptive systems of many-sided logic), to the history of logic (the medieval Arabic theory of modal syllogistic), to the theory of knowledge (epistemetrics as a quantitative approach in theoretical epistemology), to the philosophy of science (in particular it its economic aspects and as regards the relation of science and religion). Rescher has also worked in the area of futuristics, and along with Olaf Helmer and Norman Dalkey is co-inaugurator of the so-called Delphi method of forecasting. The Encyclopedia of Bioethics credits Rescher with writing one of the very first articles in the field.
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Plato
Plato ( /ˈpleɪtoʊ/; Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad"; 424/423 BC – 348/347 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, student of Socrates, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of Western philosophy and science. In the words of A. N. Whitehead:
The safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato. I do not mean the systematic scheme of thought which scholars have doubtfully extracted from his writings. I allude to the wealth of general ideas scattered through them.
Plato's sophistication as a writer is evident in his Socratic dialogues; thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters have been ascribed to him. Plato's writings have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts. Plato's dialogues have been used to teach a range of subjects, including philosophy, logic, ethics, rhetoric, and mathematics.
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Richard Levins
Richard "Dick" Levins is a mathematical ecologist, and political activist. He is best known for his work on evolution in changing environments and on metapopulations.
Levins' writing and speaking is extremely condensed. This, combined with his Marxism has made his analyses less well known than those of some other ecologists and evolutionists adept at popularization. One story of his Chicago years is that graduate students had to attend Levins' courses three times: the first time to acclimate to the speed of his delivery and the difficulty of his mathematics; the second to get the basic ideas down; and the third to pick up the subtleties and profundities.[citation needed]
Levins also has written on philosophical issues in biology and modelling. An influential article of his is "The Strategy of Model Building in Population Biology". He has influenced a number of contemporary philosophers of biology. Levins is a Marxist, and has said that the methodology in his Evolution in Changing Environments is based on the introduction to Marx's Grundrisse, the rough draft of Das Kapital. With the evolutionary geneticist Richard Lewontin, Levins has written a number of articles on methodology, philosophy, and social implications of biology. Many of these are collected in The Dialectical Biologist. In 2007, the duo published a second thematic collection of essays titled Biology Under the Influence: Dialectical Essays on Ecology, Argriculture, and Health.
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Richard Lewontin
Richard Charles "Dick" Lewontin (born March 29, 1929) is an American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and social commentator. A leader in developing the mathematical basis of population genetics and evolutionary theory, he pioneered the application of techniques from molecular biology such as gel electrophoresis to questions of genetic variation and evolution.
In a pair of 1966 papers co-authored with J.L. Hubby in the journal Genetics, Lewontin helped set the stage for the modern field of molecular evolution.
In 1979 he and Stephen Jay Gould introduced the term "spandrel" into evolutionary theory.
Lewontin strongly opposes genetic determinism, especially as allegedly expressed by sociobiology and evolutionary psychology.
Lewontin was born in New York City to Jewish parents. Lewontin attended Forest Hills High School and the École Libre des Hautes Études in New York. In 1951, he obtained a bachelor's degree in biology from Harvard University. In 1952, he received a master's degree in mathematical statistics followed by a doctorate in zoology in 1954, both from Columbia University where he was a student of Theodosius Dobzhansky. Lewontin held faculty positions at North Carolina State University, the University of Rochester, and the University of Chicago. In 1973 Lewontin served as Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology and Professor of Biology at Harvard until 1998, and as of 2003 was the Alexander Agassiz Research Professor at Harvard. Lewontin has worked with and had great influence on many philosophers of biology, including William C. Wimsatt, Elliott Sober, Philip Kitcher, Elisabeth Lloyd, Peter Godfrey-Smith, Sahotra Sarkar, and Robert Brandon, often inviting them to work in his lab.
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Richard Rorty
Richard McKay Rorty (October 4, 1931 – June 8, 2007) was an American philosopher. He had a long and diverse academic career, including positions as Stuart Professor of Philosophy at Princeton University, Kenan Professor of Humanities at the University of Virginia, and Professor of Comparative Literature at Stanford University. His complex intellectual background gave him a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the traditional analytic philosophy, which he would later famously reject in favor of his own brand of pragmatism.
The philosophical program he developed included a rejection of a representationalist account of knowledge, that is, "mirror of nature", which he reviewed as a holdover from Plato and pervasive throughout the history of western philosophy. In response to these visual theorists, which he drew as embodied by modern analytic philosophy, Rorty advocated for a novel form of American pragmatism, sometimes called neopragmatism, in which scientific and philosophical methods are merely a set of contingent "vocabularies" which were abandoned or adopted over time according to social conventions and usefulness.
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Romanian philosophy
Romanian philosophy is a name covering either a) the philosophy done in Romania or by Romanians, or b) an ethnic philosophy, which expresses at a high level the fundamental features of the Romanian spirituality, or which elevates to a philosophical level the Weltanschauung of the Romanian people, as deposited in language and folklore, traditions, architecture and other linguistic and cultural artifacts.
The discussion concerning the existence of a Romanian philosophy has known three stages.
Between the two World Wars, after the emergence of Greater Romania, Romanian national identity went through a crisis. Since it was not centered anymore on immediate political goals (national rights, independence, national unity etc.), the idea now had a more pronounced cultural character. Therefore, discussions of "national specificity" in historiography, literature and philosophy became very common. The first history of Romanian philosophy was published in 1922 by Marin Ştefănescu, proving that philosophical thinking in Romania had reached the level of self-reflexivity; in other words, it had become conscious of itself. The general conclusion of interbellum discussions, which involved almost every notable philosopher, was that there is a Romanian philosophy proper, with a distinct profile among other national philosophies. Constantin Noica, who became one of the most prominent Romanian philosophers, thought early on that Romanian philosophy is characterized by paganism, cosmicism (i.e. no acute separation of the world of the man from, transcendence) and determinism (or rather, "fatalism").
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Rosa Luxemburg
Rosa Luxemburg (Rosalia Luxemburg, Polish: Róża Luksemburg; 5 March 1871,Zamość, Vistula Land, Russia – 15 January 1919, Berlin, Germany) was a Marxist theorist, philosopher, economist and revolutionary socialist of Polish Jewish descent who became a naturalized German citizen. She was successively a member of the Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), and the Communist Party of Germany (KPD).
In 1915, after the SPD supported German involvement in World War I, she and Karl Liebknecht co-founded the anti-war Spartakusbund (Spartacist League) which eventually became the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). During the German Revolution she founded the Die Rote Fahne (The Red Flag), the central organ of the Spartacist movement.
She regarded the Spartacist uprising as a blunder, but supported it after Liebknecht ordered it without her knowledge. When the revolt was crushed by the social democrat government and the Freikorps (World War I veterans who banded together into right-wing paramilitary groups), Luxemburg, Liebknecht and some of their supporters were captured and murdered. Luxemburg was shot and her body thrown in the Landwehr Canal in Berlin. After their deaths, Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht became martyrs for Marxists. According to the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, commemoration of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht continues to play an important role among the German far-left.
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Rudolf Hilferding
Rudolf Hilferding (10 August 1877, probably in the house of Malzgasse 9/10,Leopoldstadt, Vienna – 11 February 1941, Paris) was an Austrian-born Marxist economist, leading socialist theorist, politician and chief theoretician for the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) during the Weimar Republic, almost universally recognized as the SPD's foremost theoretician of his century, and a physician.
He was born in Vienna, where he received a doctorate having studied medicine. After becoming a leading journalist for the SPD, he participated in the November Revolution in Germany and was Finance Minister of Germany in 1923 and from 1928 to 1929. In 1933 he fled into exile, living in Zurich and then Paris, where he died in custody of the Gestapo in 1941.
Hilferding was a propounder for the "economic" reading of Karl Marx identifying with the "Austro-Marxian" group. He was the first to put forward the theory of organized capitalism. He was the main defender to the challenge to Marx by Austrian School economist and fellow Vienna resident, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. Hilferding also participated in the "Crises Debate" – disputing Marx's theory of the instability and eventual breakdown of capitalism on the basis that the concentration of capital is actually stabilizing. He edited leading publications such as Vorwärts, Die Freiheit, and Die Gesellschaft. His most famous work was Das Finanzkapital (Finance capital), one of the most influential and original contributions to Marxist economics with substantial influence on Marxist writers such as Vladimir Lenin, influencing his writings on imperialism.
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Socrates
Socrates ( /ˈsɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης, Ancient Greek pronunciation: [sɔːkrátɛːs], Sōkrátēs; c. 469 BC – 399 BC) was a classical Greek Athenian philosopher. Credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, he is an enigmatic figure known chiefly through the accounts of later classical writers, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Many would claim that Plato's dialogues are the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity.
Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who also lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. The latter remains a commonly used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to draw individual answers, but also to encourage fundamental insight into the issue at hand. It is Plato's Socrates that also made important and lasting contributions to the fields of epistemology and logic, and the influence of his ideas and approach remains strong in providing a foundation for much western philosophy that followed.
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Stephen Toulmin
Stephen Edelston Toulmin (25 March 1922 - 4 December 2009) was a British philosopher, author, and educator. Influenced by Ludwig Wittgenstein, Toulmin devoted his works to the analysis of moral reasoning. Throughout his writings, he sought to develop practical arguments which can be used effectively in evaluating the ethics behind moral issues. His works were later found useful in the field of rhetoric for analyzing rhetorical arguments. The Toulmin Model of Argumentation, a diagram containing six interrelated components used for analyzing arguments, was considered his most influential work, particularly in the field of rhetoric and communication, and in computer science.
Stephen Toulmin was born in London, England, on 25 March 1922 to Geoffrey Edelson Toulmin and Doris Holman Toulmin. He earned his Bachelor of Arts degree from King's College, Cambridge in 1942. Soon after, Toulmin was hired by the Ministry of Aircraft Production as a junior scientific officer, first at the Malvern Radar Research and Development Station and later at the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force in Germany. At the end of World War II, he returned to England to earn a Master of Arts degree in 1947 and a PhD in philosophy from Cambridge University, subsequently publishing his dissertation as An Examination of the Place of Reason in Ethics (1950). While at Cambridge, Toulmin came into contact with the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose examination on the relationship between the uses and the meanings of language shaped much of Toulmin’s own work.
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Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (/ˈsɔrən ˈkɪərkəɡɑrd/ or /ˈkɪərkəɡɔr/; Danish: [ˈsɶːɐn ˈkiɐ̯ɡəɡɒːˀ] ( listen)) (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a Danish philosopher, theologian and religious author. He was a critic of idealist intellectuals and philosophers of his time, such as Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel. He was also critical of the state and practice of Christianity, primarily that of the Church of Denmark. He is widely considered to be the first existentialist philosopher.
Much of his philosophical work deals with the issues of how one lives as a "single individual", giving priority to concrete human reality over abstract thinking, and highlighting the importance of personal choice and commitment.
His theological work focuses on Christian ethics, on the institution of the Church, and on the differences between purely objective proofs of Christianity. He wrote of the individual's subjective relationship to Jesus Christ, the God-Man, which came through faith. Much of his work deals with the art of Christian love.
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Trisong Detsen
Trisong Detsän or Trisong Detsen ཁྲི་སྲོང་ལྡེ་བཙན (Tibetan Wylie: khri srong lde btsan [ʈʂʰisoŋ tetsɛ̃]; PRC: Chisong Dêzain; THDL: Trisong Detsen; other transcriptions: Trisong Detsan, Thrisong Detsän; traditional Chinese: 赤松德贊; simplified Chinese: 赤松德赞; pinyin: Chìsōng Dézàn; Thi-srong-detsan), was the son of Me Agtsom and one of the emperors of Tibet and ruled from 755 until 797 or 804 CE. Trisong Detsen was the second of the Three Dharma Kings of Tibet, playing a pivotal role in the introduction of Buddhism to Tibet and the establishment of the Nyingma, or 'Ancient' school of Tibetan Buddhism.
Trisong had five wives, all of whom came from Tibetan noble families. According to the later hagiographic tradition of Padmasambhava, Yeshe Tsogyal, the Princess of Karchen was a wife of the emperor and also one of Padmasambhava's consorts. She is said to have recorded Padmasambhava's teachings and became known for her own Buddhist realizations. Another wife, Tse Pongza, the principal wife of Trisong Detsen, and the mother of the heir apparent, became known for being the counterpole of Padmasambhava and Yeshe Tsogyal, fighting for the Bön religion and against Buddhism. One of Trisong Detsen's children was Princess Pema Sal, who was entrusted by Padmasambhava with an important terma.
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Vasubandhu
Vasubandhu (Sanskrit: वसुबन्दु; traditional Chinese: 世親; pinyin: Shìqīn; Tibetan: དབྱིག་གཉེན་, Wylie: dbyig gnyen) (fl. 4th c.) was an Indian Buddhist monk, and along with his half-brother Asanga, one of the main founders of the Indian Yogācāra school. However, some scholars consider Vasubandhu to be two distinct people. Vasubandhu is one of the most influential figures in the entire history of Buddhism. In the Jodo Shinshu branch of Buddhism, he is considered the Second Patriarch. In Zen, he is the 21st Patriarch.
Born a brahmin Vasubandhu was said to have been the half brother of Asanga, another key personage in the founding of the Yogacara School. He was also, as well as his elder half brother Asanga, one of the ‘Six Ornaments’(i.e. six great commentators on the Buddha’s teachings). He resided at Kausambhi (near modern Allahabad) where he was trained in the orthodox Sarvastivada Order of Buddhism, which had its seat at Kausambhi. He was contemporaneous with King Chandragupta I, the father of Samudragupta. This information temporally places this Vasubandhu in the fourth century CE.
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Vladimir Lenin
Vladimir Ilyich Lenin (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ленин; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr ɪlʲˈjitɕ ˈlʲenʲɪn] ( listen); 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary, intellectual and politician who led the October Revolution of 1917. As leader of the Bolsheviks, he headed the Soviet state during its initial years (1917–1924), as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a socialist economic system.
As a politician, Lenin was a persuasive and charismatic orator. As an intellectual his extensive theoretic and philosophical developments of Marxism produced Marxism–Leninism, a pragmatic Russian application of Marxism that emphasized the critical role played by a committed and disciplined political vanguard in the revolutionary process, while defending the possibility of a socialist revolution in less advanced capitalist countries through an alliance of the proletarians with the rural peasantry.
Lenin was born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (Russian: Владимир Ильич Ульянов) on 22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 in the town of Simbirsk in the Russian Empire. Simbirsk, a rural town on the River Volga nearly 1,500 miles from the capital Saint Petersburg, would be renamed upon Ulyanov's death fifty-four years later as "Ulyanovsk" in his honour. That same year, Saint Petersburg itself would be renamed Leningrad after Ulyanov's better-known cadre name.
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Walter Benjamin
Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin (German pronunciation: [ˈvaltɐ ˈbɛnjamiːn]; 15 July 1892 – 26 September 1940) was a German-Jewish literary critic, philosopher, social critic, translator, radio broadcaster and essayist. Combining elements of German idealism or Romanticism, Historical Materialism and Jewish mysticism, Benjamin made enduring and influential contributions to aesthetic theory and Western Marxism, and has sometimes been associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Among his major works as a literary critic are essays on Goethe's novel Elective Affinities; the work of Franz Kafka and Karl Kraus; translation theory; the stories of Nikolai Leskov; the work of Marcel Proust and perhaps most significantly, the poetry of Charles Baudelaire. He also made major translations into German of the Tableaux Parisiens section of Baudelaire's Les Fleurs du mal and parts of Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu.
His turn to Marxism in the 1930s was partly due to the influence of Bertolt Brecht, whose critical aesthetics developed epic theatre and its Verfremdungseffekt (defamiliarisation, alienation). An earlier influence was friend Gershom Scholem, founder of the academic study of the Kabbalah and of Jewish mysticism.
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Walter Burley
Walter Burley (or Burleigh) (c. 1275–1344/5) was a medieval English Scholastic philosopher and logician. He was a Master of Arts at Oxford in 1301, and a fellow of Merton College, Oxford until about 1310. He spent sixteen years at Paris until 1326, becoming a fellow of the Sorbonne by 1324. After that, he spent seventeen years as a clerical courtier in England and Avignon. He died around 1344. Burley opposed William of Ockham on a number of points concerning logic and natural philosophy. There are at least 50 works attributed to him.
Burley was born in 1274 or 1275, possibly in Burley-in-Wharfedale, Yorkshire. Little is known of his early life. He was made rector of Welbury in Yorkshire in 1309, probably through the influence of Sir John de Lisle, a friend of William Greenfield. As throughout his career, he did not act as rector, employing a substitute and using the income from the living to finance his study in Paris. In Paris, he completed his lectures on Peter Lombard's Sentences, and probably encountered the work of his contemporary William of Ockham. Burley's commentary on the Sentences has not survived, however. Burley became a master of theology by 1324.
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William of Ockham
William of Ockham ( /ˈɒkəm/; also Occam, Hockham, or several other spellings; c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. Although he is commonly known for Ockham's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, William of Ockham also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April.
William of Ockham joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but never completed his master's degree (the usual undergraduate degree in those times). Because of this, he acquired the byname Venerabilis Inceptor, or "Worthy Beginner" (an inceptor was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities). He was also known as the Doctor Invincibilis or "Unconquerable Teacher."
wn.com/William_of_Ockham -
William of Sherwood
William of Sherwood (or Shyreswood, Shireswood) (1190–1249) was a medieval English Scholastic philosopher, logician and teacher.
Little is known of his life, but he is thought to have studied in Paris, as a master at Oxford in 1252, treasurer of Lincoln from 1254/8 onwards, and a rector of Aylesbury.
He was the author of two books which were an important influence on the development of Scholastic logic: Introductiones in Logicam (Introduction to Logic), and Syncategoremata. These are the first known works to deal in a systematic way with what is now called supposition theory, known in William's time as the logica moderna.
William was probably born in Nottinghamshire, between 1200 and 1210. In common with many educated English men of that time, he may have studied at Oxford university or the University of Paris, or both. There are examples in his logical work which suggest he was a master at Paris. (For example 'No man lectures at Paris unless he is a smart person' / 'Whatever runs has feet, the Seine runs, ergo the Seine has feet'). Further evidence that he lectured in Paris is that those logicians who were influenced by his work also worked in Paris, such as Peter of Spain (around 1245), and Lambert of Auxerre (around 1250).
wn.com/William_of_Sherwood -
Zaid Orudzhev
Zaid Melikovich Orudzhev (Russian: Заи́д Ме́ликович Ору́джев; born on April 4, 1932) is an Azerbaijani-born Russian academic specialising in the history of philosophy, dialectical logic and sociological methodology. He is a doctor of philosophy and currently a professor at the Moscow State Academy for Business Administration.
Zaid Orudzhev was born in Baku, entered the Faculty of Philosophy at Lomonosov Moscow State University in the early 1950s, graduating in 1955. For the next 12 years, he taught at a number of educational institutions back in Baku (mainly at the state university), during which time he was awarded a doctorate for his thesis on “The problems of dialectical logic in the economic research of Karl Marx”. In 1967-1969 he founded and was at the head of the department of philosophy at the Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology.
In 1969, Orudzhev was appointed a professor at the Faculty of Philosophy at his alma mater, Lomonosov Moscow State University, a post he would occupy for the next 16 years. In 1985, he embarked upon a two-year as director of the Institute of Philosophy and Law at the Academy of Sciences in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. In 1986, he edited and co-authored “Dialectical logic”, published in Moscow. Between 1987 and 1992, he was professor of philosophy at the Higher Party School.
wn.com/Zaid_Orudzhev -
Zeno of Elea
Zeno of Elea ( /ˈziːnoʊ əv ˈɛliə/; Greek: Ζήνων ὁ Ἐλεάτης; ca. 490 BC – ca. 430 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher of southern Italy and a member of the Eleatic School founded by Parmenides. Aristotle called him the inventor of the dialectic. He is best known for his paradoxes, which Bertrand Russell has described as "immeasurably subtle and profound".
Little is known for certain about Zeno's life. Although written nearly a century after Zeno's death, the primary source of biographical information about Zeno is Plato's Parmenides dialogue. In the dialogue, Plato describes a visit to Athens by Zeno and Parmenides, at a time when Parmenides is "about 65," Zeno is "nearly 40" and Socrates is "a very young man". Assuming an age for Socrates of around 20, and taking the date of Socrates' birth as 469 BC gives an approximate date of birth for Zeno of 490 BC. Plato says that Zeno was "tall and fair to look upon" and was "in the days of his youth … reported to have been beloved by Parmenides".
wn.com/Zeno_of_Elea
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Intro to Dialectics from the film Half Nelson (2006)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:52
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
Clips from the movie "Half Nelson" that beautifully explain dialectics, a simple theory that explains how change happens. The teacher applies it to social justice, but can be used to explain change in any context. Basically, its broken down into three components: 1) Every thing (every object and every process) is made of opposing forces/opposing sides. 2) Gradual changes lead to turning points, where one opposite overcomes the other. 3) Change moves in spirals, not circles. dialectics4kids.com
http://wn.com/Intro_to_Dialectics_from_the_film_Half_Nelson_2006
Clips from the movie "Half Nelson" that beautifully explain dialectics, a simple theory that explains how change happens. The teacher applies it to social justice, but can be used to explain change in any context. Basically, its broken down into three components: 1) Every thing (every object and every process) is made of opposing forces/opposing sides. 2) Gradual changes lead to turning points, where one opposite overcomes the other. 3) Change moves in spirals, not circles. dialectics4kids.com
Hegalian Dialectic
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:43
- Updated: 30 Jan 2013
Also known as Thesis Antithesis & Synthesis, Problem Reaction Solution, and Order Out Of Chaos. This tactic has been employed by rulers for quite some time.
http://wn.com/Hegalian_Dialectic
Also known as Thesis Antithesis & Synthesis, Problem Reaction Solution, and Order Out Of Chaos. This tactic has been employed by rulers for quite some time.
- published: 01 Oct 2009
- views: 17882
- author: zomboonation
The Dialectic Principle
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:27
- Updated: 20 Jan 2013
Arguing the omnipotence of deities through GWF Hegel's principle of Dialectics. Information on GWF Hegel: en.wikipedia.org
http://wn.com/The_Dialectic_Principle
Arguing the omnipotence of deities through GWF Hegel's principle of Dialectics. Information on GWF Hegel: en.wikipedia.org
- published: 19 Jun 2009
- views: 10322
- author: TheSocraticApproach
Dialectics in "The Princess Bride"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:35
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
Vizzini here demonstrates the science of dialectics, as perfected by German philosopher GWF Hegel
http://wn.com/Dialectics_in_The_Princess_Bride
Vizzini here demonstrates the science of dialectics, as perfected by German philosopher GWF Hegel
- published: 24 Jun 2009
- views: 54746
- author: voyou1
The Dialectic "March of Leviathan" OFFICIAL VIDEO
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:46
- Updated: 26 Jan 2013
www.Facebook.com Directed and edited by Chris Todd of Berserk Visuals www.Facebook.com Special thanks to Wingman, Jason, and Choey D
http://wn.com/The_Dialectic_March_of_Leviathan_OFFICIAL_VIDEO
www.Facebook.com Directed and edited by Chris Todd of Berserk Visuals www.Facebook.com Special thanks to Wingman, Jason, and Choey D
- published: 28 Jul 2012
- views: 28708
- author: BerserkVisuals
Megadeth - Endgame - 1. Dialectic Chaos
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 30 Jan 2013
Artist: Megadeth Album: Endgame Song: Dialectic Chaos
http://wn.com/Megadeth_Endgame_1_Dialectic_Chaos
Artist: Megadeth Album: Endgame Song: Dialectic Chaos
- published: 20 Sep 2009
- views: 255351
- author: InfiniteLoveOfMusic
SOLA 4.5 The Hegelian Dialectic
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:49
- Updated: 29 Jan 2013
Join the SonsOfLibertyAcademy.com
http://wn.com/SOLA_45_The_Hegelian_Dialectic
The Dialectic - Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate) LYRICS ON SCREEN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 23 Jan 2013
Tabula Rasa Track 5 on the full length lyrics in the video!
http://wn.com/The_Dialectic_Tabula_Rasa_Blank_Slate_LYRICS_ON_SCREEN
Tabula Rasa Track 5 on the full length lyrics in the video!
- published: 04 Dec 2011
- views: 2860
- author: BeformetPvP
Dialectics by Anthony Anaxagorou
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Updated: 22 Jan 2013
Spoken word poetry written and performed by Anthony Anaxagorou with music by Bombay Dub Orchestra. Taken from the collection 'A Difficult Place To Be Human' - order here store.anthonyanaxagorou.com Official Website: www.anthonyanaxagorou.com Twitter: Anthony1983
http://wn.com/Dialectics_by_Anthony_Anaxagorou
Spoken word poetry written and performed by Anthony Anaxagorou with music by Bombay Dub Orchestra. Taken from the collection 'A Difficult Place To Be Human' - order here store.anthonyanaxagorou.com Official Website: www.anthonyanaxagorou.com Twitter: Anthony1983
- published: 18 Jan 2012
- views: 5174
- author: Anthony Anaxagorou
Reading and Time: A dialectic between academic expectation and academic frustration
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:07
- Updated: 28 Jan 2013
Do you work with Jacques Derrida? Have you read Sein und Zeit? Reading and Time: A dialectic between academic expectation and academic frustration!
http://wn.com/Reading_and_Time_A_dialectic_between_academic_expectation_and_academic_frustration
Do you work with Jacques Derrida? Have you read Sein und Zeit? Reading and Time: A dialectic between academic expectation and academic frustration!
- published: 01 Mar 2010
- views: 141274
- author: Seferin
Can Dialectics Break Bricks? (1 of 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:27
- Updated: 20 Jan 2013
Excerpts from René Viénet's 1973 film "Can Dialectics Break Bricks?" "Imagine a kung fu flick in which the martial artists spout Situationist aphorisms about conquering alienation while decadent bureaucrats ply the ironies of a stalled revolution. This is what you'll encounter in René Viénet's outrageous refashioning of a Chinese fisticuff film. An influential Situationist, Viénet stripped the soundtrack from a run-of-the-mill Hong Kong export and lathered on his own devastating dialogue. . . . A brilliant, acerbic and riotous critique of the failure of socialism in which the martial artists counter ideological blows with theoretical thrusts from Debord, Reich and others. . . . Viénet's target is also the mechanism of cinema and how it serves ideology."
http://wn.com/Can_Dialectics_Break_Bricks?_1_of_2
Excerpts from René Viénet's 1973 film "Can Dialectics Break Bricks?" "Imagine a kung fu flick in which the martial artists spout Situationist aphorisms about conquering alienation while decadent bureaucrats ply the ironies of a stalled revolution. This is what you'll encounter in René Viénet's outrageous refashioning of a Chinese fisticuff film. An influential Situationist, Viénet stripped the soundtrack from a run-of-the-mill Hong Kong export and lathered on his own devastating dialogue. . . . A brilliant, acerbic and riotous critique of the failure of socialism in which the martial artists counter ideological blows with theoretical thrusts from Debord, Reich and others. . . . Viénet's target is also the mechanism of cinema and how it serves ideology."
- published: 16 Sep 2006
- views: 37118
- author: OttOmOlOtOv
Megadeth - Dialectic Chaos + This Day We Fight [HD]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:54
- Updated: 30 Jan 2013
Both songs off their new album Endgame In stores September 15
http://wn.com/Megadeth_Dialectic_Chaos_+_This_Day_We_Fight_HD_
Both songs off their new album Endgame In stores September 15
- published: 12 Sep 2009
- views: 172259
- author: Azshan
The Hegelian Dialectic: Infowars Nightly News
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:21
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
News items covered on tonight's show: An alarming trend of doctors "firing" their patients for refusing to be injected with dangerous and often deadly vaccines pushed by big pharma and the government. DHS boss Janet Napolitano's admission that there is no threat to America from Iranian and Hezbollah terrorists. Despite her statements before the House Homeland Security Committee, the establishment media continues to report the non-existent threat and scare the ill-informed. www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.com twitter.com
http://wn.com/The_Hegelian_Dialectic_Infowars_Nightly_News
News items covered on tonight's show: An alarming trend of doctors "firing" their patients for refusing to be injected with dangerous and often deadly vaccines pushed by big pharma and the government. DHS boss Janet Napolitano's admission that there is no threat to America from Iranian and Hezbollah terrorists. Despite her statements before the House Homeland Security Committee, the establishment media continues to report the non-existent threat and scare the ill-informed. www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.com twitter.com
- published: 17 Feb 2012
- views: 28269
- author: TheAlexJonesChannel
MEGADETH - DIALECTIC CHAOS
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:11
- Updated: 31 Jan 2013
Megadeth new album Endgame 2009
http://wn.com/MEGADETH_DIALECTIC_CHAOS
The Hegelian Dialectic and The Third Wave Synthesis part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:14
- Updated: 19 Aug 2012
The Hegelian Dialectic and The Third Wave Synthesis, also known as The Third Way
http://wn.com/The_Hegelian_Dialectic_and_The_Third_Wave_Synthesis_part_1
The Hegelian Dialectic and The Third Wave Synthesis, also known as The Third Way
- published: 03 Dec 2009
- views: 7201
- author: CRX35SE
ZIZEK - HEGELIAN DIALECTIC, ERNST LUBITSCH'S "NINOTCHKA" & HIS OWN FAV JOKE...
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:16
- Updated: 26 Jan 2013
AT THE EXPENSE OF MONTENEGRINS AS YOU MIGHT EXPECT, BUT ALL IN GOOD JEST...
http://wn.com/ZIZEK_HEGELIAN_DIALECTIC,_ERNST_LUBITSCH'S_NINOTCHKA_HIS_OWN_FAV_JOKE
AT THE EXPENSE OF MONTENEGRINS AS YOU MIGHT EXPECT, BUT ALL IN GOOD JEST...
- published: 11 Jul 2011
- views: 3217
- author: DJBUBBLEGOOSE
Karl Marx - Dialectics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:48
- Updated: 13 Jan 2013
I try to do the impossible - to make a review of dialectics from its origins in ancient Greece through history - in a conversational form. Dialectics: en.wikipedia.org Dialectics in ancient Greece - Zeno, Heraclitus. Medieval dialectics - Eriugena, Eckhart. Enlightenment dialectics - Rousseau, Hume. German Classical Philosophy - Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel. Young Hegelians. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels. The quotation is from Laszek Kolakowski "Main Currents of Marxism - 1. The Founders"
http://wn.com/Karl_Marx_Dialectics
I try to do the impossible - to make a review of dialectics from its origins in ancient Greece through history - in a conversational form. Dialectics: en.wikipedia.org Dialectics in ancient Greece - Zeno, Heraclitus. Medieval dialectics - Eriugena, Eckhart. Enlightenment dialectics - Rousseau, Hume. German Classical Philosophy - Kant, Fichte, Shelling, Hegel. Young Hegelians. Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels. The quotation is from Laszek Kolakowski "Main Currents of Marxism - 1. The Founders"
- published: 09 Feb 2010
- views: 1833
- author: dewinthemorning
The Hegelian Dialectic. False Flag Terrorism.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:57
- Updated: 23 Jan 2013
From: TheAlexJonesChannel | 17 Feb 2012 | 302 views www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.com twitter.com
http://wn.com/The_Hegelian_Dialectic_False_Flag_Terrorism
From: TheAlexJonesChannel | 17 Feb 2012 | 302 views www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.com twitter.com
- published: 17 Feb 2012
- views: 3677
- author: TheRiverMersey
Orchid - Aesthetic Dialectic
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:43
- Updated: 27 Dec 2012
All of this means nothing DC made me and the rest of this mess You don't even try to fake it All of this means nothing DC made me and the rest of this mess You don't even try to fake it Don't even try I'm here becuase I was ready to leave This should mean more but it can't So dance, dance Dance to the sounds of america's best dressed fake out
http://wn.com/Orchid_Aesthetic_Dialectic
All of this means nothing DC made me and the rest of this mess You don't even try to fake it All of this means nothing DC made me and the rest of this mess You don't even try to fake it Don't even try I'm here becuase I was ready to leave This should mean more but it can't So dance, dance Dance to the sounds of america's best dressed fake out
- published: 26 Aug 2008
- views: 45871
- author: Gorglazon
Megadeth - Dialectic Chaos (Studio Version)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 19 Jan 2013
Opening track off Megadeth's 12th album, Endgame.
http://wn.com/Megadeth_Dialectic_Chaos_Studio_Version
Opening track off Megadeth's 12th album, Endgame.
- published: 15 Sep 2009
- views: 11460
- author: zatch32
Borderline Personality Disorder & Dialectical Behavior Therapy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:32
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/Borderline_Personality_Disorder_Dialectical_Behavior_Therapy
John Bender 33a1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:25
- Updated: 17 Jan 2013
from the album I Don't Remember Now released in 1980.
http://wn.com/John_Bender_33a1
from the album I Don't Remember Now released in 1980.
- published: 31 Oct 2009
- views: 8091
- author: nightimelady
Rense & Dean Gotcher - The Dialectic Process Defined
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
This combined process of dialectic and praxis is a highly speculative way of behaving, thinking, and acting. It depends on an attitude of compromise by all participants on a general social issue producing tolerance toward ambiguity. It seeks a collaborative effort in overcoming differences in an effort to find agreement on personal-social relationship needs (group consensus). It regards the resolution of personal-social relationship needs through the use of human-reasoning skills, or HOTS, as most important. It helps in determining what is the "best" or "most rational" solution to personal-social relationship needs. This does not mean that the solution agreed upon should be "fact" or "truth" (absolute), only that it is acceptable to all as a possible solution that could or should be tried relative feelings toward ambiguous facts.
http://wn.com/Rense_Dean_Gotcher_The_Dialectic_Process_Defined
This combined process of dialectic and praxis is a highly speculative way of behaving, thinking, and acting. It depends on an attitude of compromise by all participants on a general social issue producing tolerance toward ambiguity. It seeks a collaborative effort in overcoming differences in an effort to find agreement on personal-social relationship needs (group consensus). It regards the resolution of personal-social relationship needs through the use of human-reasoning skills, or HOTS, as most important. It helps in determining what is the "best" or "most rational" solution to personal-social relationship needs. This does not mean that the solution agreed upon should be "fact" or "truth" (absolute), only that it is acceptable to all as a possible solution that could or should be tried relative feelings toward ambiguous facts.
- published: 19 Feb 2012
- views: 3930
- author: JRense
photo: AP / Ariel Schalit
31 Jan 2013
Zeenews Bureau. Damascus. The Syrian Army has confirmed that Israeli Air Force fighter planes carried out strikes in its territory, but denied reports of a convoy carrying weapons to Lebanon was bombed. The Syrian Army statement says that the IAF jet fighters’ target was a military research centre near the border with Lebanon. Two people have been reported to be dead and five others injured in the attack ... First Published ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Aleppo Revolution Against Assad Regime
29 Jan 2013
By Alexander Dziadosz and Oliver Holmes. BEIRUT, Jan 29 (Reuters) - At least 65 people were found shot dead with their hands bound in the northern Syrian city of Aleppo on Tuesday in a "new massacre" in the near two-year revolt against President Bashar al-Assad, activists said. Opposition campaigners blamed the government but it was impossible to confirm who was responsible ... The U.N ... State media did not mention the incident ... STALEMATE ... ....(size: 9.0Kb)
photo: AP / ESPN Images, Eric Lards Bakke
31 Jan 2013
A freestyle snowmobile rider hurt in a crash at last week's Winter X Games in Colorado has died at the age of 25. Caleb Moore was attempting a backflip when his snowmobile caught the edge of a landing area, sending him over the handlebars. The 450-lb (204-kg) snowmobile rolled over him ... 'Deeply saddened' ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
photo: AP / Korea Aerospace Research Institute
30 Jan 2013
Launch of 140-tonne rocket likely to anger North Korea, which incurred tougher UN sanctions after December launch. The rocket takes off from its launchpad at Naro, south of Seoul. South Korea has twice before failed to put a satellite into space. Photograph. Kari/AFP/Getty Images ... Relief greeted the Naro rocket's flawless liftoff from a space centre on the south coast at 4pm local time ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
photo: AP / David Guttenfelder
30 Jan 2013
SEOUL - Until Tuesday, North Korea appeared on Google Maps as a near-total white space -- no roads, no train lines, no parks and no restaurants. The only thing labeled was the capital city, Pyongyang. This all changed when Google, on Tuesday, rolled out a detailed map of one of the world's most secretive states ... Similar processes were used in other once-unmapped countries like Afghanistan and Myanmar ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
New Straits/Business Times
01 Feb 2013
HOME FRONT. Forging a consensus is always a battle ... It is taken for granted, for example, that when Filipino leaders address the Filipino "people", it is assumed that refers to the overwhelming majority who are of basic Malay racial stock and practises the Roman Catholic faith although there are pockets of Filipinos who are Protestant, Muslim, Chinese, indigenous or speak minority non-Tagalog regional dialects ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
Lehigh Valley
01 Feb 2013
Bruce Whitehouse, assistant professor of sociology and anthropology at Lehigh, was recently interviewed by Robert Siegel, host of NPR’s “All Things Considered,” about a group of nomadic tribesmen from North Africa, known as the Tuareg, and their involvement in the developing Malian crisis. “The Tuareg people are members of a group who speak a Berber dialect known as Tomashek,” Whitehouse said ... ....(size: 5.5Kb)
Bloomberg
01 Feb 2013
Two financial deals that kept the National Football League playing in the Superdome, allowing New Orleans to host a 10th Super Bowl, were expensive for taxpayers and enriched Saints owner Tom Benson, said former Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco ... U.S ... Some wags dubbed the team the Aints and began calling themselves Who Dats, after the chant in the local dialect “who dat say dey gonna beat dem Saints?” ... ....(size: 11.0Kb)
Bloomberg
01 Feb 2013
When billionaire Robert Kuok introduced a luxury hotel brand in 1971, he named it Shangri-La, after the fictional utopia in which inhabitants enjoy unheard-of longevity ... (FSSTI) ... As of Jan ... The son of Chinese immigrants who had settled in British- controlled Malaya, Robert Kuok Hock Nien -- his full name -- grew up speaking his parents’ Chinese Fuzhou dialect, English and even Japanese during Japan’s wartime occupation of the region ... ....(size: 18.6Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
31 Jan 2013
Chandrasekhar Rao’s remarks on Nehru-Gandhi family were misunderstood as KCR had made those comments in Telangana dialect ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
Houston Chronicle
31 Jan 2013
"People are becoming more bi-dialectical," meaning they are able to easily speak in two different accents, said Lars Hinrichs,English language and linguistics professor at UT-Austin ... If anybody should know, it's Hinrichs, who heads heads UT-Austin's Texas English Project that gauges how much Texas accents and dialects have changed over the years....(size: 9.8Kb)
The Star
31 Jan 2013
Languages and dialects are living things that evolve over time, which sometimes even confuse native speakers ... A language or dialect that does not evolve is one that is destined for the history books and like many other living things, the spoken word must be used by many people in many different ways. This brings me to my pet peeve of the week the English Language ... That is not my issue ... They absolutely abhor the letter u ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
31 Jan 2013
The Times of India
31 Jan 2013
As Chandramukhi Chautala, the dabang cop of FIR, Kavita Kaushik straightens out even the toughest of goons ... However, she is happy to be able to experiment in the genre of comedy ... She says, "I had to work on my accent and learn the local dialect ... ....(size: 1.2Kb)
Celebrity Café
31 Jan 2013
Wykeham McNeill, Jamaica's minister of tourism and entertainment, is rallying behind the Volkswagen ad that has been deemed racist by some ... A white actor is seen speaking in Jamaican dialect on a Monday morning to cheer up his co-workers, as he’s extremely happy because of his Volkswagen ... Blessed Love!" ... Check out the ad below.. 0 ... None ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
Newstrack India
31 Jan 2013
Tweet. London, Jan 31(ANI). Punjabi has been revealed as the third most spoken language in the United Kingdom after English and Polish, according to 2011 census data released by the Office of National Statistics ... Chinese people alone listed 67 different languages or dialects, although a minority of those were different spellings of the same language, the paper added ... (ANI). Read More ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 3.0Kb)
The Gleaner
31 Jan 2013
Davina Henry, Staff Reporter. In spite of the exposure for Jamaica from an advertisement that German automaker Volkswagen has produced, there has been some controversy ... While the message the advertising is sending is not harmful, there are quarters annoyed over the use of the Jamaican dialect ... I have travelled around the world many times, met all types of people and played in front of millions throughout my career ... plenty exposure ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
Irish Times
31 Jan 2013
CLIFFORD COONAN in Beijing. Finnegans Wake is just as challenging a read in Chinese as in the original, but that has not stopped readers in China turning a new translation of James Joyce’s dreamtime masterpiece into a bestseller. “Reading Finnegans Wake is like looking at the sky, or the whole world ... Ms Dai visited Dublin in 2004, but found understanding the dialect difficult ... I also understood street names better.” ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
For other uses, see Dialect (disambiguation).
Dialectic (also dialectics and the dialectical method) is a method of argument for resolving disagreement that has been central to Indian and European philosophy since antiquity. The word dialectic originated in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in the Socratic dialogues. The dialectical method is dialogue between two or more people holding different points of view about a subject, who wish to establish the truth of the matter by dialogue, with reasoned arguments.[1] Dialectics is different from debate, wherein the debaters are committed to their points of view, and mean to win the debate, either by persuading the opponent, proving their argument correct, or proving the opponent's argument incorrect — thus, either a judge or a jury must decide who wins the debate. Dialectics is also different from rhetoric, wherein the speaker uses logos, pathos, or ethos to persuade listeners to take their side of the argument.
The Sophists taught arête (Greek: ἀρετή, quality, excellence) as the highest value, and the determinant of one's actions in life. The Sophists taught artistic quality in oratory (motivation via speech) as a manner of demonstrating one's arête. Oratory was taught as an art form, used to please and to influence other people via excellent speech; nonetheless, the Sophists taught the pupil to seek arête in all endeavours, not solely in oratory.
Socrates favoured truth as the highest value, proposing that it could be discovered through reason and logic in discussion: ergo, dialectic. Socrates valued rationality (appealing to logic, not emotion) as the proper means for persuasion, the discovery of truth, and the determinant for one's actions. To Socrates, truth, not arête, was the greater good, and each person should, above all else, seek truth to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposed the Sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof.[2] Different forms of dialectical reasoning have emerged throughout history from the Indosphere (Greater India) and the West (Europe). These forms include the Socratic method, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian dialectics, Marxist, Talmudic, and Neo-orthodoxy.
Contents |
Principles[link]
The purpose of the dialectic method of reasoning is resolution of disagreement through rational discussion, and, ultimately, the search for truth.[3][4] One way to proceed — the Socratic method — is to show that a given hypothesis (with other admissions) leads to a contradiction; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth (see reductio ad absurdum). Another dialectical resolution of disagreement is by denying a presupposition of the contending thesis and antithesis; thereby, proceeding to sublation (transcendence) to synthesis, a third thesis.
It is also possible that the rejection of the participants' presuppositions is resisted, which then might generate a second-order controversy.[5]
Fichtean Dialectics (Hegelian Dialectics) is based upon four concepts:
- Everything is transient and finite, existing in the medium of time.
- Everything is composed of contradictions (opposing forces).
- Gradual changes lead to crises, turning points when one force overcomes its opponent force (quantitative change leads to qualitative change).
- Change is helical (spiral), not circular (negation of the negation).[6]
The concept of dialectic existed in the philosophy of Heraclitus of Ephesus, who proposed that everything is in constant change, as a result of inner strife and opposition.[7][8][9] Hence, the history of the dialectical method is the history of philosophy.[10]
Western dialectical forms[link]
Classical philosophy[link]
In classical philosophy, dialectic (Greek: διαλεκτική) is a form of reasoning based upon dialogue of arguments and counter-arguments, advocating propositions (theses) and counter-propositions (antitheses). The outcome of such a dialectic might be the refutation of a relevant proposition, or of a synthesis, or a combination of the opposing assertions, or a qualitative improvement of the dialogue.[11][12]
Moreover, the term dialectic owes much of its prestige to its role in the philosophies of Socrates and Plato, in the Greek Classical period (4–5 c. BCE). Aristotle said that it was the pre-Socratic philosopher Zeno of Elea who invented dialectic, of which the dialogues of Plato are the examples of the Socratic dialectical method.[13]
Socratic dialogue[link]
Main article: Socratic dialogue
In Plato's dialogues and other Socratic dialogues, Socrates attempts to examine someone's beliefs, at times even first principles or premises by which we all reason and argue. Socrates typically argues by cross-examining his interlocutor's claims and premises in order to draw out a contradiction or inconsistency among them. According to Plato, the rational detection of error amounts to finding the proof of the antithesis.[14] However, important as this objective is, the principal aim of Socratic activity seems to be to improve the soul of his interlocutors, by freeing them from unrecognized errors.
For example, in the Euthyphro, Socrates asks Euthyphro to provide a definition of piety. Euthyphro replies that the pious is that which is loved by the gods. But, Socrates also has Euthyphro agreeing that the gods are quarrelsome and their quarrels, like human quarrels, concern objects of love or hatred. Therefore, Socrates reasons, at least one thing exists that certain gods love but other gods hate. Again, Euthyphro agrees. Socrates concludes that if Euthyphro's definition of piety is acceptable, then there must exist at least one thing that is both pious and impious (as it is both loved and hated by the gods)—which Euthyphro admits is absurd. Thus, Euthyphro is brought to a realization by this dialectical method that his definition of piety is not sufficiently meaningful.
There is another interpretation of the dialectic, as a method of intuition suggested in The Republic.[15] Simon Blackburn writes that the dialectic in this sense is used to understand "the total process of enlightenment, whereby the philosopher is educated so as to achieve knowledge of the supreme good, the Form of the Good”.[16]
Medieval philosophy[link]
Dialectics (also called logic) was one of the three liberal arts taught in medieval universities as part of the trivium. The trivium also included rhetoric and grammar.[17][18][19][20]
Based mainly on Aristotle, the first medieval philosopher to work on dialectics was Boethius.[21] After him, many scholastic philosophers also made use of dialectics in their works, such as Abelard,[22] William of Sherwood,[23] Garlandus Compotista,[24] Walter Burley, Roger Swyneshed and William of Ockham.[25]
This dialectic was formed as follows:
- The Question to be determined
- The principal objections to the question
- An argument in favor of the Question, traditionally a single argument ("On the contrary..")
- The determination of the Question after weighing the evidence. ("I answer that...")
- The replies to each objection
Modern philosophy[link]
The concept of dialectics was given new life by Hegel (following Fichte), whose dialectically dynamic model of nature and of history made it, as it were, a fundamental aspect of the nature of reality (instead of regarding the contradictions into which dialectics leads as a sign of the sterility of the dialectical method, as Kant tended to do in his Critique of Pure Reason).[26][27] In the mid-19th century, the concept of "dialectic" was appropriated by Marx (see, for example, Das Kapital, published in 1867) and Engels and retooled in a non-idealist manner, becoming a crucial notion in their philosophy of dialectical materialism. Thus this concept has played a prominent role on the world stage and in world history. In contemporary polemics, "dialectics" may also refer to an understanding of how we can or should perceive the world (epistemology); an assertion that the nature of the world outside one's perception is interconnected, contradictory, and dynamic (ontology); or it can refer to a method of presentation of ideas and conclusions (discourse). According to Hegel, "dialectic" is the method by which human history unfolds; that is to say, history progresses as a dialectical process.
Hegelian dialectic[link]
Hegelian dialectic, usually presented in a threefold manner, was stated by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus as comprising three dialectical stages of development: a thesis, giving rise to its reaction, an antithesis, which contradicts or negates the thesis, and the tension between the two being resolved by means of a synthesis. Although this model is often named after Hegel, he himself never used that specific formulation. Hegel ascribed that terminology to Kant.[28] Carrying on Kant's work, Fichte greatly elaborated on the synthesis model, and popularized it.
On the other hand, Hegel did use a three-valued logical model that is very similar to the antithesis model, but Hegel's most usual terms were: Abstract-Negative-Concrete. Hegel used this writing model as a backbone to accompany his points in many of his works.
The formula, Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis, does not explain why the Thesis requires an Antithesis. However, the formula, Abstract-Negative-Concrete, suggests a flaw in any initial thesis—it is too abstract and lacks the negative of trial, error and experience. For Hegel, the Concrete, the Synthesis, the Absolute, must always pass through the phase of the Negative, that is, Mediation. This is the actual essence of what is popularly called Hegelian Dialectics.
To describe the activity of overcoming the negative, Hegel also often used the term Aufhebung, variously translated into English as "sublation" or "overcoming," to conceive of the working of the dialectic. Roughly, the term indicates preserving the useful portion of an idea, thing, society, etc., while moving beyond its limitations. (Jacques Derrida's preferred French translation of the term was relever).[29]
In the Logic, for instance, Hegel describes a dialectic of existence: first, existence must be posited as pure Being (Sein); but pure Being, upon examination, is found to be indistinguishable from Nothing (Nichts). When it is realized that what is coming into being is, at the same time, also returning to nothing (in life, for example, one's living is also a dying), both Being and Nothing are united as Becoming.[30]
As in the Socratic dialectic, Hegel claimed to proceed by making implicit contradictions explicit: each stage of the process is the product of contradictions inherent or implicit in the preceding stage. For Hegel, the whole of history is one tremendous dialectic, major stages of which chart a progression from self-alienation as slavery to self-unification and realization as the rational, constitutional state of free and equal citizens. The Hegelian dialectic cannot be mechanically applied for any chosen thesis. Critics argue that the selection of any antithesis, other than the logical negation of the thesis, is subjective. Then, if the logical negation is used as the antithesis, there is no rigorous way to derive a synthesis. In practice, when an antithesis is selected to suit the user's subjective purpose, the resulting "contradictions" are rhetorical, not logical, and the resulting synthesis is not rigorously defensible against a multitude of other possible syntheses. The problem with the Fichtean "Thesis-Antithesis-Synthesis" model is that it implies that contradictions or negations come from outside of things. Hegel's point is that they are inherent in and internal to things. This conception of dialectics derives ultimately from Heraclitus.
Hegel has outlined that the purpose of dialectics is "to study things in their own being and movement and thus to demonstrate the finitude of the partial categories of understanding"[31]
One important dialectical principle for Hegel is the transition from quantity to quality, which he terms the Measure. The measure is the qualitative quantum, the quantum is the existence of quantity.[32]
"The identity between quantity and quality, which is found in Measure, is at first only implicit, and not yet explicitly realised. In other words, these two categories, which unite in Measure, each claim an independent authority. On the one hand, the quantitative features of existence may be altered, without affecting its quality. On the other hand, this increase and diminution, immaterial though it be, has its limit, by exceeding which the quality suffers change. [...] But if the quantity present in measure exceeds a certain limit, the quality corresponding to it is also put in abeyance. This however is not a negation of quality altogether, but only of this definite quality, the place of which is at once occupied by another. This process of measure, which appears alternately as a mere change in quantity, and then as a sudden revulsion of quantity into quality, may be envisaged under the figure of a nodal (knotted) line".[33]
As an example, Hegel mentions the states of aggregation of water: "Thus the temperature of water is, in the first place, a point of no consequence in respect of its liquidity: still with the increase or diminution of the temperature of the liquid water, there comes a point where this state of cohesion suffers a qualitative change, and the water is converted into steam or ice".[34] As other examples Hegel mentions the reaching of a point where a single additional grain makes a heap of wheat; or where the bald-tail is produced, if we continue plucking out single hairs.
Another important principle for Hegel is the negation of the negation, which he also terms Aufhebung (sublation): Something is only what it is in its relation to another, but by the negation of the negation this something incorporates the other into itself. The dialectical movement involves two moments that negate each other, something and its other. As a result of the negation of the negation, "something becomes its other; this other is itself something; therefore it likewise becomes an other, and so on ad infinitum".[35] Something in its passage into other only joins with itself, it is self-related.[36] In becoming there are two moments:[37] coming-to-be and ceasing-to-be: by sublation, i.e. negation of the negation, being passes over into nothing, it ceases to be, but something new shows up, is coming to be. What is sublated (aufgehoben) on the one hand ceases to be and is put to an end, but on the other hand it is preserved and maintained.[38] In dialectics, a totality transforms itself; it is self-related.
Marxist dialectics[link]
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels proposed that G.F. Hegel had rendered philosophy too abstractly ideal:
The mystification which dialectic suffers in Hegel’s hands, by no means prevents him from being the first to present its general form of working in a comprehensive and conscious manner. With him it is standing on its head. It must be turned right side up again, if you would discover the rational kernel within the mystical shell.[39]
In contradiction to Hegelian idealism, Karl Marx presented Dialectical materialism (Marxist dialectics):
My dialectic method is not only different from the Hegelian, but is its direct opposite. To Hegel, the life-process of the human brain, i.e. the process of thinking, which, under the name of ‘the Idea’, he even transforms into an independent subject, is the demiurgos of the real world, and the real world is only the external, phenomenal form of ‘the Idea’. With me, on the contrary, the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought. (Capital, Afterword, Second German Ed., Moscow, 1970, vol. 1, p. 29).
In Marxism, the dialectical method of historical study became intertwined with historical materialism, the school of thought exemplified by the works of Marx, Engels, and Lenin. In the USSR, under Joseph Stalin, Marxist dialectics became "diamat" (short for dialectical materialism), a 19th-century social theory by Joseph Dietzgen emphasising the importance of commodities and the effects of their exchange. Dietzgen sparingly used the theory to explain the nature of socialism and social development, but was not academically studied until the Soviet Union indoctrinated the philosophy as Marxist. A dialectical method was fundamental to Marxist politics, e.g. the works of Karl Korsch, Georg Lukács and certain members of the Frankfurt School. Soviet academics, notably Evald Ilyenkov and Zaid Orudzhev, continued pursuing unorthodox philosophic study of Marxist dialectics; likewise in the West, notably the philosopher Bertell Ollman at New York University.
Friedrich Engels proposed that Nature is dialectical, thus, in Anti-Dühring he said that the negation of negation is:
In Dialectics of Nature, Engels said:
Probably the same gentlemen who up to now have decried the transformation of quantity into quality as mysticism and incomprehensible transcendentalism will now declare that it is indeed something quite self-evident, trivial, and commonplace, which they have long employed, and so they have been taught nothing new. But to have formulated for the first time in its universally valid form a general law of development of Nature, society, and thought, will always remain an act of historic importance.[41]
Marxist dialectics is exemplified in Das Kapital (Capital), which outlines two central theories: (i) surplus value and (ii) the materialist conception of history; Marx explains dialectical materialism:
In its rational form, it is a scandal and abomination to bourgeoisdom, and its doctrinaire professors, because it includes in its comprehension an affirmative recognition of the existing state of things, at the same time, also, the recognition of the negation of that state, of its inevitable breaking up; because it regards every historically developed social form as in fluid movement, and therefore takes into account its transient nature not less than its momentary existence; because it lets nothing impose upon it, and is, in its essence, critical and revolutionary.[42]
Class struggle is the central contradiction to be resolved by Marxist dialectics, because of its central role in the social and political lives of a society. Nonetheless, Marx and Marxists developed the concept of class struggle to comprehend the dialectical contradictions between mental and manual labor, and between town and country. Hence, philosophic contradiction is central to the development of dialectics — the progress from quantity to quality, the acceleration of gradual social change; the negation of the initial development of the status quo; the negation of that negation; and the high-level recurrence of features of the original status quo. In the USSR, Progress Publishers issued anthologies of dialectical materialism by Lenin, wherein he also quotes Marx and Engels:
As the most comprehensive and profound doctrine of development, and the richest in content, Hegelian dialectics was considered by Marx and Engels the greatest achievement of classical German philosophy. . . . “The great basic thought”, Engels writes, “that the world is not to be comprehended as a complex of ready-made things, but as a complex of processes, in which the things, apparently stable no less than their mind images in our heads, the concepts, go through an uninterrupted change of coming into being and passing away . . . this great fundamental thought has, especially since the time of Hegel, so thoroughly permeated ordinary consciousness that, in its generality, it is now scarcely ever contradicted. But, to acknowledge this fundamental thought in words, and to apply it in reality in detail to each domain of investigation, are two different things. . . . For dialectical philosophy nothing is final, absolute, sacred. It reveals the transitory character of everything and in everything; nothing can endure before it, except the uninterrupted process of becoming and of passing away, of endless ascendancy from the lower to the higher. And dialectical philosophy, itself, is nothing more than the mere reflection of this process in the thinking brain.” Thus, according to Marx, dialectics is “the science of the general laws of motion both of the external world and of human thought”.[43]
Lenin describes his dialectical understanding of the concept of development:
A development that repeats, as it were, stages that have already been passed, but repeats them in a different way, on a higher basis (“the negation of the negation”), a development, so to speak, that proceeds in spirals, not in a straight line; a development by leaps, catastrophes, and revolutions; “breaks in continuity”; the transformation of quantity into quality; inner impulses towards development, imparted by the contradiction and conflict of the various forces and tendencies acting on a given body, or within a given phenomenon, or within a given society; the interdependence and the closest and indissoluble connection between all aspects of any phenomenon (history constantly revealing ever new aspects), a connection that provides a uniform, and universal process of motion, one that follows definite laws — these are some of the features of dialectics as a doctrine of development that is richer than the conventional one.[43]
In 2011, Dmitry Misyurov proposed dialectical formulas based on the binary notation.[44]
Rothenfelde modern dialectics[link]
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In the Soviet Union dialectics of Marx developed in two directions - the ideological propaganda and research methodology. Some research scientists have used the dialectic of Hegel and Marx to interpret the results of natural sciences - physics, etc.. One of them was Yuri Rothenfelde (born in 1940). At the same time he created the non-classical dialectic (Not-Hegelian dialectic).
Doctoral dissertation, consultant V.S. Gott - "Becoming a non-classical dialectics" (1991). In 1991 Ph.D. Rothenfelde Y. has published a monography dedicated to the nonclassical dialectic - Rothenfelde Y.A. Non-classical dialectic. - M: Ray, 1991.
Leading the research theme was the problem of differentiating the concept of "specific identity". It lies between the abstract identity and absolute difference. He managed to differentiate an infinite number of specific differences.
The scheme of Hegel:
Abstract identity - Specific identity (or identity of opposites) - Absolute difference.
Yuri Rothenfelde divided "specific identity" to the specific differences. And express them in a series of philosophical categories. These categories became the basis of non-classical dialectic. Rothenfelde Y. called them "the comparative category".
The scheme of Rothenfelde:
The first series:
Abstract identity <- Meaning Assigned (less relatively more) - ...etc.< Absolute difference
Second series:
Abstract identity <- Opposite (the middle between the smaller and more) -...etc. < Absolute difference
These categories describe the types of symmetry, antisymmetry and asymmetry. Abstract identity - the mirror symmetry, the Absolute difference - asymmetry. Meaning assigned - translational symmetry, the Opposite - the mirror antisymmetry, etc.. That philosophy is connected with physics. For example. The right and left hand - Abstract identity - Mirror symmetry.
Indian forms of dialectic[link]
Indian continental debate: an intra- and inter-Dharmic dialectic[link]
Anacker (2005: p. 20), in the introduction to his translation of seven works by Vasubandhu (fl. 4th c.), a famed dialectician of the Gupta Empire, contextualizes the prestige of dialectic and cut-throat debate in classical India and makes references to the possibly apocryphal story of the banishment of Moheyan post-debate with Kamalaśīla (fl. 713-763):
Philosophical debating was in classical India often a spectator-sport, much as contests of poetry-improvisation were in Germany in its High Middle Ages, and as they still are in the Telegu country today. The king himself was often the judge at these debates, and loss to an opponent could have serious consequences. To take an atrociously extreme example, when the Tamil Śaivite Ñānasambandar Nāyanār defeated the Jain ācāryas in Madurai before the Pāṇḍya King Māravarman Avaniśūlāmani (620-645) this debate is said to have resulted in the impalement of 8000 Jains, an event still celebrated in the Mīnāksi Temple of Madurai today. Usually, the results were not so drastic; they could mean formal recognition by the defeated side of the superiority of the winning party, forced conversions, or, as in the case of the Council of Lhasa, which was conducted by Indians, banishment of the losers.[45]
Brahmin/Vedic/Hindu dialectic[link]
See also: Hindu philosophy
While western philosophy traces dialectics to ancient Greek thought of Socrates and Plato, the idea of tension between two opposing forces leading to synthesis is much older and present in Hindu Philosophy.[46] Indian philosophy, for the most part subsumed within the Indian religions, has an ancient tradition of dialectic polemics. The two complements, "purusha" (the active cause) and the "prakriti" (the passive nature) brings everything into existence. They follow the "rta", the Dharma (Universal Law of Nature).
Jain dialectic[link]
Anekantavada and Syadvada are the sophisticated dialectic traditions developed by the Jains to arrive at truth. As per Jainism, the truth or the reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.[47][48] Jain doctrine of Anekantavada states that an object has infinite modes of existence and qualities and, as such, they cannot be completely perceived in all its aspects and manifestations, due to the inherent limitations of being human. Only the Kevalis - the omniscient beings - can comprehend the object in all its aspects and manifestations, and that all others are capable of knowing only a part of it. Consequently, no one view can claim to represent the absolute truth. According to Jains, the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason.[49] Thus one finds in the Jain texts, deliberative exhortations on any subject in all its facts, may they be constructive or obstructive, inferential or analytical, enlightening or destructive.[50]
Syādvāda is a theory of conditioned predication that provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that epithet Syād be attached to every expression.[51] Syādvāda is not only an extension of Anekānta ontology, but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own force. The Sanskrit etymological root of the term Syād is "perhaps" or "maybe", but in context of syādvāda, it means "in some ways" or "from a perspective." As reality is complex, no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully. Thus the term "syāt" should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement.[52] Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative view points or propositions, it is known as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions also known as saptabhangi are:[53]
- syād-asti – "in some ways it is"
- syād-nāsti - "in some ways it is not"
- syād-asti-nāsti - "in some ways it is and it is not"
- syād-asti-avaktavyaḥ - "in some ways it is and it is indescribable"
- syād-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ - "in some ways it is not and it is indescribable"
- syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavyaḥ - "in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable"
- syād-avaktavyaḥ - "in some ways it is indescribable"
Buddhist dialectic[link]
See also: Buddhist philosophy
Buddhism has developed sophisticated, and sometimes highly institutionalized traditions of dialectics during its long history. Nalanda University, and later the Gelugpa Buddhism of Tibet, are examples. The historical development and clarification of Buddhist doctrine and polemics, through dialectics and formal debate, is well documented. Buddhist doctrine was rigorously critiqued (though not ultimately refuted) in the 2nd century by Nagarjuna, whose uncompromisingly logical approach to the realisation of truth, became the basis for the development of a vital stream of Buddhist thought. This dialectical approach of Buddhism, to the elucidation and articulation of an account of the Cosmos as the truth it really is, became known as the Perfection of Wisdom and was later developed by other notable thinkers, such as Dignaga and Dharmakirti (between 500 and 700). The dialectical method of truth-seeking is evident throughout the traditions of Madhyamaka, Yogacara, and Tantric Buddhism. Trisong Detsen, and later Je Tsongkhapa, championed the value of dialectic and of formalised training in debate in Tibet.
Dialectical theology[link]
Neo-orthodoxy, in Europe also known as theology of crisis and dialectical theology,[54][55] is an approach to theology in Protestantism that was developed in the aftermath of the First World War (1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of 19th-century liberal theology and a more positive reevaluation of the teachings of the Reformation, much of which had been in decline (especially in western Europe) since the late 18th century.[56] It is primarily associated with two Swiss professors and pastors, Karl Barth[57] (1886–1968) and Emil Brunner (1899–1966),[54][55] even though Barth himself expressed his unease in the use of the term.[58]
Dialectical method and dualism[link]
Another way to understand dialectics is to view it as a method of thinking to overcome formal dualism and monistic reductionism.[59] For example, formal dualism regards the opposites as mutually exclusive entities, whilst monism finds each to be an epiphenomenon of the other. Dialectical thinking rejects both views. The dialectical method requires focus on both at the same time. It looks for a transcendence of the opposites entailing a leap of the imagination to a higher level, which (1) provides justification for rejecting both alternatives as false and/or (2) helps elucidate a real but previously veiled integral relationship between apparent opposites that have been kept apart and regarded as distinct. For example, the superposition principle of quantum physics can be explained using the dialectical method of thinking—likewise the example below from dialectical biology. Such examples showing the relationship of the dialectic method of thinking to the scientific method to a large part negates the criticism of Popper (see text below) that the two are mutually exclusive. The dialectic method also examines false alternatives presented by formal dualism (materialism vs idealism; rationalism vs empiricism; mind vs body, etc.) and looks for ways to transcend the opposites and form synthesis. In the dialectical method, both have something in common, and understanding of the parts requires understanding their relationship with the whole system. The dialectical method thus views the whole of reality as an evolving process.
Dialectical biology[link]
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In The Dialectical Biologist (Harvard U.P. 1985 ISBN 0-674-20281-3), Richard Levins and Richard Lewontin sketch a dialectical approach to biology. They see "dialectics" more as a set of questions to ask about biological research, a weapon against dogmatism, than as a set of pre-determined answers. They focus on the (dialectical) relationship between the "whole" (or totality) and the "parts." "Part makes whole, and whole makes part" (p. 272). That is, a biological system of some kind consists of a collection of heterogeneous parts. All of these contribute to the character of the whole, as in reductionist thinking. On the other hand, the whole has an existence independent of the parts and feeds back to affect and determine the nature of the parts. This back-and-forth (dialectic) of causation implies a dynamic process. For example, Darwinian evolution points to the competition of a variety of species, each with heterogeneous members, within a given environment. This leads to changing species and even to new species arising. A dialectical biologist fully accepts this picture then looks for ways in which the competing creatures (which serve as the internal conflicts in the environment) lead to changes. The changes manifest in the creatures themselves, through the creatures embracing biological adaptations that provide them with advantages, and in the environment itself, as when the action of microbes encourages the erosion of rocks. Further, each species is part of the "environment" of all the others.
Criticism[link]
Many philosophers have offered critiques of dialectic, and it can even be said that hostility or receptivity to dialectics is one of the things that divides twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy from the so-called "continental" tradition, a divide that only a few contemporary philosophers (among them, G.H. von Wright, Paul Ricoeur, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Richard Rorty, Charles Taylor) have ventured to bridge.
It is generally thought dialectics has become central to "Continental" philosophy, while it plays no part in "Anglo-American" philosophy. In other words, on the continent of Europe, dialectics has entered intellectual culture as what might be called a legitimate part of thought and philosophy, whereas in America and Britain, the dialectic plays no discernible part in the intellectual culture, which instead tends toward positivism. A prime example of the European tradition is Sartre's Critique of Dialectical Reason, which is very different from the works of Popper, whose philosophy was for a time highly influential in the UK where he resided (see below). Sartre states:
- Existentialism, like Marxism, addresses itself to experience in order to discover there concrete syntheses. It can conceive of these syntheses only within a moving, dialectical totalisation, which is nothing else but history or—from the strictly cultural point of view adopted here—"philosophy-becoming-the world."[60]
Karl Popper has attacked the dialectic repeatedly. In 1937 he wrote and delivered a paper entitled "What Is Dialectic?" in which he attacked the dialectical method for its willingness "to put up with contradictions".[61] Popper concluded the essay with these words: "The whole development of dialectic should be a warning against the dangers inherent in philosophical system-building. It should remind us that philosophy should not be made a basis for any sort of scientific system and that philosophers should be much more modest in their claims. One task which they can fulfill quite usefully is the study of the critical methods of science" (Ibid., p. 335).
In chapter 12 of volume 2 of The Open Society and Its Enemies (1944; 5th rev. ed., 1966) Popper unleashed a famous attack on Hegelian dialectics, in which he held that Hegel's thought (unjustly, in the view of some philosophers, such as Walter Kaufmann,[62]) was to some degree responsible for facilitating the rise of fascism in Europe by encouraging and justifying irrationalism. In section 17 of his 1961 "addenda" to The Open Society, entitled "Facts, Standards and Truth: A Further Criticism of Relativism," Popper refused to moderate his criticism of the Hegelian dialectic, arguing that it "played a major role in the downfall of the liberal movement in Germany,... by contributing to historicism and to an identification of might and right, encouraged totalitarian modes of thought. . . . [and] undermined and eventually lowered the traditional standards of intellectual responsibility and honesty".[63]
Formalism[link]
In the past few decades, European and American logicians have attempted to provide mathematical foundations for dialectical logic or argument (logic). There had been pre-formal treatises on argument and dialectic, from authors such as Stephen Toulmin (The Uses of Argument), Nicholas Rescher (Dialectics), and van Eemeren and Grootendorst (Pragma-dialectics). One can include the communities of informal logic and paraconsistent logic. However, building on theories of defeasible reasoning (see John L. Pollock), systems have been built that define well-formedness of arguments, rules governing the process of introducing arguments based on fixed assumptions, and rules for shifting burden. Many of these logics appear in the special area of artificial intelligence and law, though the computer scientists' interest in formalizing dialectic originates in a desire to build decision support and computer-supported collaborative work systems.[64]
See also[link]
- Philosophy
- Aristotle
- Chinese philosophy
- Critical theory (Frankfurt School)
- Dialectic process vs. dialogic process
- Dialectical behavioral therapy
- Dialectical materialism
- Dialectical research
- Dialectician
- Dialogic
- Doublethink
- False dilemma
- Gotthard Günther
- György Lukács
- Hegel
- Heraclitus
- Paradox
- Plato
- Polemic
- Recursion
- Reflective equilibrium
- Relational dialectics
- Rhetoric
- Strange loop
- Synechism
- Taoism
- Universal dialectic
- Portals
- Interdisciplinary concepts
References[link]
- ^ The Republic (Plato), 348b
- ^ see Gorgias, 449B: "Socrates: Would you be willing then, Gorgias, to continue the discussion as we are now doing [Dialectic], by way of question and answer, and to put off to another occasion the (emotional) speeches [Rhetoric] that [the Sophist] Polus began?"
- ^ Pinto, R. C. (2001). Argument, inference and dialectic: collected papers on informal logic. Argumentation library, vol. 4. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. pp. 138–139.
- ^ Eemeren, F. H. v. (2003). Anyone who has a view: theoretical contributions to the study of argumentation. Argumentation library, vol. 8. Dordrecht:Kluwer Academic. p. 92.
- ^ The Musicologist Rose Rosengard Subotnick gives this example: "A question posed in a Fred Friendly Seminar entitled Hard Drugs, Hard Choices: The Crisis Beyond Our Borders [1] (aired on WNET on February 26, 1990), illustrates that others, too, seem to find this dynamic enlightening: 'Are our lives so barren because we use drugs? Or do we use drugs because our lives are so barren?' The question is dialectical to the extent that it enables one to grasp the two opposed priorities as simultaneously valid."
- ^ Jon Mills (2005). Treating attachment pathology. Jason Aronson. pp. 159–166. ISBN 978-0-7657-0132-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=zglsKFJdshMC&pg=PA159. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
- ^ Herbermann, C. G. (1913) The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. Page 160
- ^ Howard Ll. Williams, Hegel, Heraclitus, and Marx's Dialectic. Harvester Wheatsheaf 1989. 256 pages. ISBN 0-7450-0527-6
- ^ Denton Jaques Snider, Ancient European Philosophy: The History of Greek Philosophy Psychologically Treated. Sigma publishing co. 1903. 730 pages. Pages 116-119.
- ^ Cassin, Barbara (ed.), Vocabulaire européen des philosophies [Paris: Le Robert & Seuil, 2004], p. 306, trans. M.K. Jensen)
- ^ Ayer, A. J., & O'Grady, J. (1992). A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers. Page 484.
- ^ McTaggart, J. M. E. (1964). A commentary on Hegel's logic. New York: Russell & Russell. p. 11
- ^ ([fr. 65], Diog. IX 25ff and VIII 57)
- ^ Vlastos, G., Burnyeat, M. (Ed.) (1994) Socratic Studies, Cambridge U.P. ISBN 0-521-44735-6 Ch. 1
- ^ Popper, K. (1962) The Open Society and its Enemies, Volume 1, London, Routledge, p. 133.
- ^ Blackburn, Simon. 1996. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford
- ^ Abelson, P. (1965). The seven liberal arts; a study in mediæval culture. New York: Russell & Russell. Page 82.
- ^ Hyman, A., & Walsh, J. J. (1983). Philosophy in the Middle Ages: the Christian, Islamic, and Jewish traditions. Indianapolis: Hackett Pub. Co. Page 164.
- ^ Adler, Mortimer Jerome (2000). "Dialectic". Routledge. Page 4. ISBN 0-415-22550-7
- ^ Herbermann, C. G. (1913). The Catholic encyclopedia: an international work of reference on the constitution, doctrine, and history of the Catholic church. New York: The Encyclopedia press, inc. Page 760 - 764.
- ^ From topic to tale: logic and narrativity in the Middle Ages, by Eugene Vance,p.43-45
- ^ "Catholic Encyclopedia: Peter Abelard". Newadvent.org. 1907-03-01. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01036b.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ William of Sherwood's Introduction to logic, by Norman Kretzmann,p.69-102
- ^ A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy, by Peter Dronke,p.198
- ^ Medieval literary politics: shapes of ideology, by Sheila Delany,p.11
- ^ Nicholson, J. A. (1950). Philosophy of religion. New York: Ronald Press Co. Page 108.
- ^ Kant, I., Guyer, P., & Wood, A. W. (2003). Critique of pure reason. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Page 495.
- ^ The Accessible Hegel. Michael Allen Fox. Prometheus Books. 2005. p.43. Also see Hegel's preface to the Phenomenology of Spirit, trans. A.V. Miller (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977), secs. 50, 51, p.29. 30.
- ^ See 'La différance' in Margins of philosophy. Alan Bass, translator. University of Chicago Books. 1982. p. 19, fn 23.
- ^ Hegel. "Section in question from Hegel's ''Science of Logic''". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/works/hl/hlbeing.htm#HL1_82. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. Note to §81
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §§107-111
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §§108-109
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §108
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §93
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1874. The Logic. Encyclopaedia of the Philosophical Sciences. 2nd Edition. London: Oxford University Press. §95
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1812. Hegel's Science of Logic. London. Allen & Unwin. §§176-179.
- ^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. 1812. Hegel's Science of Logic. London. Allen & Unwin. §185.
- ^ Marx, Karl (1873) Capital Afterword to the Second German Edition, Vol. I [2]
- ^ Engels, Frederick, (1877) Anti-Dühring,Part I: Philosophy, XIII. Dialectics. Negation of the Negation. [3]
- ^ "Engels, Frederick, (1883) ''Dialectics of Nature:''II. Dialectics". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/ch02.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Marx, Karl, (1873) Capital Vol. I, Afterword to the Second German Edition. [4]
- ^ a b Lenin, V.I., On the Question of Dialectics: A Collection, pp. 7-9. Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1980.
- ^ Misyurov D.A. Essay on Dialectics: Development formulas, Dialectical Analysis, Dialectical Trials. - Moscow, Librokom, 2012 - 288 p. (the book in Russian)[5]
- ^ Anacker, Stefan (2005, rev.ed.). Seven Works of Vasubandhu: The Buddhist Psychological Doctor. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass. (First published: 1984; Reprinted: 1986, 1994, 1998; Corrected: 2002; Revised: 2005), p.20
- ^ Paul Ernest; Brian Greer; Bharath Sriraman (30 June 2009). Critical issues in mathematics education. IAP. p. 327. ISBN 978-1-60752-039-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=AHO9s9DDV5QC&pg=PA327. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Dundas (2002)
- ^ Koller, John M. (July, 2000).
- ^ Duli Chandra Jain (ed.) (1997) p.21
- ^ Hughes, Marilynn (2005) P. 590
- ^ Chatterjea, Tara (2001) p.77-87
- ^ Koller, John M. (July 2000). "Syādvāda as the epistemological key to the Jaina middle way metaphysics of Anekāntavāda". Philosophy East and West (Honululu) 50 (3): Pp.400–8. ISSN 00318221. http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=59942245&Fmt=4&clientId=71080&RQT=309&VName=PQD. Retrieved 2007-10-01.
- ^ Grimes, John (1996) p. 312
- ^ a b "Original Britinnica online". http://original.britannica.com/eb/topic-409012/neoorthodoxy. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ a b "Britannica Encyclopedia (online)". http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409012/neoorthodoxy#tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&title=neoorthodoxy%20--%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ "Merriam-Webster Dictionary(online)". http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/neo-orthodox. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ "American Heritage Dictionary (online)". http://www.bartleby.com/61/91/N0059100.html. Retrieved 2008-07-26.
- ^ See Church Dogmatics III/3, xii.
- ^ Biel, R. and Mu-Jeong Kho (2009) "The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique," Recherches & Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1, Association Recherche & Régulation: 1-21.
- ^ Jean-Paul Sartre. "The Search for Method (1st part) Sartre, 1960, in Existentialism from Dostoyevsky to Sartre, transl. Hazel Barnes, Vintage Books". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/critic/sartre1.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Karl Popper,Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge [New York: Basic Books, 1962], p. 316.
- ^ Walter Kaufmann. "kaufmann". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/kaufmann.htm. Retrieved 2011-11-03.
- ^ Karl Popper,The Open Society and Its Enemies, 5th rev. ed., vol. 2 [Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966], p. 395
- ^ See Logical models of argument, CI Chesñevar, AG Maguitman, R Loui - ACM Computing Surveys, 2000 and Logics for defeasible argumentation, H Prakken - Handbook of philosophical logic, 2002 for surveys of work in this area.
Further reading[link]
- McKeon, R. (1954) "Dialectic and Political Thought and Action." Ethics 65, No. 1: 1-33.
- Postan, M. (1962) "Function and Dialectic in Economic History," The Economic History Review, No. 3.
- Biel, R. and Mu-Jeong Kho (2009) "The Issue of Energy within a Dialectical Approach to the Regulationist Problematique," Recherches & Régulation Working Papers, RR Série ID 2009-1, Association Recherche & Régulation: 1-21.
External links[link]
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| Anthony Anaxagorou | |
|---|---|
 Anthony Anaxagorou 2010 |
|
| Born | March 1983 (age 29) United Kingdom, London |
| Occupation | Poet |
| Nationality | British |
| Notable award(s) | 2002 Mayor Of London's Poetry Slam |
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www.anthonyanaxagorou.com |
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Anthony Anaxagorou (born March 1983) is a poet & writer from North London.
Anthony Anaxagorou began writing short stories and poems at the age of 14 influenced mainly by both hip-hop and folk music until in 2002, at the age of 17, he entered and won the London Mayors Poetry Slam with his poem Anthropos.[1] Following this he made a number of television and radio appearances where he read out various poems, including a live recital on BBC London Radio and a television interview followed by a recital with Vanessa Feltz on the Community Channel.
In 2003 he appeared alongside Kate Tempest on ‘BBC Youth Nation’, presented by Richard Blackwood, where he performed a number of poems that highlighted many social issues all relevant to young individuals. He went on to feature as a member of the panel on the talk show itself which focused on issues such as racism, war, religion, drink and drug abuse, encouraging young people to speak out and voice their own personal views.[2]
Contents |
Career[link]
He has worked alongside the Poetry Society assisting in numerous creative writing workshops and mentoring other young poets in developing their ideas and expressing themselves through a positive creative medium.
In 2009 he published his first book Card Not Accepted, which stands as a collection of essays, short stories and poetry all reflecting moments from his life and an overall commentary of western living. Much of his work consists around the spiritual search for inner peace and the detachment from various societal ideals, however a huge section of his work encompasses themes that deal with politics, racism, history and philosophy. He writes from his own personal experiences in a style that is honest and compelling, this is what has so far won him the admiration and affection of many.
In May 2009 the poem "Himself" taken from the book Card Not Accepted, was chosen by MOBO award winning hip hop artist Akala to be read out on BBC News Night Review as part of the arts and poetry weekend.
He has also attended workshops set up by the Hip-Hop Shakespeare Company and the Royal Shakespeare Company who collectively came together to discuss more innovative and captivating ways Shakespeare could be taught in schools across Britain.
June 2010 saw the release of his fourth publication. A digital ebook entitled The Lost Definition of Hope which featured a number of poems written over a space of four months. A portion of the books price was given to Médecins Sans Frontières, an independent organisation who deal with getting aid out to countries caught in heavy conflict.[3]
In November 2010 he toured the UK supporting MOBO award winning hip-hop artist Akala in his 'DoubleThink' tour. He performed poetry from all the major titles of his work in cities including London, Manchester, Birmingham, Exeter and Liverpool.
In July 2011 he wrote a spoken word piece called If I Told You which begins by questioning the validity and accuracy of historical documentation especially that regarding Africa. The poem then begins to explore current affairs, propaganda systems, the prison industry complex as well as the more existential issues such as ego, love, insecurity and hope. In the short space of a week the poem received over 2,000 views on YouTube as well as being featured at the British Urban Film Festival where it received a standing ovation.
In April 2012 he performed at the Venezuelan Embassy alongside dub-poet Linton Kwesi Johnson as part of an event to mark the defeat of the US backed coupe which aimed to assassinate President Hugo Chavez in 2002.
Literary works[link]
- Card Not Accepted - 2009 [1]
- Poems To Maya - 2009 [2]
- Pale Remembered with Rebecca Salter - 2009 [3]
- The Lost Definition of Hope - 2010 [4]
- Let This Be The Call - 2010 [5]
- Returning Stranger - 2010 [6]
- A Sad Dance - 2011 [7]
References[link]
External links[link]
- Author's website
- "ANTHONY ANAXAGOROU INTERVIEW", The 405, October 02, 2009
- "Actor Damian Lewis reading Himself on BBC News Night Review"
- [8]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Anaxagorou, Anthony |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | British writer |
| Date of birth | 1983 |
| Place of birth | United Kingdom, London |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Anthony_Anaxagorou
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Anaxagorou
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| Ernst Lubitsch | |
|---|---|
 |
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| Born | Ernst Lubitsch (1892-01-28)January 28, 1892 Berlin, Germany |
| Died | November 30, 1947(1947-11-30) (aged 55) Hollywood, Los Angeles, California, United States |
| Occupation | Director, Actor, Writer, Producer |
| Years active | 1914–48 |
| Spouse | Helene Kraus (1922–1930) Vivian Gaye (1935–1944) |
Ernst Lubitsch (January 28, 1892 – November 30, 1947)[1] was a German American[2] film director. His urbane comedies of manners gave him the reputation of being Hollywood's most elegant and sophisticated director; as his prestige grew, his films were promoted as having "the Lubitsch touch."
In 1947 he received an Honorary Academy Award for his distinguished contributions to the art of the motion picture, and he was nominated three times for Best Director.
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Life and career[link]
Lubitsch was born in Berlin, the son of Anna (née Lindenstaedt) and Simon Lubitsch (Russian: Любич), a tailor. His family was Ashkenazi Jewish, his father born in Grodno and his mother from Wriezen-on-the-Oder, outside Berlin.[3][4] He turned his back on his father's tailoring business to enter the theater, and by 1911, he was a member of Max Reinhardt's Deutsches Theater. He made his film debut the following year as an actor, but he gradually abandoned acting to concentrate on directing.
Weimar years (1918-1922)[link]
In 1918, he made his mark as a serious director with Die Augen der Mumie Ma (The Eyes of the Mummy), starring Pola Negri. Lubitsch alternated between escapist comedies and large-scale historical dramas, enjoying great international success with both. His reputation as a grand master of world cinema reached a new peak after the release of his spectacles Madame Du Barry (retitled Passion, 1919) and Anna Boleyn (Deception, 1920). Both of these films found American distributorship by early 1921. They, along with Lubitsch's Carmen (released as Gypsy Blood in the U.S. in 1921) were selected by The New York Times on its list of the 15 most important movies of 1921.
With glowing reviews under his belt, and American money flowing his way, Lubitsch formed his own production company and set to work on the high-budget spectacular The Loves of Pharaoh (1921). Lubitsch sailed to the United States for the first time in December 1921 for what was intended as a lengthy publicity and professional factfinding tour, scheduled to culminate in the February premiere of Pharaoh. However, with World War I still fresh, and with a slew of German "New Wave' releases encroaching on American movie workers' livelihoods, Lubitsch was not gladly received. He cut his trip short after little more than three weeks and returned to Germany. But he had already seen enough of the American film industry to know that its resources far outstripped the spartan German companies.
Career in Hollywood[link]
Lubitsch finally left Germany for Hollywood in 1922, contracted as a director by Mary Pickford. He directed Pickford in the film Rosita; the result was a critical and commercial success, but director and star clashed during its filming, and it ended up as the only project that they made together. A free agent after just one American film, Lubitsch was signed to a remarkable three-year, six-picture contract by Warner Brothers that guaranteed the director his choice of both cast and crew, and full editing control over the final cut.
Settling in America, Lubitsch established his reputation for sophisticated comedy with such stylish films as The Marriage Circle (1924), Lady Windermere's Fan (1925), and So This Is Paris (1926). But his films were only marginally profitable for Warner Brothers, and Lubitsch's contract was eventually dissolved by mutual consent, with MGM-Paramount buying out the remainder. His first film for MGM, The Student Prince in Old Heidelberg (1927), was well regarded, but lost money.
Lubitsch seized upon the advent of talkies to direct musicals. With his first sound film, The Love Parade (1929), starring Maurice Chevalier and Jeanette MacDonald, Lubitsch hit his stride as a maker of worldly musical comedies (and earned himself another Oscar nomination). The Love Parade (1929), Monte Carlo (1930), and The Smiling Lieutenant (1931) were hailed by critics as masterpieces of the newly emerging musical genre. Lubitsch served on the faculty of the University of Southern California for a time.
His next film was a romantic comedy, written with Samson Raphaelson, Trouble in Paradise (1932). Later described (approvingly) as "truly amoral" by critic David Thomson, the cynical comedy was popular both with critics and with audiences. But it was a project that could only have been made before the enforcement of the Production Code, and after 1935, Trouble in Paradise was withdrawn from circulation. It was not seen again until 1968. The film was never available on videocassette and only became available on DVD in 2003.
Writing about Lubitsch's work, critic Michael Wilmington observed:
- At once elegant and ribald, sophisticated and earthy, urbane and bemused, frivolous yet profound. They were directed by a man who was amused by sex rather than frightened of it-- and who taught a whole culture to be amused by it as well.
Whether with music, as in MGM's opulent The Merry Widow (1934) and Paramount's One Hour with You (1932), or without, as in Design for Living (1933), Lubitsch continued to specialize in comedy. He made only one other dramatic film, the antiwar Broken Lullaby (also known as The Man I Killed, 1932).
In 1935, he was appointed Paramount's production manager, thus becoming the only major Hollywood director to run a large studio. Lubitsch subsequently produced his own films and supervised the production of films of other directors. But Lubitsch had trouble delegating authority, which was a problem when he was overseeing sixty different films. He was fired after a year on the job, and returned to full-time moviemaking. In 1936, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
On July 27, 1935 he married British actress Vivian Gaye. They had one daughter, Nicola Lubitsch, on October 27, 1938. When war was declared in Europe, Vivian Lubitsch and her daughter were staying in London. Vivian sent her baby daughter, accompanied by her nursemaid, Consuela Strohmeier, to Montreal aboard the Donaldson Atlantic Line's SS Athenia, which was sunk by a German submarine on September 3, 1939 with a loss of 118 passengers. The child and the nurse survived.
In 1939, Lubitsch moved to MGM, and directed Greta Garbo in Ninotchka. Garbo and Lubitsch were friendly and had hoped to work together on a movie for years, but this would be their only project. The film, co-written by Billy Wilder, is a satirical comedy in which the famously serious actress' laughing scene was heavily promoted by studio publicists with the tagline "Garbo Laughs!"
In 1940, he directed The Shop Around the Corner, an artful comedy of cross purposes. The film reunited Lubitsch with his Merry Widow screenwriter Raphaelson, and starred James Stewart and Margaret Sullavan as a pair of bickering co-workers in Budapest, each unaware that the other is their secret romantic correspondent. David Thomson wrote of it:
- The Shop Around the Corner... is among the greatest of films... This is a love story about a couple too much in love with love to fall tidily into each other's arms. Though it all works out finally, a mystery is left, plus the fear of how easily good people can miss their chances. Beautifully written (by Lubitsch's favorite writer, Samson Raphaelson), Shop Around the Corner is a treasury of hopes and anxieties based in the desperate faces of Stewart and Sullavan. It is a comedy so good it frightens us for them. The cafe conversation may be the best meeting in American film. The shot of Sullavan's gloved hand, and then her ruined face, searching an empty mail box for a letter is one of the most fragile moments in film. For an instant, the ravishing Sullavan looks old and ill, touched by loss.
Biographer Scott Eyman attempted to characterize the famed "Lubitsch touch":
- With few exceptions Lubitsch's movies take place neither in Europe nor America but in Lubitschland, a place of metaphor, benign grace, rueful wisdom... What came to preoccupy this anomalous artist was the comedy of manners and the society in which it transpired, a world of delicate sangfroid, where a breach of sexual or social propriety and the appropriate response are ritualized, but in unexpected ways, where the basest things are discussed in elegant whispers; of the rapier, never the broadsword... To the unsophisticated eye, Lubitsch's work can appear dated, simply because his characters belong to a world of formal sexual protocol. But his approach to film, to comedy, and to life was not so much ahead of its time as it was singular, and totally out of any time.
Lubitsch went independent to direct That Uncertain Feeling (1941, a remake of his 1925 film Kiss Me Again), and the dark anti-Nazi farce To Be or Not to Be (1942), which was Jack Benny's only major screen success and Carole Lombard's last picture.
Later career[link]
Lubitsch spent the balance of his career at 20th Century Fox, but a heart condition curtailed his activity, and he spent much of his time in supervisory capacities. It has been claimed that the last picture made by the director with his distinctive "touch" was Heaven Can Wait (1943), another Raphaelson collaboration. The film is about Henry Van Cleve (played by Don Ameche) who presents himself at the gates of Hell to recount his life and the women he has known from his mother onwards, concentrating on his happy but sometimes difficult 25 years of marriage to Martha (Gene Tierney).
After Heaven Can Wait, Lubitsch worked with Edwin Justus Mayer on the scripting process of A Royal Scandal (1945), a remake of Ernst Lubitsch's silent film A Forbidden Paradise. Mayer wrote the screenplay for A Royal Scandal, and had worked with Lubitsch on To Be or Not to Be (1942). The script of A Royal Scandal (1945) was written and prepared under Ernst Lubitsch, and he was the original director of this film, and directed the rehearsals. He became ill during shooting, so Lubitsch hired Otto Preminger to do the rest of the shooting. But A Royal Scandal is considered "a Lubitsch picture." After A Royal Scandal, Ernst Lubitsch regained his health, and directed Cluny Brown (1946), with Charles Boyer and Jennifer Jones.
In March 1947, Lubitsch was awarded a Special Academy Award for his "25-year contribution to motion pictures". Presenter Mervyn LeRoy, calling Lubitsch "a master of innuendo", described some of his attributes as a filmmaker: "He had an adult mind and a hatred of saying things the obvious way." Lubitsch was the subject of several interviews at that time, and consistently cited The Shop Around the Corner as his favorite of his films. Considering his overall career, he mused, "I made sometimes pictures which were not up to my standard, but then it can only be said about a mediocrity that all his works live up to his standard."
He died later that year in Hollywood of a heart attack, his sixth.[5] His last film, That Lady in Ermine with Betty Grable, was completed by Otto Preminger and released posthumously in 1948.
Leaving Lubitsch's funeral, Billy Wilder ruefully said, "No more Lubitsch." William Wyler responded, "Worse than that. No more Lubitsch pictures." Wilder had a sign over his office door, which read "How would Lubitsch do it?". He has a Star on the Walk of Fame at 7040 Hollywood Blvd., Hollywood, California.
Filmography[link]
Main article: Ernst Lubitsch filmography
References[link]
- ^ Lubitsch was born at 7 am on January 29, see http://www.hhprinzler.de/1992/01/ernst-lubitsch-zum-100-geburtstag/
- ^ Lubitsch was born Russian, naturalized German and became American on January 24, 1936, after Hitler revoked the German citizenship to Russian and Polish emigrés. Eyman, Scott: Ernst Lubitsch: Laughter in Paradise.
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ Obituary Variety, December 3, 1947, page 55.
Further reading[link]
- Bourget, J.-L. & O'Neil, E.: Lubitsch o la sátira romántica - Lubitsch: Satire and Romance, Festival Internacional de cine de San Sebastián and Filmoteca Española, San Sebastián/Madrid, Spain, 2006 (bilingual edition, originally published in French, 1987.)
- Eyman, Scott: Ernst Lubitsch: Laughter in Paradise, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1993. ISBN 0-671-74936-6
- Weinberg, Herman G.: The Lubitsch Touch: a Critical Study, New York, Dutton, c1968.
External links[link]
- The Cinema of Ernst Lubitsch
- Ernst Lubitsch at the Internet Movie Database
- Ernst Lubitsch at Find a Grave
- Photographs and bibliography
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Lubitsch, Ernst |
| Alternative names | Lubitsch, Ernst |
| Short description | German-born Jewish film director |
| Date of birth | January 28, 1892 |
| Place of birth | Berlin, Germany |
| Date of death | November 30, 1947 |
| Place of death | Hollywood, California |
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"Marx" redirects here. For other uses, see Marx (disambiguation).
 Marx in 1875 |
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| Born | Karl Heinrich Marx 5 May 1818 Trier, Kingdom of Prussia |
|---|---|
| Died | 14 March 1883(1883-03-14) (aged 64) London, United Kingdom |
| Era | 19th-century philosophy |
| Region | Western Philosophy, German philosophy |
| School | Marxism, Communism, Socialism, Materialism |
| Main interests | Politics, economics, philosophy, sociology, labour, history, class struggle, |
| Notable ideas | Co-founder of Marxism (with Engels), surplus value, contributions to the labor theory of value, alienation and exploitation of the worker, The Communist Manifesto, Das Kapital, materialist conception of history |
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Influenced
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Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.[4]
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
Marx's theories about society, economics and politics—collectively known as Marxism—hold that all societies progress through the dialectic of class struggle: a conflict between an ownership class which controls production and a lower class which produces the labour for such goods. Heavily critical of the current socio-economic form of society, capitalism, he called it the "dictatorship of the bourgeoisie", believing it to be run by the wealthy classes purely for their own benefit, and predicted that, like previous socioeconomic systems, it would inevitably produce internal tensions which would lead to its self-destruction and replacement by a new system, socialism.[5] He argued that under socialism society would be governed by the working class in what he called the "dictatorship of the proletariat", the "workers state" or "workers' democracy".[6][7] He believed that socialism would, in its turn, eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called communism. Along with believing in the inevitability of socialism and communism, Marx actively fought for the former's implementation, arguing that both social theorists and underprivileged people should carry out organised revolutionary action to topple capitalism and bring about socio-economic change.[8][9]
Revolutionary socialist governments espousing Marxist concepts took power in a variety of countries in the 20th century, leading to the formation of such socialist states as the Soviet Union in 1922 and the People's Republic of China in 1949. Many labor unions and worker's parties worldwide were also influenced by Marxist ideas. Various theoretical variants, such as Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism and Maoism, were developed. Marx is typically cited, with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.[10] Marx has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.[11][12]
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Biography[link]
Early life: 1818–1835[link]
Karl Heinrich Marx was born on 5 May 1818 at 664 Brückergasse in Trier, a town located in the Kingdom of Prussia's Province of the Lower Rhine.[13] His ancestry was Ashkenazi Jewish, with his paternal line having supplied the rabbis of Trier since 1723, a role that had been taken up by his own grandfather, Meier Halevi Marx; Meier's son and Karl's father would be the first in the line to receive a secular education.[14] His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbi.[15] Karl's father, Herschel Marx, was middle-class and relatively wealthy: the family owned a number of Moselle vineyards; he converted from Judaism to the Protestant Christian denomination of Lutheranism prior to his son's birth, taking on the German forename of Heinrich over Herschel.[4] In 1815, he began working as an attorney and in 1819 moved his family from a five-room rented apartment into a ten-room property near the Porta Nigra.[16] A man of the Enlightenment, Heinrich Marx was interested in the ideas of the philosophers Immanuel Kant and Voltaire, and took part in agitation for a constitution and reforms in Prussia, which was then governed by an absolute monarchy.[17] Karl's mother, born Henrietta Pressburg (20 July 1788-30 November 1863), was a Dutch Jew who, unlike her husband, was only semi-literate. She claimed to suffer from "excessive mother love", devoting much time to her family, and insisting on cleanliness within her home.[18] She was from a prosperous business family. Her family later founded the company Philips Electronics: she was great-aunt to Anton and Gerard Philips, and great-great-aunt to Frits Philips. Her brother, Marx's uncle Benjamin Philips (1830-1900), was a wealthy banker and industrialist, who Karl and Jenny Marx would later often come rely upon for loans, while they were exiled in London.[19]
Heinrich Marx converted to Lutheran Protestantism in 1816 or 1817 in order to continue practicing law after the Prussian edict denying Jews to the bar. Karl was born in 1818 and baptized in 1824, but his mother, Henriette, did not convert until 1825, when Karl was 7. There is no evidence that the Marx family actually embraced Lutheranism, although there is no evidence they were practicing Jews. Marx identified himself as an atheist.[20][21][22]
Little is known about Karl Marx's childhood.[23] He was privately educated until 1830, when he entered Trier High School, whose headmaster Hugo Wyttenbach was a friend of his father. Wyttenbach had employed many liberal humanists as teachers; this angered the government so that the police raided the school in 1832, discovering what they labelled seditious literature espousing political liberalism being distributed amongst the students.[24] In 1835, Karl, then aged seventeen, began attending the University of Bonn, where he wished to study philosophy and literature, but his father insisted on law as a more practical field of study.[25] He was able to avoid military service when he turned eighteen because he suffered from a weak chest.[26] Being fond of alcoholic beverages, at Bonn he joined the Trier Tavern Club drinking society (Landsmannschaft der Treveraner) and at one point served as its co-president.[27] Marx was more interested in drinking and socialising than studying law, and because of his poor grades, his father forced him to transfer to the far more serious and academically oriented University of Berlin,[28] where his legal studies became less significant than excursions into philosophy and history.[29]
Hegelianism and early activism: 1836–1843[link]
In 1836, Marx became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a beautiful baroness of the Prussian ruling class—"the most desirable young woman in Trier" [30] —who broke off her engagement with a young aristocratic second lieutenant to be with him.[31] Their eventual marriage was controversial for breaking two social taboos of the period: it was a marriage between a woman of a noble background and a man of Jewish origin, as well as being between a member of the upper class (aristocracy) and a member of the middle class, respectively. Such issues were lessened by Marx's friendship with Jenny's father, Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a liberal thinking aristocrat. Marx dedicated his doctoral thesis to him.[32] The couple married seven years later, on 19 June 1843, at the Pauluskirche in Bad Kreuznach.[33]
Marx became interested in, but critical of, the work of the German philosopher G.W.F Hegel (1770–1831), whose ideas were widely debated amongst European philosophical circles at the time.[34] Marx wrote about falling ill "from intense vexation at having to make an idol of a view I detested."[35] He became involved with a group of radical thinkers known as the Young Hegelians, who gathered around Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer.[29] Like Marx, the Young Hegelians were critical of Hegel's metaphysical assumptions, but still adopted his dialectical method in order to criticise established society, politics and religion. Marx befriended Bauer, and in July 1841 the two scandalised their class in Bonn by getting drunk, laughing in church, and galloping through the streets on donkeys.[36] During that period, Marx concentrated on his criticism of Hegel and certain other Young Hegelians.[4]
Marx also wrote for his own enjoyment, writing both non-fiction and fiction. In 1837, he completed a short novel, Scorpion and Felix; a drama, Oulanem and some poems, none of which were published.[37] In 1971, Marx's one act play Oulanem was made available in English by author Robert Payne. According to Payne, the title Oulanem is an anagram for "Manuelo" which is a variant of "Emmanuel" meaning "God is with us".[38] He soon gave up writing fiction for other pursuits, including learning English and Italian.[39]
He was deeply engaged in writing his doctoral thesis, The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature, which he finished in 1841. The essay has been described as "a daring and original piece of work in which he set out to show that theology must yield to the superior wisdom of philosophy",[40] and as such was controversial, particularly among the conservative professors at the University of Berlin. Marx decided to submit it instead to the more liberal University of Jena, whose faculty awarded him his PhD based on it.[29][41]
From considering an academic career, Marx turned to journalism.[4][42] He moved to the city of Cologne in 1842, where he began writing for the radical newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, where he expressed his increasingly socialist views on politics.[43] He criticised the governments of Europe and their policies, but also liberals and other members of the socialist movement whose ideas he thought were ineffective or outright anti-socialist.[44] The paper eventually attracted the attention of the Prussian government censors, who checked every issue for potentially seditious material before it could be printed. Marx said, "Our newspaper has to be presented to the police to be sniffed at, and if the police nose smells anything un-Christian or un-Prussian, the newspaper is not allowed to appear."[45] After the paper published an article strongly criticising the monarchy in Russia, the Russian Tsar Nicholas I, an ally of the Prussian monarchy, requested that the Rheinische Zeitung be banned. The Prussian government shut down the paper in 1843.[46] Marx wrote for the Young Hegelian journal, the Deutsche-Französische Jahrbücher, in which he criticised the censorship instructions issued by Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV. His article was censored and the newspaper closed down by the authorities shortly after.[47]
In 1843, Marx published On the Jewish Question, in which he distinguished between political and human emancipation. He also examined the role of religious practice in society.[4] That same year he published Contribution to Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in which he dealt more substantively with religion, describing it as "the opiate of the people".[4] He completed both works shortly before leaving Cologne.[48]
Paris: 1843–1845[link]
Following the government-imposed shutdown of the Rheinische Zeitung, Marx got involved with a new radical newspaper, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher (German-French Annals), which was then being set up by Arnold Ruge, another German socialist revolutionary.[49] The paper was based not in Germany, but in the city of Paris in neighbouring France, and it was here that both Marx and his wife moved in October 1843. They initially lived with Ruge and his wife communally at 23 Rue Vaneau, but finding these living conditions difficult, the Marxes moved out following the birth of their daughter Jenny in 1844.[50] Although it was intended to attract writers from both France and the German states, the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher was dominated by the latter, with the only non-German writer being the exiled Russian anarcho-communist Michael Bakunin.[51] Only one issue was ever published, but it was relatively successful, largely owing to the inclusion of Heinrich Heine's satirical odes on King Ludwig of Bavaria, which led to those copies sent to Germany being confiscated by the state's police force.[52]
It was in Paris that, on 28 August 1844, Marx met German socialist Friedrich Engels at the Café de la Régence after becoming interested in the ideas that the latter had expressed in articles written for the Rheinische Zeitung and the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher. Although they had briefly met each other at the offices of the Rheinische Zeitung in 1842, it was here in Paris that they began their friendship that would last for the rest of their lives.[53] Engels showed Marx his recently published book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844,[54] which convinced Marx that the working class would be the agent and instrument of the final revolution in history.[55] Engels and Marx soon set about writing a criticism of the philosophical ideas of Marx's former friend, the Young Hegelian Bruno Bauer, which would be published in 1845 as The Holy Family.[56] Although critical of Bauer, Marx was increasingly influenced by the ideas of the other Young Hegelians Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach, but eventually also abandoned Feuerbachian materialism as well.[57]
In 1844 Marx wrote The Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts, a work which covered numerous topics, and went into detail to explain Marx's concept of alienated labour.[4] A year later Marx would write Theses on Feuerbach, best known for the statement that "the philosophers have only interpreted the world, the point is to change it".[4] This work contains Marx's criticism of materialism (for being contemplative), idealism (for reducing practice to theory) and overall, criticising philosophy for putting abstract reality above the physical world.[4] It thus introduced the first glimpse at Marx's historical materialism, an argument that the world is changed not by ideas but by actual, physical, material activity and practice.[4][58]
After the collapse of the Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, Marx, still living on the Rue Vaneau, began writing for what was then the only uncensored German-language radical newspaper in Europe, Vorwärts!.[59] Based in Paris, the paper had been established and was run by many activists connected to the revolutionary socialist League of the Just, which would come to be better known as the Communist League within a few years.[60][61] In Vorwärts!, Marx continued to refine his views on socialism based upon the Hegelian and Feuerbachian ideas of dialectical materialism, whilst at the same time criticising various liberals and other socialists operating in Europe at the time.[62] However in 1845, after receiving a request from the Prussian king, the French government agreed to shut down Vorwärts!, and furthermore, Marx himself was expelled from France by the interior minister François Guizot.[62]
Brussels: 1845–1847[link]
Unable either to stay in France or to move to Germany, Marx decided to emigrate to Brussels in Belgium, but had to pledge not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics in order to enter.[62] In Brussels, he associated with other exiled socialists from across Europe, including Moses Hess, Karl Heinzen and Joseph Weydemeyer, and soon Engels moved to the city in order to join them.[62] In 1845 Marx and Engels visited the leaders of the Chartists, a socialist movement in Britain, using the trip as an opportunity to study in various libraries in London and Manchester.[63] In collaboration with Engels he also set about writing a book which is often seen as his best treatment of the concept of historical materialism, The German Ideology; the work, like many others, would not see publication in Marx's lifetime, being published only in 1932.[4][5][64] He followed this with The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), a response to the French anarcho-socialist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon's The Philosophy of Poverty and a critique of French socialist thought in general.[65]
These books laid the foundation for Marx and Engels's most famous work, a political pamphlet that has since come to be commonly known as The Communist Manifesto. First published on 21 February 1848, it laid out the beliefs of the Communist League, a group who had come increasingly under the influence of Marx and Engels, who argued that the League must make their aims and intentions clear to the general public rather than hiding them as they had formerly been doing.[66] The opening lines of the pamphlet set forth the principal basis of Marxism, that "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."[67] It goes on to look at the antagonisms that Marx claimed were arising between the clashes of interest between the bourgeoisie (the wealthy middle class) and the proletariat (the industrial working class). Proceeding on from this, the Manifesto presents the argument for why the Communist League, as opposed to other socialist and liberal political parties and groups at the time, was truly acting in the interests of the proletariat to overthrow capitalist society and replace it with socialism.[68]
Later that year, Europe experienced a series of protests, rebellions, and often violent upheavals, the Revolutions of 1848.[69] In France, a revolution led to the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the French Second Republic.[69] Marx was supportive of such activity, and having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father of either 6000[70] or 5000 francs,[71][72] allegedly used a third of it to arm Belgian workers who were planning revolutionary action.[73] Although the veracity of these allegations is disputed,[70][74] the Belgian Ministry of Justice accused him of it, subsequently arresting him, and he was forced to flee back to France, where, with a new republican government in power, he believed that he would be safe.[72][75]
Cologne: 1848–1849[link]
Temporarily settling down in Paris, Marx transferred the Communist League executive headquarters to the city and also set up a German Workers' Club with various German socialists living there.[76] Hoping to see the revolution spread to Germany, in 1848 Marx moved back to Cologne (Köln) where he began issuing a handbill entitled the Demands of the Communist Party in Germany, in which he argued for only four of the ten points of the Communist Manifesto, believing that in Germany at that time, the bourgeoisie must overthrow the feudal monarchy and aristocracy before the proletariat could overthrow the bourgeoisie.[77] On 1 June, Marx started publication of the daily Neue Rheinische Zeitung ("New Rhenish Newspaper"), which he helped to finance through his recent inheritance from his father. Designed to put forward news from across Europe with his own Marxist interpretation of events, Marx remained one of its primary writers, accompanied by other fellow members of the Communist League who wrote for the paper, although despite their input it remained, according to Friedrich Engels, "a simple dictatorship by Marx", who dominated the choice of content.[78][79][80]
Whilst editor of the paper, Marx and the other revolutionary socialists were regularly harassed by the police, and Marx was brought to trial on several occasions, facing various allegations including insulting the Chief Public Prosecutor, an alleged press misdemeanor and inciting armed rebellion through tax boycotting,[81][82][82][83][84] although each time he was acquitted.[82][84] Meanwhile, the democratic parliament in Prussia collapsed, and the king, Frederick William IV, introduced a new cabinet of his reactionary supporters, who implemented counter-revolutionary measures to expunge leftist and other revolutionary elements from the country.[81] As a part of this, the Neue Rheinische Zeitung was soon suppressed and Marx was ordered to leave the country on 16 May.[80][85] Marx returned to Paris, which was then under the grip of both a reactionary counter-revolution and a cholera epidemic, and was soon expelled by the city authorities who considered him a political threat. With his wife Jenny expecting their fourth child, and not able to move back to Germany or Belgium, in August 1849 he sought refuge in London.[86][87]
London: 1849–1883[link]
Marx moved to London in May 1849 and would remain in the city for the rest of his life. It was here that he founded the new headquarters of the Communist League, and got heavily involved with the socialist German Workers' Educational Society, who held their meetings in Great Windmill Street, Soho, central London's entertainment district.[88][89] Marx devoted himself to two activities: revolutionary organising, and an attempt to understand political economy and capitalism. For the first few years he and his family lived in extreme poverty.[90][91] His main source of income was his colleague, Engels, who derived much of his income from his family's business.[91] Marx also briefly worked as correspondent for the New York Tribune in 1851.[92]
From December 1851 to March 1852 Marx wrote The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, a work on the French Revolution of 1848, in which he expanded upon his concepts of historical materialism, class struggle and the dictatorship of the proletariat, advancing the argument that victorious proletariat has to smash the bourgeois state.[93]
The 1850s and 1860s also mark the line between what some scholars see as idealistic, Hegelian young Marx from the more scientifically-minded mature Marx writings of the later period.[94][95][96][97] This distinction is usually associated with the structural Marxism school;[97] not all scholars agree that it indeed exists.[96][98]
In 1864 Marx became involved in the International Workingmen's Association (also known as First International).[82] He became a leader of its General Council, to whose General Council he was elected at its inception in 1864.[99] In that organisation Marx was involved in the struggle against the anarchist wing centred around Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876).[91] Although Marx won this contest, the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872, which Marx supported, led to the decline of the International.[100] The most important political event during the existence of the International was the Paris Commune of 1871 when the citizens of Paris rebelled against their government and held the city for two months. On the bloody suppression of this rebellion, Marx wrote one of his most famous pamphlets, The Civil War in France, a defense of the Commune.[101]
Given the repeated failures and frustrations of workers' revolutions and movements, Marx also sought to understand capitalism, and spent a great deal of time in the reading room of the British Museum studying and reflecting on the works of political economists and on economic data.[102] By 1857 he had accumulated over 800 pages of notes and short essays on capital, landed property, wage labour, the state, foreign trade and the world market; this work did not appear in print until 1941, under the title Grundrisse.[91][103] In 1859, Marx published Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, his first serious economic work. In the early 1860s he worked on composing three large volumes, the Theories of Surplus Value, which discussed the theoreticians of political economy, particularly Adam Smith and David Ricardo.[91] This work is often seen as the fourth book of Capital, and constitutes one of the first comprehensive treatises on the history of economic thought.[104] In 1867 the first volume of Capital was published, a work which analyzed the capitalist process of production.[105] Here, Marx elaborated his labour theory of value (influenced by Thomas Hodgskin[citation needed]); and his conception of surplus value and exploitation which he argued would ultimately lead to a falling rate of profit and the collapse of industrial capitalism.[106] Volumes II and III remained mere manuscripts upon which Marx continued to work for the rest of his life and were published posthumously by Engels.[91]
During the last decade of his life, Marx's health declined and he became incapable of the sustained effort that had characterised his previous work.[91] He did manage to comment substantially on contemporary politics, particularly in Germany and Russia. His Critique of the Gotha Programme opposed the tendency of his followers Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel to compromise with the state socialism of Ferdinand Lassalle in the interests of a united socialist party.[91] This work is also notable for another famous Marx's quote: "From each according to his ability, to each according to his need."[107]
In a letter to Vera Zasulich dated 8 March 1881, Marx even contemplated the possibility of Russia's bypassing the capitalist stage of development and building communism on the basis of the common ownership of land characteristic of the village mir.[91][108] While admitting that Russia's rural "commune is the fulcrum of social regeneration in Russia", Marx also warned that in order for the mir to operate as a means for moving straight to the socialist stage without a preceding capitalist stage, it "would first be necessary to eliminate the deleterious influences which are assailing it (the rural commune) from all sides."[109] Given the elimination of these pernicious influences, Marx allowed, that "normal conditions of spontaneous development" of the rural commune could exist.[109] However, in the same letter to Vera Zasulich, Marx points out that "at the core of the capitalist system ... lies the complete separation of the producer from the means of production."[109] In one of the drafts of this letter, Marx reveals his growing passion for anthropology, motivated by his belief that future communism would be a return on a higher level to the communism of our prehistoric past. He wrote that 'the historical trend of our age is the fatal crisis which capitalist production has undergone in the European and American countries where it has reached its highest peak, a crisis that will end in its destruction, in the return of modern society to a higher form of the most archaic type — collective production and appropriation'. He added that 'the vitality of primitive communities was incomparably greater than that of Semitic, Greek, Roman, etc. societies, and, a fortiori, that of modern capitalist societies'.[110] Before he died, Marx asked Engels to write up these ideas, which were published in 1884 under the title The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State.
Death[link]
Following the death of his wife Jenny in December 1881, Marx developed a catarrh that kept him in ill health for the last 15 months of his life. It eventually brought on the bronchitis and pleurisy that killed him in London on 14 March 1883. He died a stateless person;[111] family and friends in London buried his body in Highgate Cemetery, London, on 17 March 1883. There were between nine and eleven mourners at his funeral.[112][113]
Several of his closest friends spoke at his funeral, including Wilhelm Liebknecht and Friedrich Engels. Engels's speech included the passage:
| “ | On the 14th of March, at a quarter to three in the afternoon, the greatest living thinker ceased to think. He had been left alone for scarcely two minutes, and when we came back we found him in his armchair, peacefully gone to sleep—but forever.[114] | ” |
Marx's daughter Eleanor and Charles Longuet and Paul Lafargue, Marx's two French socialist sons-in-law, were also in attendance.[113] Liebknecht, a founder and leader of the German Social-Democratic Party, gave a speech in German, and Longuet, a prominent figure in the French working-class movement, made a short statement in French.[113] Two telegrams from workers' parties in France and Spain were also read out.[113] Together with Engels's speech, this constituted the entire programme of the funeral.[113] Non-relatives attending the funeral included three communist associates of Marx: Friedrich Lessner, imprisoned for three years after the Cologne communist trial of 1852; G. Lochner, whom Engels described as "an old member of the Communist League" and Carl Schorlemmer, a professor of chemistry in Manchester, a member of the Royal Society, and a communist activist involved in the 1848 Baden revolution.[113] Another attendee of the funeral was Ray Lankester, a British zoologist who would later become a prominent academic.[113]
Upon his own death, Engels left Marx's two surviving daughters a "significant portion" of his $4.8 million estate.[30]
Marx's tombstone bears the carved message: "WORKERS OF ALL LANDS UNITE", the final line of The Communist Manifesto, and from the 11th Thesis on Feuerbach (edited by Engels): "The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways—the point however is to change it".[9] The Communist Party of Great Britain had the monumental tombstone built in 1954 with a portrait bust by Laurence Bradshaw; Marx's original tomb had had only humble adornment.[9] In 1970 there was an unsuccessful attempt to destroy the monument using a homemade bomb.[115]
The later Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm remarked that "One cannot say Marx died a failure" because, although he had not achieved a large following of disciples in Britain, his writings had already begun to make an impact on the leftist movements in Germany and Russia. Within 25 years of his death, the continental European socialist parties that acknowledged Marx's influence on their politics were each gaining between 15 and 47% in those countries with representative democratic elections.[116]
Marx's thought[link]
Inspirations[link]
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The philosophers G.W.F. Hegel and Ludwig Feuerbach, whose ideas on dialectics heavily influenced Marx
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Main article: Influences on Karl Marx
Marx's thought demonstrates influences from many thinkers, including but not limited to:
- Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel's philosophy;[117]
- The classical political economy (economics) of Adam Smith and David Ricardo;[118]
- French socialist thought,[118] in particular the thought of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Henri de Saint-Simon and Charles Fourier;[119][120]
- Earlier German philosophical materialism, particularly that of Ludwig Feuerbach;[57]
- The working class analysis by Friedrich Engels.[55]
Marx's view of history, which came to be called historical materialism (controversially adapted as the philosophy of dialectical materialism by Engels and Lenin) certainly shows the influence of Hegel's claim that one should view reality (and history) dialectically.[117] However, Hegel had thought in idealist terms, putting ideas in the forefront, whereas Marx sought to rewrite dialectics in materialist terms, arguing for the primacy of matter over idea.[4][117] Where Hegel saw the "spirit" as driving history, Marx saw this as an unnecessary mystification, obscuring the reality of humanity and its physical actions shaping the world.[117] He wrote that Hegelianism stood the movement of reality on its head, and that one needed to set it upon its feet.[117]
Though inspired by French socialist and sociological thought,[118] Marx criticised utopian socialists, arguing that their favoured small scale socialistic communities would be bound to marginalisation and poverty, and that only a large scale change in the economic system can bring about real change.[120]
The other important contribution to Marx's revision of Hegelianism came from Engels's book, The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844, which led Marx to conceive of the historical dialectic in terms of class conflict and to see the modern working class as the most progressive force for revolution.[55]
Marx believed that he could study history and society scientifically and discern tendencies of history and the resulting outcome of social conflicts. Some followers of Marx concluded, therefore, that a communist revolution would inevitably occur. However, Marx famously asserted in the eleventh of his Theses on Feuerbach that "philosophers have only interpreted the world, in various ways; the point however is to change it", and he clearly dedicated himself to trying to alter the world.[8][9]
Philosophy and social thought[link]
Marx polemic with other thinkers often occurred through critique, and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in social sciences."[117][118] He criticised speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology.[121] By adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases.[118] This set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.[8]
Human nature[link]
Further information: Marx's theory of human nature
Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves transforming human nature, which encompasses both human beings and material objects.[122] Humans recognise that they possess both actual and potential selves.[123][124] For both Marx and Hegel, self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this recognition, followed by a realisation that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its potential counterpart an object to be apprehended.[124] Marx further argues that, by molding nature[125] in desired ways,[126] the subject takes the object as its own, and thus permits the individual to be actualised as fully human. For Marx, then, human nature—Gattungswesen, or species-being—exists as a function of human labour.[123][124][126] Fundamental to Marx's idea of meaningful labour is the proposition that, in order for a subject to come to terms with its alienated object, it must first exert influence upon literal, material objects in the subject's world.[127] Marx acknowledges that Hegel "grasps the nature of work and comprehends objective man, authentic because actual, as the result of his own work",[128] but characterises Hegelian self-development as unduly "spiritual" and abstract.[129] Marx thus departs from Hegel by insisting that "the fact that man is a corporeal, actual, sentient, objective being with natural capacities means that he has actual, sensuous objects for his nature as objects of his life-expression, or that he can only express his life in actual sensuous objects."[127] Consequently, Marx revises Hegelian "work" into material "labour", and in the context of human capacity to transform nature the term "labour power".[4]
Labour, class struggle, and false consciousness[link]
Further information: Labour theory of value
The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.— Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[67])
Marx had a special concern with how people relate to that most fundamental resource of all, their own labour power.[130] He wrote extensively about this in terms of the problem of alienation.[131] As with the dialectic, Marx began with a Hegelian notion of alienation but developed a more materialist conception.[130] Capitalism mediates social relationships of production (such as among workers or between workers and capitalists) through commodities, including labour, that are bought and sold on the market.[130] For Marx, the possibility that one may give up ownership of one's own labour—one's capacity to transform the world—is tantamount to being alienated from one's own nature; it is a spiritual loss.[130] Marx described this loss as commodity fetishism, in which the things that people produce, commodities, appear to have a life and movement of their own to which humans and their behavior merely adapt.[132]
Commodity fetishism provides an example of what Engels called "false consciousness",[133] which relates closely to the understanding of ideology. By "ideology", Marx and Engels meant ideas that reflect the interests of a particular class at a particular time in history, but which contemporaries see as universal and eternal.[134] Marx and Engels's point was not only that such beliefs are at best half-truths; they serve an important political function. Put another way, the control that one class exercises over the means of production includes not only the production of food or manufactured goods; it includes the production of ideas as well (this provides one possible explanation for why members of a subordinate class may hold ideas contrary to their own interests).[4][135] An example of this sort of analysis is Marx's understanding of religion, summed up in a passage from the preface[136] to his 1843 Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right:
Religious suffering is, at one and the same time, the expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people. The abolition of religion as the illusory happiness of the people is the demand for their real happiness. To call on them to give up their illusions about their condition is to call on them to give up a condition that requires illusions.
Whereas his Gymnasium senior thesis argued that religion had as its primary social aim the promotion of solidarity, here Marx sees the social function of religion in terms of highlighting/preserving political and economic status quo and inequality.[138]
Economy, history and society[link]
Further information: Marxian economics
Marx's thoughts on labour were related to the primacy he gave to the economic relation in determining the society's past, present and future (see also economic determinism).[117][120][139] Accumulation of capital shapes the social system.[120] Social change, for Marx, was about conflict between opposing interests, driven, in the background, by economic forces.[117] This became the inspiration for the body of works known as the conflict theory.[139] In his evolutionary model of history, he argued that human history began with free, productive and creative work that was over time coerced and dehumanised, a trend most apparent under capitalism.[117] Marx noted that this was not an intentional process; rather, no individual or even no state can go against the forces of economy.[120]
The organisation of society depends on means of production. Literally those things, like land, natural resources, and technology, necessary for the production of material goods and the relations of production, in other words, the social relationships people enter into as they acquire and use the means of production.[139] Together these compose the mode of production, and Marx distinguished historical eras in terms of distinct modes of production. Marx differentiated between base and superstructure, with the base (or substructure) referring to the economic system, and superstructure, to the cultural and political system.[139] Marx regarded this mismatch between (economic) base and (social) superstructure as a major source of social disruption and conflict.[139]
Despite Marx's stress on critique of capitalism and discussion of the new communist society that should replace it, his explicit critique of capitalism is guarded, as he saw it as an improved society compared to the past ones (slavery and feudal).[4] Marx also never clearly discusses issues of morality and justice, although scholars agree that his work contained implicit discussion of those concepts.[4]
File:Marx Moscow.jpg
Memorial to Karl Marx in Moscow. The inscription reads "Proletarians of all countries, unite!"
Marx's view of capitalism was two sided.[4][95] On one hand, Marx, in the 19th century's deepest critique of the dehumanising aspects of this system, noted that defining features of capitalism include alienation, exploitation and recurring, cyclical depressions leading to mass unemployment; on the other hand capitalism is also characterised by "revolutionizing, industrializing and universalizing qualities of development, growth and progressivity" (by which Marx meant industrialisation, urbanisation, technological progress, increased productivity and growth, rationality and scientific revolution), that are responsible for progress.[4][95][117] Marx considered the capitalist class to be one of the most revolutionary in history, because it constantly improved the means of production, more so than any other class in history, and was responsible for the overthrow of feudalism and its transition to capitalism.[120][140] Capitalism can stimulate considerable growth because the capitalist can, and has an incentive to, reinvest profits in new technologies and capital equipment.[130]
According to Marx capitalists take advantage of the difference between the labour market and the market for whatever commodity the capitalist can produce. Marx observed that in practically every successful industry input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices. Marx called the difference "surplus value" and argued that this surplus value had its source in surplus labour, the difference between what it costs to keep workers alive and what they can produce.[4] Marx's dual view of capitalism can be seen in his description of the capitalists: he refers to them as to vampires sucking worker's blood, but at the same time,[117] he notes that drawing profit is "by no means an injustice"[4] and that capitalists simply cannot go against the system.[120] The true problem lies with the "cancerous cell" of capital, understood not as property or equipment, but the relations between workers and owners – the economic system in general.[120]
At the same time, Marx stressed that capitalism was unstable, and prone to periodic crises.[5] He suggested that over time, capitalists would invest more and more in new technologies, and less and less in labour.[4] Since Marx believed that surplus value appropriated from labour is the source of profits, he concluded that the rate of profit would fall even as the economy grew.[106] Marx believed that increasingly severe crises would punctuate this cycle of growth, collapse, and more growth.[106] Moreover, he believed that in the long-term this process would necessarily enrich and empower the capitalist class and impoverish the proletariat.[106][120] In section one of The Communist Manifesto Marx describes feudalism, capitalism, and the role internal social contradictions play in the historical process:
We see then: the means of production and of exchange, on whose foundation the bourgeoisie built itself up, were generated in feudal society. At a certain stage in the development of these means of production and of exchange, the conditions under which feudal society produced and exchanged ... the feudal relations of property became no longer compatible with the already developed productive forces; they became so many fetters. They had to be burst asunder; they were burst asunder. Into their place stepped free competition, accompanied by a social and political constitution adapted in it, and the economic and political sway of the bourgeois class. A similar movement is going on before our own eyes ... The productive forces at the disposal of society no longer tend to further the development of the conditions of bourgeois property; on the contrary, they have become too powerful for these conditions, by which they are fettered, and so soon as they overcome these fetters, they bring order into the whole of bourgeois society, endanger the existence of bourgeois property.—Karl Marx, The Communist Manifesto[141]
Marx believed that those structural contradictions within capitalism necessitate its end, giving way to socialism, or a post-capitalistic, communist society:
The development of Modern Industry, therefore, cuts from under its feet the very foundation on which the bourgeoisie produces and appropriates products. What the bourgeoisie, therefore, produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable."—Karl Marx and Frederic Engels, The Communist Manifesto[141]
Thanks to various processes overseen by capitalism, such as urbanisation, the working class, the proletariat, should grow in numbers and develop a class consciousness, in time realising that they have to change the system.[117][120] Marx believed that if the proletariat were to seize the means of production, they would encourage social relations that would benefit everyone equally, abolishing exploiting class, and introduce a system of production less vulnerable to cyclical crises.[117] Marx argued that capitalism will end through the organised actions of an international working class:
Communism is for us not a state of affairs which is to be established, an ideal to which reality will have to adjust itself. We call communism the real movement which abolishes the present state of things. The conditions of this movement result from the premises now in existence."—Karl Marx, The German Ideology[142]
In this new society the self-alienation would end, and humans would be free to act without being bound by the labour market.[106] It would be a democratic society, enfranchising the entire population.[120] In such a utopian world there would also be little if any need for a state, which goal was to enforce the alienation.[106] He theorised that between capitalism and the establishment of a socialist/communist system, a dictatorship of the proletariat—a period where the working class holds political power and forcibly socialises the means of production—would exist.[120] As he wrote in his "Critique of the Gotha Program", "between capitalist and communist society there lies the period of the revolutionary transformation of the one into the other. Corresponding to this is also a political transition period in which the state can be nothing but the revolutionary dictatorship of the proletariat."[143] While he allowed for the possibility of peaceful transition in some countries with strong democratic institutional structures (such as Britain, the US and the Netherlands), he suggested that in other countries with strong centralised state-oriented traditions, like France and Germany, the "lever of our revolution must be force."[144]
Personal life[link]
Marx married Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Together had seven children, but partly owing to the poor living conditions they were forced to live in whilst in London, only three survived to adulthood.[145] The children were: Jenny Caroline (m. Longuet; 1844–83); Jenny Laura (m. Lafargue; 1845–1911); Edgar (1847–1855); Henry Edward Guy ("Guido"; 1849–1850); Jenny Eveline Frances ("Franziska"; 1851–52); Jenny Julia Eleanor (1855–98) and one more who died before being named (July 1857). There are allegations that Marx also fathered a son, Freddy,[30] out of wedlock by his housekeeper, Helene Demuth.[146]
Marx frequently used pseudonyms, often when renting a house or flat, apparently to make it harder for the authorities to track him down. While in Paris, he used that of 'Monsieur Ramboz', whilst in London he signed off his letters as 'A. Williams'. His friends referred to him as 'Moor', owing to his dark complexion and black curly hair, something which they believed made him resemble the historical Moors of North Africa, whilst he encouraged his children to call him 'Old Nick' and 'Charley'.[147] He also bestowed nicknames and pseudonyms on his friends and family as well, referring to Friedrich Engels as 'General', his housekeeper Helene as 'Lenchen' or 'Nym', while one of his daughters, Jennychen, was referred to as 'Qui Qui, Emperor of China' and another, Laura, was known as 'Kakadou' or 'the Hottentot'.[147]
Legacy[link]
Influence[link]
Marx is widely thought of as one of the most influential thinkers in history, who has had a significant influence on both world politics and intellectual thought, and in a 1999 BBC poll was voted the top "thinker of the millennium".[11][12][8] Robert C. Tucker credits Marx with profoundly affecting ideas about history, society, economics, culture, politics, and the nature of social inquiry.[148] Marx's biographer Francis Wheen considers the "history of the twentieth century" to be "Marx's legacy",[149] whilst philosopher Peter Singer believes that Marx's impact can be compared with that of the founders of the two major world religions, Jesus Christ and Muhammad.[150] Singer notes that "Marx's ideas brought about modern sociology, transformed the study of history, and profoundly affected philosophy, literature and the arts."[150] Paul Ricœur calls Marx one of the masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Friedrich Nietzsche and Sigmund Freud.[151] Philip Stokes says that Marx's ideas led to him becoming "the darling of both European and American intellectuals up until the 1960s".[152] Marx has influenced disciplines such as archaeology, anthropology,[153] media studies,[154] political science, theater, history, sociological theory, cultural studies, education, economics, geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.[155]
In July 2005, 27.9% of listeners in a BBC Radio 4 series In Our Time poll selected Marx as their favorite thinker.[156]
The reasons for Marx's widespread influence revolve around his ethical message; a "morally empowering language of critique" against the dominant capitalist society. No other body of work was so relevant to the modern times, and at the same time, so outspoken about the need for change.[8] In the political realm, Marx's ideas led to the establishment of governments using Marxist thought to replace capitalism with communism or socialism (or augment it with market socialism) across much of the world, whilst his intellectual thought has heavily influenced the academic study of the humanities and the arts.
Marxism[link]
Main article: Marxism
Followers of Marx have drawn on his work to propose grand, cohesive theoretical outlooks dubbed "Marxism". This body of works has had significant influence on the both political and scientific scenes.[157] The Marxist revolutionary Che Guevara summed up his own appeal to Marxism by stating that "the merit of Marx is that he suddenly produces a qualitative change in the history of social thought. He interprets history, understands its dynamic, predicts the future, but in addition to predicting it, he expresses a revolutionary concept: the world must not only be interpreted, it must be transformed."[158]
Nevertheless, Marxists have frequently debated amongst themselves over how to interpret Marx's writings and how to apply his concepts to their contemporary events and conditions.[157] The legacy of Marx's thought has become bitterly contested between numerous tendencies which each see themselves as Marx's most accurate interpreters, including (but not limited to) Leninism, Stalinism, Trotskyism, Maoism, Luxemburgism, and libertarian Marxism.[157] In academic Marxism, various currents have developed as well, often under influence of other views, resulting in structuralist Marxism, historical Marxism, phenomenological Marxism, Analytical Marxism and Hegelian Marxism.[157]
Moreover, there is a distinction between "Marxism" and "what Marx believed"; for example, shortly before he died in 1883, Marx wrote a letter to the French workers' leader Jules Guesde, and to his own son-in-law Paul Lafargue, accusing them of "revolutionary phrase-mongering" and of lack of faith in the working class. After the French party split into a reformist and revolutionary party, some accused Guesde (leader of the latter) of taking orders from Marx; Marx remarked to Lafargue, "What is certain to me is [that, if this is Marxism, then] I myself am not [a] Marxist" (in a letter to Engels, Marx later accused Guesde of being a "Bakuninist").[159]
Founder of social science[link]
Marx is typically cited, along with Émile Durkheim and Max Weber, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.[10] In contrast to philosophers, Marx offered theories that could often be tested with the scientific method.[8] Both Marx and Auguste Comte set out to develop scientifically justified ideologies in the wake of European secularisation and new developments in the philosophies of history and science. Whilst Marx, working in the Hegelian tradition, rejected Comtean sociological positivism, in attempting to develop a science of society he nevertheless came to be recognised as a founder of sociology as the word gained wider meaning.[42] In modern sociological theory, Marxist sociology is recognised as one of the main classical perspectives. For Isaiah Berlin, Marx may be regarded as the "true father" of modern sociology, "in so far as anyone can claim the title."[160]
Debate over predictions and theories[link]
While many Marxist concepts are still of importance for modern social science, some specific predictions Marx made have been shown to be unlikely.[8] Marx is often criticised for expecting a wave of socialist revolutions, originating in the most highly industrialised countries,[161] to overturn capitalism. However others, pointing to Marx's encounter with late 19th-century Russian populism and Marx and Engels's preface to the second Russian edition of the Manifesto of the Communist Party (1882), have argued that Marx evinced a growing conviction in his late writings that revolution could in fact emerge first in Russia.[162] Marx predicted the eventual fall of capitalism, to be replaced by socialism, yet since the late 20th century state socialism is in retreat, as the Soviet Union collapsed, and the People's Republic of China shifted towards a market economy.[163] Additionally, his argument that profits are generated only through surplus labour has been challenged by the counterclaim that profits also come from investments in human capital and technology.[8] Marx correctly predicted that over time, inequality would grow[164] but he also believed that this would mean growing impoverishment of the growing worker class, increasingly exploited by the capitalists.[8] The latter has also come true; as in the developed world, through liberal reforms, trade unions won many concessions, improving the situation of the workers (something that Marx considered very unlikely); in the more populated parts of the world such as Africa, India, and China the populations continue to grow and all the industry is moving there if it has not already established itself in the last two decades. Worldwide poverty has increased since the end of the 19th century especially considering that the richest are richer than ever but the poor have remained at the same level and the percentage has risen in the last 30 years.[8][165][166][167] (Scholars have debated whether Marx's comments about the proletariat can be analyzed in the context of the working class).[168] In addition to specific predictions, certain of Marx's theories, such as his labour theory of value, have also been criticised.[4][118] However, in the wake of the economic crisis of 2008, Greek government debt crisis,2008–2012 Spanish financial crisis and European sovereign debt crisis some thinkers like Terry Eagleton, David Harvey, and David McNally have given renewed impetus to the debate on whether Marx was right that capitalism inherently tends towards crisis (which Marx discussed as the "contradictions of capital").[169]
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Totalitarianism[link]
While Marxist thought may be used to empower marginalised and dispossessed people, it has also been used to prop up governments who have utilised violence to remove those seen as impeding the revolution.[8][118] In some instances, his ultimate goals have been used as justification for the end justifies the means logic.[8] Moreover, contrary to his goal, his ideas have been used to promote dogmatism and intolerance.[8] Polish historian Andrzej Walicki noted that Marx's and Engels's theory was the "theory of freedom", but a theory that, at the height of its influence, was used to legitimise the totalitarian socialist state of the Soviet Union.[170] This abuse of Marx's thought is perhaps most clearly exemplified in Stalinist Marxism, described by critics as the "most widespread and successful form of mass indoctrination... a masterly achievement in transforming Marxism into the official ideology of a consistently totalitarian state."[171] The controversy is further fueled as some left-wing theorists have tried to shield Marxism from any connection to the Soviet regime.[172] Lastly, the undue focus on the Marxist thought in the former Eastern Bloc, often forbidding social science arguments from outside the Marxist perspective,[173][174] led to a backlash against Marxism after the revolutions of 1989. In one example, references to Marx drastically decreased in Polish sociology after the fall of the revolutionary socialist governments, and two major research institutions which advocated the Marxist approach to sociology were closed.[175]
Selected bibliography[link]
- The Philosophical Manifesto of the Historical School of Law (1842)
- Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, 1843
- On the Jewish Question, 1843
- Notes on James Mill, 1844
- Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, 1844
- The Holy Family, 1845
- Theses on Feuerbach, 1845
- The German Ideology, 1845
- The Poverty of Philosophy, 1847
- Wage Labour and Capital, 1847
- Manifesto of the Communist Party, 1848
- The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon, 1852
- Grundrisse, 1857
- A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, 1859
- Writings on the U.S. Civil War, 1861
- Theories of Surplus Value, 3 volumes, 1862
- Value, Price and Profit, 1865
- Capital, Volume I (Das Kapital), 1867
- The Civil War in France, 1871
- Critique of the Gotha Program, 1875
- Notes on Wagner, 1883
- Capital, Volume II (posthumously published by Engels), 1885
- Capital, Volume III (posthumously published by Engels), 1894
See also[link]
- Karl Marx House
- Marx Memorial Library
- Marx’s method
- Marx's notebooks on the history of technology
- Marxian Class Theory
- Mathematical manuscripts of Karl Marx
- Pre-Marx socialists
- Karl Marx in film
- Marx Reloaded
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Mehring, Franz, Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003) pg. 75
- ^ John Bellamy Foster. "Marx's Theory of Metabolic Rift: Classical Foundations for Environmental Sociology", American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 105, No. 2 (September 1999), pp. 366-405.
- ^ Allen Oakley, Marx's Critique of Political Economy: 1844 to 1860, Routledge, 1984, p. 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v "Karl Marx – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/marx/. . First published Tue 26 Aug 2003; substantive revision Mon 14 Jun 2010. Accessed 4 March 2011.
- ^ a b c Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
- ^ Karl Marx: Critique of the Gotha Program (Marx/Engels Selected Works, Volume Three, pp. 13–30;)
- ^ In Letter from Karl Marx to Joseph Weydemeyer (MECW Volume 39, p. 58; )
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 23–24. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d Wheen, Francis (2002). Karl Marx: A Life. New York: Norton. Introduction.
- ^ a b "Max Weber – Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy". http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/weber/.
- ^ a b "Marx the millennium's 'greatest thinker'". BBC News World Online. 1 October 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/461545.stm. Retrieved 23 November 2010.
- ^ a b Hart, Michael H. (2000). The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History. New York: Citadel. ISBN 0-89104-175-3.
- ^ Wheen 2001 p. 8 and p. 12
- ^ Kenneth Allan; Kenneth D. Allan (2 November 2005). Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory: Seeing the Social World. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-0572-5.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 07–09, 12.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 10.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 11.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 12.
- ^ Francis Wheen, Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
- ^ Enzo Traverso, The Marxists and the Jewish Question, (Humanities Press, 1994): "Born into a Jewish family that had converted to Lutheranism, Marx received no religious education and grew up, under the influence of his father, in a liberal and aufklärerisch environment. He considered himself a German, an atheist and a Communist and recognized himself as neither a Jew nor a converted Jew" (p14)
- ^ The famous Marxist historian and historiographer Eric Hobsbawm views Marx simply as a Jew, for example, in this October 2005 essay on the "Benefits of Diaspora" in the London Review of Books, in which he states "issues to do with the nature, structure and possible transformations of society in an era of radical historical change both in practice and in theory have attracted emancipated Jews disproportionately almost from the beginning, starting with the Saint Simonians and Marx".
- ^ Julius Carlbach's Karl Marx and the Jewish Question has an interesting discussion of "The Jewishness of Marx" staring on page 310, in which he describes the views of a large number of sources. See also Dennis K. Fischman's 1991 work Political Discourse in Exile: Karl Marx and the Jewish Question.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 13.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 14.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 15.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 16.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 16–17.
- ^ a b c Appelrouth, Scott; Laura Desfor Edles (2007). Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings. Pine Forge Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-7619-2793-8.
- ^ a b c Montefiore, Simon Sebag. "The Means of Reproduction". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/books/review/love-and-capital-by-mary-gabriel-book-review.html. Retrieved 25 September 2011.
- ^ Tristram Hunt (3 August 2010). Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels. Macmillan. pp. 59–61. ISBN 978-0-8050-9248-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=Mdj3AXU2YEEC&pg=PA59. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 17–21, 33.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 52–53.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 21–22.
- ^ Lewis S. Feuer; Irving Horowitz (1 June 2010). Ideology and the Ideologists. Transaction Publishers. p. 76. ISBN 978-1-4128-1442-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=8TwfWRr21zEC&pg=PA76. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 34.
- ^ Stanley Edgar Hyman (March 1974). The tangled bank: Darwin, Marx, Frazer and Freud as imaginative writers. Atheneum. p. 86. http://books.google.com/books?id=f0pmAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ Robert Payne, The Unknown Karl Marx, (University Press, 1971)
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 25–26.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 32.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 33.
- ^ a b Calhoun 2002. p. 19.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 34–36.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 42–44.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 47.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 47–48.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 36.
- ^ Kenneth L. Morrison (21 July 2006). Marx, Durkheim, Weber: formations of modern social thought. SAGE. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7619-7056-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-sya6fxO6zgC&pg=PA35. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 48.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 62–66.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 64–65.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 65.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 75.
- ^ Mansel, Philip: Paris Between Empires, p.390 (St. Martin Press, NY) 2001
- ^ a b c T. B. Bottomore (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist thought. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-0-631-18082-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=q4QwNP_K1pYC&pg=PA108. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 85–86.
- ^ a b Several authors elucidated this for long neglected crucial turn in Marx's theoretical development, such as Ernie Thomson in The Discovery of the Materialist Conception of History in the Writings of the Young Karl Marx, New York, The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004; for a short account see Max Stirner, a durable dissident
- ^ Doug Lorimer, in Friedrich Engels (1999). Socialism: utopian and scientific. Resistance Books. pp. 34–36. ISBN 978-0-909196-86-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_A7P0fL_kYsC&pg=PA34. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 66–67.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 112.
- ^ Charles Capper; Cristina Giorcelli; Lester K. Little (9 November 2007). Margaret Fuller: transatlantic crossings in a revolutionary age. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-299-22340-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=LehjT5N5yQwC&pg=PA18. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d Wheen 2001. p. 90.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 92.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 93.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 107.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 115.
- ^ a b Karl Marx (1950). Communist Manifesto. eBookEden.com. p. 4. GGKEY:FWW90PP07L2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ZZuDP8hGg5IC&pg=PT4. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ Marx and Engels 1848.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. p. 125.
- ^ a b Maltsev; Yuri N.. Requiem for Marx. Ludwig von Mises Institute. pp. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-61016-116-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=gx0X4NvNE_gC&pg=PA93. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Saul Kussiel Padover, Karl Marx, an intimate biography, McGraw-Hill, 1978, page 205
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 126–127.
- ^ David McLellan 1973 Karl Marx: His life and Thought. New York: Harper and Row. pp. 189–190
- ^ Felix, David (1982). "Heute Deutschland! Marx as Provincial Politician". Central European History (Cambridge University Press) 15 (4): 332–350. DOI:10.1017/S0008938900010621. JSTOR 4545968.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 128.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 129.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 130–132.
- ^ Seigel, p. 50
- ^ a b Doug Lorimer. Introduction. In Karl Marx. The Class Struggles in France: From the February Revolution to the Paris Commune. Resistance Books. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-876646-19-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=xlYfFDJDXewC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. pp. 136–137.
- ^ a b c d Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA192. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Slavko Splichal (2002). Principles of publicity and press freedom. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7425-1615-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=u8fO_b0lxDAC&pg=PA115. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b Franz Mehring (24 September 2003). Karl Marx: The Story of His Life. Psychology Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-0-415-31333-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=486z9lE-jdsC&pg=PR19. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 137–146.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 147–148.
- ^ Peter Watson (22 June 2010). The German Genius: Europe's Third Renaissance, the Second Scientific Revolution, and the Twentieth Century. HarperCollins. pp. 250–. ISBN 978-0-06-076022-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=lktG_12nBXEC&pg=PA250. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. pp. 151–155.
- ^ Phil Harriss (1 September 2006). London Markets, 4th. New Holland Publishers. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-86011-306-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=zv6GxJzhrbgC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ Enrique D. Dussel; Fred Moseley (2001). Towards an unknown Marx: a commentary on the manuscripts of 1861–63. Psychology Press. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-0-415-21545-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=-Ld9fM0DOYQC&pg=PR33. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Karl Heinrich Marx – Biography". Egs.edu. http://www.egs.edu/library/karl-marx/biography/. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Karl, Marx (2007). James Ledbetter. ed. Dispatches for the New York Tribune: Selected Journalism of Karl Marx. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-144192-4.
- ^ Karl Marx (30 March 2008). The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Wildside Press LLC. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-4344-6374-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=ryOVzGSq0zYC&pg=PA141. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ John Cunningham Wood. Karl Marx's economics : critical assessments. Psychology Press. p. 346. ISBN 978-0-415-06558-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Pr97rppN2EC&pg=PA346. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b c John Cunningham Wood (1993). Karl Marx's economics: critical assessments : second series. Taylor & Francis. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-415-08711-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=zoNIh_NYeRwC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b Sidney Hook (February 1994). From Hegel to Marx: studies in the intellectual development of Karl Marx. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-231-09665-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=JXQ_cwiMhAUC&pg=PR24. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ a b Ronald John Johnston (2000). The dictionary of human geography. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 795. ISBN 978-0-631-20561-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=0-GxowMfwlkC&pg=PA795%7Caccessdate%3D16+March+2011%7Cyear%3D2000%7Cpublisher%3DWiley-Blackwell%7Cisbn%3D978-0-631-20561-6%7Cpages%3D795%E2%80%93%7D%7D%3C%2Fref%3E. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Richard T. De George; James Patrick Scanlan (31 December 1975). Marxism and religion in Eastern Europe: papers presented at the Banff International Slavic Conference, September 4–7, 1974. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 978-90-277-0636-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=gO_mQQU8-GIC&pg=PA20. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Boris Nicolaievsky (15 March 2007). Karl Marx – Man and Fighter. READ BOOKS. pp. 269–. ISBN 978-1-4067-2703-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=4rbH49xtcpkC&pg=PA269. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Bob Jessop; Russell Wheatley (1999). Karl Marx's social and political thought. Taylor & Francis US. p. 526. ISBN 978-0-415-19327-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=vz-4LDWCnlAC&pg=PA526. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Michael Curtis (1997). Marxism: the inner dialogues. Transaction Publishers. p. 291. ISBN 978-1-56000-945-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=hRdyY2f8UcUC&pg=PA291. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Mab Segrest (27 June 2002). Born to belonging: writings on spirit and justice. Rutgers University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-8135-3101-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=gOmpSMh3y3YC&pg=PA232. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Tom Rockmore (2002). Marx after Marxism: the philosophy of Karl Marx. John Wiley and Sons. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-631-23189-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=FkMgeGZuCOwC&pg=PA128. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Anthony Brewer; Karl Marx (1984). A guide to Marx's Capital. CUP Archive. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-521-25730-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=RyQ4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA15. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA23. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Marx, Karl (1875). "Part I". Critique of the Gotha Program. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 71.
- ^ a b c Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, Collected Works Volume 46 (International Publishers: New York, 1992) p. 72.
- ^ K. Marx, First draft of letter to Vera Zasulich [1881]. In Marx-Engels 'Collected Works', Volume 24, p. 346.
- ^ McLellan 1973, p.541
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 382.
- ^ a b c d e f g Stephen Jay Gould; Paul McGarr; Steven Peter Russell Rose (24 April 2007). The richness of life: the essential Stephen Jay Gould. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-393-06498-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=yfXJhKmp1wUC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ "1883: The death of Karl Marx". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/death/dersoz1.htm. Retrieved 21 December 2009.
- ^ "Tomb raiders' failed attack on Marx grave", Camden New Journal
- ^ Hobsbawm 2011. pp. 03–04.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 20–23. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA20. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g Howard J. Sherman (1995). Reinventing marxism. JHU Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-8018-5077-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=TTZf31HIJKsC&pg=PA5. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Peter Beilharz (1992). Labour's Utopias: Bolshevism, Fabianism and Social Democracy. CUP Archive. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-09680-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=dJc9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA4. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Barry Stewart Clark (1998). Political economy: a comparative approach. ABC-CLIO. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-0-275-96370-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=3bJHvA1H-2kC&pg=PA57. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Himani Bannerji (2001). Inventing subjects: studies in hegemony, patriarchy and colonialism. Anthem Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-84331-072-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=rQqos58kEPwC&pg=PA27. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
- ^ Bertell Ollman (1973). Alienation: Marx's conception of man in capitalist society. CUP Archive. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-00-133135-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=8Ac4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA81. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b Marx K (1999). "The labour-process and the process of producing surplus-value". In K Marx, Capital (Vol. 1, Ch. 7). Marxists.org. Retrieved 20 October 2010. Original work published 1867.
- ^ a b c See Marx K (1997). "Critique of Hegel's dialectic and philosophy in general". In K Marx, Writings of the Young Marx on Philosophy and Society (LD Easton & KH Guddat, Trans.), pp. 314–347. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Original work published 1844.
- ^ See also Lefever DM; Lefever JT (1977). "Marxian alienation and economic organisation: An alternate view". The American Economist(21)2, pp. 40–48.
- ^ a b See also Holland EW (2005). "Desire". In CJ Stivale (Ed.), Gilles Deleuze: Key Concepts, pp. 53–62. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens University Press.
- ^ a b Marx (1997), p. 325, emphasis in original.
- ^ Marx (1997), p. 321, emphasis in original.
- ^ Marx (1997), p. 324.
- ^ a b c d e Craig J. Calhoun (2002). Classical sociological theory. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-631-21348-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=6mq-H3EcUx8C&pg=PA22. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ István Mészáros (1 March 2006). Marx's Theory of Alienation. Merlin Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-85036-554-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=5lckAQAAIAAJ. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Étienne Balibar (1995). The philosophy of Marx. Verso. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-85984-951-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=HBw-U1tSZoMC&pg=PA56. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Leszek Kołakowski; Paul Stephen Falla (29 October 2005). Main currents of Marxism: the founders, the golden age, the breakdown. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-393-06054-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=qUCxpznbkaoC&pg=PA226. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Paul Hernadi (1989). The Rhetoric of interpretation and the interpretation of rhetoric. Duke University Press. p. 137. ISBN 978-0-8223-0934-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=yNGAg_yK6R4C&pg=PA137. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ John B. Thompson (1990). Ideology and modern culture: critical social theory in the era of mass communication. Stanford University Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-8047-1846-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=ql5Ab8OXiPMC&pg=PA37. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Karl Marx: Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, in: Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, February 1844
- ^ Karl Marx; Joseph O'Malley (26 August 1977). Critique of Hegel's 'Philosophy of right'. CUP Archive. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-521-29211-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=uxg4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA131. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ William H. Swatos; Peter Kivisto (28 February 1998). Encyclopedia of religion and society. Rowman Altamira. pp. 499–. ISBN 978-0-7619-8956-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=6TMFoMFe-D8C&pg=PA499. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b c d e Jonathan H. Turner (2 September 2005). Sociology. Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 17–18. ISBN 978-0-13-113496-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=90vMAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ Dennis Gilbert (13 May 2010). The American Class Structure in an Age of Growing Inequality. Pine Forge Press. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-4129-7965-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=4JyQus8r9JYC&pg=PA6. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ a b Marx, K. and Engels, F. (1848).The Communist Manifesto
- ^ Jon Elster (31 May 1985). Making sense of Marx. Cambridge University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-521-29705-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=I14p3dFLerYC&pg=PA217. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
- ^ "Karl Marx:Critique of the Gotha Programme". http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch04.htm.
- ^ "You know that the institutions, mores, and traditions of various countries must be taken into consideration, and we do not deny that there are countries – such as America, England, and if I were more familiar with your institutions, I would perhaps also add Holland – where the workers can attain their goal by peaceful means. This being the case, we must also recognise the fact that in most countries on the Continent the lever of our revolution must be force; it is force to which we must some day appeal to erect the rule of labour." La Liberté Speech delivered by Karl Marx on 8 September 1872, in Amsterdam
- ^ Peter Singer (2000). Marx a very short introduction. pp. 5. ISBN 0-19-285405-4
- ^ Francis Wheen (2000). Karl Marx. W. W. Norton and Company. p. 173.
- ^ a b Wheen 2001. p. 152.
- ^ Kenneth Allan (11 May 2010). The Social Lens: An Invitation to Social and Sociological Theory. Pine Forge Press. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-4129-7834-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=KEgg5g0d-fgC&pg=PA68. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Wheen 2001. p. 01.
- ^ a b Singer 1980. p. 01.
- ^ Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1970, p. 32
- ^ Stokes 2004. p. 133.
- ^ Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches in Anthropology, Annual Review of Anthropology Vol. 4: pp. 341–70 (October 1975) (doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013).
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 25–46 (October 1997) (doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25) - ^ S. L. Becker (1984) "Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience", Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 1(1): pp. 66–80.
- ^ See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen (1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
- ^ Wheen, Francis (17 July 2005). "Why Marx is man of the moment". The Observer.
- ^ a b c d Heine Andersen; Lars Bo Kaspersen (2000). Classical and modern social theory. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-0-631-21288-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=_PeGtsC2Hp4C&pg=PA123. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
- ^ "Notes for the Study of the Ideology of the Cuban Revolution" by Che Guevara, 8 October 1960
- ^ McLellan 1973, p. 443
- ^ Berlin, Isaiah. 1967. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment. Time Inc Book Division, New York. pp130
- ^ Robert André LaFleur (2003). China: a global studies handbook. ABC-CLIO. pp. 137–. ISBN 978-1-57607-284-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=RKwqnbWf3u0C&pg=PT137. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ *Foster, John (2000). Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press. pp. 165, 221. *Shanin, Teodor, ed. (1983). Late Marx and the Russian road : Marx and "the peripheries of capitalism" : a case. New York: Monthly Review Press. *Rosemont, Franklin. "Karl Marx and the Iroquois". http://libcom.org/library/karl-marx-iroquois-franklin-rosemont. Retrieved 13 June 2011. *Marx, Karl; Engels, Friedrich (1978). Tucker, Robert C.. ed. The Marx-Engels Reader. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. pp. 471–2.
- ^ Shang-Jin Wei. From Marx to Markets: China's Economic Reforms as a Megapolicy. In Dennis A. Rondinelli (1995). Great policies: strategic innovations in Asia and the Pacific Basin. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-275-95050-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=31HHS8S6svkC&pg=PA151. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Unbottled Gini: Inequality is rising. Does it matter—and if so why?, The Economist, 20 Jan 2001
- ^ Chen, Shaohua; Ravallion, Martin, The developing world is poor and unsuccessful in the fight against poverty, Policy Research working paper, World Bank, 2008
- ^ Stephen Moore; Julian Lincoln Simon (2000). It's getting better all the time: 100 greatest trends of the last 100 years. Cato Institute. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-882577-96-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=1ixRxAsdLKwC&pg=PA8. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Sylvia Whitman (June 2008). World poverty. Infobase Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8160-6807-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=fk4QHyTMhQkC&pg=PA3. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Hugo Radice, The Prospects for Socialism: A Question of Capital and Class. CSGP 11/1 2011, p.7
- ^ Eagleton, Terry. "Was Marx Right?". Commonweal. http://commonwealmagazine.org/was-marx-right. Retrieved 14 July 2011. ; Harvey, David (2010). A Companion to Marx's Capital. London and New York: Verso. ; McNally, David (2009). "From Financial Crisis to World-Slump: Accumulation, Financialisation, and the Global Slowdown". Historical Materialism 17 (2): 35–83. DOI:10.1163/156920609X436117.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA1. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 426. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA426. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Andrzej Walicki (1 September 1997). Marxism and the Leap to the Kingdom of Freedom: The Rise and Fall of the Communist Utopia. Stanford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-8047-3164-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=NgZ6vitEjq4C&pg=PA4. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Gwidon Zalejko, Soviet Historiography as a "Normal Science" in Jerzy Topolski (December 1994). Historiography between modernism and postmodernism. Rodopi. p. 179. ISBN 978-90-5183-744-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=oblFZ28X6oIC&pg=PA179. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Marc Ferro (2003). The use and abuse of history, or, How the past is taught to children. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-415-28592-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=XS1hcDeSne0C&pg. Retrieved 5 March 2011. See Chapter 8 Aspects and variations of Soviet history and Chapter 10 History in profile: Poland.
- ^ Janusz Mucha and Paweł Załęcki, Sociology – Poland, Social Science Knowledge Base, Country Reports, commentary
Bibliography[link]
- Academic and Popular Books
- Calhoun, Craig J. (2002). Classical Sociological Theory. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21347-5.
- Callinicos, Alex (2010 [1983]). The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
- Hobsbawm, Eric (2011). How to Change the World: Tales of Marx and Marxism. London: Little, Brown. ISBN 978-1-4087-0287-1.
- Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism. Peking: Foreign Languages Press. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1914/granat/index.htm.
- Singer, Peter (1980). Marx. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-287510-5.
- Stokes, Philip (2004). Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers. Kettering: Index Books. ISBN 978-0-572-02935-7.
- Vygodsky, Vitaly (1973). The Story of a Great Discovery: How Karl Marx wrote "Capital". Verlag Die Wirtschaft. http://www.marxists.org/archive/vygodsky/1965/discovery.htm.
- Wheen, Francis (2001). Karl Marx. London: Fourth Estate. ISBN 978-1-85702-637-5.
Further reading[link]
- Althusser, Louis. For Marx. London: Verso, 2005.
- Althusser, Louis and Balibar, Étienne. Reading Capital. London: Verso, 2009.
- Avineri, Shlomo. The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx (Cambridge University Press, 1968) ISBN 0-521-09619-7
- Axelos, Kostas. Alienation, Praxis, and Techne in the Thought of Karl Marx (translated by Ronald Bruzina, University of Texas Press, 1976).
- Barnett, Vincent. Marx (Routledge, 2009)
- Berlin, Isaiah. Karl Marx: His Life and Environment (Oxford University Press, 1963) ISBN 0-19-520052-7
- Blackledge, Paul. Reflections on the Marxist Theory of History (Manchester University Press, 2006)
- Bottomore, Tom, ed. A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Oxford: Blackwell, 1998.
- Callinicos, Alex. The Revolutionary Ideas of Karl Marx (Bookmarks, 1983)
- Cleaver, Harry. Reading Capital Politically (AK Press, 2000)
- G. A. Cohen. Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-691-07068-7
- Collier, Andrew. Marx (Oneworld, 2004)
- Draper, Hal, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes) Monthly Review Press
- Duncan, Ronald and Wilson, Colin. (editors) Marx Refuted, (Bath, UK, 1987) ISBN 0-906798-71-X
- Fine, Ben. Marx's Capital. 5th ed. London: Pluto, 2010.
- Foster, John Bellamy. Marx's Ecology: Materialism and Nature. New York: Monthly Review Press, 2000.
- Gould, Stephen Jay. A Darwinian Gentleman at Marx's Funeral – E. Ray Lankester, Page 1, Find Articles.com (1999)
- Harvey, David. A Companion to Marx's Capital. London: Verso, 2010.
- Harvey, David. The Limits of Capital. London: Verso, 2006.
- Iggers, Georg G. "Historiography: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge."(Wesleyan University Press, 1997, 2005)
- Kołakowski, Leszek. Main Currents of Marxism Oxford: Clarendon Press, OUP, 1978
- Little, Daniel. The Scientific Marx, (University of Minnesota Press, 1986) ISBN 0-8166-1505-5
- Mandel, Ernest. Marxist Economic Theory. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1970.
- Mandel, Ernest. The Formation of the Economic Thought of Karl Marx. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977.
- McLellan, David. Marx before Marxism (1980), Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-27882-6
- McLellan, David. Karl Marx: his Life and Thought Harper & Row, 1973 ISBN 978-0-06-012829-6
- Mehring, Franz. Karl Marx: The Story of His Life (Routledge, 2003)
- Miller, Richard W. Analyzing Marx: Morality, Power, and History. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, 1984.
- Nicolaevsky, Boris and Maenchen-Helfen, Otto (translator). Karl Marx: Man and Fighter (Penguin Books, 1976) ISBN 0-14-021594-8
- Postone, Moishe. Time, Labour, and Social Domination: A Reinterpretation of Marx's Critical Theory. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- Rothbard, Murray. An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought Volume II: Classical Economics (Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd., 1995) ISBN 0-945466-48-X
- Rubel, Maximilien. Marx Without Myth: A Chronological Study of his Life and Work (Blackwell, 1975) ISBN 0-631-15780-8
- Saad-Filho, Alfredo. The Value of Marx: Political Economy for Contemporary Capitalism. London: Routledge, 2002.
- Schmidt, Alfred. The Concept of Nature in Marx. London: NLB, 1971.
- Seigel, Jerrold. Marx's fate: the shape of a life (Princeton University Press, 1978) ISBN 0-271-00935-7
- Sekinel, Thomas T. The Dialectic of Capital. A Study of the Inner Logic of Capitalism, 2 volumes (preliminary edition), Tokyo 1986; ISBN 978-4-924750-44-9 (vol. 1), ISBN 4-924750-34-4 (vol. 2)
- Strathern, Paul. "Marx in 90 Minutes", (Ivan R. Dee, 2001)
- Thomas, Paul. Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
- Walker, Frank Thomas. 'Karl Marx: a Bibliographic and Political Biography. (bj.publications), 2009.
- Wendling, Amy. Karl Marx on Technology and Alienation (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)
- Wheen, Francis. Karl Marx: A Life, (Fourth Estate, 1999), ISBN 1-85702-637-3
- Wheen, Francis. Marx's Das Kapital, (Atlantic Books, 2006) ISBN 1-84354-400-8
External links[link]
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- (German) Works by Karl Marx at Zeno.org
- Karl Marx at Libcom.org
- Karl Marx entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
- Karl Marx on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- Marxists.org, homepage of the Marxists Internet Archive
- Works by or about Karl Marx in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Works by Karl Marx in audio format from LibriVox
- Works by Karl Marx at Project Gutenberg
Articles and entries[link]
- Dead Labour: Marx and Lenin Reconsidered by Paul Craig Roberts
- Hegel, Marx, Engels, and the Origins of Marxism, by David North
- In Praise of Marx Terry Eagleton synopsising his Why Marx was right chronicle.com 10 April 2011.
- Karl Marx: Did he get it all Right? by Philip Collins, The Times, 21 October 2008
- Karl Marx, Ernest Mandel
- Karl Marx and the Iroquois by Franklin Rosemont
- Liberalism, Marxism and The State, by Ralph Raico
- Marx, Mao and mathematics: the politics of infinitesimals, by Joseph Dauben
- Marx Was Right
- Marxism and Ethics from International Socialism Paul Blackledge (2008)
- Marxmyths.org Various essays on misinterpretations of Marx
- Portraits of Karl Marx (International Institute of Social History)
- Paul Dorn, The Paris Commune and Marx' Theory of Revolution
- The Top Seven Reasons why Marx was Right by Green Left Weekly
- Why Marx is the Man of the Moment
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| Persondata | |
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| Name | Marx, Karl |
| Alternative names | Marx, Karl Heinrich |
| Short description | German philosopher, political economist and revolutionary |
| Date of birth | 1818-5-5 |
| Place of birth | Trier, Prussia |
| Date of death | 1883-3-14 |
| Place of death | London, United Kingdom |
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http://es.wn.com/Karl Marx
http://ru.wn.com/Маркс, Карл
http://cs.wn.com/Karl Marx
http://pt.wn.com/Karl Marx
http://pl.wn.com/Karol Marks
http://hi.wn.com/कार्ल मार्क्स
http://it.wn.com/Karl Marx
http://id.wn.com/Karl Marx
http://nl.wn.com/Karl Marx
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Marx
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
