In linguistics, language death (also language extinction or linguistic extinction, and rarely linguicide or glottophagy^[1]) is a process that affects speech communities where the level of linguistic competence that speakers possess of a given language variety is decreased, eventually resulting in no native and/or fluent speakers of the variety. Language death may affect any language idiom, including dialects and languages.

Language death should not be confused with language attrition (also called language loss) which describes the loss of proficiency in a language at the individual level.^[2]

Types of language death[link]

This section requires expansion.

Language death may manifest itself in one of the following ways:

• gradual language death
• bottom-to-top language death: when language change begins in a low level environment such as the home.
• top-to-bottom language death: when language change begins in a high level environment such as the government.
• radical language death
• linguicide (Also known as sudden death, language by genocide, physical language death, biological language death)

The most common process leading to language death is one in which a community of speakers of one language becomes bilingual in another language, and gradually shifts allegiance to the second language until they cease to use their original (or heritage) language. This is a process of assimilation which may be voluntary or may be forced upon a population. Speakers of some languages, particularly regional or minority languages, may decide to abandon them based on economic or utilitarian grounds, in favour of languages regarded as having greater utility or prestige. This process is gradual and can occur from either bottom-to-top or top-to-bottom.

Languages with a small, geographically isolated population of speakers can also die when their speakers are wiped out by genocide, disease, or natural disaster.

A language is often declared to be dead even before the last native speaker of the language has died. If there are only a few elderly speakers of a language remaining, and they no longer use that language for communication, then the language is effectively dead. A language that has reached such a reduced stage of use is generally considered moribund.^[2] Once a language is no longer a native language - that is, if no children are being socialised into it as their primary language - the process of transmission is ended and the language itself will not survive past the current generation. This is rarely a sudden event, but a slow process of each generation learning less and less of the language, until its use is relegated to the domain of traditional use, such as in poetry and song. Typically the transmission of the language from adults to children becomes more and more restricted, to the final setting that adults speaking the language will raise children who never acquire fluency. One example of this process reaching its conclusion is that of the Dalmatian language.

Language death can be fast, when the children are taught to avoid their parents' language for reasons such as work opportunities and social status. At other times, minority languages survive much better, for example when the speakers try to isolate themselves against a majority population. Often, especially historically, governments have tried to promote language death, not wishing to have minority languages.

Consequences on grammar[link]

This section requires expansion.

During language loss—sometimes referred to as obsolescence in the linguistic literature—the language that is being lost generally undergoes changes as speakers make their language more similar to the language that they are shifting to. This process of change has been described by Appel (1983) in two categories, though they are not mutually exclusive. Often speakers replace elements of their own language with something from the language they are shifting toward. Also, if their heritage language has an element that the new language does not, speakers may drop it.

• overgeneralization;
• undergeneralization;
• loss of phonological contrasts;
• variability;
• changes in word order;
• morphological loss, such as was seen in Scottish Gaelic in East Sutherland, Scotland (Dorian: 1978) as fluent speakers still used the correct plural formation, whereas semi-speakers used simple suffixation or did not include any plural formation at all;
• synthetic >^[specify] analytic;
• syntactic loss (i.e. lexical categories, complex constructions);
• relexification;
• loss of word-formation productivity;
• style loss, such as the loss of ritual speech;^[3]
• morphological leveling;^[4]
• analogical leveling.

Language revitalization[link]

Language revitalization is an attempt to slow or reverse language death. Revitalization programs are ongoing in many languages, and have had varying degrees of success.

The revival of the Hebrew language in Israel is the only example of a language which has become a language with new first language speakers after it became extinct in everyday use for an extended period, being used only as a liturgical language.^[5] And even in the case of Hebrew, there is a theory that argues that "the Hebrew revivalists who wished to speak pure Hebrew failed. The result is a fascinating and multifaceted Israeli language, which is not only multi-layered but also multi-sourced. The revival of a clinically dead language is unlikely without cross-fertilisation from the revivalists' mother tongue(s)."^[6]

Other cases of language revitalization which have seen some degree of success are Irish, Welsh, Hawaiian and to a lesser extent Navajo, which was used for a WWII radio code never deciphered by the Japanese.^[7]

As a response to English linguistic imperialism, de-anglicisation became a matter of national pride in some places and especially in regions that were once under colonial rule, where vestiges of colonial domination are a sensitive subject.^[8][9] Following centuries of English rule in Ireland and English imposition of the English language, an argument for de-anglicisation was delivered before the Irish National Literary Society in Dublin, 25 November 1892; "When we speak of 'The Necessity for De-Anglicising the Irish Nation', we mean it, not as a protest against imitating what is best in the English people, for that would be absurd, but rather to show the folly of neglecting what is Irish, and hastening to adopt, pell-mell, and indiscriminately, everything that is English, simply because it is English."^[8] Language was one of the features of Anglicisation in Ireland: although it never died out and became an official language after independence, Irish had lost its status as the island's principal vernacular to become a minority language during the period of English rule, as is the case in North America where their indigenous languages have been replaced by that of the colonists.

Dead languages and normal language change[link]

Linguists distinguish between language "death" and the process where a language becomes a "dead language" through normal language change, a linguistic phenomenon analogous to pseudoextinction. This happens when a language in the course of its normal development gradually morphs into something that is then recognized as a separate, different language, leaving the old form with no native speakers. Thus, for example, Old English may be regarded as a "dead language", with no native speakers, although it has never "died" but instead simply changed and developed into Middle English, Early Modern English and Modern English. The process of language change may also involve the splitting up of a language into a family of several daughter languages, leaving the common parent language "dead". This has happened to Latin, which (through Vulgar Latin) eventually developed into the Romance languages. Such a process is normally not described as "language death", because it involves an unbroken chain of normal transmission of the language from one generation to the next, with only minute changes at every single point in the chain. There is thus no one point where Latin "died".

See also[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

External links[link]

• Lost Tongues and the Politics of Language Endangerment
• Languages don't kill languages; speakers do
• Language endangerment: What have pride & prestige got to do with It? (pdf)
• Language birth & death (pdf)
• Globalization & the Myth of Killer Languages: What’s Really Going on? (pdf)
• Wall Street Journal on language death
• [1]—International Symposium on "Linguistic Rights in the World: The current situation", United Nations, Geneva, 24 April 2008

David Crystal
Born	(1941-07-06) July 6, 1941 (age 70) Lisburn, Northern Ireland
Field	Linguistics
Training	University College London
Website	http://www.davidcrystal.com

David Crystal OBE FBA FLSW (born July 6, 1941) is a linguist, academic and author.

Background and career[link]

Crystal was born in Lisburn, Northern Ireland. He grew up in Holyhead, North Wales, and Liverpool, England, where he attended St Mary's College from 1951.

Crystal studied English at University College London between 1959 and 1962. He was a researcher under Randolph Quirk between 1962 and 1963, working on the Survey of English Usage. Since then he has lectured at Bangor University and the University of Reading. He is currently an honorary professor of linguistics at Bangor. His many academic interests include English language learning and teaching, clinical linguistics, forensic linguistics, language death, "ludic linguistics" (Crystal's neologism for the study of language play),^[1] English style, Shakespeare, indexing, and lexicography. He is the Patron of the International Association of Teachers of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL) and honorary vice-president of the Society for Editors and Proofreaders (SfEP). He has also served as an important editor for Cambridge University Press.

David Crystal lives in Holyhead with his wife. He has four grown-up children. His son Ben Crystal is also an author and co-authored two books with his father. Retired from full-time academia, he works as a writer, editor and consultant. Crystal was awarded the OBE in 1995 and became a Fellow of the British Academy in 2000.^[2][3] He is also a Founding Fellow of the Learned Society of Wales and is a Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Linguists.

Work[link]

Crystal is the author, co-author, or editor of over 120 books on a wide variety of subjects, specialising among other things in editing reference works, including (as author) the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language (1987, 1997, 2010) and the Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (1995, 2003), and (as editor) the Cambridge Biographical Dictionary, the Cambridge Factfinder, the Cambridge Encyclopedia, and the New Penguin Encyclopedia (2003). He has also edited literary works, and is Patron of the UK National Literacy Association. He has also published several books for the general reader about linguistics and the English language, which use varied graphics and short essays to communicate technical material in an accessible manner.^[4]

Crystal hypothesises that globally English will both split and converge, with local variants becoming less mutually comprehensible and therefore necessitating the rise of what he terms World Standard Spoken English (see also International English). In his 2004 book The Stories of English, a general history of the English language, he describes the value he sees in linguistic diversity and the according of respect to varieties of English generally considered "non-standard". He is a proponent of a new field of study, Internet linguistics.

His non-linguistic writing includes poems, plays and biography. A Roman Catholic by conviction, he has also written devotional poetry and articles.

From 2001 to 2006, Crystal served as the Chairman of Crystal Reference Systems Limited, a provider of reference content and Internet search and advertising technology. The company's iSense and Sitescreen products are based upon the patented Global Data Model, a complex semantic network that Crystal devised in the early 1980s and was adapted for use on the Internet in the mid 1990s. The iSense technology is the subject of patents in the United Kingdom and the United States. After the company's acquisition by Ad Pepper Media N.V., he remained on the board as its R&D director until 2009, and continues to act as a consultant for Ad Pepper.^[5]

Crystal was influential in a campaign to save Holyhead's convent from demolition, leading to the creation of the Ucheldre Centre. Crystal continues to write as well as contribute to television and radio broadcasts. His association with the BBC ranges from, formerly, a BBC Radio 4 series on language issues to, currently, podcasts on the BBC World Service website for people learning English.^[2]

His book Txtng: The Gr8 Db8 (published in 2008) focused on text language and its impact on society.^[6] In 2009 Routledge published his autobiographical memoir Just a Phrase I'm Going Through: My Life in Language, which was released simultaneously with a DVD of three of his lectures.

Furthermore David Crystal was a co-founder of Crystal Semantics Limited. He is the inventor of the patented classification scheme which forms the basis of the Crystal Semantics technology upon which certain products for the online advertising sector have been developed. These include semantic targeting technology (marketed as iSense by ad pepper media) and brand protection technology (marketed as SiteScreen by Emediate ApS).

Involvement in Shakespeare productions[link]

As an expert on the evolution of the English language, he was involved in the production of Shakespeare at Shakespeare's Globe in 2004 and 2005 in the "Original Pronunciation" of the period in which he was writing. He coached the actors on the appropriate pronunciation for the period.^[7]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Professor David Crystal's Homepage
• David Crystal's blog
• Danny Yee's Book Reviews: David Crystal's books

Porter Robinson
Performing in January 2012.
Background information
Birth name	Porter Robinson
Born	(1992-07-15) July 15, 1992 (age 19)
Origin	Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States
Genres	Complextro, Electro House, dubstep, Moombahton, trance, progressive house
Occupations	Producer, DJ, Musician
Years active	2010–present
Labels	OWSLA, Big Fish Recordings, Ministry Of Sound
Website	Porter Robinson Facebook Porter Robinson Twitter

Porter Robinson (born July 15, 1992) is an American electronic dance music producer and DJ from Chapel Hill, North Carolina. He primarily produces in the electro house genre. He also named the genre complextro when he created the portmanteau to describe his own sound.^[1]

Biography[link]

Porter Robinson began producing at the age of 13 using Sony ACID Pro emulating sounds he heard from video games. He later began producing hands-up under the alias Ekowraith^[2] using FL Studio. It was at this time that Robinson became friends with a young Madeon, who was also producing hands-up under the name Deamon, and also using FL Studio.

Robinson primarily uses Lennard Digital Sylenth1, Native Instruments Massive, 3xOsc, Sytrus and several other commercial and free audio plugins.

He is currently 19 years old and recently graduated high school in his hometown of Chapel Hill, North Carolina.^[3][4]

Music career[link]

He has released a variety of original singles on Glamara Records and Big Fish Recordings. His first single, "Say My Name", was an enormous success, landing at #1 on Beatport's Electro House chart.^[5][6] In the summer of 2011 he signed with OWSLA, a new label operated by Skrillex, to release his first EP entitled Spitfire. Spitfire reached the number one spot on the iTunes Dance chart as well as the number one spot on Beatport's overall release chart.

Porter has been commissioned for official remixes by Lady Gaga (Interscope Records), Avicii (Ministry of Sound),^[7] Spencer & Hill (Bazooka Records)^[8] and Innerpartysystem (Red Bull Records).^[9]

Touring[link]

As a DJ, he has toured internationally^[10] and performed alongside artists including Deadmau5, Tiesto, David Guetta, Skrillex, Diplo, Madeon, Moby, Afrojack, Above & Beyond, Dada Life, A-Trak, Gareth Emery and many more.

He performed at many major music festivals during 2011 including Ultra Music Festival,^[11] Electric Daisy Carnival (3 cities),^[12] Electric Zoo,^[13] South by Southwest,^[14] Global Dance Festival, Virgin Mobile FreeFest, Beyond Wonderland,^[15] Electric Forest and Nocturnal Festival.^[16]

Throughout February 2011, he appeared on the Project Blue Book Tour with Skrillex and Tommy Lee & DJ Aero.^[17]

In June and July 2011, he performed as direct support to Skrillex on the OWSLA tour.^[18]

In August 2011 he toured throughout Australia and New Zealand.^{[citation needed]}

In September and October 2011, he performed as direct support to Tiesto on his College Invasion tour of the United States and Canada.^[19] Following this, Porter began a run of headline dates across clubs in North America as part of "The Spitfire Tour".^[20]

In 2012 he is announced to play festivals including Festival Imperial, Coachella, Future Music Festival, Ultra Music Festival, and Lollapalooza, and performed a live Essential Mix that was broadcasted from Hull City Hall, January 28 on BBC Radio 1 during his first trip to the UK. During the set, he played a new, unreleased track called "Language" which was later released on April 10.

Discography[link]

EPs[link]

• Spitfire (2011)

Singles[link]

• "Leaving" (2010)
• "Get Brain" (2010)
• "Say My Name" (2010)
• "I'm On Fire" (2010)
• "Hello" (with Lazy Rich and Sue Cho) (2010)
• "The Wildcat" (2010)
• "Language" (2012)

Remixes[link]

• Picco , "Venga" (2010)
• Heiko & Maiko, "Wer Ist Sie?" (2010)
• Spencer & Hill, "Less Go" (2010)
• Tim Berg, "Seek Bromance" (2010)
• Yolanda Be Cool & Dcup, "We No Speak Americano" (2010)
• Innerpartysystem, "American Trash" (2011)
• Lady Gaga, "The Edge of Glory" (2011)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Porter Robinson Beatport
• Porter Robinson Soundcloud
• Porter Robinson Twitter
• Porter Robinson Facebook
• Porter Robinson OWSLA
• Interview with Porter Robinson Immediately following his first show ever
• Porter Robinson FL Studio Power User page

Diana "Wynter" Gordon (born August 25, 1985 in South Jamaica, Queens, New York) is an American pop/dance singer-songwriter. She began as a writer for other artists, later signing with Atlantic Records where she began working on an album while continuing to write songs for other acts and providing vocals on songs. Her debut With the Music I Die was released in 2011.

Early life[link]

Gordon was born in Queens, New York City and was brought up in a poor and dangerous neighborhood in South Jamaica. She is the middle child of six, they lived in a two bedroom house.^[1] She recalled in an interview that many people she knew were deceased at a young age, because they "got into the wrong things".^[1] However, she refused to call her childhood difficult, she said that "if things were rough, I didn't feel it," explaining that the familiarity of the environment that she grew up in prevented her from objectively describing it.^[1] She attributed her well being to her strict mother who did not allow her to leave the yard and told her to go to the library after school.^[1] Her mother remarried when Gordon was 5, but Gordon did not have a close relationship with her step father.^[2] Her strict upbringing resulted in a strained relationship with her parents.^[2]

Gordon began singing at a young age and she began singing at funerals from the age of 6.^[1] She and her siblings would perform together in church and at street corners by her parents.^[2] They were strict about the music that Gordon and her siblings sang, only allowing them to listen to and sing gospel.^[2] However, Gordon would listen to the radio when her parents were not at home and recorded songs from the radio onto tapes that she smuggled into the house.^[2] It was during high school that Gordon decided that she was going to pursue music.^[3] She was later accepted to the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts^[2] and interned at a record company.^[3] Gordon wrote her first complete song, "Daddy's Song" at age 15.^[3]

Career[link]

2005–08: Career beginnings[link]

After high school, Wynter threw herself fully into realizing her music dreams, while also dealing with surviving on her own for the first time. She juggled several jobs while working in the studio at nights and as much as she could. During this time, Wynter met her manager, Keith White who introduced her to Don Pooh at Atlantic Records. Wynter worked closely with producer D'Mile since 2004 where they both came with her first track to fame, "Gonna Breakthrough" written by Wynter Gordon and produced by D'Mile was used as the title track to Mary J. Blige's 2005 album The Breakthrough. Soon after, Wynter was given an opportunity and signed to Atlantic Records, through Don Pooh Music Group, where she has been working on her debut album since 2004. Also, in 2008, Wynter penned two tracks for Danity Kane's second album Welcome to the Dollhouse, "2 of You" and "Do Me Good".

[edit] 2009–present: With the Music I Die and New Recordings

Wynter co-wrote the single "Sugar", a track that she was featured on with Flo Rida on his album R.O.O.T.S. (2009) after laying down a reference vocal.^[4] The track became an international hit and peaked at number five on the US Billboard Hot 100. Wynter also co-wrote and sang on the dance track "Toyfriend" from French DJ David Guetta's album One Love (2009). She worked closely with Jennifer Lopez, writing four tracks including "What Is Love", "What Is Love Part II", "Starting Over" and "Everybody's Girl" for her seventh studio album Love? (2011). Wynter is also writing for artists including Adrienne Bailon, Estelle & Gossip Girl star Leighton Meester.^[4]

She released her debut album, With the Music I Die, on June 17, 2011 in Australia. The first single from the album, "Dirty Talk" topped the US (Billboard) Hot Dance Club Songs and the Australian Singles Chart, and was certified 3x Platinum, The song was released in the UK and Ireland on 18 February 2011 where it peaked eight in Ireland and 25 in the UK. The song spent a total on eleven weeks inside the Top 40.^[5] The second single, "Til Death" has currently peaked on the Australian Singles Chart at 16 and number 3 on the US Dance Chart. She opened for Patrick Stump's second US tour in August and September. "Buy My Love" was released as the third single from "With The Music I Die".

Wynter announced via Twitter that she has already recorded some songs and hinted at her second studio album.

Discography[link]

Studio albums[link]

Extended plays[link]

Singles[link]

Promotional singles[link]

As a featured artist[link]

Other appearances[link]

Awards and nominations[link]

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official website

Nicholas Ostler (born 20 May 1952) is a British scholar and author. Ostler studied at Balliol College, Oxford, where he received degrees in Greek, Latin, philosophy, and economics. He later studied under Noam Chomsky at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he earned his Ph.D. in linguistics and Sanskrit.

His 2005 book Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World documents the spread of language throughout recorded human history.

His 2007 book Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin looks specifically at the language of the Romans, both before and after the existence of their Empire. The story focuses on the rise, spread, and dominance of Latin, both among other languages of the Italian peninsula in the early part of the 1st millennium BC and among the languages of Western Europe in the Dark Ages and beyond, presenting the life of Latin as any biographer would present the life of his subject. With this book, Ostler provides a strong argument against the label 'dead language' so often assigned to Latin. However, the title, 'Ad Infinitum,' refers not to this, but to his thesis that the Latin-speaking world was unconscious of its own limits, looking always back to its centre, rather than outwards.

He is currently the chairman of the Foundation for Endangered Languages, and lives in Bath, England.

Works[link]

• Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. HarperCollins: London and New York, 2005.

• Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin. HarperCollins in the UK, and Walker & Co. in the USA: London and New York, 2007.

• The Last Lingua Franca: English until the Return to Babel. Penguin in the UK, and Bloomsbury/Walker Books in the USA. London and New York, 2010. (ISBN 0802717713)

References[link]

• Author: Nicholas Ostler, Harper Collins. Retrieved January 21, 2007.
• Ostler, Nicholas. Empires of the Word: A Language History of the World. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005. ISBN 0-06-093572-3
• Author: Nicholas Ostler, AP Watt (literary agent). Retrieved July 26, 2010.

External links[link]

• Ostler official site