Map of the Roman Empire and Magna Germania in the early 2nd century.

Germania (Greek: Γερμανία) was the Greek and Roman geographic term for the geographical regions inhabited mainly by peoples considered to be Germani. It was most often used to refer especially to the east of the Rhine and north of the Danube. The areas west of the Rhine were mainly Celtic (specifically Gaulish) and had become part of the Roman Empire.^[1][2]

Some Germani, perhaps the original people to have been referred to by this name, had lived on the west side of the Rhine. At least as early as the 2nd century BC. This area was considered to be in "Gaul", and became part of the Roman empire. These were the so-called germani cisrhenani, who in modern terms lived in the region of modern eastern Belgium, the southeastern Netherlands, and stretching into Germany towards the Rhine. During the period of the Roman empire, more tribes were settled in areas of the empire near the Rhine, in territories controlled by the Roman Empire. Eventually these areas came to be known as Lesser Germania, while Greater Germania (Magna Germania) was the larger territory east of the Rhine.

The Roman parts of Germania, "Lesser Germania", eventually formed two provinces of the empire, Germania Inferior, "Lower Germany", which came to eventually include the region of the original germani cisrhenani and Germania Superior, which in modern terms comprised an area of western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon (Besontio), Strasbourg (Argentoratum), Wiesbaden (Aquae Mattiacae), and Mainz (Mogontiacum).

Origins of the term[link]

The name came into use after Julius Caesar and whether it was used widely before him amongst Romans is unknown. The term may be Gallic in origin. Caesar reports hearing from his Remi allies that the term germani was the term used for the germani cisrhenani, and that these tribes had historically come from over the Rhine. So the name Germania seems to have been extended to cover the similar tribes in the area understood to be their homeland.^[3][4] Some generations later, Tacitus claimed that this is precisely what happened, saying that the Tungri of his time, who lived in the area which had been home to the germani cisrhenani, had changed their name, but had once been the original Germani. Tacitus wrote in AD 98:

For the rest, they affirm Germania to be a recent word, lately bestowed. For those who first passed the Rhine and expulsed the Gauls, and are now named Tungrians, were then called Germani. And thus by degrees the name of a tribe prevailed, not that of the nation; so that by an appellation at first occasioned by fear and conquest, they afterwards chose to be distinguished, and assuming a name lately invented were universally called Germani.^[5]

The Germania of Caesar and Tacitus was not defined along linguistic lines as is the case with the modern term "Germanic". They knew of Celtic tribes living in Magna Germania, and Germanic tribes living in Gaul. It is also not clear that they distinguished the tribes into linguistic categories in any exact way. The language of the germani cisrhenani, as well as their neighbours across the Rhine, is still unclear. Their tribal names and personal names are generally considered Celtic, and there are also signs of an older Belgic language which once existed between the contact zone of the Germanic and Celtic languages.

Germania in its eastern parts was likely inhabited by early Baltic and Slavic tribes. These parts of eastern Germania are sometimes called "Germania Slavica" in modern historiography.

History[link]

The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC – AD 1 (after the Penguin Atlas of World History 1988):

   Settlements before 750 BC

   New settlements by 500 BC

   New settlements by 250 BC

   New settlements by AD 1

Germania was inhabited by different tribes, the vast majority Germanic but also including some Celtic, Baltic, Scythian, and proto-Slavic peoples. The tribal and ethnic makeup changed over the centuries as a result of assimilation and, most importantly, migrations. The Germanic people spoke several different dialects.

Classical records show little about the people who inhabited the north of Europe before the 2nd century BC. In the 5th century BC, the Greeks were aware of a group they called Celts (Keltoi). Herodotus also mentioned the Scythians but no other tribes. At around 320 BC, Pytheas of Massalia sailed around Britain and along the northern coast of Europe, and what he found on his journeys was so strange that later writers refused to believe him. He may have been the first Mediterranean to distinguish the Germanic people from the Celts. Contact between German tribes and the Roman Empire did take place and was not always hostile. Recent excavations of the Waldgirmes Forum show signs that a civilian Roman town was established there, which has been interpreted to mean that Romans and Germanic tribesmen were living in peace, at least for a while.^[6]

Caesar described the cultural differences between the Germanic tribesmen, the Romans, and the Gauls. He said that the Gauls, although warlike, could be civilized, but the Germanic tribesmen were far more savage and were a threat to Roman Gaul and so had to be conquered. His accounts of barbaric northern tribes could be described as an expression of the superiority of Rome, including Roman Gaul. Caesar's accounts portray the Roman fear of the Germanic tribes and the threat they posed. The perceived menace of the Germanic tribesmen proved accurate. The most complete account of Germania that has been preserved from Roman times is Tacitus' Germania.

Map showing the distribution of the Germanic tribes in Proto-Germanic times, and stages of their expansion up to 50 BC, AD 100 and AD 300. The extent of the Roman Empire in 68 BC and AD 117 is also shown.

Roman conquests[link]

The occupied Lesser Germania was divided into two provinces: Germania Inferior (Lower Germania) (approximately corresponding to the southern part of the present-day Low Countries) and Germania Superior (Upper Germania) (approximately corresponding to present-day Switzerland and Alsace).

The Romans under Augustus began to conquer and defeat the peoples of Germania Magna in 12 BC, having the Legati (generals) Germanicus and Tiberius leading the Legions. By AD 6, all of Germania up to the River Elbe was temporarily pacified by the Romans as well as being occupied by them. The Roman plan to complete the conquest and incorporate all of Magna Germania into the Roman Empire was frustrated when Rome was defeated by the German tribesmen in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in AD 9. Augustus then ordered Roman withdrawal from Magna Germania (completed by AD 16) and established the boundary of the Roman Empire as being the Rhine and the Danube.

Modern use[link]

Names of Germany in English and some other languages are derived from "Germania", though the country's own inhabitants call it "Deutschland". Several modern languages use the name "Germania" including Hebrew (גרמניה), Italian (Germania), Bulgarian (Германия), Maltese (Ġermanja), Greek (Γερμανία), Macedonian (Германија), Romanian (Germania), Russian (Германия), Albanian (Gjermania), and Armenian (Գերմանիա).

See also[link]

Ancient Germanic culture portal

• Roman Iron Age
• Germanic languages
• Germanic peoples
• Limes Germanicus
• Germany
• Scandinavia
• Low countries

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Malcolm Todd (1995). The Early Germans. Blackwell Publishing. 
• Peter S. Wells (2001). Beyond Celts, Germans and Scythians: Archaeology and Identity in Iron Age Europe. Duckworth Publishers. 

External links[link]

Look up germania in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

• Germania (Roman provinces)
• 1849 Harper New York Map, Ancient Germanic Tribes and Towns
• Tacitus' Germania at the Latin Library (text in Latin)
• Tacitus' Germania: English translation (Gordon, c.1910, proofed by Halsall at fordham.edu.)

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Notis Sfakianakis Νότης Σφακιανάκης
Notis Sfakianakis performing live.
Background information
Birth name	Panagiotis Sfakianakis
Born	(1959-11-02) 2 November 1959 (age 52) Herakleion, Crete, Greece
Origin	Athens, Greece
Genres	Laïka
Occupations	Singer
Instruments	Vocals
Years active	1985–present
Labels	Sony Greece, Minos EMI, Universal Greece
Website	www.NotisSfakianakis.gr

Panagiotis (Notis) Sfakianakis (Greek: Νότης Σφακιανάκης; born 2 November 1959) is a Greek singer of laika music, who is one of the most commercially successful artists of all time in Greece and Cyprus. Sfakianakis began his career in 1985, opening at nightclubs for other artists. He was discovered by Sony Greece and released his debut album Proti Fora (1991). For his second album Eisai Ena Pistoli (1992), he moved to Minos EMI.^[1] While his firsτ three releases were commercially successful, beginning in the mid-1990s, Sfakianakis released a series of multi-platinum albums that are among the best selling albums of all time in Greece — including Notioanatolitika Tou Kosmou (1994) with 120–150 thousand copies sold,^[1][2] 5o Vima (1996) which has been recognized as the best selling album of all time in Greece with 200 thousand copies sold,^[1][2][3] I Notes Einai 7psyhes with 132.5 thousand copies (265 thousand units) sold,^[2] the EPs Pro-Dia-Fimin (1997) with 100 thousand copies sold,^[2] and Around the World with 15 thousand copies shipped,^[1] XXX Enthimion (1999), which is the best selling live album of all time in Greece in terms of unit sales with 180 thousand copies (360 thousand units) sold,^[2] Polihroma Kai Entona (2000) that shipped 100 thousand copies and As Milisoun Ta Tragoudia (2002) which faired similarly.^[3] His signature song "O Aetos" is one of the most popular songs in Greek music history.^[1] Sfakianakis was the best selling artist of the 1990s^[4] and stands as the best selling Greek artist of his generation.^[2] However, in the 2000s he faced a significant commercial decline.^[2] Me Agapi O,ti Kaneis (2004) and Ana...Genisis (2005) shipped 40 thousand copies each.^[3] Nihtes... Magikes (2007) and Mnimes (2008) sold 30 thousand copies each,^[2] while the EP Kinonia Ora 07:00 sold 15 thousand copies.^[2] He then embarked on the Matomeno Dakry album trilogy (2009–2011). He has sold over 5 million records in Greece alone and in addition to these he has sold over 900 thousand copies of his albums as newspaper covermounts.^[3] Sfakianakis is also known for his controversial image and outspoken manner and opinions.^[5]

Early life and career[link]

Notis Sfakianakis and his family moved to the island of Kos when he was seven. Notis became a disc jockey in his early 20s. He supported himself by working as an electrician, plumber, waiter, and labourer. In 1985 he formed a band and played in clubs in Kos. Due to the lack of success, the band broke apart after less than year of being formed. In 1986 Notis moved back to Crete to start his solo singing career.

Notis began opening for national acts like Poly Panou. He was discovered by Bourmas, the general manager of Sony in Greece. Bourmas signed Sfakianakis to the label, and Notis recorded his debut album Proti Fora (First Time) which made it into the Greek top ten. He is one of the most successful singers of his era in Greece.

Notis is on top of his game more than ever before. He knows how to change his music style to make his listeners want more. In his new live cd Nihtes... Magikes (Magical Nights) he once again displays his magical voice and again proves why he is one of the greatest performing talents in Greece. His ability to shift between traditional Greek music, such as the Zeimbekiko and Hasapiko, and more modern variations, is unmatched in the contemporary Greek music scene.

Of his early works, his most notable release was "Opa Opa" which was written by Giorgos Alkaios and later covered by Despina Vandi and Antique. In 1994 he released the album Notioanatolika Tou Kosmou (Southeast of the World), which included "O Aetos" (The Eagle). It is widely agreed that this album was the catalyst for his achievement of superstardom in the Greek-speaking world. He followed this with high profile tracks such as "Den Se Hreiazome" (I Don't Need You), "Soma Mou" (My Body), "Gyftissa Mera" (Gypsy Day), "Na Hareis" (Cherish) and "Oi Skies" (Shadows).

One of the more popular of his 21st century tracks is "Genethlia" (or "Gennethleia" as it was spelled when it featured on later albums and compilations). This song (the title of which translates as 'Birthday') was originally performed by Cretan lyra player and singer Stelios Mpikakis.

In November 2007 Sfakianakis released a new album, Mnimes (Memories). The songs which have become hits are "Ta Klemmena" (The Stolen), a grim reflection on the hardships faced by Greeks in Asia Minor, and "Par' Ta" (Take Them). In late 2009 and early 2010, after more than two years break, Sfakianakis released Kinonikon, the first part in a proposed trilogy of 7 song discs called Matomeno Dakry. The most popular songs from Kinonikon are "Den Ypohoro", "Akou file" and "Mpogias". The second part, Erotikon was released in early 2010 and includes several successful songs, in particular "Kleinw tis kourtines", "Esti Ine O Erotas" and "Akouse Me Kala". The third part, Horeutikon, focusing on upbeat dance songs which released in December 2010. The most popular songs are "Ellinas" and "Den Yparxeis".

Personal life[link]

Sfakianakis is married and has two children; the family lives in Athens. In 2003, Sfakianakis had an operation on his vocal cords, leading to a two-year gap between his last album, As Milisoun Ta Tragoudia, and his next one, Me Agapi O,ti Kaneis.

The year 2004, in which Sfakianakis released the aforementioned album, was marred by the death of his brother Giorgos due to cancer.^[3]

Recent Performances[link]

In November 2009, Sfakianakis had his first North American tour since 1999 when his popularity was soaring. It was on this tour that he performed in Atlantic City, NJ, Chicago, IL, and Canada. Many in the Greek community believe that this 10-year period between Sfakianakis' last US visit was due to politically oriented comments he made during a concert in his prior visit that caused some displeasure among Greek-Americans. However, during his 2009 concert in Atlantic City, Sfakianakis expressed his gratitude to the audience for their devotion and affection over the years and wished to give them a concert that "we will all remember after 10 years." Sfakianakis made good on his word, as the crowd gave him numerous ovations during the concert.

Controversies and opinion[link]

The rare interviews that Sfakianakis gives to the press are always memorable; he has a reputation for being very outspoken and uses the press to air his opinions on various matters. When he has appeared on live television, he has drawn praise and criticism in equal measure - on the one hand, some have praised his disarming honesty and applauded him for addressing hard-hitting issues. On the other hand, he has been heavily criticised for being argumentative and confrontational; some critics claim he lacks the capacity to be diplomatic.

In 2002 he released the song Provata (Sheep), which was in essence a barely concealed criticism of George W. Bush. Although the then-United States President was not mentioned by name, the lyrics make several implicit references to him - there are mentions of the resident of a white house. In the song he compares the peoples of the world to sheep, that must be wary of the threat of a wolf (implied to be Bush). Despite the implicit nature of the lyrics, Bush's image is used openly in the video accompanying the song. In an interview that was recorded for a special release of the album Ana...Genissis, Sfakianakis was more direct in his criticism of Bush:

"The word 'bush' in English is apt. A bush does not have the capacity to think - it is not an intelligent plant."

During a live performance in New York in 1999, Sfakianakis caused consternation amongst his audience after airing his critical opinions about America's foreign policies. As a result, certain members of the audience (composed mainly of Greek-Americans) attempted an unsuccessful boycott of Sfakianakis' concerts and productions.

In 2006, Sfakianakis released "To Systima" (The System), which was a scathing attack on the Greek music industry. In the song, Sfakianakis bemoaned the emergence of 'Tragoudistakia' - 'Little singers' - who are loosely defined in the lyrics as 'talentless kids with the same public image'. Since the release of the song Sfakianakis has also been critical of the emergence of TV talent shows such as The X-Factor, claiming that such shows trivialize the entire notion of music production. This stance has drawn criticism, with some claiming that Sfakianakis is afraid of facing competition. Fellow laiko singer Thanos Petrelis, who began his career after finishing third in the 2003 edition of Fame Story, gave his take on Sfakianakis' criticism:

"Everyone is entitled to their opinion. I have no problem with him doing so. He does make some valid points, and I agree with him to an extent. But [Sfakianakis] should acknowledge that these are exceptions - those who lack talent are in the minority. My mantra is that it is better to be envied than to be pitied."

In the late nineties, Sfakianakis appeared in a television interview, during which he argued that cannabis should be legalised in Greece. When asked if he had ever used the drug, Sfakianakis admitted that he had been habitually smoking cannabis for the last ten years.^[6]

He has also used his position to improve awareness of music piracy.

Discography[link]

Studio albums

• Proti Fora (1991) (First time)
• Eisai Ena Pistoli (1992) (You are a gun) (Platinum)
• Me To N Kai Me To S (1993) (With the N to the S) (Platinum)
• Notioanatolitika Tou Kosmou (1994) (Southeast of the world) (2× Platinum)^[1]
• 5o Vima (1996) (Fifth step) (4× Platinum)^[3]
• I Notes Einai 7psyhes (1998) (The notes are immortal) (5× Platinum)^[1][3]
• Polihroma Kai Entona (2000) (Multi-coloured and intense) (2× Platinum)^[3]
• As Milisoun Ta Tragoudia (2002) (Let the songs speak) (Platinum)^[3]
• Me Agapi O,ti Kaneis (2004) (With love whatever you do) (Platinum)
• Ana Gennisis (2005) (Rebirth) (2× Platinum)^[3]
• Mnimes (2007) (Memories) (Platinum)^[2]
• 21+4 Matomena Dakrya (2011) (Bloody teardrops) (4× Platinum)^[2]