This does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2006)

Lake Managua Lago de Managua Lago Xolotlán
From space (January 1986). North is to the left
Coordinates	12°20′N 86°25′W / 12.333°N 86.417°W / 12.333; -86.417Coordinates: 12°20′N 86°25′W / 12.333°N 86.417°W / 12.333; -86.417
Basin countries	Nicaragua
Max. length	65 km
Max. width	25 km
Surface area	1,024 km²
Average depth	9.5 m
Max. depth	20 m
Surface elevation	39 m
Settlements	Managua

Lake Managua (also known as Lake Xolotlán) (located at 12°20′N 86°25′W / 12.333°N 86.417°W / 12.333; -86.417) is a lake in Nicaragua. The Spanish name is Lago de Managua or Lago Xolotlán. At 1,042 km², it is approximately 65 kilometres (40 mi) long and 25 kilometres (16 mi) wide. Similarly to the name of Lake Nicaragua, its name was coined by the Spanish conquerors from "Mangue" (their name for the Mánkeme tribes) and agua ("water"). The city of Managua, the capital of Nicaragua, lies on its southwestern shore.

The lake has been severely polluted, mostly by decades of sewage being dumped into the lake. Despite the pollution, some of the people of Managua still live along the lake's shores and eat the fish.

It rose 3 metres (10 ft) in five days during Hurricane Mitch in 1998, destroying the homes of many who lived on its edge.

It is also joined by the Tipitapa River to another lake, Lake Nicaragua; however, owing to the extreme pollution, the Bull sharks of Lake Nicaragua cannot migrate to Lake Managua^{[citation needed]}. In 2007 the "malecón" area was dredged and the sediment hauled off on barges. A strong odor which permeated the area from the sediment disappeared. A stone rip-rap and concrete wharf was constructed and a sight seeing boat called "La Novia de Xolotlán" makes hour-long lake tours when there are sufficient tourists.

Gallery[link]

• 

  from Tipitapa, circa 2003

• LakeManagua Tipitapa3.jpg

  from Tipitapa, circa 2003. Volcanos Momotombo and Momotombito are visible in the background

• 

  Volcano Momotombo

External links[link]

• JPL NASA: PIA03365: Perspective View with Landsat Overlay, Lakes Managua (foreground) and Nicaragua (background)
• http://www.epn.com.ni/Puerto-Salvador-Allende.aspx#

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lake Managua

This Nicaragua location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v t e

Managua Santiago de Managua
Flag Seal
Nickname(s): Novia del Xolotlán (English: The Bride of Xolotlán)[1]
Managua
Coordinates: 12°8′11″N 86°15′5″W / 12.13639°N 86.25139°W / 12.13639; -86.25139Coordinates: 12°8′11″N 86°15′5″W / 12.13639°N 86.25139°W / 12.13639; -86.25139
Country	Nicaragua
Department	Managua
Municipality	Managua
Founded	1819
Seat of the Government	1852
Capital of the Nation	1852[2]
Government
• Mayor	Daisy Torres
• Vice Mayor	Reina J. Ruedas
Area
• City	544 km2 (210 sq mi)
• Urban	173.7 km2 (67.1 sq mi)
Population
• City	2,201,000 (census 2,010)
• Density	2,537/km2 (6,570/sq mi)
• Metro	2,408,000 (census 2,010)
• Metro density	2,000/km2 (4,000/sq mi)
• Gentilic	Managüense; Capitalino/a
	2,201,000 (census 2010)
Website	http://www.managua.gob.ni/

Managua (Spanish pronunciation: [maˈnaɣwa]) is the capital city of Nicaragua as well as the department and municipality by the same name. It is the largest city in Nicaragua in terms of population and geographic size. Located on the southwestern shore of Lake Xolotlán or Lake Managua, the city was declared the national capital in 1852.^[2] Prior to its inception as the capital city, the title had alternated between the cities of León and Granada. The city has a population of about 2,200,000, composed predominantly of mestizos and whites. Managua is the second most populous city in Central America, after Guatemala City.

Founded in 1819, the city was given the name: Leal Villa de Santiago de Managua. Its original purpose was to serve as a rural fishing village.^[3] Efforts to make Managua the capital of Nicaragua began in 1824, after the Central American nations formally attained their independence from Spain. Managua's location between the rival cities of León and Granada made it a logical and ideal compromise site. Modern-day Managua was built in the 1850s on the site of an indigenous community. The city occupies an area on a fault. Seismologists predict that Managua will continue to experience a severe earthquake every 50 years or less.^[4] The city's economy is based mainly on trade and industry. Managua is Nicaragua's chief trading center for coffee, cotton, other crops and industry. It serves as an important industrial, commercial, political and cultural center. Its chief products include beer, coffee, matches, textiles, and shoes.^[4] Today, Managua is Nicaragua's main political, social, cultural, educational and economic hub. The city is served by the Augusto C. Sandino International Airport, the country's primary international airport and regional Brasiles Airport and Punta Huete, military airport, recently renewed.

The city has been witness to the rise and fall of political powers throughout Nicaragua's history and has suffered devastating earthquakes in 1931 and 1972, with the latter having lasting effects on the city's development. In 2007, after a successful literacy campaign, Managua was declared by the Mayor of Managua and the Sandinista party newspaper to be the first capital city in Central America to be rid of illiteracy.^[5] Since the 1972 earthquake, residential and business areas have developed on the outskirts of Managua. Other construction projects included schools, hospitals, and shopping centers. Such structures were specially constructed to withstand severe earthquakes. Managua also houses the only eternal flame in Central America.

Residents of the city and of the department of Managua are called Managüenses.

Etymology[link]

The name Managua originates from the term Mana-ahuac, which in the indigenous Nahuatl language translates to "adjacent to the water" or site "surrounded by water".^[2] The city stands today on an area inhabited by varying cultures of Indigenous peoples for thousandsCentral America in the 16th century.

History[link]

2100 year old human footprints preserved in volcanic mud near the lake in Managua, Nicaragua.

Prehistorical[link]

Nicaragua was inhabited by Paleo-Indians as far back as 6,000 years ago.^[6] The ancient footprints of Acahualinca are 2,100 year-old fossils^[7] discovered along the shores of Lake Managua. Other archaeological evidence, mainly in the form of ceramics and statues made of volcanic stone, like the ones found on the island of Zapatera, and petroglyphs found in Ometepe island, contribute to the increasing knowledge of Nicaragua's ancient history.

Contemporary history[link]

The Old Managua

After Granada was destroyed by a United States mercenary army led by William Walker in 1857, the capital was firmly established in Managua. Between 1852 and 1930, Managua underwent extensive urbanization; becoming a base of governance, infrastructure and services.^[2] The city was hampered by major floods in 1876 and 1885. A disastrous earthquake in 1931 and large fire in 1936^[8] destroyed much of the city. Under the rule of dictator Anastasio Somoza García and his family (1936–1979), the city was rebuilt and began to grow rapidly. New government buildings were erected, industry developed, and universities were established. The city's development caught the attention of Irving Fields and Albert Gamse, whom composed a musical piece about the city that became popular in the 1940s through the performances of Freddy Martin, Guy Lombardo and Kay Kyser.^[9] Managua had become Central America's most developed city. Today's references differentiate the pre-1970s Managua by labeling it as La Antigua Ciudad, which in English translates to "The Ancient City" or "The Old City".

Managua's progress came to a sudden halt after it suffered a second major earthquake on December 23, 1972, which destroyed 90% of the city and killed more than 19,120 people.^[10] Infrastructure was severely damaged and rehabilitation or restoration of buildings was nearly impossible. At the time, Managua's limited resources had to be directed to other disaster relief purposes. Managua's ability to cope with the disaster was also limited. Surviving fire squadrons and ambulance companies were not able to handle the skyrocketing demand for their services. Some buildings burned to the ground, while the foundations of others simply gave way. Not able to rebuild quickly, the city directed emergency workers to clear away much of the city's ruins quickly while burying the deceased in mass graves. Residences, government buildings and entire avenues were demolished. Escaping the city center, earthquake victims found refuge in the outskirts of the city. The migration of residents away from the city center allowed for it to go undeveloped. The addition of corruption within the Somoza regime also hindered the center's development. The regime allocated small portions of funds for reconstruction. Today, the city center remains somewhat isolated from the rest of the capital.

The Nicaraguan Civil War of 1979 to overthrow the Somoza regime and the 11-year long Contra War of the 1980s further devastated the city and its economy. To make matters worse, a series of natural disasters, including Hurricane Mitch in 1998, have made economic recovery more difficult. After winning the free elections of 1990, the democratic opposition began the reconstruction of Managua in earnest.

Present day[link]

Downtown has been partially rebuilt and new governmental buildings, galleries, museums, apartment buildings, squares, promenades, monuments, boat tours on Xolotlan Lake, restaurants, night entertainment, and new broad avenues have resurrected part of Managua's downtown former vitality. Commercial activity, however, remains low. Residential and commercial buildings have been constructed on the outskirts of the city, in the same locales that were once used as refuge camps for those who were homeless after the earthquake. These booming locales have been of concern to the government because of their close proximity to Lake Nicaragua. Concerns over water pollution and native wildlife have brought some residents closer to the old city center and the rest of the mainland.

Geography[link]

Astronaut View of Managua

Managua is located on the southern shores of Lake Managua (also known as Lake Xolotlán). Lake Managua contains the same fish species as Lake Cocibolca, except for the freshwater sharks found exclusively in the latter. Once a Managuan scenic highlight, the lake has been polluted from the dumping of chemical and waste water since 1927. A waste water treatment funded by the German government to decontaminate the lake is expected to be the largest in Central America and was inaugurated in 2009.^[11][12]

View of Lake Managua from Tipitapa.

Managua extends about 544 km along Lake Managua at an altitude of 55 metres (180 ft) above sea level, gaining altitude toward the Sierras de Managua where it is over 970 metres (3,182 ft) above sea level.

Lagoons within city limits[link]

Managua features four smaller lagoons in the city limits. The most centrally located is the Tiscapa Lagoon in the Tiscapa Lagoon Natural Reserve.

• The Laguna de Tiscapa (Tiscapa Lagoon) is south of the old downtown. Tiscapa Lagoon is of volcanic origin and was formed approximately 10,000 years ago.
• Asososca lagoon, to the west, is Managua's most important source of drinking water. Asososca is at the beginning of Carretera al Sur (Southern Highway), close to the connection with the Carretera Nueva a León (New Highway Via León).
• Nejapa lagoon, south of the Asososca lagoon, is also along the Southern Highway.
• The fourth is Acahualinca lagoon, which is located to the northwest. This lagoon, which gives its name to a nearby district to the east, is located on the shores of Lake Managua. This lagoon is mostly noted for having shallow waters.

Climate[link]

Managua, like much of Western Nicaragua except for the Sierras, has a tropical climate with constant temperatures averaging between 28 and 32 degrees Celsius (82 and 90 degrees Fahrenheit). Under Koppen's climate classification, the city has a tropical wet and dry climate. A distinct dry season exists between November and April, while most of the rainfall is received between May and September. Temperatures are highest in March and April, when the sun lies directly overhead and the summer rainfall has yet to begin.

Flora[link]

Managua, due to its tropical climate, varied topography, naturally fertile soils, and abundant rain and water sources, boasts a great variety of flora. Many different types of trees, some of which are not found in the rest of the world, include: chilamates, ceibos, pochotes, genízaros, tigüilotes, royal palms, piñuelas and the madroño, which is Nicaragua's national tree) surround the city. During the rainy season (May to November), Managua becomes a lush city due to many palms, bushes, and other plants and trees which dominate much of the city's image.^[14]

Education[link]

Managua is the national education center, with most of the nation's prestigious universities and higher education institutions based there. Nicaragua's higher education system consists of 48 universities and 113 colleges, vocational and technical institutes which serve students in the areas of electronics, computer systems and sciences, agroforestry, construction and trade-related services.^[15] The educational system includes 1 United States accredited English language university, 3 bilingual university programs, 5 bilingual secondary schools and dozens of English Language Institutes. In 2005, almost 400,000 (7%) of Nicaraguans held a university degree.^[16] 18% of Nicaragua's total budget is invested in primary, secondary and higher education. University level institutions account for 6% of 18%.

Colleges and universities[link]

National Autonomous University of Nicaragua

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua (UNAN) (National Autonomous University of Nicaragua) is the principal state-funded public university of Nicaragua. UNAN was established in 1812 and its main campus is located in Managua. The original campus, UNAN-Leon, is located in León and is now secondary, mainly utilized by students in medicinal studies.

Polytechnic University of Nicaragua[link]

Universidad Politecnica de Nicaragua (UPOLI) (Polytechnic University of Nicaragua) is a university located in Managua, Nicaragua. It was founded in 1967. The university is divided into 6 schools: School of Administration, Commerce and Finance, School of Law, School of Design, School of Nursing, School of Engineering, Music Conservatory.

Instituto Centroamericano de Administracion de Empresas[link]

Instituto Centroamericano de Administracion de Empresas (INCAE) (Central American Institute of Business Administration) is a private business school. INCAE was founded in 1964 with the support of the United States government and other Central American countries.^[17] The institution has a close affiliation with Harvard University, as it had played a part in its foundation. The Francisco de Sola campus in Managua, Nicaragua was the first to be established (1964), the Walter Kissling Gam campus in Alajuela, Costa Rica was the second established in 1984. The latter was made the main campus following the lack of government support during the 1980s; in fact the Managua campus was actually closed for most of this time. It then reopened in 1990 after democracy was restored in Nicaragua; however, the main campus remained in Alajuela.

According to a study done by América Economía INCAE ranked as the number one business school in Latin America in 2004 and 2005^[18] and ranked in the top ten international business schools by The Wall Street Journal in 2006.^[19]

Other universities[link]

Economy[link]

Inter-Continental Hotel and Metrocentro Mall

Managua is the economic center and a generator of services for the majority of the nation. The city with a population exceeding two million inhabitants, it houses many large national and international businesses. It is home to many factories which produce diverse products.^[24] Multinational companies such as Wal-Mart, Telefonica, Union Fenosa, and Parmalat have offices and operations in Managua.

Managua is also home to all of the major banks of the nation, Banco de la Produccion (BANPRO), Banco de America Central (BAC), Banco Uno, Banco de Finanzas (BDF), Banco de Crédito Centroamericano (Bancentro) and its parent company the Lafise Group. Several new hotels including Crowne Plaza, Best Western, InterContinental, Holiday Inn, and Hilton currently have facilities in Managua.^[25] As well as many hotels, Managua has opened four western style shopping centers or malls, such as Plaza Inter, Centro Comercial Metrocentro, "Galerias Santo Domingo". http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galer%C3%ADas_Santo_Domingo. ,^[26] and Multicentro Las Americas,^[27] with many more being constructed.

One of Managua's growing number of malls - Galerias Santo Domingo

There is a large established local market system that caters to the majority of the Nicaraguan population. The Mercado Roberto Huembes, Mercado Oriental, Mercado Israel Lewites and other locations are where one can find anything from household amenities, food, clothing and electrical and other contracting supplies. The markets enjoy a substantial amount of popularity, as many of the backpacking, ecotourism-focused tourists and tourists on a budget use these markets for their supplies and souvenirs.

Managua is also currently experiencing an upsurge in real estate prices and as well as a housing shortage. Foreigners, mainly from North America and Europe, are becoming interested in considering post-retirement life in Nicaragua, as the country has been mentioned by various media outlets due to its safety performance on major indexes and inexpensive lifestyle for tourists. The capital is also a need for modern office space in downtown Managua as the economy of Managua continues to grow. Economists predict that its demand for commercial real estate will increase. New office buildings are currently being constructed along the Carretera Masaya and in Villa Fontana. The most recent inauguration being the Edificio Invercasa.

Landmarks[link]

Plaza de la Revolución[link]

Monument of Rubén Darío, and in the background the Rubén Dario National Theatre.

National Palace in Managua

Statue of Sandino

Vista of Tiscapa Lagoon and the city of Managua.

The new Cathedral in Managua

Plaza de la Revolución (Plaza of the Revolution), which was formerly known as Plaza de la República (Plaza of the Republic) is home to Managua's Historical Center. Managua's Center was destroyed by the 1972 earthquake. Managua, to date, has not rebuilt its center. The now historical center is located near the Lago de Managua and many buildings are partially intact, however, some are now abandoned. Some of the more important buildings which managed to survive include the Catedral de Santiago, known colloquially as the old cathedral, the Rubén Dario National Theater and the National Palace of Culture.^[28] Within the Plaza of the Revolution is the Parque Central (Central Park) which contains many historical monuments, many dedicated to national heroes and poets. Some of these include the Tomb of Comandante Carlos Fonseca, founder of the FSLN, which is guarded by an eternal flame. Near Central Park is the Rubén Darío park, dedicated to Nicaragua's national poet. There is also a park dedicated to the Guatemalan writer Miguel Ángel Asturias. Monuments include the monument of El Guerrillero sin Nombre (The Nameless Guerrilla Soldier) and Monumento à la Paz (Monument for Peace).^[29]

Old Cathedral of Managua[link]

The Old St James Cathedral was designed and shipped from Belgium in 1920 by Belgian architect residing in Managua Pablo Dambach who got the inspiration from St Sulspice in Paris.^[30] Santiago became the first cathedral in the Western Hemisphere to be built entirely of concrete on a metal frame. Santiago survived the 1931 earthquake, but was extremely damaged during the 1972 Earthquake, which led to the construction of the new Cathedral of the Conception to the southeast. Fortunately, in recent years, the restoration of the old cathedral of Santiago has appeared to be possible and is currently awaiting renovation.

Rubén Dario National Theater[link]

The Rubén Dario National Theater is Nicaragua's most important theater, and is one of the most modern theaters in Central America. Both national and international artists present shows, concerts, exhibitions, and cultural performances such as El Güegüense among many others. The National Theater is one of the few buildings that survived the 1972 earthquake that destroyed 90% of Managua.^[31]

National Palace of Culture[link]

The National Palace is one of Managua's oldest buildings undamaged by the 1972 Nicaragua earthquake. It was commissioned by President Juan Bautista Sacasa in 1935 and built by architect Pablo Dambach, who also built Santiago's Cathedral. For more than 50 years, the National Palace housed the Congress, today it houses the National Archive, the National Library, as well as the National Museum which is open to the public. The museum features pre-Columbian paintings, statues, ceramics, etc. Also part of the exhibit is the hall of National History and the hall of National Symbols. The National Palace was one of the few building that survived the 1972 earthquake.^[32]

Tiscapa Lagoon[link]

The Tiscapa Lagoon, located inside the Tiscapa Lagoon Natural Reserve is just south of the Managua's Historical Center. Leading up to the Lagoon is Calle del Comercio, which leads to the Monumento al Liberalismo, built in the late 1930s by the Liberal party in honor to President Anastasio Somoza-Garcia. Nearby is the Monument to Sandino which is a silhouette of Augusto C. Sandino, one of Nicaragua's national heroes. The monument stands 59 feet tall.^[33] The monument was proposed by Ernesto Cardenal and is protected by the Nicaraguan military. The Sandino monument was constructed on top of the wreckage of the old Mozarab style Presidential palace commissioned by President Sacasa in the late 1920s but long used by the Somoza Family as their personal residence. Also on the crater lip of Tiscapa are the Mazmorras, a prison where current President Daniel Ortega and many other political prisoners were tortured during the Somoza regime.^[29]

The reserve is located within city limits of the capital, Managua, and is a popular tourist attraction. Restaurants and stores line the walls of the lagoon. Canopy rides provide a panoramic view of the old downtown where only a few buildings survived the 1972 earthquake that destroyed 90% of the capital city.^[34] However, encouraged by the country's improved economy, Managua's downtown began reconstruction since the mid 1990s. Thus, many new governmental buildings, apartment complexes, shopping malls, green squares, leafy promenades, lake tours, restaurants, entertainment venues, broadened avenues, monuments, and fountains, have sprung up; awakening the metropolis' heart after a long subreal dream since 1972.^[35] Also, many pre-Columbian artifacts have been found in and around Tiscapa, adding to Managua's pre-Columbian legacy.^[36]

Doctor Roberto Incer Barquero Library[link]

The Doctor Roberto Incer Barquero Library, located in Managua, is designated to promote Nicaraguan culture. The library has 67,000 books, free internet, a newspaper archive, and economic information from the Central Bank. The library also has a gallery in the same building, where famous Nicaraguan paintings, as well as pieces from new promising artists, are exhibited. In the numismatic hall there is a permanent exhibition of Nicaraguan coins, bills, and memorial medals from throughout Nicaragua's history.^[37]

Museum of Acahualinca[link]

Managua is also home to the Museum of Acahualinca, where the Ancient footprints of Acahualinca, fossilized Paleo-Indian footprints made some 6,000 years ago, are engraved in volcanic ash. The Museo Sitio Huellas de Acahualinca is located in west Managua in the Acahualinca neighborhood. In addition to the footprints, the museum also displays artifacts found in other localities around the country. Artifacts such as mammoth footprints, pre-Columbian tools, a skull from León Viejo, and a small collection of pottery among other archaeological objects. ^[38]

Dennis Martínez National Stadium[link]

The Dennis Martínez National Stadium was built in 1948 and was the largest stadium in Central America at the end of its construction, it survived the 1972 earthquake. The stadium was named in honor of Nicaragua first baseball player to play in Major League Baseball, it serves as a venue for baseball and soccer games, as well as concerts and religious events. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium has a capacity for 40,000 making it the largest stadium in Nicaragua.^[39]

Catedral de la Concepción[link]

The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, more commonly referred to as the New Cathedral, was designed by architect Ricardo Legorreta and inaugurated in 1993.^[40] The New Cathedral was built to replace the Old Cathedral downtown that had been damaged during the earthquake of 1972. Upon the completion of its construction, the Cathedral generated controversy among tourists and locals because of its bland and dull appearance. Critics pointed to the fact that buildings of particular importance, especially those of colonial heritage, were painted in bright colors. Such a building whose intention was to serve as a place of worship was expected to have some sort of vibrant color. Eventually, the church's original concrete and gray surface became accepted and Catholic pilgrims began to embrace the church as it was.

Culture[link]

Xiomara Blandino, Miss Nicaragua 2007.

Managua is Nicaragua's cultural capital, boasting several restaurants, theaters, museums, and a few shopping centers.^[41] The city is also home to many communities of immigrants and ex-pats from countries including but not limited to Taiwan, China, Germany, the United States, Palestine, and Latin American countries.

Managua is home to the annual Miss Nicaragua pageant; it is the national beauty pageant of Nicaragua. The pageant is traditionally held at the Rubén Darío National Theater and has been held since 1955.^[42] The Miss Nicaragua pageant is responsible for selecting the country's representatives to the Miss Universe, Miss World, and Miss International pageants (amongst others).

Language[link]

Central American Spanish is spoken by about 90% of the country's population. In Nicaragua, the voseo form of Spanish is dominant in speech and publications. Nicaragua is one of two Central American nations that uses voseo Spanish as its written and spoken form. The same Spanish form is also seen in Argentina, Uruguay, and coastal Colombia. The language and pronunciation varies depending on region and individuals. Some residents of Managua pronounce the word vos with a strong s sound at the end. Others, however, prounce vos without the s sound at the end. The result is vo, similar to vous in French and voi in Italian.

Gastronomy[link]

Due to the influence of immigrants and tourists, it is frequent to find food specialties of the diverse regions of Nicaragua jointly with international ones. The most common foods include rice, plantain, beans, varieties of cabbage and cheeses. There is a local tradition of cheese-making and it is not unusual to encounter fried cheese as a side dish with many of the most popular dishes such as fried plantain medallions and "gallopinto", a regional traditional rice and bean dish.

Managua enjoys an array of international cuisine including a some Italian and Spanish restaurants as well as French. Traces of traditional German cuisine can be found in Selva Negra, an estate near the city of Matagalpa which is a prominent tourist attraction, as well as in the city of Granada. Many Asian restaurants (South Korean, Chinese, and Taiwanese) can be found in the area of the capital and other major cities.

The capital is conspicuously dotted with many American restaurant chains such as Burger King, Pizza Hut, McDonald's, Domino's Pizza, Papa John's, and Subway which have sprung up in the last two decades. Local and regional fast food chains exist as well, for example Tip-Top, Rostipollo, and Pollo Campero.

A strong tradition of preparing local sweets such as "Cajeta de leche", a sweet condensed milk as well as sugared coconut and nuts can be found. Some local varieties of chocolate can be found as well, usually prepared with pepper and other spices or nuts. A popular 'fast food' known as "quesillo" is popular throughout the country. Quesillo consists of locally produced cheese wrapped in a corn tortilla with cream, onions, and salt. Nacatamales, the Nicaraguan version of the tamale, is a local delicacy. Many fruits such as mangos, "jocotes", and "mamones" are a common snack. Mangoes and jocotes are often consumed while unripe with salt and vinegar.

Steak preparation is one of the strong points of the local cuisine. It is often accompanied by a special sauce known as Chimichurri, composed of oil, garlic and herbs. There are many prominent steak restaurants throughout the country among them "Los Ranchos"^[43] including, but not limited to, Argentine, Brazilian, Chinese, French, German, Indian, Italian, Japanese, Mexican, and Spanish restaurants, as well as Nicaraguan. A new culinary school and restaurant called Culinario Santa Lucia offers courses in international and local cuisines.

Festivals[link]

During the Santo Domingo festival some people cover themselves in a mix of grease and motor oil to pay promises to the saints while others wear masks and costumes.^[44]

Celebrating the annual "Alegria por la vida" Carnaval in 2007.

Managua's most famous festival is that of its patron saint Santo Domingo de Guzmán.^[45] It starts on the morning of August 1, when the "Bajada del Santo" (walk down of the saint) involves many joyful people walking and carrying the old statue of Santo Domingo from Las Sierritas Church in south Managua to another church across the city to the north, in the area destroyed by the 1972 earthquake. It remains here for ten days until the morning of August 10, when the "Subida del Santo" (walking up of the saint) returns the statue to Las Sierritas Church where it remains for the rest of the year. Thousands of people attend this event which involves dancing, eating, drinking and the marching of musical bands, mainly for traditions that date back to pre-colonial times, or to ask for personal miracles, make promises, or give thanks to the saint. During the parade many people dress up in typical costumes, masks and painted bodies. Among other participants are "carrosas" (art cars and trucks) from local business companies, horseriders coming from Nicaragua and other Central American neighbouring countries to show off their horses, skills, and horserider costumes.

Another festival taking place since 2003 is the Alegria por la Vida (Happiness for Life) Carnaval is celebrated in Managua at the beginning of the month of March. There's a different slogan or theme every year. This event is celebrated with parades, floats, live music, food and dancing as well as the march of the Carnival Queen.^[46]

Museums, libraries and cultural centers[link]

The National Library holds a great amount of volumes and affords abundant bibliographic information about the discovery and independence of Nicaragua. The National Palace of Culture has an exhibition of Nicaraguan art from the time previous to its independence. Inside the National Palace of Culture is the National Museum, containing archaeological finds with some examples of pre-Columbian pottery, statues, and other findings.

Managua is home to an array of art galleries which feature pieces by both national and international artists.^[45]

Managua is home to many types of museums, some art museums include the Julio Cortázar Museum and the Archivo Fílmico de la Cinemateca Nacional. Natural history museums include the Museo del Departamento de Malacología UCA, Museo Gemológico de la Concha y el Caracol, and Museo Paleontológico "El Hato". The Santo Domingo de Guzmán Museum is an anthropology museum. History museums include the Museo de la Revolución, Museo Casa Hacienda San Jacinto and Museo Parque Loma de Tiscapa.

Cultural centers in Managua include the Centro Cultural Nicaragüense Norteamericano (CCNN) (Nicaraguan-North American Culture Center), the Centro Cultural Chino Nicaragüense (Chinese Nicaraguan Culture Center), the Alliançe Française de Managua (French Alliance of Managua), among others.

Entertainment[link]

Managua features many bars, nightclubs, casinos, theaters and cinemas. Compared to western prices, alcoholic beverages, theatre visits and cinema tickets are relatively inexpensive.^[14] There are cinemas in all major shopping centers; screening both English- and Spanish-language films. Foreign embassies in Managua also sponsor film festivals.

Since the late 1990s and early 2000, many casinos and karaoke bars opened and have remained popular attractions for Nicaraguans and foreign visitors. Popular music includes the Palo de Mayo, Merengue, Cumbia and Latin pop among other Latin music genres, as well as American pop and rock. Salsa dancing is a national pastime. Managua boasts a vibrant night life. Nightclubs and bars are abound in Managua, particularly, in the popular areas called "Zona Hippos" behind the Hilton hotel near Metrocentro and "Zona Rosa". In these areas, Bachata music has been gradually gaining popularity.

Aside from these activities, Managua has a wide selection to offer in luxurious shopping malls, boutiques and department stores as well as local markets.^[14] In the Mercado Roberto Huembes shoppers can find everything from furniture, national arts and crafts, to fruits and vegetables, and clothing. There are several shopping centers with department stores such as Eclipse, Carrión, and SIMAN that carry all major Australian, American and European clothing and cosmetic brands for men and women. Pali, La Union, and La Colonia are conventional supermarkets, which are in several areas of the city and sell local and imported ingredients.

Although promoting or practicing homosexuality was illegal in Nicaragua,^[47] there is a modest gay social scene in Managua.^[48] As of March 2008, homosexuality is no longer illegal and no longer carries a prison sentence.

Nicaraguans have a strong interest in baseball and it has become a major sport in the country as well as a part of the nation's culture.

Sports[link]

Baseball is, by far, Nicaragua's most popular sport followed by soccer and boxing. The Dennis Martínez National Stadium is home to many baseball games of Managua's Boer team. At the time of its construction in the late 1960s, it was the most modern stadium in Central America. The stadium hosted the Baseball World Cup in 1994.

Baseball was first introduced to Nicaragua in 1888 in the Caribbean coastal town of Bluefields, but it did not catch on in the towns on the Pacific coast region until 1891 when a group of mostly students originating from universities of the United States formed "La Sociedad de Recreo" (Society of Recreation) to play various sports. Baseball was the most popular among them.^[49]

There has been growing amateur interest in little football or "futbolin" among teens and adults. New private courts have played a big role in the promotion of amateur games and tournaments. On the professional level, the National Nicaraguan Football team has still not had the public support nor the international exposure as the regional counterparts like the Costa Rican, Honduran or Salvadoran teams. However, with support of the FIFA, the first national soccer stadium in Managua is under construction.^[50]

In Managua there are two golf courses, the better-known of which is Nejapa Golf & Country Club.

Crime[link]

Nicaragua has been rated the safest country in Central America. INTERPOL, the United Nations, INCAE, the Inter-American Human Rights Institute and the Police Forces in the Americas are cited claiming that statistically, Nicaragua has the lowest crime rate in Central America and one of the second lowest in Latin America only to Uruguay.^[51][52][53] The country has also been ranked as the sixth safest in Latin America and the third safest in Central America by the latest edition of the Global Peace Index.

Neither Nicaragua nor the city of Managua have major gang problems, in comparison to some of its regional neighbors.^[54] However, in Nicaragua, as in all other Central American countries, as well as in the U.S., the Salvadoran-founded MS 13 gang has recruited members.^[55] Despite their presence in the country, Nicaragua has the lowest number of MS 13 members in Central America.^[56] The number of gang members was estimated at 4,500 throughout the country, lower than all of its Northern neighbors in the region (excluding Belize).^[57] In 2003, the National Police of Nicaragua recognized gangs committed only 0.51% of all crimes. In 1991, there were 110 gangs in Managua, in 2001 the number of gangs reduced to 96 gangs with a total of 1,725 members. Over the next 3–4 years the number of gangs and gang members both decreased and increased. In late 2005 the number of gangs and members decreased significantly to 34 gangs and their 706 members in Managua, these represented 38% and 32% of the national total of gangs and its members.^[58] Chief of Police, Aminta Granera, stated that vehicles robberies has reduced; as only 200 reports were filed in 2006.^[59]

Urban planning[link]

The German government funded the construction of a water treatment plant with plans to process the city's sewage and clean the Managua lake. Also pending is a mega-project to reconstruct the old center of Managua, and to introduce a monorail system, to alleviate future transportation problems in Managua.^[60]

Media and communications[link]

Managua is the home of most national broadcasting television channels as well as the major national newspapers. Some of the larger television channels include: Canal 2, Telenica, Canal 10, 100% Noticias, and several others. The three national Two newspapers are El Nuevo Diario, La Prensa, and HOY, which have offices based in Managua along with other smaller newspapers. There are numerous radio stations in Managua, some of which tend to have political, social, or religious affiliations.

Transportation[link]

Commuting and personal transport[link]

Carretera a Masaya, with the Hilton Hotel on the left approaching Metrocentro, Managua. The building in the far center is the Intercontinental hotel.

Transportation-wise, Managua is one of Nicaragua's best positioned cities. All of Nicaragua's main roads lead to Managua, and there are good public transportation connections to and from the capital. There are four main highways that lead into Managua. The Pan-American Highway enters the city from the north, connecting Managua to Nicaragua's northern and central departments. This highway is commonly referred to as the Northern Highway.

The Southern Highway, the southern part of the Pan-American highway, connects Managua to southern departments Carazo, Rivas and others.

The Carretera A Masaya connects Managua to the departments of Masaya and Granada.

The newly reconstructed Carretera A León connects Managua with León.

All of these highways are in good condition, with little traffic congestion. Infrastructure on the highways is well maintained. This also tends to be true for cities and towns that are served or are in close distance with the freeways. However, this does not yield truthfully for cities and towns who tend to be considerably further from the main highway roads. Nicaraguan bus companies, often referred to as Chicken Buses, serve both urban and rural areas to remedy the lack of sufficient infrastructure that plagues these towns or villages.

Despite the growth of infrastructure in Managua and other cities and departments, there are no roads that lead to the Autonomous Region of the Northern Atlantic or the Autonomous Region of the Southern Atlantic. The lone transportation method is by airplane, which is operated by domestic airliner La Costeña from the international airport.

Buses[link]

Managua is served by countless bus lines and services. Its prime location between the Northern Pan-American highway and the Southern Highway make it an ideal hub for local, national and international bus services.

The purchase of 450 new buses marks the first significant investment in public transportation in Managua in post-revolution Nicaragua. The project is still in its beginning phases, with more buses coming from the Russian Federation. Each bus line for local Managua and national Nicaraguan routes tend to be operated by an individual company. These bus companies operate with virtually no public financial support (other than the revenue generated from their patrons). Companies tend to dominate one specific route and own exclusive rights for operating their own line. These companies devise their own bus schedules along with their fare. Buses are the most economical way to get around the city and thus contributes to high numbers of ridership. Managua also has express (Expresso) and Local (Local) routes. Express buses tend to be rather expensive compared to their local counterparts. Local buses are also used frequently to transport goods and large items to central markets, such as the mayoreo, particularly during the morning hours. Recently, with the assistance of the Japanese government, Managua has commenced operating new modern Mercedes-Benz buses on several bus routes with the intention of modernizing the city's transport system.^[61] Typical Nicaraguan buses are older school buses from the United States. Additionally some buses are painted with religious artwork of Catholic saints, religious texts or messages of inspiration.

The mass transportation system of Managua has announced structural changes forthcoming in the next coming years. The DINA group and Mercedez Benz have worked with the federal and national governments in a transaction regarding the purchase of 350 new buses to service city routes. Of these 350, 130 buses were donated by the Russian Federation. Drivers servicing city routes will also be wearing blue uniforms.^[62] At this time, it is not known what will happen to the older school buses that previously served city routes. Currently, out of Managua's roughly 2 million citizens, 67,000 no longer use the older school buses as their method of transportation.^[63] One out of every ten buses now grants access to wheelchair passengers, granting disabeled passengers for the first time the ability to utilize public transportation resources.^[64] The total cost of this project is US$26.3 million, financed through the Central American Bank for Economic Integration, the banking institution that is a part of the Central American Integration System.

International bus services[link]

TransNica is a Nicaraguan bus company that operates international bus services throughout Central America. It competes extensively with its counterpart, TicaBus, a Costa Rican bus company. Managua serves as the company's hub, with buses departing from Managua to San José, Costa Rica, Tegucigalpa, San Salvador and Choluteca.

Taxi[link]

In Managua, those who commute to and from work generally travel by bus or taxi. Taxi tends to be the transportation method of choice for tourists. Taxi cabs may be hailed or called over by radio dispatch. Street cabs, those that can be hailed without calling a dispatcher, are widely available and cost somewhat less than their counterparts. However, some taxi cabs operate as collectives, and do pick up passengers as the first customer goes on their journey. Usually, passengers that wish to opt-out of such practice do so by advising the driver not to pick up additional passengers. This is usually done as a safety precaution, as there have been robberies committed due to this practice of "cab sharing." Taxi cabs do not have meters. By custom, many Nicaraguans and tourists alike agree on a fare before embarking on the vehicle.

Rail[link]

There are no railroads that operate in Managua nor in Nicaragua. The country's railroads fell into disrepair during the 1980s. The Chamorro government closed the system and sold the cars and rails for scrap.

However, the planned FERISTSA system would most likely bypass the capital and give Nicaragua its first ever international railway.

Monorail[link]

The President of Nicaragua, Daniel Ortega, was presented with a plan to revitalize the city center. The project included the possibility of building a monorail that would cross over the old center of the capital that remains rather unchanged since the 1972 earthquake. The monorail would serve important locales, such as the Augusto C. Sandino International Airport and continue service to Ciudad Sandino. The project costs $100 million and has been considered as a possibility for the nation's capital.

Airport[link]

After its renovation, Nicaragua's Augusto C. Sandino International Airport is widely considred the second most advanced airport in Central America after La Aurora International Airport in Guatemala City.^[65]

The Augusto C. Sandino International Airport (formerly Managua International Airport) is the largest and only international airport,main land in Nicaragua. It recently inaugurated its over US$52 million extensions and renovation partly financed by Spain.^[66] The airport was remodeled by architect Roberto Sansón^[67] and has now been converted into one of the region's most modern airports. The airport used to serve as the hub for the Nicaragüenses de Aviación airline, which was bought by TACA Airlines the El Salvador national airline, that bought all of the airlines in Central America.

The airport, known as Aeropuerto Sandino or MGA to locals, serves as the primary hub for connections at both domestic and international levels. TACA Regional member La Costeña operates flights to local destinations like Bluefields, the Corn Islands and San Carlos among others. The airport is located near the northern highway and is about 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) east of the city's downtown. Hotels, restaurants, and commercial centers are all accessible by car, taxi, or bus. Out of the country's one hundred and forty airports, it is the only one with the appropriate infrastructure and capacity to handle international flights.

Ten airlines operate international flights at MGA. Popular destinations include Miami, Los Angeles and Atlanta. Other regional destinations such as San José and San Salvador are also popular layover stops due to Nicaragüense de Aviación's membership in Grupo TACA. Air Madrid had intentions of having flights to Madrid, but following their bankruptcy and eventual dissolution, their plans for flights and having a hangar were ultimately erased.^[68]

Photo Gallery of sites in Managua[link]

International relations[link]

Twin towns — Sister cities[link]

Managua is twinned with:

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Managua

• La Voz del Sandinismo (Spanish)
• Alcaldía de Managua (Spanish)
• The Openstreetmap project has partially mapped Managua

• Managua travel guide from Wikitravel

v t e  Nicaragua topics History Nicarao · Federal Republic of Central America · United States occupation · Bryan–Chamorro Treaty · Sandinistas v. Contras · Nicaraguan Revolution (Catholic Church's role · Women's role) · Nicaragua v. United States Politics and government Constitution · President · Elections (2001 · 2006) · Departments · Territorial disputes · Political parties (FSLN) · Military · Junta of National Reconstruction · Foreign relations · National Assembly · General National Archive · LGBT rights · Abortion Geography and environment Cities (Managua · Granada · León · Bluefields) · Islands (Corn Islands · Ometepe Island) · Lakes (Lake Cocibolca · Lake Managua) · Rivers · Volcanoes · Mountains · Protected areas (Bosawás · Chocoyero) · Wildlife · Pantasma · Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources Economy Economic history · Córdoba · Tourism · Stock Exchange · Banking · Central Bank · Agriculture · Transportation (Airports · Rail) · Ecocanal · Nicaragua Canal · Energy · Communications · Sandinista Workers' Centre Culture Demographics · Ethnic groups (Miskito · Chinese · Garífuna · Rama) · Literature · Education · Cuisine · Music (Palo de Mayo) · Religion (Buddhism · Roman Catholicism · Islam) · Media · Public holidays · Languages · Nicaraguan Spanish · (Sign Language · Rama) · El Güegüense People Augusto César Sandino · Daniel Ortega · Carlos Fonseca · Anastasio Somoza García · Rubén Darío · Arlen Siu · Gioconda Belli · list Other topics Miss Nicaragua · National symbols · Museums · Universities · Flor de Caña · Macua · Films · Mosquito Coast · International rankings Portal

v t e Managua Department Capital: Managua Municipalities Ciudad Sandino El Crucero Managua Mateare San Francisco Libre San Rafael del Sur Ticuantepe Tipitapa Villa Carlos Fonseca

vep:Managua

Salvador Allende
29th President of Chile
In office 4 November 1970 – 11 September 1973
Preceded by	Eduardo Frei Montalva
Succeeded by	Augusto Pinochet
56th President of the Senate of the Republic of Chile
In office December 27, 1966 – 1969
Preceded by	Tomás Reyes Vicuña
Succeeded by	Tomás Pablo Elorza
Minister of Health and Social Welfare
In office August 28, 1938 – April 2, 1942
Preceded by	Miguel Etchebarne Riol
Succeeded by	Eduardo Escudero Forrastal
Personal details
Born	(1908-06-26)26 June 1908 Valparaíso, Chile
Died	11 September 1973(1973-09-11) (aged 65) Santiago, Chile
Nationality	Chilean
Political party	Socialist Party of Chile Popular Unity coalition
Spouse(s)	Hortensia Bussi (1940–1973)
Children	Beatriz Allende (1943–1977) Carmen Paz Allende (b.1944) Isabel Allende (b.1945)
Alma mater	University of Chile
Profession	Medical doctor Civil servant
Religion	Agnostic- Roman Catholic
Signature
Website	[2]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Salvador Allende

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Salvador Allende

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Salvador Allende

Salvador Allende Gossens (Spanish pronunciation: [salβaˈðoɾ aˈʝende ˈɣosens]; 26 June 1908 – 11 September 1973) was a Chilean physician and politician who is generally considered the first democratically elected Marxist to become president of a country in Latin America.^[1]

Allende's involvement in Chilean political life spanned a period of nearly forty years. As a member of the Socialist Party, he was a senator, deputy and cabinet minister. He unsuccessfully ran for the presidency in the 1952, 1958, and 1964 elections. In 1970, he won the presidency in a close three-way race, formally elected by Congress as no candidate had gained a majority.

Allende adopted the policy of nationalization of industries and collectivization. On 11 September 1973 the military, citing a call by the Chilean Congress to end his presidency, staged a coup against Allende.^[2][3] As the armed forces surrounded La Moneda Palace, Allende gave his last speech vowing not to resign,^[4] and committed suicide thereafter.^[5] After Allende's ouster, Chile was led by a military junta, and then as a dictatorship by General Augusto Pinochet.

Early life[link]

Allende was born on 26 June 1908^[6] in Valparaíso.^[7] He was the son of Salvador Allende Castro and Laura Gossens Uribe. Allende's family belonged to the Chilean upper class and had a long tradition of political involvement in progressive and liberal causes. His grandfather was a prominent physician and a social reformist who founded one of the first secular schools in Chile.^[8] Salvador Allende was of Belgian and Basque^[9] descent.

Allende attended high school at the Liceo Eduardo de la Barra in Valparaíso. As a teenager, his main intellectual and political influence came from the shoe-maker Juan De Marchi, an Italian-born anarchist.^[8] Allende was a talented athlete in his youth, being a member of the Everton de Viña del Mar sports club (named after the more famous English football club of the same name and which regularly competes at the highest level in Chilean football), where he is said to have excelled at the long jump.^[10] Allende then graduated with a medical degree in 1926 from the University of Chile.^[8]

He co-founded a section of the Socialist Party of Chile (founded in 1933 with Marmaduque Grove and others) in Valparaíso^[8] and became its chairman. He married Hortensia Bussi with whom he had three daughters. In 1933, he published his doctoral thesis Higiene Mental y Delincuencia (Crime and Mental Hygiene) in which he criticized Cesare Lombroso's proposals.^[11]

In 1938, Allende was in charge of the electoral campaign of the Popular Front headed by Pedro Aguirre Cerda.^[8] The Popular Front's slogan was "Bread, a Roof and Work!"^[8] After its electoral victory, he became Minister of Health in the Reformist Popular Front government which was dominated by the Radicals.^[8] While serving in this position, Allende was responsible for the passage of a wide range of progressive social reforms, including safety laws protecting workers in the factories, higher pensions for widows, maternity care, and free lunch programmes for schoolchildren.^[12]

Upon entering the government, Allende relinquished his parliamentary seat for Valparaíso, which he had won in 1937. Around that time, he wrote La Realidad Médico Social de Chile (The social and medical reality of Chile). After the Kristallnacht in Nazi Germany, Allende and other members of the Parliament sent a telegram to Adolf Hitler denouncing the persecution of Jews.^[13] Following Aguirre's death in 1941, he was again elected deputy while the Popular Front was renamed Democratic Alliance.

In 1945, Allende became senator for the Valdivia, Llanquihue, Chiloé, Aisén and Magallanes provinces; then for Tarapacá and Antofagasta in 1953; for Aconcagua and Valparaíso in 1961; and once more for Chiloé, Aisén and Magallanes in 1969. He became president of the Chilean Senate in 1966.

Salvador Allende in 1964.

His three unsuccessful bids for the presidency (in the 1952, 1958 and 1964 elections) prompted Allende to joke that his epitaph would be "Here lies the next President of Chile." In 1952, as candidate for the Frente de Acción Popular (Popular Action Front, FRAP), he obtained only 5.4% of the votes, partly due to a division within socialist ranks over support for Carlos Ibáñez. In 1958, again as the FRAP candidate, Allende obtained 28.5% of the vote. This time, his defeat was attributed to votes lost to the populist Antonio Zamorano.^{[citation needed]} In 1964, once more as the FRAP candidate, he lost again, polling 38.6% of the votes against 55.6% for Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei. As it became clear that the election would be a race between Allende and Frei, the political right – which initially had backed Radical Julio Durán.^{[citation needed]} – settled for Frei as "the lesser evil". Allende's socialist beliefs and friendship with Cuban president Fidel Castro made him deeply unpopular within the administrations of successive U.S. presidents, from John F. Kennedy to Richard Nixon. Chile was the first Government in continental America to recognize the People's Republic of China in 1971.^{[citation needed]}

Election[link]

Chilean workers marching in support of Allende in 1964.

Allende won the 1970 Chilean presidential election as leader of the Unidad Popular ("Popular Unity") coalition. On 4 September 1970, he obtained a narrow plurality of 36.2 percent to 34.9 percent over Jorge Alessandri, a former president, with 27.8 percent going to a third candidate (Radomiro Tomic) of the Christian Democratic Party (PDC), whose electoral platform was similar to Allende's. According to the Chilean Constitution of the time, if no presidential candidate obtained a majority of the popular vote, Congress would choose one of the two candidates with the highest number of votes as the winner. Tradition was for Congress to vote for the candidate with the highest popular vote, regardless of margin. Indeed, former president Jorge Alessandri had been elected in 1958 with only 31.6 percent of the popular vote, defeating Allende.

One month after the election, on 20 October, while the senate had still to reach a decision and negotiations were actively in place between the Christian Democrats and the Popular Unity, General René Schneider, Commander in Chief of the Chilean Army, was shot resisting a kidnap attempt by a group led by General Roberto Viaux. Hospitalized, he died of his wounds three days later, on 23 October. Viaux's kidnapping plan had been supported by the CIA, although the then U.S. National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger claims to have ordered the plans postponed at the last moment. Many believe Kissinger's statement to be false and evidence points towards CIA director Richard Helms following orders directly from President Nixon to do whatever was necessary in order “to get rid of him”, referring to Allende. Nixon handed over a blank check to Helms, which allowed him to use full discretion in ridding Chile of Allende’s presence and “making the economy scream”. Schneider was a defender of the "constitutionalist" doctrine that the army's role is exclusively professional, its mission being to protect the country's sovereignty and not to interfere in politics.

General Schneider's death was widely disapproved of and, for the time, ended military opposition to Allende,^[14] whom the parliament finally chose on 24 October. On 26 October, President Eduardo Frei named General Carlos Prats as commander in chief of the army to replace René Schneider.

Allende assumed the presidency on 3 November 1970 after signing a Statute of Constitutional Guarantees proposed by the Christian Democrats in return for their support in Congress. In an extensive interview with Régis Debray in 1972, Allende explained his reasons for agreeing to the guarantees.^[15] Some critics have interpreted Allende's responses as an admission that signing the Statute was only a tactical move.^[16]

Presidency[link]

Allende with Argentine President Héctor José Cámpora

Upon assuming power, Allende began to carry out his platform of implementing a socialist programme called La vía chilena al socialismo ("the Chilean Path to Socialism"). This included nationalization of large-scale industries (notably copper mining and banking), and government administration of the health care system, educational system (with the help of an U.S. educator, Jane A. Hobson-Gonzalez from Kokomo, Indiana), a programme of free milk for children in the schools and shanty towns of Chile, and an expansion of the land seizure and redistribution already begun under his predecessor Eduardo Frei Montalva,^[17] who had nationalized between one-fifth and one-quarter of all the properties listed for takeover.^[18] The Allende government's intention was to seize all holdings of more than eighty irrigated hectares.^[19] Allende also intended to improve the socio-economic welfare of Chile's poorest citizens;^{[citation needed]} a key element was to provide employment, either in the new nationalised enterprises or on public work projects.^{[citation needed]}

Allende’s first step in early 1971 was to raise minimum wages (in real terms) for blue-collar workers by 37%-41% and 8%-10% for white-collar workers. Educational, food, and housing assistance was significantly expanded, with public-housing starts going up twelvefold and eligibility for free milk extended from age 6 to age 15. A year later, blue-collar wages were raised by 27% in real terms and white-collar wages became fully indexed.^[20] Price controls were also set up, while the Allende Government introduced a system of distribution networks through various agencies (including local committees on supply and prices) to ensure that the new rules were adhered to by shopkeepers.^[21]

The new Minister of Agriculture, Jacques Chonchol, promised to expropriate all estates which were larger than eighty “basic” hectares. This promise was kept, with no farm in Chile exceeding this limit by the end of 1972.^[22]

The Allende Government also sought to bring the arts (both serious and popular) to the mass of the Chilean population by funding a number of cultural endeavours. With eighteen-year olds and illiterates now granted the right to vote, mass participation in decision-making was encouraged by the Allende government, with traditional hierarchical structures now challenged by socialist egalitarianism. The Allende Government was also able to draw upon the idealism of its supporters, with teams of "Allendistas" travelling into the countryside and shanty towns to perform volunteer work.^[22]

Social spending was dramatically increased, particularly for housing, education, and health, while a major effort was made to redistribute wealth to poorer Chileans. As a result of new initiatives in nutrition and health, together with higher wages, many poorer Chileans were able to feed themselves and clothe themselves better than they had been able to before. Public access to the social security system was increased, while state benefits such as family allowances were raised significantly.^[22]

Chilean presidents were allowed a maximum term of six years, which may explain Allende's haste to restructure the economy. Not only was a major restructuring program organized (the Vuskovic plan), he had to make it a success if a Socialist successor to Allende was going to be elected. In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Minister of the Economy Pedro Vuskovic's expansive monetary policy were highly favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in GDP, accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However by 1972, the Chilean escudo had an inflation rate of 140%. The average Real GDP contracted between 1971 and 1973 at an annual rate of 5.6% ("negative growth"); and the government's fiscal deficit soared while foreign reserves declined [Flores, 1997: source requires title/publisher]. The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing, together with the "disappearance" of basic commodities from supermarket shelves, led to the rise of black markets in rice, beans, sugar, and flour.^[23] The Chilean economy also suffered as a result of a US campaign against the Allende government.^[24] The Allende government announced it would default on debts owed to international creditors and foreign governments. Allende also froze all prices while raising salaries. His implementation of these policies was strongly opposed by landowners, employers, businessmen and transporters associations, and some civil servants and professional unions. The rightist opposition was led by National Party, the Roman Catholic Church (which in 1973 was displeased with the direction of educational policy),^[25] and eventually the Christian Democrats. There were growing tensions with foreign multinational corporations and the government of the United States.

Allende also undertook Project Cybersyn, a system of networked telex machines and computers. Cybersyn was developed by British cybernetics expert Stafford Beer. The network transmitted data from factories to the government in Santiago, allowing for economic planning in real-time.^[26]

In 1971, Chile re-established diplomatic relations with Cuba, joining Mexico and Canada in rejecting a previously-established Organization of American States convention prohibiting governments in the Western Hemisphere from establishing diplomatic relations with Cuba. Shortly afterward, Cuban president Fidel Castro made a month-long visit to Chile. Originally the visit was supposed to be one week, however Castro enjoyed Chile, and one week turned to another. The visit, in which Castro held massive rallies and gave public advice to Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Path to Socialism" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba.^{[citation needed]}

October 1972 saw the first of what were to be a wave of strikes. The strikes were led first by truckers, and later by small businessmen, some (mostly professional) unions and some student groups. Other than the inevitable damage to the economy, the chief effect of the 24-day strike was to induce Allende to bring the head of the army, general Carlos Prats, into the government as Interior Minister.^[23] Allende also instructed the government to begin requisitioning trucks in order to keep the nation from coming to a halt. Government supporters also helped to mobilize trucks and buses but violence served as a deterrent to full mobilization, even with police protection for the strike breakers. Allende's actions were eventually declared unlawful by the Chilean appeals court and the government was ordered to return trucks to their owners.^[27]

Throughout this presidency racial tensions between the poor descendants of indigenous people, who supported Allende's reforms, and the white settler elite increased.^[28]

Allende raised wages on a number of occasions throughout 1970 and 1971, but these wage hikes were negated by the in-tandem inflation of Chile's fiat currency. Although price rises had also been high under Frei (27% a year between 1967 and 1970), a basic basket of consumer goods rose by 120% from 190 to 421 escudos in one month alone, August 1972. In the period 1970–72, while Allende was in government, exports fell 24% and imports rose 26%, with imports of food rising an estimated 149%.^[29]

Export income fell due to a hard hit copper industry: the price of copper on international markets fell by almost a third, and post-nationalization copper production fell as well. Copper is Chile's single most important export (more than half of Chile's export receipts were from this sole commodity^[30]). The price of copper fell from a peak of $66 per ton in 1970 to only $48–9 in 1971 and 1972.^[31] Chile was already dependent on food imports, and this decline in export earnings coincided with declines in domestic food production following Allende's agrarian reforms.^[32]

Throughout his presidency, Allende remained at odds with the Chilean Congress, which was dominated by the Christian Democratic Party. The Christian Democrats (who had campaigned on a socialist platform in the 1970 elections, but drifted away from those positions during Allende's presidency, eventually forming a coalition with the National Party), continued to accuse Allende of leading Chile toward a Cuban-style dictatorship, and sought to overturn many of his more radical policies. Allende and his opponents in Congress repeatedly accused each other of undermining the Chilean Constitution and acting undemocratically.

Allende's increasingly bold socialist policies (partly in response to pressure from some of the more radical members within his coalition), combined with his close contacts with Cuba, heightened fears in Washington. The Nixon administration began exerting economic pressure on Chile via multilateral organizations, and continued to back Allende's opponents in the Chilean Congress. Almost immediately after his election, Nixon directed CIA and U.S. State Department officials to "put pressure" on the Allende government.^[33]

Foreign relations during Allende's presidency[link]

Allende's Popular Unity government tried to maintain normal relations with the United States. When Chile nationalized its copper industry, Washington cut off U.S. credits and increased its support to opposition. Forced to seek alternative sources of trade and finance, Chile gained commitments from the Soviet Union to invest some $400 million in Chile in the next six years. Allende's government was disappointed that it received far less economic assistance from the USSR than it hoped for. Trade between the two countries did not significantly increase and the credits were mainly linked to the purchase of Soviet equipment. Moreover, credits from the Soviet Union were much less than those provided to the People's Republic of China and countries of Eastern Europe. When Allende visited the USSR in late 1972 in search of more aid and additional lines of credit, after 3 years of political and economic failure and chaos, he was turned down.^[34]

Foreign involvement in Chile during Allende's Presidency[link]

US involvement[link]

The possibility of Allende winning Chile's 1970 election was deemed a disaster by a US administration which wanted to protect US business interests and prevent any spread of Communism during the Cold War.^[35] In September 1970, President Nixon informed the CIA that an Allende government in Chile would not be acceptable and authorized $10 million to stop Allende from coming to power or unseat him.^[36] Henry Kissinger's 40 Committee and the CIA planned to impede Allende's investiture as President of Chile with covert efforts known as "Track I" and "Track II"; Track I sought to prevent Allende from assuming power via so-called "parliamentary trickery", while under the Track II initiative, the CIA tried to convince key Chilean military officers to carry out a coup.^[36]

During Nixon's presidency, U.S. officials attempted to prevent Allende's election by financing political parties aligned with opposition candidate Jorge Alessandri and supporting strikes in the mining and transportation sectors.^[37]

After the 1970 election, the Track I operation attempted to incite Chile's outgoing president, Eduardo Frei Montalva, to persuade his party (PDC) to vote in Congress for Alessandri.^{[citation needed]} Under the plan, Alessandri would resign his office immediately after assuming it and call new elections. Eduardo Frei would then be constitutionally able to run again (since the Chilean Constitution did not allow a president to hold two consecutive terms, but allowed multiple non-consecutive ones), and presumably easily defeat Allende. The Chilean Congress instead chose Allende as President, on the condition that he would sign a "Statute of Constitutional Guarantees" affirming that he would respect and obey the Chilean Constitution, and that his reforms would not undermine any of its elements.

Track II was aborted, as parallel initiatives already underway within the Chilean military rendered it moot.^[38]

During the second term of office of Democratic President Bill Clinton, the CIA acknowledged having played a role in Chilean politics prior to the coup, but its degree of involvement is debated. The CIA was notified by its Chilean contacts of the impending coup two days in advance, but contends it "played no direct role in" the coup.^[39]

Much of the internal opposition to Allende's policies came from business sector, and recently-released U.S. government documents confirm that the U.S. indirectly^[24] funded the truck drivers' strike,^[40] which exacerbated the already chaotic economic situation prior to the coup.

The most prominent U.S. corporations in Chile prior to Allende's presidency were the Anaconda and Kennecott copper companies, and ITT Corporation, International Telephone and Telegraph. Both the copper corporations aimed to expand privatized copper production in the city of El Teniente in the Chilean Andes, the world's largest underground copper mine.^[41] At the end of 1968, according to US Department of Commerce data, U.S. corporate holdings in Chile amounted to $964 million. Anaconda and Kennecott accounted for 28% of U.S. holdings, but ITT had by far the largest holding of any single corporation, with an investment of $200 million in Chile.^[41] In 1970, before Allende was elected, ITT owned 70% of Chitelco, the Chilean Telephone Company and funded El Mercurio, a Chilean right-wing newspaper. Documents released in 2000 by the CIA confirmed that before the elections of 1970, ITT gave $700,000 to Allende's conservative opponent, Jorge Alessandri, with help from the CIA on how to channel the money safely. ITT president Harold Geneen also offered $1 million to the CIA to help defeat Allende in the elections.^[42]

After General Pinochet assumed power, United States Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told President Richard Nixon that the U.S. "didn't do it," but "we helped them...created the conditions as great as possible." (referring to the coup itself).^[43] Recent documents declassified under the Clinton administration's Chile Declassification Project show that the United States government and the CIA sought the overthrow of Allende in 1970 immediately before he took office ("Project FUBELT"). Many documents regarding the 1973 coup remain classified.

Soviet involvement[link]

Material based on reports from the Mitrokhin Archive, the KGB said of Allende that "he was made to understand the necessity of reorganising Chile's army and intelligence services, and of setting up a relationship between Chile's and the USSR's intelligence services". It is also claimed that Allende was given $30,000 "in order to solidify the trusted relations" with him.^[44] According to Vasili Mitrokhin, a former KGB major and senior archivist in the KGB intelligence central KGB office in the Yasenevo area of Moscow, Allende made a personal request for Soviet money through his personal contact, KGB officer Svyatoslav Kuznetsov (codenamed LEONID), who urgently came to Chile from Mexico City to help Allende.^[45] The original allocation of money for these elections through the KGB was $400,000, a personal subsidy of $50,000 was sent directly to Allende, with an additional $100,000 funneled through funds provided to the Chilean Communist Party.^[45]

Historian Christopher Andrew, argued that help from the KGB was a decisive factor, because Allende won by a narrow margin of 39,000 votes of a total of the 3 million cast. After the elections, the KGB director Yuri Andropov obtained permission for additional money and other resources from the Central Committee of the CPSU to ensure an Allende victory in Congress. In his request on 24 October, he stated that the KGB "will carry out measures designed to promote the consolidation of Allende's victory and his election to the post of President of the country". In his KGB file, Allende was reported to have "stated his willingness to co-operate on a confidential basis and provide any necessary assistance, since he considered himself a friend of the Soviet Union". He willingly shared political information.^[45]

Andrew writes that regular Soviet contact with Allende after his election was maintained by his KGB case officer, Svyatoslav Kuznetsov, who was instructed by KGB's the 'Centre' to "exert a favorable influence on Chilean government policy". Allende was said to have reacted "positively."

Political and moral support came mostly through the Communist Party and unions. For instance, he received the Lenin Peace Prize from the Soviet Union in 1972. However, there were some fundamental differences between Allende and Soviet political analysts who believed that some violence – or measures that those analysts "theoretically considered to be just" – should have been used.^[46] According to Andrew's account of the Mitrokhin archives, "In the KGB's view, Allende's fundamental error was his unwillingness to use force against his opponents. Without establishing complete control over all the machinery of the State, his hold on power could not be secure."^[44]

Declarations from KGB General Nikolai Leonov, former Deputy Chief of the First Chief Directorate of the KGB, confirmed that the Soviet Union supported Allende's government economically, politically and militarily.^[46] Leonov stated in an interview at the Chilean Center of Public Studies (CEP) that the Soviet economic support included over $100 million in credit, three fishing ships (that distributed 17,000 tons of frozen fish to the population), factories (as help after the 1971 earthquake), 3,100 tractors, 74,000 tons of wheat and more than a million tins of condensed milk.^[46]

In mid-1973 the USSR had approved the delivery of weapons (artillery, tanks) to the Chilean Army. However, when news of an attempt from the Army to depose Allende through a coup d'état reached Soviet officials, the shipment was redirected to another country.^[46]

Crisis[link]

On June 29, 1973, Colonel Roberto Souper surrounded the presidential palace, La Moneda, with his tank regiment but failed to depose the government.^[47] That failed coup d’état – known as the Tanquetazo ("tank putsch") – organised by the nationalist Patria y Libertad paramilitary group, was followed by a general strike at the end of July that included the copper miners of El Teniente.

In August, 1973, a constitutional crisis occurred, and the Supreme Court of Chile publicly complained about the inability of Allende government to enforce the law of the land. On August 22, the Chamber of Deputies (with the Christian Democrats uniting with the National Party) accused the government of unconstitutional acts through Allende's refusal to promulgate constitutional amendments, already approved by the Chamber, which would have prevented his government from continuing his massive nationalization plan^[48] and called upon the military to enforce constitutional order.^[49]

For months, Allende had feared calling upon the Carabineros ("Carabineers", the national police force), suspecting them of disloyalty to his government. On August 9, President Allende appointed General Carlos Prats as Minister of Defence. On August 24, 1973, General Prats was forced to resign both as defense minister and as the commander-in-chief of the army, embarrassed by both the Alejandrina Cox incident and a public protest in front of his house by the wives of his generals. General Augusto Pinochet replaced him as Army commander-in-chief the same day.^[49]

Supreme Court's resolution[link]

On May 26, 1973, the Supreme Court of Chile unanimously denounced the Allende government's disruption of the legality of the nation in its failure to uphold judicial decisions, because of its continual refusal to permit police execution of judicial decisions contrary to the government's own measures.

Chamber of Deputies' resolution[link]

On August 22, 1973, the Christian Democrats and the National Party members of the Chamber of Deputies joined together to vote 81 to 47 in favor of a resolution that asked the authorities to "put an immediate end" to "breach[es of] the Constitution . . . with the goal of redirecting government activity toward the path of law and ensuring the Constitutional order of our Nation, and the essential underpinnings of democratic co-existence among Chileans."

The resolution declared that Allende's government sought "to conquer absolute power with the obvious purpose of subjecting all citizens to the strictest political and economic control by the State . . . [with] the goal of establishing . . . a totalitarian system" and claimed that the government had made "violations of the Constitution . . . a permanent system of conduct." Essentially, most of the accusations were about disregard by the Socialist government of the separation of powers, and arrogating legislative and judicial prerogatives to the executive branch of government.

Specifically, the Socialist government of President Allende was accused of:

• Ruling by decree, thwarting the normal legislative system
• Refusing to enforce judicial decisions against its partisans; not carrying out sentences and judicial resolutions that contravened its objectives
• Ignoring the decrees of the independent General Comptroller's Office
• Sundry media offenses; usurping control of the National Television Network and applying economic pressure against those media organizations that are not unconditional supporters of the government
• Allowing its Socialist supporters to assemble with arms, and preventing the same by its right-wing opponents
• Supporting more than 1,500 illegal "takings" of farms
• Illegal repression of the El Teniente miners’ strike
• Illegally limiting emigration

Finally, the resolution condemned the creation and development of government-protected [socialist] armed groups, which . . . are headed towards a confrontation with the armed forces. President Allende's efforts to re-organize the military and the police forces were characterized as notorious attempts to use the armed and police forces for partisan ends, destroy their institutional hierarchy, and politically infiltrate their ranks.^[50]

President Allende's response[link]

Two days later, on 24 August 1973, President Allende responded,^[51] characterising the Congress's declaration as destined to damage the country’s prestige abroad and create internal confusion, predicting It will facilitate the seditious intention of certain sectors. He noted that the declaration (passed 81–47 in the Chamber of Deputies) had not obtained the two-thirds Senate majority constitutionally required to convict the president of abuse of power: essentially, the Congress were invoking the intervention of the armed forces and of Order against a democratically-elected government and subordinat[ing] political representation of national sovereignty to the armed institutions, which neither can nor ought to assume either political functions or the representation of the popular will.

Mr Allende argued he had obeyed constitutional means for including military men to the cabinet at the service of civic peace and national security, defending republican institutions against insurrection and terrorism. In contrast, he said that Congress was promoting a coup d’état or a civil war with a declaration full of affirmations that had already been refuted beforehand and which, in substance and process (directly handing it to the ministers rather than directly handing it to the President) violated a dozen articles of the (then-current) Constitution. He further argued that the legislature was usurping the government's executive function.

President Allende wrote: Chilean democracy is a conquest by all of the people. It is neither the work nor the gift of the exploiting classes, and it will be defended by those who, with sacrifices accumulated over generations, have imposed it . . . With a tranquil conscience . . . I sustain that never before has Chile had a more democratic government than that over which I have the honor to preside . . . I solemnly reiterate my decision to develop democracy and a state of law to their ultimate consequences . . . Parliament has made itself a bastion against the transformations . . . and has done everything it can to perturb the functioning of the finances and of the institutions, sterilizing all creative initiatives.

Adding that economic and political means would be needed to relieve the country's current crisis, and that the Congress were obstructing said means; having already paralyzed the State, they sought to destroy it. He concluded by calling upon the workers, all democrats and patriots to join him in defending the Chilean Constitution and the revolutionary process.

The coup[link]

In early September 1973, Allende floated the idea of resolving the constitutional crisis with a plebiscite. His speech outlining such a solution was scheduled for 11 September, but he was never able to deliver it. On 11 September 1973, the Chilean military staged a coup against Allende.

Death[link]

Statue of Allende in front of the Palacio de la Moneda

Just prior to the capture of La Moneda (the Presidential Palace), with gunfire and explosions clearly audible in the background, Allende gave his (subsequently famous) farewell speech to Chileans on live radio, speaking of himself in the past tense, of his love for Chile and of his deep faith in its future. He stated that his commitment to Chile did not allow him to take an easy way out, and he would not be used as a propaganda tool by those he called "traitors" (he refused an offer of safe passage), clearly implying he intended to fight to the end.^[52]

Shortly afterwards, the coup plotters announced that Allende committed suicide. An official announcement declared that he had committed suicide with an automatic rifle. Prior to his death he had been photographed several times holding an AK-47, a gift from his good friend Fidel Castro.^[53] He was found dead with this gun. In his 2004 documentary Salvador Allende, Patricio Guzmán incorporates a graphic image of Allende's corpse in the position it was found after his death. According to Guzmán's documentary, Allende shot himself with a pistol and not a rifle.

For years, Chilean left-wing maintained that Allende had been assassinated, considering that a suicide would weaken Allende's figure. His doctor, José Quiroga, witness of Allende's suicide, but who kept silence for a long time, said “It was more important the political issue of everybody believing that Allende had been killed by the military”.^[54] In recent years the view that he committed suicide has become more broadly accepted, particularly as different testimonies appear to confirm details of the suicide reported in news and documentary interviews.^{[55][56][57][58][59]} His personal doctor described the death as a suicide, and his family accepts the finding. The theory that he was assassinated persists and is referenced in the Michael Moore film Bowling for Columbine.^[60]

In 2011, the controversy over the cause of death was reopened as the subject of an official investigation. On the basis of the original 1973 autopsy, Luis Ravanal, a medical examiner, expressed the opinion that the wounds on the body were not consistent with the theses of the alleged witnesses, namely that there were wounds caused by different guns.^[61] In January 2011, a Chilean judge ordered an inquiry,^[62] the first judicial investigation of the death. On May 23, 2011, Allende's body was exhumed in order to have an autopsy performed by an international forensic team.^[63] On May 31, TVN, the state television station, reported the recent discovery of a secret 300-page military account of Allende's death. The document had been kept in the home of a former military justice official, and was discovered when his house was destroyed in the 2010 earthquake. After reviewing the report, two forensic experts told TVN "that they are inclined to conclude that Allende was assassinated."^[64] This belief is supported by forensic expert Luis Ravanal who has been studying Allende's autopsy since 2007. Ravanal says he found details in the autopsy that weren't in line with the official version of Allende's death. The cranium, he says, shows evidence of a first shot with a small gun, like a pistol, and then, a second shot from a larger weapon — like an AK-47 — which could mean that Allende was shot and killed, then shot a second time with his own gun, to make it look like suicide.^[65] Chile's Legal Medical Service confirmed on July 19, 2011 that the death was suicide, consistent with the beliefs of Allende's family.^[66] Dr. Patricio Bustos, the director of Chile's LMS, described the conclusions as "definitive". Briton David Prayer, an expert in ballistics, stated that the former president died as the result of two gunshots wounds which came from an assault rifle placed between his legs and aimed at his chin.^[67] The scientific autopsy team delivered a unanimous finding that Allende used an AK-47 rifle given to him by Fidel Castro. The gun was set to fire automatically and the shots tore off the top of his head, killing him instantly.^[68]

Family[link]

An East German stamp commemorating Allende

Well-known relatives of Salvador Allende include his daughter Isabel Allende (politician) and a cousin Isabel Allende (author).

Memorials[link]

Memorials to Allende include a statue in front of the Palacio de la Moneda.

See also[link]

• History of Chile
• Allende stamps
• Chile under Allende
• Death of Salvador Allende
• Marta Harnecker

References[link]