Central Asia at the beginning of 1450 AD. The Moghuls controlled Moghulistan, Alti-Shahr, and Uyghurstan.

Moghulistan or Mughalistan (Persian: مغولستان‎) is a historical geographic unit in Central Asia that included parts of modern-day Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and the Chinese Autonomous Region of Xinjiang (Eastern Turkestan). An independent khanate existed in the area from the mid-14th century until the late 17th century.

Etymology[link]

"Moghul" envoys seen in Beijing in 1656 by Johan Nieuhof, who took them for representatives of the Moghuls of India. However, Luciano Petech later thinks they are visitors from Turfan in Moghulistan.^[1]

"Moghulistan" simply means "Land of the Moghuls," or Mongols (the term Mughal is Persian for Mongol) in reference to the eastern branch of the Turco-Mongolian Chagatai Khans who ruled it.

When the Mongols conquered most of Asia and Russia in the 13th century (for details see Mongol Empire), they were minorities in many of the regions they had subdued, such as Iran and China. As a result, the Mongols in these regions quickly adopted the local culture. For example, in the Persian Ilkhanate the Mongol khans adopted Islam after less than half a century, while the khans of the Yuan Dynasty embraced Chinese court customs. In contrast, the Mongols and their subordinates who settled in what came to be known as Moghulistan were in origin the steppe nomads from Mongolia.^[2] Because of this, they were much more resistant to changing their way of life; they retained their primarily nomadic lifestyle for several centuries and were among the last of the Mongols that converted to Islam to do so. During the 14th century its inhabitants were known as "Jats" and the area they occupied was called "Jatah." This term is also used by numerous people in South Asia in Pakistan and parts of western India.

Geography[link]

Since the Moghuls were nomads of the steppe, the boundaries of their territories seldom stayed the same for long. Still, Moghulistan in the strictest sense was centered in the Ili region. It was bounded on the west by the province of Shash and the Karatau Mountains, while the southern area of Lake Balkhash marked the northern limit of Moghul influence. From there the border gradually sloped in a southeastern direction until it reached the eastern portion of the Tian Shan Mountains. The Tian Shan then served as the southern border of Moghulistan. This region was primarily steppe country and was where the Moghuls usually resided. Because of the Moghuls' nomadic nature, the towns of Moghulistan fell into decline during their rule, if they managed to remain occupied at all.

Besides Moghulistan proper, the Moghuls also almost always controlled these other provinces:

• Alti-Shahr: Alti-Shahr, meaning "Six Cities" in reference to the western, then Muslim Uyghur cities of Yarkand, Kashgar, Khotan, Aksu, Uch-Turpan, and Yangi Hisar. The borders of Alti-Shahr were better defined than those of Moghulistan, with the Tien Shan marking the northern boundary, the Pamirs the western, and the Kunlun Shan the southern. The eastern border usually was slightly to the east of Kucha.
  
  Aside from the towns which were at the foot of the mountains, nearly all of the Tarim Basin was desert. As a result, the Moghuls generally stayed out of the region and it was a poor source of manpower. The Dughlat amirs administered these towns in the name of the Moghul khans until 1514. After that the Moghuls directly governed Alti-Shahr and, when they lost Moghulistan itself shortly after, it formed the bulk of the remainder of their possessions. The capital city of Alti-Shahr was usually Yarkand or Kashgar.

• Uyghurstan: This region was named after the Uyghurs, who maintained a mainly Buddhist kingdom there separate from the Muslim Uyghurs up until almost the 15th century. The Uyghur khans had voluntarily become Mongol vassals during the reign of Genghis Khan and as a result were allowed to retain their territories. As the Mongol Empire was split up in the middle of the 13th century, Uyghurstan was assigned to the Chagatayids. The power of the Uyghur khans slowly declined under the Mongol yoke until the last recorded khan was forcibly converted to Islam in the 1380s or 90s. After that it seems to have been subjected to direct Moghul rule, and a separate Moghul Khanate was established there in mid-15th century.

Uyghurstan was bordered by Alti-Shahr to the west, the Tien Shan to the north, the Kunlun Shan to the south, and the principality of Hami to the east. The primary town of Uyghurstan was Turpan. In 1513 Hami became a dependency of Uyghurstan and remained so until the end of Moghul rule. As a result, the Moghuls became direct neighbors of Ming China.

Besides Moghulistan, Alti-Shahr and Uyghurstan, several other regions were also temporarily subjected to Moghul rule at one time or another, such as Tashkent, Ferghana and parts of Badakhshan.

History[link]

Buddhist, Christian and Shamanist nomads of the Issyk Kul and Isi areas rebelled against the Chagatai Khan Tarmashirin and shifted allegiance from his realm to a new Borjigin Khan, Changshi, in the 1330's upon his conversion to Islam. This Khan and his heirs ruled a region of nomadic tribesmen and oasis-dwellers from the 14th to the 17th century.

Moghulistan, which had formed the eastern portion of the Chagatai Khanate, became independent in 1347 under the Chagatayid named Tughlugh Timur. Tughlugh Timur also later converted to Islam but conversion amongst the general population was slow to follow. In the late 14th century Timur invaded Moghulistan at least five times but was unable to completely subjugate the Moghuls. During the 15th century the Moghuls had to deal with several enemy incursions by the Oirats, Timurids and Uzbeks. Yunus Khan (1462-1487) profited from the weakness of his neighbors and took Tashkent in 1482. Towards the end of Yunus' reign, his son Ahmad Alaq founded a breakaway Khanate in Uyghuristan.

In the mid-16th century Moghulistan came under increasing pressure from the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs. Although the Moghul Khans did their best to maintain order, eventually the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs became the dominant forces in the region. Henceforth the Moghul khans were mostly restricted to the Tarim basin. In the late 16th and 17th centuries power in the Moghul states gradually shifted from the Khans to the khojas, who were influential religious leaders in the 16th century of the Sufi Naqshbandi order. At the same time the Kyrgyz began to penetrate into Alti-Shahr as well. The Khans were finally overthrown in the late 17th century, bringing an end to Chagatayid rule in Central Asia, and by the time Moghulistan was overrun by the Dzungar Mongol wave they had also become fully Muslim.

See also[link]

• Chagatai Khanate
• Turpan Prefecture
• East Turkestan
• Moghul
• Moghol

Notes[link]

References[link]

• S. Frederick Starr, "Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland", M.E. Sharpe, Apr 1, 2004 ISBN 0-7656-1317-4 pg. 46-48
• Millward, James A. Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang. New York: Columbia University Press, 2007; London: C. Hurst, 2007.
• Mirza Muhammad Haidar. The Tarikh-i-Rashidi: A History of the Moghuls of Central Asia. Trans. Edward Denison Ross. ISBN 81-86787-02-X

Genghis Khan
Dalai Khagan of the Great Mongol State (Supreme Khan of the Mongols) King of Kings Khagan of Khamag Mongol Lord of the Four Colors and Five Tongues Son of Khan Tengri Emperor of All Men
Reign	Spring 1206 – August 25, 1227 (more than 21 years)
Coronation	Spring 1206 in khurultai at the Onon River, Mongolia
Full name	Genghis Khan Mongol: Чингис Хаан Chingis Khaan Mongol script (right): Chinggis Khagan[note 1]
Titles	Khan, Khagan Temple name: Chinese: 元太祖; pinyin: Yuán Tàizǔ Posthumous name: Emperor Fatian Qiyun Shengwu (法天啟運聖武皇帝)
Born	probably 1162[2]
Birthplace	Khentii Mountains, Mongolia
Died	August 1227[3] (Aged 65)
Successor	Ögedei Khan
Consort	Borte Ujin Khulan Yesugen Yesui others
Offspring	Jochi Chagatai Ögedei Tolui Others
Royal House	Borjigin
Father	Yesügei
Mother	Oulen

Genghis Khan (/ˈɡɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/ or /ˈdʒɛŋɡɪs ˈkɑːn/,^[4][5] Mongol: [tʃiŋɡɪs xaːŋ] ( listen); 1162? – August 1227), born Temujin, was the founder and Great Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which became the largest contiguous empire in history after his death.

He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions that resulted in the conquest of most of Eurasia. These included raids or invasions of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. These campaigns were often accompanied by wholesale massacres of the civilian populations – especially in Khwarezmia. By the end of his life, the Mongol Empire occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.

Before Genghis Khan died, he assigned Ögedei Khan as his successor and split his empire into khanates among his sons and grandsons.^[6] He died in 1227 after defeating the Western Xia. He was buried in an unmarked grave somewhere in Mongolia at an unknown location. His descendants went on to stretch the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia by conquering or creating vassal states out of all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asian countries, and substantial portions of modern Eastern Europe, Russia and the Middle East. Many of these invasions resulted in the large-scale slaughter of local populations, which have given Genghis Khan and his empire a fearsome reputation in local histories.^[7]

Beyond his military accomplishments, Genghis Khan also advanced the Mongol Empire in other ways. He decreed the adoption of the Uyghur script as the Mongol Empire's writing system. He also promoted religious tolerance in the Mongol Empire, and created a unified empire from the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. Present-day Mongolians regard him as the founding father of Mongolia.^[8]

Early life[link]

Lineage[link]

Temujin was related on his father's side to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai and Hotula Khan who had headed the Khamag Mongol confederation. When the Chinese Jin Dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161, they destroyed Khabul Khan.^[9] Temujin's father, Yesügei (leader of the Borjigin clan and nephew to Ambaghai and Hotula Khan), emerged as the head of the ruling clan of the Mongols, but this position was contested by the rival Tayichi’ud clan, who descended directly from Ambaghai. When the Tatars grew too powerful after 1161, the Jin switched their support from the Tatars to the Keraits.

Birth[link]

The Onon River, Mongolia, in autumn, the region where Temujin was born and grew up.

Because of the lack of contemporary written records, there is very little factual information about the early life of Temujin. The few sources that provide insight into this period often conflict.

Temujin was born in 1162 or 1155^[2] in Delüün Boldog near Burkhan Khaldun mountain and the Onon and Kherlen Rivers in modern-day Mongolia, not far from the current capital, Ulaanbaatar. The Secret History of the Mongols reports that Temüjin was born with a blood clot grasped in his fist, a traditional sign that he was destined to become a great leader. He was the third-oldest son of his father Yesügei, a Khamag Mongol's major chief of the Kiyad and an ally of Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe,^[10] and the oldest son of his mother Hoelun. According to the Secret History, Temujin was named after a Tatar chieftain, Temujin-üge, whom his father had just captured. The name also suggests that they may have been descended from a family of blacksmiths (see section Name and title below).

Yesukhei's clan was called Borjigin (Боржигин), and Hoelun was from the Olkhunut, the sub-lineage of the Onggirat tribe.^[11][12] Like other tribes, they were nomads. Because his father was a chieftain, as were his predecessors, Temüjin was of a noble background. This higher social standing made it easier to solicit help from and eventually consolidate the other Mongol tribes.^{[citation needed]}

No accurate portraits of Genghis Khan exist today, and any surviving depictions are considered to be artistic interpretations. Persian historian Rashid-al-Din recorded in his "Chronicles" that the legendary "glittering" ancestor of Genghis Khan was tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and green-eyed. Rashid al-Din also described the first meeting of Genghis and Kublai Khan, when Genghis Khan was surprised to find that Kublai had not inherited his red hair.^[13] Also according to al-Din Genghis' Borjigid clan, had a legend involving their origins: it began as the result of an affair between Alan-ko and a stranger to her land, a glittering man who happened to have red hair and bluish-green eyes. Modern historian Paul Ratchnevsky has suggested in his Genghis biography that the "glittering man" may have been from the Kyrgyz people, who historically displayed these same characteristics. These traits can still be found among modern Mongolians where they have a predominate Mongoloid appearance and with frequent occurrence of blue eyes, green eyes and red hair.^[14] A certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.^[15] Some of the Mongols today who exhibit some slight Caucasoid features most likely stem from historical intermixing with ancient Central Asian and Siberian Europoids, as opposed to recent intermixing with Slavics and other Europeans.^[16]

Early life and family[link]

Temujin had three brothers named Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge, and one sister named Temülen, as well as two half-brothers named Behter and Belgutei. Like many of the nomads of Mongolia, Temujin's early life was difficult. His father arranged a marriage for him, and at nine years of age, he was delivered by his father to the family of his future wife Börte, who was a member of the tribe Onggirat. Temujin was to live there in service to Dei Sechen, the head of the new household, until he reached the marriageable age of 12. While heading home, his father ran into the neighboring Tatars, who had long been enemies of the Mongols, and he was subsequently poisoned by the food they offered. Upon learning this, Temujin returned home to claim his father's position as chieftain of the tribe; however, his father's tribe refused to be led by a boy so young. They abandoned Hoelun and her children, leaving them without protection.

Genghis Khan and Toghrul Khan. Illustration from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript

For the next several years, Hoelun and her children lived in poverty, surviving primarily on wild fruits and ox carcasses, marmots, and other small game hunted by Temujin and his brothers. It was during one hunting excursion that 10-year-old Temujin killed his half-brother, Behter, during a fight which resulted from a dispute over hunting spoils.^[17] This incident cemented his position. In another incident in 1182 he was captured in a raid and held prisoner by his father's former allies, the Tayichi'ud. The Tayichi'ud enslaved Temujin (reportedly with a cangue), but with the help of a sympathetic guard, the father of Chilaun (who later became a general of Genghis Khan), he was able to escape from the ger in the middle of the night by hiding in a river crevice.^{[citation needed]} It was around this time that Jelme and Bo'orchu, two of Genghis Khan's future generals, joined forces with him. Temüjin's reputation also became widespread after his escape from the Tayichi'ud.

At this time, none of the tribal confederations of Mongolia were united politically, and arranged marriages were often used to solidify temporary alliances. Temujin grew up observing the tough political climate of Mongolia, which included tribal warfare, thievery, raids, corruption and continuing acts of revenge carried out between the various confederations, all compounded by interference from foreign forces such as the Chinese dynasties to the south. Temujin's mother Olen taught him many lessons about the unstable political climate of Mongolia, especially the need for alliances.

As previously arranged by his father, Temujin married Börte of the Onggirat tribe when he was around 16 in order to cement alliances between their respective tribes. Börte had four sons, Jochi (1185–1226), Chagatai (1187—1241), Ögedei (1189—1241), and Tolui (1190–1232). Soon after Börte's marriage to Temujin, she was kidnapped by the Merkits, and reportedly given away as a wife. Temüjin rescued her with the help of his friend and future rival, Jamukha, and his protector, Toghrul Khan of the Kerait tribe. She gave birth to a son, Jochi, nine months later, clouding the issue of his parentage. Despite speculation over Jochi, Börte would be his only empress, though Temujin did follow tradition by taking several morganatic wives.^[18] Genghis Khan also had many other children with his other wives, but they were excluded from the succession. While the names of sons were documented, daughters were not. The names of at least six daughters are known, and while they played significant roles behind the scenes during his lifetime, no documents have survived that definitively provide the number or names of daughters born to the consorts of Genghis Khan.^[19]

Temujin valued loyalty above all else and also valued brotherhood.^[20] Jamukha was one of Temujin's best friends growing up. But their friendship was tested later in life, when Temujin was fighting to become a khan. Jamukha said this to Temujin before he was killed, "What use is there in my becoming a companion to you? On the contrary, sworn brother, in the black night I would haunt your dreams, in the bright day I would trouble your heart. I would be the louse in your collar, I would become the splinter in your door-panel...as there was room for only one sun in the sky, there was room only for one Mongol lord."^[20]

Religion[link]

Genghis Khan's religion is widely speculated to have been Shamanism or Tengriism, which was very likely among nomadic Mongol-Turkic tribes of Central Asia. The Secret History of Mongols chronicles that Genghis prayed to the Burhan Haldun mountain.

But he was very tolerant religiously, and interested in learning philosophical and moral lessons from other religions. To do so, he consulted Buddhist monks, Muslims, Christian missionaries, and the Taoist monk Qiu Chuji.^[21]

Uniting the confederations[link]

Asia in 1200 AD

The Central Asian plateau (north of China) around the time of Temüjin (the early 13th century) was divided into several tribes or confederations, among them Naimans, Merkits, Tatars, Khamag Mongols, and Keraits, that were all prominent in their own right and often unfriendly toward each other as evidenced by random raids, revenge attacks, and plundering.

Temujin began his slow ascent to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to others sources, a vassal) to his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother) Toghrul, who was Khan of the Kerait, and is better known by the Chinese title "Wang Khan", which the Jin Empire granted him in 1197. This relationship was first reinforced when Börte was captured by the Merkits; it was Toghrul to whom Temujin turned for support. In response, Toghrul offered his vassal 200,000 of his Kerait warriors and suggested that he also involve his childhood friend Jamukha, who had himself become Khan (ruler) of his own tribe, the Jadaran.^[22] Although the campaign was successful and led to the recapture of Börte and utter defeat of the Merkits, it also paved the way for the split between the childhood friends, Temujin and Jamukha. Temujin had become blood brother (anda) with Jamukha earlier, and they had vowed to remain eternally faithful.

The main opponents of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") around 1200 were the Naimans to the west, the Merkits to the north, Tanguts to the south, and the Jin and Tatars to the east. By 1190, Temujin, his followers, and their advisors, had united the smaller Mongol confederation only. In his rule and his conquest of rival tribes, Temujin broke with Mongol tradition in a few crucial ways. He delegated authority based on merit and loyalty, rather than family ties. As an incentive for absolute obedience and following his rule of law, the Yassa code, Temujin promised civilians and soldiers wealth from future possible war spoils. As he defeated rival tribes, he did not drive away enemy soldiers and abandon the rest. Instead, he took the conquered tribe under his protection and integrated its members into his own tribe. He would even have his mother adopt orphans from the conquered tribe, bringing them into his family. These political innovations inspired great loyalty among the conquered people, making Temujin stronger with each victory.^[23]

Toghrul's (Wang Khan) son Senggum was jealous of Temüjin's growing power, and his affinity with his father. He allegedly planned to assassinate Temujin. Toghrul, though allegedly saved on multiple occasions by Temujin, gave in to his son^[24] and became uncooperative with Temüjin. Temüjin learned of Senggum's intentions and eventually defeated him and his loyalists. One of the later ruptures between Toghrul and Temüjin was Toghrul's refusal to give his daughter in marriage to Jochi, the eldest son of Temüjin, a sign of disrespect in the Mongolian culture. This act led to the split between both factions, and was a prelude to war. Toghrul allied himself with Jamukha, who already opposed Temujin's forces; however, the internal dispute between Toghrul and Jamukha, plus the desertion of a number of their allies to Temujin, led to Toghrul's defeat. Jamukha escaped during the conflict. This defeat was a catalyst for the fall and eventual dissolution of the Kerait tribe.

Genghis Khan in traditional Mongolian writing

The next direct threat to Temüjin was the Naimans (Naiman Mongols), with whom Jamukha and his followers took refuge. The Naimans did not surrender, although enough sectors again voluntarily sided with Temujin. In 1201, a khuruldai elected Jamukha as Gür Khan, "universal ruler", a title used by the rulers of the Kara-Khitan Khanate. Jamukha's assumption of this title was the final breach with Temüjin, and Jamukha formed a coalition of tribes to oppose him. Before the conflict, however, several generals abandoned Jamukha, including Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother. After several battles, Jamukha was finally turned over to Temujin by his own men in 1206.

According to the Secret History, Temujin again offered his friendship to Jamukha, asking him to return to his side. Temujin had killed the men who betrayed Jamukha, stating that he did not want disloyal men in his army. Jamukha refused the offer of friendship and reunion, saying that there can only be one Sun in the sky, and he asked for a noble death. The custom is to die without spilling blood, which is granted by breaking the back. Jamukha requested this form of death, despite the fact that in the past Jamukha had been known to have boiled his opponent's generals alive. The rest of the Merkit clan that sided with the Naimans were defeated by Subutai, who was by then a member of Temujin's personal guard and later became one of the most successful commanders of Genghis Khan. The Naimans' defeat left Genghis Khan as the sole ruler of the Mongol plains – all the prominent confederations fell or united under Temüjin's Mongol confederation.

Accounts of Genghis Khan's life are marked by claims of a series of betrayals and conspiracies. These include rifts with his early allies such as Jamuhha (who also wanted to be a ruler of Mongol tribes) and Wang Khan (his and his father's ally), his son Jochi, and problems with the most important shaman, who was allegedly trying to drive a wedge between him and his loyal brother Khasar. His military strategies showed a deep interest in gathering good intelligence and understanding the motivations of his rivals as exemplified by his extensive spy network and Yam route systems. He seemed to be a quick student, adopting new technologies and ideas that he encountered, such as siege warfare from the Chinese. He was also ruthless, as demonstrated by his measuring against the linchpin tactic used against the tribes led by Jamukha.

As a result by 1206 Temüjin had managed to unite or subdue the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraits, Tatars, Uyghurs and other disparate smaller tribes under his rule. It was a monumental feat for the "Mongols" (as they became known collectively). At a Khuruldai, a council of Mongol chiefs, he was acknowledged as "Khan" of the consolidated tribes and took the new title "Genghis Khan". The title Khagan was not conferred on Genghis until after his death, when his son and successor, Ögedei, took the title for himself and extended it posthumously to his father (as he was also to be posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan Dynasty). This unification of all confederations by Genghis Khan established peace between previously warring tribes and a single political and military force under Genghis Khan.

Military campaigns[link]

All significant conquests and movements of Genghis Khan and his generals during his lifetime

Western Xia Dynasty[link]

During the 1206 political rise of Genghis Khan, the Mongol Empire created by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia Dynasty. To its east and south was the Jin Dynasty, founded by the Manchurian Jurchens, who ruled northern China as well as being the traditional overlords of the Mongolian tribes for centuries.

Genghis Khan organized his people, army, and his state to first prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, which was closer to the Mongolian lands. He correctly believed that the more powerful Jin Dynasty's young ruler would not come to the aid of Xi Xia. When the Tanguts requested help from the Jin Dynasty, they were refused.^[24] Despite initial difficulties in capturing its well-defended cities, Genghis Khan forced the surrender of Western Xia by 1209.

Jin Dynasty[link]

In 1211, after the conquest of Western Xia, Genghis Khan planned again to conquer the Jin Dynasty. The commander of the Jin Dynasty army made a tactical mistake in not attacking the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent a messenger, Ming-Tan, to the Mongol side, who defected and told the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the other side of the pass. At this engagement fought at Badger Pass the Mongols massacred thousands of Jin troops. In 1215 Genghis besieged, captured, and sacked the Jin capital of Yanjing (later known as Beijing). This forced the Emperor Xuanzong to move his capital south to Kaifeng, abandoning the northern half of his kingdom to the Mongols.

Kara-Khitan Khanate[link]

Location of Kara-Khitan Khanate

Kuchlug, the deposed Khan of the Naiman confederation that Temüjin defeated and folded into his Mongol Empire, fled west and usurped the khanate of Kara-Khitan (also known as the Western Liao, as it was originally established as remnants of the Liao Dynasty). Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Kara-Khitan khanate and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to take him out of power. By this time the Mongol army was exhausted from ten years of continuous campaigning in China against the Western Xia and Jin Dynasty. Therefore Genghis sent only two tumen (20,000 soldiers) against Kuchlug, under his younger general, Jebe, known as "The Arrow".

With such a small force, the invading Mongols were forced to change strategies and resort to inciting internal revolt among Kuchlug's supporters, leaving the Khara-Khitan khanate more vulnerable to Mongol conquest. As a result, Kuchlug's army was defeated west of Kashgar. Kuchlug fled again, but was soon hunted down by Jebe's army and executed. By 1218, as a result of defeat of Kara-Khitan khanate, the Mongol Empire and its control extended as far west as Lake Balkhash, which bordered the Khwarezmia (Khwarezmid Empire), a Muslim state that reached the Caspian Sea to the west and Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea to the south.

Khwarezmian Empire[link]

Khwarezmid Empire (1190–1220)

Genghis Khan watches in amazement as the Khwarezmi Jalal ad-Din prepares to ford the Indus.

In the early 13th century, the Khwarezmian Dynasty was governed by Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad. Genghis Khan saw the potential advantage in Khwarezmia as a commercial trading partner using the Silk Road, and he initially sent a 500-man caravan to establish official trade ties with the empire. However, Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarezmian city of Otrar, attacked the caravan that came from Mongolia, claiming that the caravan contained spies and therefore was a conspiracy against Khwarezmia. The situation became further complicated because the governor later refused to make repayments for the looting of the caravans and handing over the perpetrators. Genghis Khan then sent again a second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to meet the Shah himself instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah had all the men shaved and the Muslim beheaded and sent his head back with the two remaining ambassadors. This was seen as an affront and insult to Genghis Khan. Outraged Genghis Khan planned one of his largest invasion campaigns by organizing together around 200,000 soldiers (20 tumens), his most capable generals and some of his sons. He left a commander and number of troops in China, designated his successors to be his family members and likely appointed Ogedei to be his immediate successor and then went out to Khwarezmia.

The Mongol army under Genghis Khan, generals and his sons crossed the Tien Shan mountains by entering the area controlled by the Khwarezmian Empire. After compiling intelligence from many sources Genghis Khan carefully prepared his army, which was divided into three groups. His son Jochi led the first division into the northeast of Khwarezmia. The second division under Jebe marched secretly to the southeast part of Khwarzemia to form, with the first division, a pincer attack on Samarkand. The third division under Genghis Khan and Tolui marched to the northwest and attacked Khwarzemia from that direction.

The Shah's army was split by diverse internal disquisitions and by the Shah's decision to divide his army into small groups concentrated in various cities. This fragmentation was decisive in Khwarezmia's defeats, as it allowed the Mongols, although exhausted from the long journey, to immediately set about defeating small fractions of the Khwarzemi forces instead of facing a unified defense. The Mongol army quickly seized the town of Otrar, relying on superior strategy and tactics. Genghis Khan ordered the wholesale massacre of many of the civilians, enslaved the rest of the population and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes, as retribution for his actions. Near the end of the battle the Shah fled rather than surrender. Genghis Khan charged Subutai and Jebe with hunting him down, giving them two years and 20,000 men. The Shah died under mysterious circumstances on a small island within his empire.

The Mongols' conquest, even by their own standards, was brutal. After the capital Samarkand fell, the capital was moved to Bukhara by the remaining men, and Genghis Khan dedicated two of his generals and their forces to completely destroying the remnants of the Khwarezmid Empire, including not only royal buildings, but entire towns, populations and even vast swaths of farmland. According to stories, Genghis Khan even went so far as to divert a river through the Khwarezmid emperor's birthplace, erasing it from the map.

The Mongols attacked Samarkand using prisoners as body shields. After several days only a few remaining soldiers, die-hard supporters of the Shah, held out in the citadel. After the fortress fell, Genghis supposedly reneged on his surrender terms and executed every soldier that had taken arms against him at Samarkand. The people of Samarkand were ordered to evacuate and assemble in a plain outside the city, where they were killed and pyramids of severed heads raised as a symbol of victory.^[25] Ata-Malik Juvayni, a high official in the service of the Mongol empire, wrote that in Termez, on the Oxus, "all the people, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain, and divided in accordance with their usual custom, then they were all slain".^[25]

The city of Bukhara was not heavily fortified, with a moat and a single wall, and the citadel typical of Khwarezmi cities. The city leaders opened the gates to the Mongols, though a unit of Turkish defenders held the city's citadel for another twelve days. Survivors from the citadel were executed, artisans and craftsmen were sent back to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were drafted into the Mongolian army and the rest of the population was sent into slavery. As the Mongol soldiers looted the city, a fire broke out, razing most of the city to the ground.^[26] Genghis Khan had the city's surviving population assemble in the main mosque of the town, where he declared that he was the flail of God, sent to punish them for their sins.

Meanwhile, the wealthy trading city of Urgench was still in the hands of Khwarezmian forces. The assault on Urgench proved to be the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion and the city fell only after the defenders put up a stout defense, fighting block for block. Mongolian casualties were higher than normal, due to the unaccustomed difficulty of adapting Mongolian tactics to city fighting.

As usual, the artisans were sent back to Mongolia, young women and children were given to the Mongol soldiers as slaves, and the rest of the population was massacred. The Persian scholar Juvayni states that 50,000 Mongol soldiers were given the task of executing twenty-four Urgench citizens each, which would mean that 1.2 million people were killed. While this is an exaggeration, the sacking of Urgench is considered one of the bloodiest massacres in human history.

In the meantime, Genghis Khan selected his third son Ögedei as his successor before his army set out, and specified that subsequent Khans should be his direct descendants. Genghis Khan also left Muqali, one of his most trusted generals, as the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China while he was out battling the Khwarezmid Empire to the west.

Georgia and Volga Bulgaria[link]

After the defeat of the Khwarezmian Empire in 1220, Genghis Khan gathered his forces in Persia and Armenia to return to the Mongolian steppes. Under the suggestion of Subutai, the Mongol army was split into two forces. Genghis Khan led the main army on a raid through Afghanistan and northern India towards Mongolia, while another 20,000 (two tumen) contingent marched through the Caucasus and into Russia under generals Jebe and Subutai. They pushed deep into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols destroyed the kingdom of Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade-fortress of Caffa in Crimea and overwintered near the Black Sea. Heading home, Subutai's forces attacked the allied forces of the Cuman-Kipchaks and the poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' troops led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev who went out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area. Subutai sent emissaries to the Slavic princes calling for a separate peace, but the emissaries were executed. At the Battle of Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's forces defeated the larger Kievan force, while losing the battle of Samara Bend against the neighboring Volga Bulgars - one of the Mongol's few, if not only, utter defeat; the Khwarizmi historian al-Nasawi says only 4,000 survived.^[27] The Russian princes then sued for peace. Subutai agreed but was in no mood to pardon the princes. As was customary in Mongol society for nobility, the Russian princes were given a bloodless death. Subutai had a large wooden platform constructed on which he ate his meals along with his other generals. Six Russian princes, including Mstislav III of Kiev, were put under this platform and crushed to death.

The Mongols learned from captives of the abundant green pastures beyond the Bulgar territory, allowing for the planning for conquest of Hungary and Europe. Genghis Khan recalled Subutai back to Mongolia soon afterwards, and Jebe died on the road back to Samarkand. Subutai and Jebe's famous cavalry expedition, in which they encircled the entire Caspian Sea defeating all armies in their path, except for that of the Volga Bulgars - who were said to be one of the few, if not the only people to ever defeat Genghis Khan, remains unparalleled to this day, and word of the Mongol triumphs began to trickle to other nations, particularly Europe. These two campaigns are generally regarded as reconnaissance campaigns that tried to get the feel of the political and cultural elements of the regions. In 1225 both divisions returned to Mongolia. These invasions added Transoxiana and Persia to an already formidable empire while destroying any resistance along the way. Later under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde, the Mongols returned to conquer Volga Bulgaria and the Kievan Rus in 1237, concluding the campaign in 1240.

Western Xia and Jin Dynasty[link]

Western Xia Dynasty, Jin Dynasty, Song Dynasty and Kingdom of Dali in 1142.

The vassal emperor of the Tanguts (Western Xia) had earlier refused to take part in the war against the Khwarezmid Empire after Genghis Khan and the main army marched towards Kharezmian Empire. Plus Western Xia and the defeated Jin Dynasty formed a coalition to resist the Mongols, counting on the campaign against the Khwarezmians to drain the Mongols' ability to respond effectively.

In 1226, immediately after returning from the west, Genghis Khan began a retaliatory attack on the Tanguts. His armies quickly took Heisui, Ganzhou and Suzhou (not the Suzhou in Jiangsu province), and in the autumn he took Xiliang-fu. One of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle near Helanshan, but was defeated. In November, Genghis laid siege to the Tangut city Lingzhou, and crossed the Yellow River, defeating the Tangut relief army. According to legend, it was here that Genghis Khan reportedly saw a line of five stars arranged in the sky, and interpreted it as an omen of his victory.

In 1227, Genghis Khan's army attacked and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, and continued to advance, seizing Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu^{[disambiguation needed ]}-fu, and Deshun province in quick succession in the Spring. At Deshun, the Tangut general Ma Jianlong put up a fierce resistance for several days and personally led charges against the invaders outside the city gate. Ma Jianlong later died from wounds received from arrows in battle. Genghis Khan, after conquering Deshun, went to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to escape the severe summer. The new Tangut emperor quickly surrendered to the Mongols, and the rest of the Tanguts officially surrendered soon after. Not happy with their betrayal and resistance, Genghis Khan ordered the entire imperial family to be executed, effectively ending the Tangut lineage.

Some accounts say that Genghis Khan was castrated by a Tangut princess using a hidden knife, who wanted revenge against his treatment of the Tanguts and stop him from raping her.^[28][29][30] After his castration, Genghis Khan died, and the Tangut princess committed suicide by drowning in the Yellow River according to the legend.^[31][32] In some mythical legends, it is claimed that Genghis fell into a trance after being castrated and is waiting to be sent back to the Mongol people.^[33][34]

Succession[link]

The succession topic of Genghis Khan was already significant during the later years of Genghis Khan's reign since he was already reaching his older years. Also the long running paternity discussion about Genghis' oldest son Jochi was already a relatively hot topic behind the scenes, which was particularly contentious because of the seniority of Jochi among the brothers. According to traditional historical accounts, the issue over Jochi's paternity was voiced most strongly by Chagatai. In The Secret History of the Mongols, just before the invasion of the Khwarezmid Empire by Genghis Khan, Chagatai declares before his father and brothers that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. In response to this tension^[35] and possibly for other reasons, it was Ögedei who was appointed as successor.

Mongol "Great Khans" coin, minted at Balk, Afghanistan, AH 618, 1221 AD.

Jochi[link]

Jochi died in 1226, during his father's lifetime. Some scholars, notably Ratchnevsky, have commented on the possibility that Jochi was secretly poisoned by an order from Genghis Khan. Rashid al-Din reports that the great Khan sent for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his brothers heeded the order, Jochi remained in Khorasan. Juzjani suggests that the disagreement arose from a quarrel between Jochi and his brothers in the siege of Urgench. Jochi had attempted to protect Urgench from destruction, as it belonged to territory allocated to him as a fief. He concludes his story with the clearly apocryphal statement by Jochi: "Genghis Khan is mad to have massacred so many people and laid waste so many lands. I would be doing a service if I killed my father when he is hunting, made an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, brought this land to life and gave assistance and support to the Muslims." Juzjani claims that it was in response to hearing of these plans that Genghis Khan ordered his son secretly poisoned; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead in 1223, the accuracy of this story is questionable.^[36]

Genghis Khan was aware of this friction between his sons (particularly between Chagatai and Jochi) and worried of possible conflict between them if he died and therefore he decided to divide his empire among his sons and make all of them Khan in their own right and by appointing one of his sons as his successor. Chagatai was considered unstable due to his temper and rash behavior because of his statements he made that he would not follow Jochi if he were to become his father's successor. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son was not to be his successor because he was the youngest and in the Mongol culture, youngest sons were not given a huge responsibility due to their age. If Jochi was to become successor, it was likely that Chagatai would engage in warfare with him and collapse the empire. Therefore Genghis Khan decided to give the throne to Ogedei. Ogedei was seen by Genghis Khan as dependable in character and relatively stable and down to earth and would be a neutral candidate and might defuse the situation between his brothers.

Death and burial[link]

Mongol Empire in 1227 at Genghis Khan's death

In late August 1227, after defeating the Tangut people, Genghis Khan died (according to The Secret History of the Mongols). The reason for his death is uncertain and speculations abound. Some historians maintain that he fell off his horse during a horseback pursuit from the land of present day Egypt due to battle wounds and physical fatigue, dying of his injuries.^[37] Others contend that he was felled by a protracted illness such as pneumonia. The Galician-Volhynian Chronicle alleges he was killed by the Tanguts in battle. Later Mongol chronicles connect Genghis' death with a Tangut princess taken as war booty. One chronicle from the early 17th century even relates that the princess hid a small dagger and stabbed him.. Some Mongol authors have doubted this version and suspected it to be an invention by the rival Oirads.^[38]

Years before his death, Genghis Khan asked to be buried without markings, according to the customs of his tribe. After he died, his body was returned to Mongolia and presumably to his birthplace in Khentii Aimag, where many assume he is buried somewhere close to the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to legend, the funeral escort killed anyone and anything across their path to conceal where he was finally buried. The Genghis Khan Mausoleum, constructed many years after his death, is his memorial, but not his burial site.

In 1939 Guomindang Chinese Nationalist soldiers took the mausoleum from its position at the 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in Mongolia to protect it from Japanese troops. It was taken through Communist-held territory in Yan'an some 900 km on carts to safety at a Buddhist monastery, the Dongshan Dafo Dian, where it remained for ten years. In 1949, as Communist troops advanced, the Nationalist soldiers moved it another 200 km farther west to the famous Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi near Xining, which soon fell under Communist control. In early 1954, Genghis Khan's bier and relics were returned to the Lord's Enclosure in Mongolia. By 1956 a new temple was erected there to house them.^[39] In 1968 during the Cultural Revolution, Red Guards destroyed almost everything of value. The "relics" were remade in the 1970s and a great marble statue of Genghis was completed in 1989.^[40]

On October 6, 2004, a joint Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig uncovered what is believed to be Genghis Khan's palace in rural Mongolia, which raises the possibility of actually locating the ruler's long-lost burial site.^[41] Folklore says that a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (the same manner of burial as the Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Atilla the Hun). Other tales state that his grave was stampeded over by many horses, and that trees were then planted over the site, and the permafrost also did its part in hiding the burial site.

Genghis Khan left behind an army of more than 129,000 men; 28,000 were given to his various brothers and his sons. Tolui, his youngest son, inherited more than 100,000 men. This force contained the bulk of the elite Mongolian cavalry. By tradition, the youngest son inherits his father's property. Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received armies of 4,000 men each. His mother and the descendants of his three brothers received 3,000 men each.

Mongol Empire[link]

Politics and economics[link]

Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire was governed by a civilian and military code, called the Yassa, created by Genghis Khan. The Mongol Empire did not emphasize the importance of ethnicity and race in the administrative realm, instead adopting an approach grounded in meritocracy. The exception was the role of Genghis Khan and his family. The Mongol Empire was one of the most ethnically and culturally diverse empires in history, as befitted its size. Many of the empire's nomadic inhabitants considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life, including Turks, Mongols, and others and included many diverse Khans of various ethnicities as part of the Mongol Empire such as Muhammad Khan.

There were tax exemptions for religious figures and, to some extent, teachers and doctors. The Mongol Empire practiced religious tolerance to a large degree because Mongol tradition had long held that religion was a very personal concept, and not subject to law or interference.^{[citation needed]} Sometime before the rise of Genghis Khan, Ong Khan, his mentor and eventual rival, had converted to Nestorian Christianity. Various Mongol tribes were Buddhist, Muslim, shamanist or Christian. Religious tolerance was thus a well established concept on the Asian steppe.

Modern Mongolian historians say that towards the end of his life, Genghis Khan attempted to create a civil state under the Great Yassa that would have established the legal equality of all individuals, including women.^[42] However, there is no contemporary evidence of this, or of the lifting of discriminatory policies towards sedentary peoples such as the Chinese. Women played a relatively important role in Mongol Empire and in family, for example Töregene Khatun was briefly in charge of the Mongol Empire when next male Khagan was being chosen. Modern scholars refer to the alleged policy of encouraging trade and communication as the Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace).

Genghis Khan realised that he needed people who could govern cities and states conquered by him. He also realised that such administrators could not be found among his Mongol people because they were nomads and thus had no experience governing cities. For this purpose Genghis Khan invited a Khitan prince, Chu'Tsai, who worked for the Jin and had been captured by the Mongol army after the Jin Dynasty were defeated. Jin had captured power by displacing Khitan. Genghis told Chu'Tsai, who was a lineal descendant of Khitan rulers, that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forefathers. Chu'Tsai responded that his father served the Jin Dynasty honestly and so did he; he did not consider his own father his enemy, so the question of revenge did not apply. Genghis Khan was very impressed by this reply. Chu'Tsai administered parts of the Mongol Empire and became a confidant of the successive Mongol Khans.

Military[link]

Reenactment of Mongol military movement.

Genghis Khan put absolute trust in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe and Subutai, and regarded them as close advisors, often extending them the same privileges and trust normally reserved for close family members. He allowed them to make decisions on their own when they embarked on campaigns far from the Mongol Empire capital Karakorum. Genghis Khan expected unwavering loyalty from his generals, and granted them a great deal of autonomy in making command decisions. Muqali, a trusted general, was given command of the Mongol forces against the Jin Dynasty while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia, and Subutai and Jebe were allowed to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucausus and Kievan Rus, an idea they had presented to the Khagan on their own initiative. The Mongol military was also successful in siege warfare, cutting off resources for cities and towns by diverting certain rivers, taking enemy prisoners and driving them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, techniques and tools from the people they conquered, particularly in employing Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to aid the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. Another standard tactic of the Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from the larger group and defended position for ambush and counterattack.

Another important aspect of the military organization of Genghis Khan was the communications and supply route or Yam, adapted from previous Chinese models. Genghis Khan dedicated special attention to this in order to speed up the gathering of military intelligence and official communications. To this end, Yam waystations were established all over the empire.^[43] The followers of Temujin consisted of several Christians, three Muslims, and several Buddhists. They were united only in their devotion to Temujin and their oath to him and each other. The oaths sworn at Baljuna created a type of brotherhood, and in transcending kinship, ethnicity, and religion, it came close to being a type of modern civic citizenship based upon personal choice and commitment. This connection became a metaphor for the new type of community among Temujin's followers that eventually dominated as the basis of unity within the Mongol Empire.

Khanates[link]

Several years before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons Ögedei, Chagatai, Tolui, and Jochi (Jochi's death several months before Genghis Khan meant that his lands were instead split between his sons, Batu and Orda) into several Khanates designed as sub-territories: their Khans were expected to follow the Great Khan, who was, initially, Ögedei.

Modern day location of capital Kharakhorum

Following are the Khanates the way Genghis Khan assigned them:

• Empire of the Great Khan: Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, took most of Eastern Asia, including China; this territory later to comprise the Yuan Dynasty under Kubilai Khan.
• Mongol homeland (present day Mongolia, including Karakorum): Tolui Khan, being the youngest son, received a small territory near the Mongol homeland, following Mongol custom.
• Chagatai Khanate: Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son, was given Central Asia and northern Iran.
• Blue Horde to Batu Khan, and White Horde to Orda Khan, both were later combined into the Kipchak Khanate, or Khanate of the Golden Horde, under Toqtamysh. Genghis Khan's eldest son, Jochi, had received most of the distant Russia and Ruthenia. Because Jochi died before Genghis Khan, his territory was further split up between his sons. Batu Khan launched an invasion of Russia, and later Hungary and Poland, and crushed several armies before being summoned back by the news of Ögedei's death.

After Genghis Khan[link]

Genghis Khan's son and successor, Ögedei Khan

Contrary to popular belief, Genghis Khan did not conquer all of the areas of the Mongol Empire. At the time of his death, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan. The empire's expansion continued for a generation or more after Genghis's death in 1227. Under Genghis's successor Ögedei Khan the speed of expansion reached its peak. Mongol armies pushed into Persia, finished off the Xi Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the imperial Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that lasted until 1279 and that concluded with the Mongols gaining control of all of China. They also pushed further into Russia and eastern Europe.

Perceptions[link]

Like other notable conquerors, Genghis Khan is portrayed differently by those he conquered and those who conquered with him. Negative views of Genghis Khan are very persistent within histories written by many different cultures, from a number of different geographical regions. They often cite the cruelties and destruction brought upon by Mongol armies, not to mention the systematic slaughter of civilians in the conquered regions; other authors cite positive aspects of Genghis Khan's conquests as well.

Positive[link]

Genghis Khan on the reverse of a Kazakhstan 100 Tenge coin

Genghis Khan is credited with bringing the Silk Road under one cohesive political environment. This allowed increased communication and trade between the West, Middle East and Asia, thus expanding the horizons of all three cultural areas. Some historians have noted that Genghis Khan instituted certain levels of meritocracy in his rule, was tolerant of different religions and explained his policies clearly to all his soldiers.^[44] In Turkey, Genghis Khan is looked on as a great military leader, and it is popular for male children to carry his title as name.^[45]

In Mongolia[link]

Traditionally Genghis Khan had been revered for centuries among the Mongols, and also among certain other ethnic groups such as the Turks, largely because of his association with Mongol statehood, political and military organization, and his historic victories in war. He eventually evolved into a larger-than-life figure chiefly among the Mongols and is still considered the symbol of Mongolian culture.

Equestrian statue of Genghis Khan, the largest (40 metres tall) in the world, near Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.

During the communist period, Genghis Khan was often described as a reactionary, and positive statements about him were generally avoided.^[46] In 1962, the erection of a monument at his birthplace and a conference held in commemoration of his 800th birthday led to criticism from the Soviet Union, and resulted in the dismissal of Tömör-Ochir, a secretary of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee.

In the early 1990s, when democracy was established in Mongolia, the memory of Genghis Khan with the Mongolian national identity has had a powerful revival partly because of his perception during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became one of the central figures of the national identity. He is looked upon positively by Mongolians for his role in uniting various warring tribes. For example, it is not uncommon for Mongolians to refer to Mongolia as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia", to themselves as "Genghis Khan's children", and to Genghis Khan as the "father of the Mongols" especially among the younger generation. However, there is a chasm in the perception of his brutality, Mongolians maintain that the historical records written by non-Mongolians are unfairly biased against Genghis Khan, and that his butchery is exaggerated, while his positive role is underrated.^[47]

Genghis Khan on the Mongolian 1,000 tögrög banknote

In Mongolia today, Genghis Khan's name and likeness are endorsed on products, streets, buildings, and other places. His face can be found on everyday commodities, from liquor bottles to candy products, and on the largest denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000 Mongolian tögrög (₮). Mongolia's main international airport in Ulaanbaatar has been renamed Chinggis Khaan International Airport, and major Genghis Khan statues have been erected before the parliament^[48] and near Ulaanbaatar. There have been repeated discussions about regulating the use of his name and image to avoid trivialization.^[49]

Portrait on a hillside in Ulaanbaatar, 2006

Genghis Khan is regarded as one of the prominent leaders in Mongolia's history.^[50] He is responsible for the emergence of the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity because there was no unified identity between the various tribes that had cultural similarity. He reinforced many Mongol traditions and provided stability and unity during a time of almost endemic warfare between various tribes. He is also given credit for the introduction of the traditional Mongolian script and the creation of the Ikh Zasag, the first written Mongolian law.^[51] In summary, Mongolians see him as the fundamental figure in the founding of the Mongol Empire, and therefore the basis for Mongolia as a country.

Mixed[link]

In China[link]

Genghis Khan Monument in Hohhot

There are conflicting views of Genghis Khan in the People's Republic of China with some viewing him positively in the Inner Mongolia region where there is a monument and buildings about him and where there are considerable Mongols in the area with a population of around 5 million, almost twice the population of Mongolia. While Genghis Khan never conquered all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan completed that conquest,^[52] and established the Yuan Dynasty that is often credited with re-uniting China. There has also been much artwork and literature praising Genghis as a great military leader and political genius. The years of the Mongol-established Yuan Dynasty left an indelible imprint on Chinese political and social structures for subsequent generations with literature during the Jin Dynasty relatively fewer. In general the legacy of Genghis Khan and his successors, who completed the conquest of China after 65 years of struggle, remains a mixed topic, even to this day.

China suffered a drastic decline in population.^[53] North China (then the most populous part) is thought to have lost about three- quarters of its population. The census of 1195 showed a population of 50 million people in north China [whereas] the first Mongol census of 1235–36 counted only 8.5 million. Admittedly, some of the population decline in Northern China must also be attributed to the large migration to Southern China, but exact figures are hard to find.^[54] Within China many people still retain the more traditional view that Genghis Khan was a barbarian invader.

Negative[link]

Invasions like the Battle of Baghdad by his grandson are treated as brutal and are seen negatively in Iraq. This illustration is from a 15th century Jami' al-tawarikh manuscript.

In the Middle East and Iran, he is almost universally looked on as a destructive and genocidal warlord who caused enormous damage and destruction to the population of these areas.^[55] Steven R. Ward wrote that "Overall, the Mongol violence and depredations killed up to three-fourths of the population of the Iranian Plateau, possibly 10 to 15 million people. Some historians have estimated that Iran's population did not again reach its pre-Mongol levels until the mid-20th century."^[56] Similarly, in Afghanistan (along with other non-Turkic Muslim countries) he is generally viewed unfavorably though some groups display ambivalence as it is believed that the Hazara of Afghanistan are descendants of a large Mongol garrison stationed therein.^[57][58]

The invasions of Baghdad, Samarkand, Urgench, Kiev, Vladimir among others caused mass murders, such as when portions of southern Khuzestan were completely destroyed. His descendant, Hulagu Khan destroyed much of Iran's northern part and sacked Baghdad although his forces were halted by the Mamluks of Egypt. According to the works of the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, the Mongols killed more than 70 thousand people in Merv and more than 190 thousand in Nishapur. In 1237 Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, launched an invasion into Kievan Rus'. Over the course of three years, the Mongols destroyed and annihilated all of the major cities of Eastern Europe with the exceptions of Novgorod and Pskov.

Giovanni de Plano Carpini, the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote:

"They [the Mongols] attacked Rus, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Rus; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and heavily populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery."^[59]

Among the Iranian peoples, Genghis Khan is regarded along with Hulegu and Timur as one of the most despised conquerors in the region.^[60][61]

Although the famous Mughal Emperors were proud descendants of Genghis Khan and particularly Timur, they clearly distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Khwarizim Shahs, Turks, Persians, the citizens of Baghdad and Damascus, Nishapur, Bukhara and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur and many other notable Muslims. However, Mughal Emperors directly patronized the legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur, together their names were synonymous with the names of other distinguished personalities particularly among the Muslim populations of South Asia.

In much of Russia, Middle East, Korea, China, Ukraine, Poland and Hungary, Genghis Khan and his regime are credited with considerable damage, destruction and loss of population.

Descent[link]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2011)

Zerjal et al. [2003]^[57] identified a Y-chromosomal lineage present in about 8% of the men in a large region of Asia (about 0.5% of the world total). The paper suggests that the pattern of variation within the lineage is consistent with a hypothesis that it originated in Mongolia about 1,000 years ago. Because the rate of such a spread would be too rapid to have occurred by genetic drift, the authors propose that the lineage is carried by likely male-line descendants of Genghis Khan, and that it has spread through social selection. In Mongolia alone as many as 200,000 of the country's 2 million people could be Khan descendants.^[7] In addition to most of the Mongol nobility up to the 20th century, the Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendant. Timur (also known as Tamerlane), the 14th century military leader, claimed descent from Genghis Khan. Genghis Khan was one of the most powerful warlords during his reign, as a result the harem that he kept was of enormous size. It is said that his harem reached anywhere from 2,000–3,000 women.^[who?] There are so many descendants of Genghis Khan not only because of the size of his harem, but also because of the size of his sons' harems and that they ruled their own separate kingdoms.

Physical appearance[link]

There are some debate as to whether Genghis Khan was fully Mongoloid or mixed Mongoloid/Caucasoid as there is no historical portrait of Genghis Khan. The only piece of evidence attributed to his Caucasoidness was the description from Rashid al-Din that recorded him being a red haired with green eyes, however these traits evidently still exists in some modern Mongols who are predominately Mongoloid in appearance and inherit all light hair and light eyes traits such as blue or green eyes and blonde or red hair. A certain number of Mongols, particularly the Oirat tribe in western Mongolia tend to exhibit lighter features such as fair skin, blue or green eyes, varying shades of brown hair, and sometimes even red or blonde hair.^[15] Adding to the fact that Zerjal et al. identified Genghis Khan paternal DNA Y-chromosomal lineage to be Haplogroup C3 which is a common mongoloid marker among Tungustic people, this would make Genghis Khan more likely to be either predominately Mongoloid or at least a Euro-Mongoloid hybrid. Genetic testing of ethnic Mongolians mtDNA in Xinjiang China were found to have 14.3% west Eurasian mtDNA.^[62] Which shows significant number of Europoid maternal contribution into the Mongolian mtDNA gene pool.

Depictions in modern culture[link]

The Genghis Khan Mausoleum in the town of Ejin Horo Qi, China

There have been several films, novels and other adaptation works on the Mongolian ruler.

Films[link]

• Genghis Khan, a 1950 Philippine film directed by Manuel Conde.
• Changez Khan, a 1957 Indian film directed by Kedar Kapoor.
• Changez Khan, a 1958 Pakistani film.
• The Conqueror, released in 1956 and starring John Wayne as Temüjin and Susan Hayward as Börte.
• Genghis Khan (1965 film) starring Omar Sharif.
• Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure 1989 film starring Keanu Reeves, Alex Winter with Al Leong as Genghis Khan.
• Under The Eternal Blue Sky a Mongolian film directed by Nyamgavaa released in 1990.
• Genghis Khan (1992 film) starring Richard Tyson, Charlton Heston and Pat Morita.
• Genghis Khan - A Proud Son Of Heaven (1998 film), made in Mongolian, with English subtitles.
• Genghis Khan: To the Ends of the Earth and Sea, also known as The Descendant of Gray Wolf, a Japanese-Mongolian film released in 2007.
• Mongol, a film by Sergei Bodrov released in 2007. (Academy Award nominee for Best Foreign Language Film).
• No Right to Die - Chinggis Khaan, a Mongolian film released in 2008.
• By the Will of Genghis Khan, a Russian film released in 2009.

TV series[link]

Genghis Khan was discussed in a third season episode of Deadliest Warrior, first aired on May 26, 2011. The show, which is produced by the American cable channel Spike, pits various figures from history against each other in computer analyzed hypothetical battle scenarios to determine the outcome in a hypothetical confrontation. The show's panel determined that in a hypothetical battle with Hannibal, the Mongol steel armor would be a deciding factor and so Genghis Khan would be the victor.

Genghis Khan makes a brief appearance in the Season Four episode of The Simpsons, Marge vs. the Monorail, during an imaginary vision by Lisa Simpson where the Springfield Elementary School uses some of a $3 million fine paid by C. Montgomery Burns to install a virtual reality education system.

Novels[link]

• 1 Jenghiz Khan, by Vasili Yan, trans. L. E. Britton, publisher. Hutchinson • 2 Batu Khan. by Vasili Yan, trans. L. E. Britton, publisher. Hutchinson

• The Conqueror series of novels by Conn Iggulden
• "You Can't, But Genghis Khan" from the Time Warp Trio book series

Short stories[link]

• The Private Life of Genghis Khan by Douglas Adams and Graham Chapman

Music[link]

• West German pop band Dschinghis Khan took its name from Genghis Khan. They participated in the Eurovision contest of 1979 with a song of the same name.

• English Heavy Metal band Iron Maiden titled an instrumental track Genghis Khan on their 1981 album Killers.

• The band Protest The Hero's song bloodmeat references Genghis Khan and the Khanate, and re-tells the tale of a small un-militiarised, and unequiped town fighting off a large, elite enemy, which may also be a reference to Genghis Khan.

• Ace Frehley composed and recorded a song named after Genghis Khan in his 2009 album Anomaly.

• Belgian neo-classical/power metal band Iron Mask titled track "Genghis Khan" on their 2011 album Black as Death

Video games[link]

• Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings
• Aoki Ookami to Shiroki Mejika IV: Genghis Khan
• Sid Meier's Civilization Series
• Genghis Khan (video game)
• Genghis Khan II: Clan of the Gray Wolf
• Cengiz Han II: Demir Yumruk (Turkish MMORPG)^[63]

Name and title[link]

There are many theories about the origins of Temüjin's title. Since people of the Mongol nation later associated the name with ching (Mongolian for strength), such confusion is obvious, though it does not follow etymology.

The gate of Genghis Khan Mausoleum

One theory suggests the name stems from a palatalised version of the Mongolian and Turkic word tenggis, meaning "ocean", "oceanic" or "wide-spreading". (Lake Baikal and ocean were called tenggis by the Mongols. However, it seems that if they had meant to call Genghis tenggis they could have said, and written, "Tenggis Khan", which they did not.) Zhèng (Chinese: 正) meaning "right", "just", or "true", would have received the Mongolian adjectival modifier -s, creating "Jenggis", which in medieval romanization would be written "Genghis". It is likely that the 13th century Mongolian pronunciation would have closely matched "Chinggis".^[64]

The English spelling "Genghis" is of unclear origin. Weatherford claims it derives from a spelling used in original Persian reports. Even at this time some Iranians pronounce his name as "Ghengiss". However, review of historical Persian sources does not confirm this.^[65]

According to the Secret History of the Mongols, Temüjin was named after a powerful warrior of the Tatar tribe that his father Yesügei had taken prisoner. The name "Temüjin" is believed to derive from the word temür, meaning iron (modern Mongolian: төмөр, tömör). The name would imply skill as a blacksmith.

More likely, as no evidence has survived to indicate that Genghis Khan had any exceptional training or reputation as a blacksmith, the name indicated an implied lineage in a family once known as blacksmiths. The latter interpretation is supported by the names of Genghis Khan's siblings, Temülin and Temüge, which are derived from the same root word.

Monument in Hulunbuir

Name and spelling variations[link]

Genghis Khan's name is spelled in variety of ways in different languages such as Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéngjísī Hán, Turkic: Cengiz Han, Çingiz Xan, Çingiz Han, Chingizxon, Çıñğız Xan, Chengez Khan, Chinggis Khan, Chinggis Xaan, Chingis Khan, Jenghis Khan, Chinggis Qan, Djingis Kahn, Russian: Чингисхан (Čingiskhan) or Чингиз-хан (Čingiz-khan), etc. Temüjin is written in Chinese as simplified Chinese: 铁木真; traditional Chinese: 鐵木眞; pinyin: Tiěmùzhēn.

When Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty in 1271, he had his grandfather Genghis Khan placed on the official record as the founder of the dynasty or Taizu (Chinese: 太祖). Thus, Genghis Khan is also referred to as Yuan Taizu (Chinese: 元太祖) in Chinese historiography.

Timeline[link]

Statue of Genghis Khan at his mausoleum in Ejin Horo Qi, China

• Probably 1155, 1162, or 1167: Temüjin was born in the Khentii mountains.
• At the age of nine, Temüjin's father Yesükhei was poisoned by Tatars, leaving him and his family destitute.
• c. 1184: Temüjin's wife Börte was kidnapped by Merkits; he called on blood brother Jamukha and Wang Khan for aid, and they rescued her.
• c. 1185: First son Jochi was born; leading to doubt about his paternity later among Genghis' children, because he was born shortly after Börte's rescue from the Merkits.
• 1190: Temüjin united the Mongol tribes, became leader, and devised code of law Yassa.
• 1201: Victory over Jamukha's Jadarans.
• 1202: Adopted as Wang Khan's heir after successful campaigns against Tatars.
• 1203: Victory over Wang Khan's Keraits. Wang Khan himself is killed by accident by allied Naimans.
• 1204: Victory over Naimans (all these confederations are united and become the Mongols).
• 1206: Jamukha was killed. Temüjin was given the title Genghis Khan by his followers in a Kurultai (around 40 years of age).
• 1207–1210: Genghis led operations against the Western Xia, which comprises much of northwestern China and parts of Tibet. Western Xia ruler submitted to Genghis Khan. During this period, the Uyghurs also submitted peacefully to the Mongols and became valued administrators throughout the empire.
• 1211: After the kurultai, Genghis led his armies against the Jin Dynasty ruling northern China.
• 1215: Beijing fell; Genghis Khan turned to west and the Khara-Kitan Khanate.
• 1219–1222: Conquered Khwarezmid Empire.
• 1226: Started the campaign against the Western Xia for forming coalition against the Mongols, the second battle with the Western Xia.
• 1227: Genghis Khan died after conquering the Tangut people. Cause of death is uncertain, although legend states that he was thrown off his horse in the battle and contracted a deadly fever soon after.

Notes[link]

1. ^ Chinese: 成吉思汗; pinyin: Chéng Jí Sī Hán
   Birth name:
   Temujin /təˈmuːdʒɪn/;
   Mongolian: Тэмүжин Temujin [tʰemutʃiŋ] ( listen);
   Middle Mongolian: Temujin;^[1]
   traditional Chinese: 鐵木真; simplified Chinese: 铁木真; pinyin: Tiě mù zhēn

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

• Ratchnevsky, Paul (1992, c1991). Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy [Čingis-Khan: sein Leben und Wirken]. tr. & ed. Thomas Nivison Haining. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., US: B. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16785-4. 
• Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. Bantam Press, London. ISBN 978-0-553-81498-9.

Further reading[link]

• Brent, Peter (1976). The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan: His Triumph and His Legacy. London: Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN 0-297-77137-X. 
• Bretschneider, Emilii (1888, repr. 2001). Mediæval Researches from Eastern Asiatic Sources; Fragments Towards the Knowledge of the Geography & History of Central & Western Asia. Trübner's Oriental Series. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co (repr. Munshirm Manoharlal Pub Pvt Ltd). ISBN 81-215-1003-1. 
• Cable, Mildred; Francesca French (1943). The Gobi Desert. London: Landsborough Publications. 
• Charney, Israel W. (ed.) (1994). Genocide: A Critical Bibliographic Review. New York: Facts on File Publications. 
• De Hartog, Leo (1988). Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.. 
• (French) Farale, Dominique (2002). De Gengis Khan à Qoubilaï Khan : la grande chevauchée mongole. Campagnes & stratégies. Paris: Economica. ISBN 2-7178-4537-2. 
• (French) Farale, Dominique (2007). La Russie et les Turco-Mongols : 15 siècles de guerre. Paris: Economica. ISBN 978-2-7178-5429-9. 
• "Genghis Khan". Funk & Wagnalls New Encyclopedia. World Almanac Education Group. 2005. Archived from the original on January 13, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060113174030/http://www.historychannel.com/thcsearch/thc_resourcedetail.do?encyc_id=210250. Retrieved May 22, 2008.  Via the Internet Archive's copy of the History Channel Web site.
• Smitha, Frank E. "Genghis Khan and the Mongols". Macrohistory and World Report. http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h11mon.htm. Retrieved June 30, 2005. 
• Kahn, Paul (adaptor) (1998). Secret History of the Mongols: The Origin of Chingis Khan (expanded edition): An Adaptation of the Yüan chʾao pi shih, Based Primarily on the English Translation by Francis Woodman Cleaves. Asian Culture Series. Boston: Cheng & Tsui Co.. ISBN 0-88727-299-1. 
• Kennedy, Hugh (2002). Mongols, Huns & Vikings. London: Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35292-6. 
• Kradin, Nikolay; Tatiana Skrynnikova (2006). Imperiia Chingis-khana (Chinggis Khan Empire). Moscow: Vostochnaia literatura. ISBN 5-02-018521-3.  (Russian) (summary in English)
• Kradin, Nikolay; Tatiana Skrynnikova (2006). "Why do we call Chinggis Khan's Polity 'an Empire'". Ab Imperio 7 (1): 89–118. 5-89423-110-8. 
• Lamb, Harold (1927). Genghis Khan: The Emperor of All Men. New York: R. M. McBride & company. 
• Lister, R. P. (2000 [c1969]). Genghis Khan. Lanham, Maryland: Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1052-2. 
• Man, John (2004). Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection. London; New York: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-593-05044-4. 
• Man, John (1997, 1998, 1999). Gobi: Tracking the Desert. London; New Haven, Conn: Weidenfeld & Nicolson; Yale University Press. ISBN 0-7538-0161-2. 
• Martin, Henry Desmond (1950). The Rise of Chingis Khan and his Conquest of North China. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. 
• May, Timothy (2001). "Mongol Arms". Explorations in Empire: Pre-Modern Imperialism Tutorial: The Mongols. San Antonio College History Department. http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/empsub2.html. Retrieved May 22, 2008. 
• Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols. The Peoples of Europe. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 0-631-17563-6. 
• Saunders, J.J. (1972, repr. 2001). History of the Mongol Conquests. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0-8122-1766-7. 
• Stevens, Keith. "Heirs to Discord: The Supratribal Aspirations of Jamukha, Toghrul, and Temüjin"PDF (72.1 KB) Retrieved May 22, 2008.
• Stewart, Stanley (2001). In the Empire of Genghis Khan: A Journey among Nomads. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-00-653027-3. 
• Turnbull, Stephen (2003). Genghis Khan & the Mongol Conquests 1190–1400. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-84176-523-6. 
• Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5. 
• Weatherford, Jack (2004). Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World (review). New York: Crown. ISBN 0-609-61062-7. 
• Zerjal, Xue, Bertorelle, Wells, Bao, Zhu, Qamar, Ayub, Mohyuddin, Fu, Li, Yuldasheva, Ruzibakiev, Xu, Shu, Du, Yang, Hurles, Robinson, Gerelsaikhan, Dashnyam, Mehdi, Tyler-Smith (2003). "The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols" ( – ^{Scholar search}). The American Journal of Human Genetics 72 (3): 717–721;. DOI:10.1086/367774. PMC 1180246. PMID 12592608. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v72n3/024530/024530.web.pdf. ^{[dead link]}

Primary sources[link]

• Juvaynī, Alā al-Dīn Atā Malik, 1226–1283 (1997). Genghis Khan: The History of the World-Conqueror [Tarīkh-i jahāngushā]. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 0-295-97654-3. 
  • Juvaini, 'ala-ad-Din 'Ata-Malik (1958). History of the World-Conqueror. tr. John Andrew Boyle. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 361. http://archive.org/details/historyoftheworl011691mbp. Retrieved 2012-04-16. 
• Rashid al-Din Tabib (1995). A Compendium of Chronicles: Rashid al-Din's Illustrated History of the World Jami' al-Tawarikh. The Nasser D. Khalili Collection of Islamic Art, Vol. XXVII. Sheila S. Blair (ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-727627-X. 
• Rashid al-Din Tabib (1971). The Successors of Genghis Khan (extracts from Jami’ Al-Tawarikh). UNESCO Collection of Representative Works: Persian heritage series. tr. from the Persian by John Andrew Boyle. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03351-6. http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109217551. 
• The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century [Yuan chao bi shi]. Brill's Inner Asian Library vol. 7. tr. Igor de Rachewiltz. Leiden; Boston: Brill. 2004. ISBN 90-04-13159-0. 

External links[link]

Find more about Genghis Khan on Wikipedia's sister projects:
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• Genghis Khan on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
• Book Review of Genghis Khan by Leo De Hartog
• Genghis Khan and the Mongols
• Welcome to The Realm of the Mongols
• Parts of this biography were taken from the Area Handbook series at the Library of Congress
• Estimates of Mongol warfare casualties
• Genghis Khan on the Web (directory of some 250 resources)
• Mongol Arms
• Genghis Khan's leadership approach – LeaderValues
• ‘Ala’ al-Din ‘Ata Malik Juvayni A History of the World-Conqueror Ghengis Genghis Khan, Ata al-Mulk Juvayni and Rashid-al-Din Hamadani

v t e Khagans of the Mongol Empire (1206–1370)
Genghis Khan (1206–1227) • Tolui Khan (regent) (1227–1229) • Ögedei Khan (1229–1241) • Töregene Khatun (regent) (1241–1246) • Güyük Khan (1246–1248) • Oghul Qaimish (regent) (1248–1251) • Möngke Khan (1251–1259) • Kublai Khan (1260–1294)
The Kublaid Great Khans
Temür Khan (1294–1307) • Külüg Khan (1307–1311) • Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan (1311–1320) • Gegeen Khan(1320–1323) • Yesün Temür Khan (1323–1328) • Ragibagh Khan (1328) • Jayaatu Khan (1328–1329) • Khutughtu Khan (1329) • Jayaatu Khan(1329–1332) • Rinchinbal Khan (1332) • Ukhaantu Khan (1333–1370)
<timeline> ImageSize = width:550 height:100 PlotArea = width:530 height:40 left:10 bottom:30 DateFormat = yyyy Period = from:1200 till:1300 TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1200 there is no automatic collision detection, so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap Define $dy = 15 Define $dys = 26 PlotData= bar:Leaders width:20 mark:(line,white) align:left fontsize:S color:green from:1206 till:1227 shift:(-20,$dy) text:Genghis color:blue from:1227 till:1229 shift:(-15,$dy) text:Tolui color:green from:1229 till:1241 shift:(-22,$dy) text:Ögedei color:blue from:1241 till:1246 shift:(-30,$dy) text:Töregene color:green from:1246 till:1248 shift:(-15,$dys) text:Güyük color:blue from:1248 till:1251 shift:(-10,$dy) text:Oghul color:green from:1251 till:1259 shift:(-5,$dy) text:Möngke color:blue from:1260 till:1294 shift:(-20,$dy) text:Kublai Khan </timeline>

Prashant Bhushan (Hindi: प्रशांत भूषण) (born 1956) is an advocate practising in the Supreme Court of India in Delhi and a social activist. He has been involved in many Public Interest Litigation cases and is a senior member of "Team Anna", which supports Anna Hazare in his anti-corruption campaign. He has drawn controversy over various statements, including accusing chief judges of corruption and supporting a plebiscite for Kashmir separatists.

Birth and education[link]

Prashant is the son of Shanti Bhushan, who was union minister for law in the government of Morarji Desai between 1977 and 1979. Bhushan dropped out of studying mechanical engineering at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras after a semester. He then studied first economics and then philosophy of science at Princeton University but left before graduating and returned to India where he received a law degree from Allahabad University.^[1]

Career[link]

Prashant Bhushan began practising as an advocate in the Supreme Court of India in 1983, specialising in Public Interest Litigation. His main areas of interest have been Human Rights, the Environment and ensuring that public servants are accountable. He is associated with various organisations including the Centre for Public Interest Litigation, People's Union for Civil Liberties, Committee on Judicial Accountability and Transparency International (India).^[2] As of 2012 Bhushan was the convenor of the Working Committee of the Campaign for Judicial Accountability and Judicial Reforms.^[3]

Centre for Public Interest Litigation[link]

Bhushan has acted as an advocate for the Centre for Public Interest Litigation (CPIL) on several occasions. In October 1997 the Delhi High Court heard a CPIL petition over the award of contracts to Enron and Reliance Industries to develop the Panna-Mukta oilfield, and issued notices to the involved companies and government organisations. Prashant Bhushan acted as advocate for CPIL. The petition claimed an inquiry was justified on the basis of testimony that Reliance had bribed the minister of petroleum, Satish Sharma, to get the award.^[4] The CPIL won a major victory in 2003 when the Supreme Court restrained the Central government from privatising Hindustan Petroleum and Bharat Petroleum without the approval of Parliament.^[5] As counsel for the CPIL, Rajinder Sachar and Bhushan argued that the only way to disinvest in the companies would be to repeal or amend the Acts by which they were nationalised in the 1970s.^[6] As a result, the government would need a majority in both houses to push through any privatisation.^[7]

Shanti and Prashant Bhushan were council for the CPIL seeking a direction from the Supreme Court that Dalits who had converted to Christianity should be entitled to the same reservation they had enjoyed as members of Scheduled Castes. The Union government said this was purely a legislative matter, but in February 2005 the Supreme Court decided to again review the constitutional issue.^[8] In February 2005 Bhushan and Anil B. Divan were counsel for CPIL seeking quashing of the CVC Act, 2003, which requires the CBI to obtain permission from the Union government before registering corruption cases against senior bureaucrats. Bhushan argued that the act violated the basic rights of citizens and was counter to the rule of law. The Supreme Court referred the question to a constitution bench of five judges.^[9]

Bhushan represented the CPIL in a petition asking for the removal of Neera Yadav from office as Chief Secretary of Uttar Pradesh for alleged corruption. Yadav had been named in five CBI corruption cases and 23 departmental proceedings. In October 2005 the Supreme Court directed the Mulayam Singh state government to remove her from her position.^[10] Yadav managed to stall her prosecution, but in December 2006 the Supreme Court removed all obstacles to her trial.^[11] The case became the first in which an IAS officer of Uttar Pradesh was convicted of corruption.^[12]

In 2006 Bhushan represented the CPIL in a petition alleging that Pepsico and Coca-Cola were failing to warn the public of harmful ingredients in their beverages, and were luring young children through misleading advertising.^[13] In 2007, Bhushan filed a petition on behalf of the CPIL with the Delhi High Court to investigate whether there had been kickbacks in the 2005 Scorpene submarine deal. The High Court took a strong line with the investigating agency, saying "We feel dissatisfied with that you've done so far. If you've tried to shield someone, then we will come down very heavily on you".^[14]

Prashant Bhushan acted for the CPIL when it took the lead in filing a suit against the Government of India for irregularities in a major award of spectrum for 2G mobile telephones. The CPIL petition alleged that the government had lost $15.53 billion by issuing spectrum in 2008 based on 2001 prices, and by not following a competitive bidding process.^[15] In September 2011 Bhushan presented evidence that appeared to disprove the claim by the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) that Dayanidhi Maran, the former telecom minister, had not applied undue pressure to the owner of Aircel to sell to the Maxis group of Malaysia. Bhushan said the CBI's investigation had been "less than honest".^[16] In January 2012 Bhushan questioned why the CBI had failed to lay charges under the Prevention of Corruption Act against companies such as Essar Group and Loop Mobile despite strong evidence against them.^[17] In February 2012 the Supreme Court declared the allocation of spectrum had been illegal.^[18]

Team Anna[link]

On 30 January 2011 there were "India against Corruption" marches across the country to demand strong laws against corruption and passage of the Jan Lokpal Bill for independent oversight of politicians and bureaucrats. Prashant Bhushan and his father Shanti Bhushan were among the marchers in Delhi. Others prominent protesters included Kiran Bedi, Arvind Kejriwal, Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Swami Agnivesh, Maulana Mahmood Madani, Vincent Conçessao, Aruna Roy and Harsh Mander.^[19] At another anti-corruption rally on 26 February 2011 the activist Anna Hazare said he would start an indefinite fast on 5 April unless decisive action was taken on the Lokpal Bill. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh invited Hazare, Swami Aginvesh, Prashant and Shanti Bhushan and Kiran Bedi to meet with him on 7 March.^[20] Anna Hazare nominated Prashant Bhushan and his father Shanti as civil society members of the joint committee constituted in April 2011 to draft the Lokpal Bill.^[21] Other civil society members were Hazare himself, Karnataka Lokayukta (ombudsman) N. Santosh Hegde and Arvind Kejriwal. All these members decided to declare their assets.^[22]

In May 2011 Bhushan said "The basic idea of an empowered Lokpal is that it will have full autonomy, independence from the government, power to investigate complaints of corruption and prosecute all public servants, among other. This principle is non-negotiable". He said that only the details were open for discussion.^[23] The Team Anna "Jan Lokpal Bill" had eleven members accountable to the Supreme Court, and supervised by complaint authorities. The Central Bureau of Investigation anti-corruption unit would report to the Jan Lokpal, thus maintaining independence from the government in investigations.^[24] Later in May Bhushan and fellow civil-society member Arvind Kejriwal said the government was breaking its word by saying the Lokpal should not be able to investigate the Prime Minister. The government was also against letting the Lokpal investigate senior judges, defence services and the conduct of MPs within parliament. The only scope for Lokpal investigations would be corruption by MPs outside parliament, and a small number of senior civil servants.^[25] At this point a breakdown in the talks seemed inevitable.^[26]

In June 2011 Bhushan pointed out that key proposals made by Team Anna had been omitted from the latest government draft. These included the power to tap telephones and to recommend that public authorities change their work practices to make corruption less likely and to prevent victimisation of whistle blowers. Lokpal should also be able to recommend cancellation of contracts and blacklisting of firms or people involved in corrupt practices. The CBI anti-corruption wing should come under Lokpal and be independent of the central government.^[27]

That month Baba Ramdev began an "indefinite fast against corruption". Bhushan criticised Ramdev's decision to share his platform with leaders from the Hindutva organisations Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and Vishwa Hindu Parishad.^[28]

On 4 August 2011 the government's version of the Lokpal bill was tabled in the Lok Sabha.^[29] Bhushan said the government's draft should be called the "Promotion of Corruption Bill 2011" or the "Protection of Corrupt Public Servants Bill 2011". He said the bill was designed to protect the corrupt and to deter complaints.^[24] On 10 August Bhushan said Team Anna demanded that this version be withdrawn. He said: "We are going to put forward our views, that how the Bill prepared by the government will encourage corruption instead of curbing it and will provide protection to the corrupt officials".^[29]

Following Hazare's detention for staging a demonstration, on 16 August 2011 Prashant Bhushan said that peaceful protests had been arranged across the country. He said the Delhi police had detained Hazare at the bidding of the cabinet: "There is no freedom for Delhi Police. It has become a puppet, an ornament in the hands of Central government".^[30] Later that month Anna Hazare began a hunger strike. Bhushan said the government could not postpone passing a proper Lokpal bill indefinitely. He reported that Anna Hazare had said he would fast until Hazare's draft Lokpal bill was introduced into parliament and passed, or that he would fast until death.^[31] On 28 August Hazare called off his fast. Two days later it was announced that Arvind Kejriwal and Prashant Bhushan would have an informal meeting with Abhishek Singhvi, chairman of the parliamentary Standing Committee on Law and Justice to discuss how the committee would proceed in reconciling the various draft anti-corruption laws, which could take several months.^[32]

In September 2011 Bhushan criticised the proposed National Judicial Oversight Committee. He said that inclusion of "brother judges" in the committee would prevent it acting impartially, and including two MPs in the committee would compromise judicial independence. Team Anna had proposed a 5-person committee independent of both the executive and the judiciary.^[33] In January 2012 Bhushan said in a press conference that Team Anna was working on a draft amendment to the constitution that would ensure the people had more say in the framing of laws.^[34] Bhushan and Hazare both opposed the Lokpal bill that was eventually introduced by the government, saying in February 2012 that it was very weak.^[35]

Other cases[link]

Bhushan has acted on a wide variety of high-profile cases. In 1992 he initiated a petition in the high court of Karantaka alleging bribery in the Mangalore Power Company project. After seven years, this was eventually dismissed.^[36] In 1998, as counsel for Arun Kumar Aggarwal, he initiated a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) against the Union Government of India and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) for retaining SEBI chairman D.R. Mehta after his three-year term had expired.^[37] Prashant Bhushan and Nitya Ramakrishnan were appointed counsel for the four people accused of the attack on parliament on 13 December 2001.^[38] The four were found guilty on 16 December 2002.^[39]

Bhushan assisted the Narmada Bachao Andolan activists opposed to the Sardar Sarovar Dam.^[2] After six years of hearings, in October 2000 the Supreme court ruled to allow the massive project to recommence. Bhushan criticised the decision for having been made "without any evidence of the facts [being presented] before the judges".^[40] Bhushan defended novellist Arundhati Roy when she was charged with contempt of court for publicly criticising judges in the dam hearings. In March 2002 she was sentenced to one day in jail. According to Bhushan the judges were "just affronted by the fact that somebody has dared to criticise them".^[41] In April 2002 a constitutional bench ruled that the decisions of the Supreme Court could not be assailed, but someone who felt they had suffered a gross miscarriage' of justice could move a "curative" petition. Bhushan described this ruling as retrograde – a step backward.^[42]

In 2003 Bhushan filed a petition against Akhand Pratap Singh, chief secretary of the Uttar Pradesh state government, challenging a decision to extend his tenure. The petition alleged that Singh had been voted "most corrupt officer" in 1997 by the UP IAS Officers Association. The state government had ignored requests to allow a Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) probe into graft charges. In November 2003 the petition was refused.^[43] In July 2005 Bhushan was a member of an independent panel investigating a possible scam involving a company that made a huge profit buying and reselling Mumbai Airport Centaur Hotel and the son in law of former prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.^[44] In September 2005 Bhushan represented Common Cause, a social organisation, seeking to reopen the petrol-pump scam case against Satish Sharma, a former minister of petroleum in the Union government.^[45]

In February 2006, as counsel for Lok Sevak Sangh, Bhushan submitted to the Supreme Court that the MP Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS) might not be constitutionally valid. A TV channel had recently aired video of a sting in which it appeared that some MPs had taken bribes under the scheme. Bhushan said none of the normal controls were being applied, and the scheme was breeding corruption.^[46]

Some other widely discussed cases in which he has appeared relate to the Bofors scandal, disposal of the Dabhol Power Station after the Enron bankruptcy, Doon Valley Mining litigation, Right to Information Act and Mauritius Double Taxation. He appeared in a controversial case in which candidates for election to public office were required to disclose their assets and any criminal convictions.^[2]

Controversy and criticism[link]

Bhushan has often been involved in controversy. He has been criticised by a variety of people including members of both Congress and the BJP.

Judicial corruption allegations[link]

Prashant Bhushan mounted a persistent campaign against judicial immunity, and this influenced the decision in September 2009 that judges would declare their assets. Not long after, Bhushan asserted in an interview published by Tehelka magazine that "half of the last 16 Chief Justices have been corrupt". A lawyer filed a charge of contempt of court against Bhushan and the editor of the magazine. In October 2010 Prashant Bhushan and his father Shanti Bhushan both filed formal affidavits alleging that eight retired chief justices were corrupt. They noted the difficulty of getting documentary evidence because judges are immune from investigation.^[47] Justice Krishna Iyer, a former supreme court judge, said that either Shanti Bhushan and Prashant Bhushan should be punished for making "false charges" or an independent authority should scrutinise their allegations.^[48]

Kashmir plebiscite remarks[link]

On 26 September 2011 Bhushan was asked for his opinion on Kashmir at a press conference in Varanasi. He said: "It is my personal opinion that no country or part of its territory can be governed without the wishes of the people with the help of army...I want that the situation be normalised, [the] Army be withdrawn, the Armed Forces Special Powers Act be also withdrawn and then try to persuade the people of Kashmir to stay with India. And yet, if the people want, then there could be a plebiscite, and if the people of the Valley want separation, they be allowed to separate".^[49]

On 12 October 2011, Bhushan was attacked and beaten up because of this statement.^[50] The incident happened while a Times Now news channel team was interviewing Bhushan.^[51] Three youths entered his chamber in the Supreme Court, dragged him from his chair, slapped and punched him. Two escaped. The third claimed to belong to an organisation called "Bhagat Singh Kranti Sena".^[52] He said: "We will break the heads of those who will try to break India". The incident was captured by the television crew.^[53]

Bhagat Singh Kranti Sena claimed responsibility for the attack.^[54] Six hours before the attack, the group had posted on Facebook: "God give us power to complete our mission."^[55] In a Facebook post afterwards they wrote "we hit prashant bhushan hard in his chamber in supreme court.if u will try to break my nation,i will break ur heads." [sic]^[56] P. Chidambaram, the Home Minister, condemned the attack. He dispatched a representative to the hospital where Bhushan had been taken for a check-up. Digvijaya Singh, General Secretary of Congress, said one of the attackers was a BJP youth worker, a charge that was immediately denied by the BJP.^[57] Bhushan described the activists as having a "fascist mindset" and stood by his statements.^[58]

The Shiv Sena called for Bhushan to be tried for his statements about Kashmir.^[59] Bal Thackeray, the leader of Shiv Sena, said "I praised the people who attacked him. No mercy should be shown to the people who advocate the division of the country".^[60] It was reported on 19 October 2011 that a court in Varanasi had accepted a complaint against Prashant Bhushan requesting a treason case.^[61] Anna Hazare said "Bhushan's statement (on Kashmir) is not the views of the team. He has never asked the team. These are his personal views".^[62] Hazare said "Our core committee will meet to decide on his continuing as a team member. After it meets. I will take a decision".^[63] In the event, Bhushan remained part of the team.^[35] In April 2012 Bhushan said that while Team Anna supported Raj Thackeray's initiative to subject party candidates for election to examinations, they did not support Thackeray's political views.^[64]

Other controversy[link]

In February 2001 a criminal petition was filed with the Supreme Court of India accusing Medha Patkar, Prashant Bhushan and Arundhati Roy of contempt of court for having demonstrated in front of the Supreme court in protest against the judgement on the Sardar Sarovar Dam.^[65] During an interview with a former police office, the anchorperson of the Times Now TV channel turned to the camera and said: "Arundhati Roy and Prashant Bhushan, I hope you are watching this. We think you are disgusting".^[66]

On 2 February 2010 the BJP government of Himachal Pradesh granted Prashant Bhushan's "Kumud Bhushan Educational Society" permission to buy 4.68 hectares (11.6 acres) of land in order to build an educational institution.^[67] The sale was controversial because only the state government can give permission for sale or change of status of tea garden land.^[68] Union minister Virbhadra Singh charged that the sale was illegal. However, Chief Minister Prem Kumar Dhumal rejected these charges in February 2012, defending the grant of relaxations to the educational trust, and countered that the Congress government had been giving land to Tibetans that belonged to Himachal Pradesh.^[69] Bhushan had put up two buildings on the site and was using them to run workshops on policy awareness. He said that the plantation was in disuse and most of the bushes had died, but he had planted new bushes.^[70]

The Bharatiya Janata Party criticised Anna Hazare's nomination of the Bhushans to the Lokpal committee.^[21] Guru Baba Ramdev also criticised inclusion of both father and son, calling it nepotism. Hazare defended the choice on the basis of the experience and ability of the two Bhushans.^[71] Soon after the committee began work, a CD was released that appeared to be a recording of conversation between Bhushan's father and Amar Singh of the Samajwadi Party related to the 2G case that was being heard at the time. If genuine, the CD would discredit Shanti Bhushan. Prashant Bhushan stated that labs had shown the CD was doctored. He and Anna Hazare said its purpose seemed to be to stop or delay both the 2G hearings and the Lokpal committee.^[72] Later Singh claimed in a press conference that Bhushan telephoned him and tried to stop him from talking.^[73]

On 15 April 2011 Congress leader Digvijay Singh alleged that the two Bhushans had failed to pay taxes due when they bought an investment property in Allahabad. Bhushan denied the charge, calling it a "very organised and concerted attempt to smear members of the civil society in the drafting committee with allegations".^[74] On 9 January 2012 it was reported that Shanti Bhushan had been found guilty of evading stamp duty on the home he had bought in Allahabad. The Assistant of Stamp Duty in Allahabad said the property, which Shanti Bhushan had bought in 1965, had been grossly undervalued, as had the related taxes. Revised stamp duty, interest on arrears and a fine would be levied. Shanti Bhushan said ""This order of the Stamp Collector is totally illegal and contrary to the law ... This order has been clearly made under political pressure".^[75]

In September 2011 Bhushan, Arvind Kejriwal and Kiran Bedi were being threatened with charges of breach of privilege for making derogatory remarks about MPs. Bhushan urged MPs to not be so sensitive to criticism, saying the law of defamation gave them enough protection. Attempts to use their privileges to suppress free speech and crticism would backfire by making people feel there was a serious problem in the way that parliament was functioning.^[76]

In February 2012 Bhushan surprised commentators by coming out in favour of the government's proposed National Counter Terrorism Council.^[35] In April 2012 Bhushan drew criticism from Congress leaders when he refused to act as a mediator in negotiating with Maoists who were holding a District Collector hostage. He called for the Maoists to release the officer without conditions. He also said that the government should investigate and address legitimate demands.^[77]

Bibliography[link]

• Prashant Bhushan (1978). The case that shook India. Vikas Pub. House. pp. 294. ISBN 0-7069-0594-6. 
• Prashant Bhushan (1990). Bofors, the selling of a nation. Vision Books. pp. 275. ISBN 81-7094-066-4. 

References[link]

External links[link]

• "Conversation with Prashant Bhushan". Bar & Bench. 25 October 2010. http://www.barandbench.com/brief/4/1066/conversation-with-prashant-bhushan. Retrieved 27 April 2012. 
• V. VENKATESAN (14–27 August 2010). "No one wants independent investigation". Frontline. http://www.frontline.in/fl2717/stories/20100827271703000.htm. Retrieved 27 April 2012. 
• SHOMA CHAUDHURY (5 September 2009). "Half Of The Last 16 Chief Justices Were Corrupt". Tehelka. http://www.tehelka.com/story_main42.asp?filename=Ne050909half_of.asp. Retrieved 27 April 2012. 
• Vikram Jit Singh (24 November 2006). "We have had many corrupt CJIs in the last 15 years". Tehelka. http://www.tehelka.com/story_main23.asp?filename=We_have_Prashant_Bhushan_SP.asp. Retrieved 27 April 2012.