- published: 30 Nov 2007
- views: 1492424
- author: easeen
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![Ku Klux Klan- A Secret History [1/9]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121230112619im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/21XWx7GCTmE/default.jpg "Since the days following the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan has preached a gospel of hate, intolerance and exclusion. But while it has attracted members who number in the millions at times, it has also repeatedly been battered into near-submission by activists, the government and changing public opinion. THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) ventures back to the days of the Reconstruction South and through the landmarks in Klan history to tell the complete story of the most famous hate group in America. Discover how the six original Klansmen came together and chose their name. See how the release of America's first blockbuster movie spurred a resurgence in the KKK and how they expanded their target to include Jews, Catholics and immigrants as well as blacks. Examine the tactics of Klan leaders like William Joseph Simmons and David Duke. And, finally, find out how the Klan has repeatedly battled back from the brink of extinction. Filled with rare and often disturbing footage as well as extensive interviews with, Klan experts, past and present members and reporters, THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) presents a comprehensive history of the Ku Klux Klan.")
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- Academic elitism
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- Age of candidacy
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Alabama
Alabama (
i/ˌæləˈbæmə/) is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama is the 30th-most extensive and the 23rd-most populous of the 50 United States. Alabama ranks second in the area of its inland waterways.
From the American Civil War until World War II, Alabama, like many Southern states, suffered economic hardship, in part because of continued dependence on agriculture. Despite the growth of major industries and urban centers, white rural interests dominated the state legislature until the 1960s, while urban interests and African Americans were under-represented. Following World War II, Alabama experienced growth as the economy of the state transitioned from agriculture to diversified interests in heavy manufacturing, mineral extraction, education, and technology. In addition, the establishment or expansion of multiple military installations, primarily those of the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force, added to state jobs.
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Alabama River
The Alabama River, in the U.S. state of Alabama, is formed by the Tallapoosa and Coosa rivers, which unite about 6 miles (10 km) north of Montgomery.
The river flows west to Selma, then southwest until, about 45 miles (72 km) from Mobile, it unites with the Tombigbee, forming the Mobile and Tensaw rivers, which discharge into Mobile Bay.
The course of the Alabama is very meandering. Its width varies from 50 to 200 yards (46 to 180 m), and its depth from 3 to 40 feet (1 to 12 m). Its length as measured by the United States Geological Survey is 318.5 miles (512.6 km), and by steamboat measurement, 420 miles (680 km).[citation needed]
The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state. Railways connect it with the mineral regions of north-central Alabama.
After the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, the principal tributary of the Alabama is the Cahaba River, which is about 194 miles (312 km) long and joins the Alabama River about 10 miles (16 km) below Selma. The Alabama River's main tributary, the Coosa River, crosses the mineral region of Alabama and is navigable for light-draft boats from Rome, Georgia, to about 117 miles (188 km) above Wetumpka (about 102 miles (164 km) below Rome and 26 miles (42 km) below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa. The channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.
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Arkansas
Arkansas (i/ˈɑrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw) is a state located in the Southern region of the United States. Its name is an Algonquian name of the Quapaw Indians. Arkansas shares borders with six states (N: Missouri; E: Tennessee, Mississippi; S: Louisiana; SW: Texas; W: Oklahoma), and its eastern border is largely defined by the Mississippi River. Its diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th most extensive and the 32nd most populous of the 50 United States. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state.
The name “Arkansas” derives from the same root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains. The word “Arkansas” itself is a French pronunciation (“Arcansas”) of a Quapaw (a related “Kaw” tribe) word, akakaze, meaning “land of downriver people” or the Sioux word akakaze meaning “people of the south wind”. The pronunciation of Arkansas was made official by an act of the state legislature in 1881, after a dispute between two U.S. Senators from Arkansas. One wanted to pronounce the name /ɑrˈkænzəs/ ar-KAN-zəs and the other wanted /ˈɑrkənsɔː/ AR-kən-saw.
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Atlanta
Atlanta (
/ətˈlæntə/, stressed /ætˈlæntə/, locally /ætˈlænə/) is the capital and the most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia with a 2010 population of 420,003. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, which is home to 5,268,860 people and is the ninth largest in the U.S. It is a major component of a growing southeastern megalopolis known as the Piedmont Atlantic Megaregion. Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County.
Atlanta began as a settlement located at the terminus of a railroad line, and it was incorporated in 1845. Today, the city is a major business city and the primary transportation hub of the Southeastern United States (via highway, railroad, and air), with Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport being the world's busiest airport since 1998. The World Cities Study Group at Loughborough University rated Atlanta as an "alpha(-) world city." With a gross domestic product of US$270 billion, Atlanta's economy ranks 15th among world cities and sixth in the nation. The city is a center for services, finance, information technology, government, and higher education. Metro Atlanta contains the country's third largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies, and is the world headquarters of The Coca-Cola Company, Turner Broadcasting, The Home Depot, AT&T Mobility, UPS, and Delta Air Lines. As of 2010, Atlanta is the seventh most visited city in the United States, with over 35 million visitors per year.
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Dallas
Dallas ( /ˈdæləs/) is the third-largest city in the state of Texas and the ninth-largest in the United States. The Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex is the largest metropolitan area in the South and fourth-largest metropolitan area in the United States. Divided between Collin, Dallas, Denton, Kaufman, and Rockwall counties, the city had a population of 1,197,816 in 2010, according to the United States Census Bureau.
The city is the largest economic center of the 12-county Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington metropolitan area (the DFW MSA) that according to the March 2010 U.S. Census Bureau release, had a population of 6,371,773. The metroplex economy is the sixth largest in the United States, with a 2010 gross metropolitan product of $374 billion.
Dallas was founded in 1841 and was formally incorporated as a city in February 1856. The city's economy is primarily based on banking, commerce, telecommunications, computer technology, energy, healthcare and medical research, transportation and logistics. The city is home to the third largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the nation. Located in North Texas and a major city in the American South, Dallas is the main core of the largest inland metropolitan area in the United States that lacks any navigable link to the sea.
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Detroit
Detroit ( /diˈtrɔɪt/) is the largest city in the U.S. state of Michigan, and the seat of Wayne County. It is the major city among the primary cultural, financial, and transportation centers in the Metro Detroit area, a region of 5.2 million people, and serves as a major port on the Detroit River connecting the Great Lakes system to the Saint Lawrence Seaway. It was founded on July 24, 1701, by the French explorer, adventurer, and nobleman Antoine de la Mothe, sieur de Cadillac.
In 2010, the city had a population of 713,777 and ranked as the 18th most populous city in the United States. The name Detroit sometimes refers to the Metro Detroit area with a population of 4,296,250 for the six-county Metropolitan Statistical Area, the United States' eleventh-largest, and a population of 5,218,852 for the nine-county Combined Statistical Area as of the 2010 Census. The Detroit–Windsor area, a critical commercial link straddling the Canada–U.S. border, has a total population of about 5,700,000.
Known as the world's traditional automotive center, "Detroit" is a metonym for the American automobile industry and an important source of popular music legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, the Motor City and Motown. Other nicknames arose in the 20th century, including City of Champions beginning in the 1930s for its successes in individual and team sport,The D, D-Town, Hockeytown (a trademark owned by the city's NHL club, the Red Wings), Rock City (after the Kiss song "Detroit Rock City"), and The 313 (its telephone area code) Detroit became known as the "great arsenal of democracy" for its support of the U.S. role among the Allied powers during World War II.
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Florida
Florida (i/ˈflɒrɪdə/) is a state in the southeastern United States, bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Florida is the 22nd most extensive, the 4th most populous, and the 8th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state capital is Tallahassee, its largest city is Jacksonville, and the South Florida metropolitan area is the largest metropolitan area in the southeastern U.S.
Much of Florida is situated on a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Straits of Florida. Its geography is marked by a coastline, by the omnipresence of water and the threat of hurricanes. Florida has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States, encompassing approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km), and is the only state to border both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Much of the state is at or near sea level and its terrain is characterized by sedimentary soils. The climate varies from subtropical in the north to tropical in the south. Its symbolic animals like the American alligator, Florida panther and the manatee, can be found in the Everglades, one of the most famous national parks in the world.
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Greensboro massacre
The Greensboro massacre occurred on November 3, 1979 in Greensboro, North Carolina, United States. Five protest marchers were shot and killed by members of the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party. The protest was the culmination of attempts by the Communist Workers Party to organize mostly black industrial workers in the area.
The marchers killed were: Sandi Smith, a nurse and civil rights activist; Dr. James Waller, president of a local textile workers union who ceased medical practice to organize workers; Bill Sampson, a graduate of the Harvard Divinity School; Cesar Cauce, a Cuban immigrant who graduated magna cum laude from Duke University; and Dr. Michael Nathan, chief of pediatrics at Lincoln Community Health Center in Durham, North Carolina, a clinic that helped children from low-income families.
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Houston
Houston ( /ˈhjuːstən/) (Alibamu: Yosti ) is the largest city in the state of Texas, and the fourth-largest city in the United States. According to the 2010 U.S. Census, the city had a population of 2.1 million people within an area of 656.3 square miles (1,700 km2). Houston is the seat of Harris County and the economic center of Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown, which is the fifth-largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 6.08 million people as of July 1st, 2011.
Houston was founded in 1836 on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou. It was incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837, and named after then-President of the Republic of Texas—former General Sam Houston—who had commanded at the Battle of San Jacinto, which took place 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city's population. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center—the world's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions—and NASA's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located.
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Illinois
Illinois (i/ˌɪlɨˈnɔɪ/ IL-i-NOY) is the 25th most extensive and the 5th most populous of the 50 United States, and is often noted as a microcosm of the entire country. With Chicago in the northeast, small industrial cities and great agricultural productivity in central and northern Illinois, and natural resources like coal, timber, and petroleum in the south, Illinois has a broad economic base. Illinois is a major transportation hub. The Port of Chicago connects the state to other global ports from the Great Lakes, via the Saint Lawrence Seaway, to the Atlantic Ocean; as well as the Great Lakes to the Mississippi River, via the Illinois River. For decades, O'Hare International Airport has ranked as one of the world's busiest airports. Illinois has long had a reputation as a bellwether both in social and cultural terms and politics.
Although the state's largest population centers today are in northern Illinois, originally the state's population grew from south to north, with settlers arriving from Kentucky in the 1810s. In 1818, Illinois achieved statehood. Chicago was founded in the 1830s on the banks of the Chicago River, one of the few natural harbors on southern Lake Michigan. Railroads and John Deere's invention of the self-scouring steel plow turned Illinois' rich prairie into some of the world's most productive and valuable farmlands, attracting immigrant farmers from Germany and Sweden. By 1900, the growth of industrial jobs in the northern cities and coal mining in the central and southern areas attracted immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. Illinois was an important manufacturing center during both world wars. The Great Migration established a large community of African Americans in Chicago that created the city's famous jazz and blues cultures.
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Indiana
Indiana (i/ɪndiˈænə/) is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the midwestern and Great Lakes regions of North America. Indiana is the 38th largest by area and the 15th most populous of the 50 United States. Indiana is the least extensive state in the continental US west of the Appalachian Mountains. Its capital and largest city is Indianapolis, the second largest of any state capital and largest state capital east of the Mississippi River.
Before it became a territory, varying cultures of indigenous peoples and historic Native Americans inhabited Indiana for thousands of years. Angel Mounds State Historic Site, one of the best preserved ancient earthwork mound sites in the United States, can be found in Southwestern Indiana near Evansville. Residents of Indiana are known as Hoosiers. The etymology of the word is disputed, but the leading theory as advanced by the Indiana Historical Bureau and the Indiana Historical Society has "Hoosier" originating from the upland South region of the U.S. as a derogatory slang term for a rough countryman, a country bumpkin.
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Louisiana
Louisiana (i/luːˌiːziˈænə/ or i/ˌluːziˈænə/; French: État de Louisiane, [lwizjan] (
listen); Louisiana Creole: Léta de la Lwizyàn) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States. Its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the only state in the U.S. with political subdivisions termed parishes, which are local governments equivalent to counties. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, and the largest by land area is Cameron Parish.
Much of the state was formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh and swamp. These contain a rich southern biota; typical examples include birds such as ibis and egrets. There are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a natural process in the landscape, and has produced extensive areas of longleaf pine forest and wet savannas. These support an exceptionally large number of plant species including many species of orchids and carnivorus plants.
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Massachusetts
Massachusetts (i/ˌmæsəˈtʃuːsɨts/), officially the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, is a U.S. state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. Massachusetts is the 7th least extensive, but the 14th most populous and the 3rd most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state features two separate metropolitan areas – the eastern Boston metropolitan area and the western Springfield metropolitan area. Approximately two thirds of the state's population lives in Greater Boston, most of which is either urban or suburban. Western Massachusetts features one urban area – the Knowledge Corridor along the Connecticut River – and a mix of college towns and rural areas. Massachusetts is the most populous of the six New England states and has the US's sixth highest GDP per capita.
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Michigan
Michigan (i/ˈmɪʃɨɡən/) is a state located in the Great Lakes region of the Midwestern United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, meaning "large water" or "large lake". Michigan is the 8th most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and the largest city is Detroit. Michigan was admitted into the Union on January 26, 1837 as the 26th state.
Michigan has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, plus Lake Saint Clair. Michigan is one of the leading U.S. states for recreational boating. The state has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds. A person in the state is never more than six miles (9.7 km) from a natural water source or more than 85 miles (137 km) from a Great Lakes shoreline. It is the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River.
Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is often noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula (often referred to as "the U.P.") is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, a five-mile (8 km) channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan. The two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The Upper Peninsula is economically important due to its status as a tourist destination. There is also a variety of natural resources to be found there, including a sizable amount of iron ore.
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Mississippi
Mississippi (i/ˌmɪsɨˈsɪpi/) is a U.S. state located in the Southern United States. Jackson is the state capital and largest city. The name of the state derives from the Mississippi River, which flows along its western boundary, whose name comes from the Ojibwe word misi-ziibi ("Great River"). Mississippi is the 32nd most extensive and the 31st most populous of the 50 United States. The state is heavily forested outside of the Mississippi Delta area, which was cleared for cotton cultivation in the 19th century. Today, its catfish aquaculture farms produce the majority of farm-raised catfish consumed in the United States. The state symbol is the magnolia grandiflora tree.
Mississippi is bordered on the north by Tennessee, on the east by Alabama, on the south by Louisiana and a narrow coast on the Gulf of Mexico and on the west, across the Mississippi River, by Louisiana and Arkansas.
In addition to its namesake, major rivers in Mississippi include the Big Black River, the Pearl River, the Yazoo River, the Pascagoula River, and the Tombigbee River. Major lakes include Ross Barnett Reservoir, Arkabutla Lake, Sardis Lake and Grenada Lake. The largest lake in Mississippi is Grenada Lake.
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New Orleans
New Orleans ( /nuː ˈɔrliənz/ or /ˈnuː ɔrˈliːnz/, locally /nuː ˈɔrlənz/ or /ˈnɔrlənz/; French: La Nouvelle-Orléans [la nuvɛlɔʁleɑ̃] ( listen)) is a major United States port and the largest city and metropolitan area in the state of Louisiana. The population of the city proper was 343,829 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. The New Orleans metropolitan area (New Orleans–Metairie–Kenner Metropolitan Statistical Area) had a population of 1,167,764 in 2010 and was the 46th largest in the United States. The New Orleans–Metairie–Bogalusa Combined Statistical Area, a larger trading area, had a 2010 population of 1,214,932.
The city is named after Philippe d'Orléans, Duke of Orléans, Regent of France, and is well known for its distinct French Creole architecture, as well as its cross-cultural and multilingual heritage. New Orleans is also famous for its cuisine, music (particularly as the birthplace of jazz), and its annual celebrations and festivals, most notably Mardi Gras. The city is often referred to as the "most unique" in America.
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North Carolina
North Carolina (i/ˌnɔrθ kærəˈlaɪnə/) is a state in the Southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina is the 28th most extensive and the 10th most populous of the 50 United States.
North Carolina is comprised of 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte. In the past five decades, North Carolina's economy has undergone a transition from heavy reliance upon tobacco and furniture making to a more diversified economy with engineering, biotechnology, and finance sectors.
North Carolina has a wide range of elevations, from sea level on the coast to 6,684 feet (2,037 m) at Mount Mitchell, the highest point in the Eastern US. The climate of the coastal plains is strongly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the state falls in the humid subtropical climate zone. More than 300 miles (500 km) from the coast, the western, mountainous part of the state has a subtropical highland climate.
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Oklahoma
Oklahoma (i/ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə/) (Pawnee: Uukuhuúwa , Cayuga: Gahnawiyoˀgeh ) is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. Oklahoma is the 20th most extensive and the 28th most populous of the 50 United States. The state's name is derived from the Choctaw words okla and humma, meaning "red people", and it is known informally by its nickname, The Sooner State. Formed by the combination of Oklahoma Territory and Indian Territory on November 16, 1907, Oklahoma was the 46th state to enter the union. Its residents are known as Oklahomans or, informally "Okies", and its capital and largest city is Oklahoma City.
A major producer of natural gas, oil, and agriculture, Oklahoma relies on an economic base of aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology. It has one of the fastest growing economies in the nation, ranking among the top states in per capita income growth and gross domestic product growth. Oklahoma City and Tulsa serve as Oklahoma's primary economic anchors, with nearly 60 percent of Oklahomans living in their metropolitan statistical areas.
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Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania (
i/ˌpɛnsɨlˈveɪnjə/), officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a US state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States, and the Great Lakes Region. The state borders Delaware to the southeast, Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, Ontario, Canada to the northwest, New York to the north, and New Jersey to the east.
Pennsylvania is the 33rd most extensive, the 6th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state's four most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, and Erie. The state capital is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 51 miles (82 km) of shoreline along Lake Erie and 57 miles (92 km) of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary.
Pennsylvania is 170 miles (274 km) north to south and 283 miles (455 km) east to west. Of a total 46,055 square miles (119,282 km2), 44,817 square miles (116,075 km2) are land, 490 square miles (1,269 km2) are inland waters, and 749 square miles (1,940 km2) are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States. Pennsylvania has 51 miles (82 km) of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles (92 km) of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary.
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South Carolina
South Carolina (i/ˌsaʊθ kærəˈlaɪnə/) is a state in the Southeastern United States. It is bordered to the north by North Carolina; to the south and west by Georgia, located across the Savannah River; and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence from the British Crown during the American Revolution. The colony was originally named by King Charles II of England in honor of his father Charles I (Carolus being Latin for Charles). South Carolina was the 8th state to ratify the US Constitution and become a state which it did on May 23, 1788. South Carolina later became the first state to vote to secede from the Union which it did on December 20, 1860. It was readmitted to the United States on June 25, 1868.
South Carolina is the 40th most extensive and the 24th most populous of the 50 United States. South Carolina comprises 46 counties. The capital and largest city of the state is Columbia.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Tennessee
Tennessee (i/tɛnɨˈsiː/) (Cherokee: ᏔᎾᏏ) is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. Tennessee is the 36th most extensive and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States. Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, and the Mississippi River forms the state's western border. Tennessee's capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 626,144.Memphis is the state's largest city, with a population of 670,902.
The state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, and later part of the Southwest Territory. Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1, 1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the U.S. Civil War in 1861, and the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war.
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Texas
Texas (i/ˈtɛksəs/) (Alibamu: Teksi ) is the second most populous and the second most extensive of the 50 United States, and the most extensive state of the 48 contiguous United States. The name, based on the Caddo word "Tejas" meaning "friends" or "allies", was applied by the Spanish to the Caddo themselves and to the region of their settlement in East Texas. Located in the South Central United States, Texas shares an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south, and borders the US states of New Mexico to the west, Oklahoma to the north, Arkansas to the northeast, and Louisiana to the east. Texas has an area of 268,820 square miles (696,200 km2), and a growing population of 25.7 million residents.
During the Spanish colonial rule, the area was officially known as the Nuevo Reino de Filipinas: La Provincia de Texas. Antonio Margil de Jesús was known to be the first person to use the name in a letter to the Viceroy of Mexico in July 20, 1716. The name was not popularly used in daily speech but often appeared in legal documents until the end of the 1800s.
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Thirteen Colonies
The Thirteen Colonies were the colonies on the Atlantic coast of North America founded between 1607 (Virginia) and 1733 (Georgia). They revolted in the American Revolution, starting in 1775, and in 1776 declared their independence from the British Empire and formed a new nation, the United States of America. The colonies were: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Each colony developed its own system of self government. Americans were mostly independent farmers, who owned their own land and voted for their local and provincial government. Benjamin Franklin, in 1772, after examining the wretched hovels in Scotland surrounding the opulent mansions of the land owners, said that in New England "every man" is a property owner, "has a Vote in public Affairs, lives in a tidy, warm House, has plenty of good Food and Fuel, with whole clothes from Head to Foot, the Manufacture perhaps of his own family."
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Yale University
Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university located in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States.
Incorporated as the "Collegiate School," the institution traces its roots to 17th-century clergymen who sought to establish a college to train clergy and political leaders for the colony. In 1718, the College was renamed "Yale College" to honor a gift from Elihu Yale, a governor of the British East India Company. In 1861, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences became the first U.S. school to award the PhD. Yale became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. Yale College was transformed, beginning in the 1930s, through the establishment of residential colleges: 12 now exist and two more are planned. Yale employs over 1,100 faculty to teach and advise about 5,300 undergraduate and 6,100 graduate and professional students. Almost all tenured professors teach undergraduate courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually.
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Al Smith
Alfred Emanuel "Al" Smith (December 30, 1873 – October 4, 1944) was an American statesman who was elected the 42nd Governor of New York three times, and was the Democratic U.S. presidential candidate in 1928. He was the foremost urban leader of the efficiency-oriented Progressive Movement, and was noted for achieving a wide range of reforms as governor in the 1920s. He was also linked to the notorious Tammany Hall machine that controlled Manhattan politics; he was a strong opponent of prohibition.
As a committed "wet" (anti-Prohibition candidate), he attracted millions of voters of all backgrounds, particularly those concerned about the corruption and lawlessness brought about by the Eighteenth Amendment. However he was unpopular among certain segments, including Southern Baptists and German Lutherans, who believed the Catholic Church and the Pope would dictate his policies. Most importantly, this was a time of national prosperity under a Republican Presidency, and Smith lost in a landslide to Republican Herbert Hoover. Smith attempted the 1932 nomination, but was defeated by his former ally and successor as New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt. Smith entered business in New York City, and became an increasingly vocal opponent of Roosevelt's New Deal.
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Barack Obama
Barack Hussein Obama II (i/bəˈrɑːk huːˈseɪn oʊˈbɑːmə/; born August 4, 1961) is the 44th and current President of the United States. He is the first African American to hold the office. In January 2005, Obama was sworn in as a U.S. Senator in the state of Illinois. He would hold this office until November 2008, when he resigned following his victory in the 2008 presidential election.
Born in Honolulu, Hawaii, Obama is a graduate of Columbia University and Harvard Law School, where he was the president of the Harvard Law Review. He was a community organizer in Chicago before earning his law degree. He worked as a civil rights attorney in Chicago and taught constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School from 1992 to 2004. He served three terms representing the 13th District in the Illinois Senate from 1997 to 2004.
Following an unsuccessful bid against the Democratic incumbent for a seat in the United States House of Representatives in 2000, Obama ran for the United States Senate in 2004. Several events brought him to national attention during the campaign, including his victory in the March 2004 Illinois Democratic primary for the Senate election and his keynote address at the Democratic National Convention in July 2004. He won election to the U.S. Senate in Illinois in November 2004. His presidential campaign began in February 2007, and after a close campaign in the 2008 Democratic Party presidential primaries against Hillary Rodham Clinton, he won his party's nomination. In the 2008 presidential election, he defeated Republican nominee John McCain, and was inaugurated as president on January 20, 2009. Nine months later, Obama was named the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In April 2011, he announced that he would be running for re-election in 2012.
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Bibb Graves
David Bibb Graves (April 1, 1873–March 14, 1942) was a Democratic politician and the 38th Governor of Alabama 1927-1931 and 1935–1939, the first Alabama governor to serve two four-year terms.
Graves was born in Hope Hull, Alabama, son of David and Mattie Bibb Graves and a descendant of Alabama's first governor William Wyatt Bibb. Graves' father died when he was one year old, and he was reared first by his paternal grandfather on an Alabama farm and then by an uncle in Texas. Bibb attended the University of Alabama, where he was a member of the school's inaugural football team. After graduating with a degree in civil engineering (1893), Graves earned a degree from Yale Law School (1896). Graves was elected to the Alabama legislature and later served as the city attorney in Montgomery.
As adjutant general of the Alabama National Guard, he helped organize the 1st Alabama Cavalry and served on the Mexican border in 1916. In World War I, Graves commanded as a colonel the 117th U.S. Field Artillery in France, and upon his return to Alabama, he helped organize the state section of the American Legion.
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Black supremacy
The term black supremacy is a blanket term for various ideologies which hold that black people are superior to people of other races.
In the 1930s the Nation of Islam emerged, coming to prominence during the 1960s, when charismatic minister Malcolm X became a spokesman for the movement. The group's founders, "Master Fard" Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad, preached the Doctrine of Yakub, which held that the Original Man was an "Asiatic black man". White people, it contended, were "grafted" from black people 6,000 years ago by an ancient black scientist named Yakub.
The belief in sacrificial killing and ritualistic murder was part of the early Nation of Islam doctrine. Fard thought explicitly that it was the duty for every Muslim to offer as sacrifice four "Caucasian devils". A portion of Fard's lesson reads as follows:
Why does Fard Mohammad and any Moslem murder the devil? What is the duty of each Moslem in regard to four devils? What reward does a Moslem receive by presenting the four devils at one time? — Because he is one hundred percent wicked and will not keep and obey the laws of Islam. His ways and actions are like a snake of the grafted type. So Mohammad learned that he could not reform the devils, so they had to be murdered. All Moslems will murder the devil because they know he is a snake and also if he be allowed to live, he would sting someone else. Each Moslem is required to bring four devils, and by bringing and presenting four at one time his reward is a button to wear on the laple of his coat, also a free transportation to the Holy City of Mecca.
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Bobby Frank Cherry
Bobby Frank Cherry (June 20, 1930 – November 18, 2004) was an American white supremacist and Klansman who was convicted of murder in 2002 for his role in the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in 1963. The bombing killed four young African-American girls (Carole Robertson, Cynthia Wesley, Addie Mae Collins, and Denise McNair) and injured more than 20 other people.
Bobby Frank Cherry was born on June 20, 1930 in Mineral Springs, Alabama. He joined the United States Marine Corps as a youth, where he gained expertise in demolitions and working with explosives. After his time with the Marines, Cherry worked a series of low-paying jobs, including a long stint as a truck driver.
Cherry had a wife, Virginia, at the time of the bombing. He and Virginia Cherry had seven children together. Their marriage was tumultuous and at times violent. Bobby Cherry expected deference from his wife and children and used beatings to enforce his authority. Virginia Cherry died of cancer in 1968. After her death, Bobby Cherry placed the children in the Gateway Mercy Home Orphanage and with relatives. He eventually remarried four times, including to Jean Casey and Willadean Brogdon; Brogdon would later testify at Cherry's trial that he had bragged about his role in the church bombing.
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Bull Connor
Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor (July 11, 1897 – March 10, 1973) was the Commissioner of Public Safety for the city of Birmingham, Alabama, during the American Civil Rights Movement. His office gave him responsibility for administrative oversight of the Birmingham Fire Department and the Birmingham Police Department, which had their own chiefs.
Through his covert actions to enforce racial segregation and deny civil rights to African American citizens, especially during the Southern Christian Leadership Conference's Birmingham Campaign of 1963, Connor became an international symbol of bigotry. Connor infamously directed the use of fire hoses, and police attack dogs against peaceful demonstrators, including children. His aggressive tactics backfired when the spectacle of the brutality being broadcast on national television served as one of the catalysts for major social and legal change in the southern United States and helped in large measure to assure the passage by the United States Congress of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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Byron De La Beckwith
Byron De La Beckwith, Jr. (November 9, 1920 – January 21, 2001) was an American white supremacist and Klansman from Greenwood, Mississippi who was convicted in the 1994 state trial of assassinating the civil rights leader Medgar Evers on June 12, 1963. Two previous trials in 1964 on this charge had resulted in hung juries.
De La Beckwith was born in Colusa, California, the son of Susan Southworth Yerger and Byron De La Beckwith, Sr., the town postmaster. His father died of pneumonia when he was five years old. One year later, De La Beckwith and his mother settled in Greenwood, Mississippi, to be near family. His mother died of lung cancer when he was 12 years old, and was raised by his uncle William Greene Yerger and his wife after that.
In January 1942, De La Beckwith enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, and served as a machine gunner in the Pacific theater of World War II. He fought at the Battle of Guadalcanal and was shot in the waist during the Battle of Tarawa. De La Beckwith was honorably discharged in August 1945. For his service, Beckwith was awarded three Bronze Star medals. His unit received two Presidential Unit Citations during the time which he served in it. He also received the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal and the World War II Victory Medal like every service member who served in the pacific theater at the end of the war. A Good Conduct Medal for going three years without being disciplined by his superiors and a Purple Heart for being wounded in combat.
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Carpetbagger
In United States history, carpetbagger was a pejorative term Southerners gave to Northerners (also referred to as Yankees) who moved to the South during the Reconstruction era, between 1865 and 1877.
The term referred to the observation that these newcomers tended to carry "carpet bags," a common form of luggage at the time (sturdy and made from used carpet). It was used as a derogatory term, suggesting opportunism and exploitation by the outsiders. Together with Republicans they are said to have politically manipulated and controlled former Confederate states for varying periods for their own financial and power gains. In sum, carpetbaggers were seen as insidious Northern outsiders with questionable objectives meddling in local politics, buying up plantations at fire-sale prices and taking advantage of Southerners. Carpetbagger is not to be confused with copperhead, which is a term given to a person from the North who sympathized with the Southern claim of right to Secession.
The term carpetbaggers was also used to describe the Republican political appointees who came South, arriving with their travel carpet bags. Southerners considered them ready to loot and plunder the defeated South.
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Celtic nations
The Celtic nations are territories in Northern and Western Europe in which that area's own Celtic languages and some cultural traits have survived.
The term "nation" is used in its original sense to mean a people who share a common traditional identity and culture and are identified with a traditional territory or region. It is not synonymous with "sovereign state".
The six territories recognised as Celtic nations are Brittany (Breizh), Cornwall (Kernow), Ireland (Éire), the Isle of Man (Mannin), Scotland (Alba), and Wales (Cymru). Each of these regions has a Celtic language that is either still spoken or was spoken into modern times. In addition, areas of north-western Spain, particularly Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias, are sometimes identified as Celtic, due to the unique culture of the region. Unlike the others, however, no Celtic language has been spoken there in modern times. Before the expansions of the Roman Republic and Germanic tribes, a significant part of Europe was Celtic.
Each of the six nations has its own Celtic language. In Wales, Scotland, Brittany, and Ireland, these have been spoken continuously through time, while Cornwall and the Isle of Man have languages that were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages. In both of the latter regions, however, revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and produced a number of native speakers.
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Chip Berlet
John Foster "Chip" Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is an American investigative journalist and photojournalist activist specializing in the study of right-wing movements in the United States, particularly the religious right, white supremacists, homophobic groups, and paramilitary organizations. He also studies the spread of conspiracy theories in the media and on the Internet, and political cults on both the right and left of the political spectrum.
He was a senior analyst at Political Research Associates (PRA), a non-profit group that tracks right-wing networks, and is known as one of the first researchers to have drawn attention to the efforts by white supremacist and anti-Semitic groups to recruit farmers in the Midwestern United States in the 1970s and 1980s. He is the co-author of Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort and editor of Eyes Right! Challenging the Right Wing Backlash.
Berlet, a paralegal, was a vice-president of the National Lawyers Guild. He has served on the advisory board of the Center for Millennial Studies at Boston University, and currently sits on the advisory board of the National Committee Against Repressive Legislation. In 1982, he was a Mencken Awards finalist in the best news story category for "War on Drugs: The Strange Story of Lyndon LaRouche," which was published in High Times. He served on the advisory board of the Campaign to Defend the Constitution. He was affiliated with Chicago Area Friends of Albania.
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David Duke
David Ernest Duke (born July 1, 1950) is a former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan an American activist and writer, and former Republican Louisiana State Representative. He was a candidate in the Democratic presidential primaries in 1988 and the Republican presidential primaries in 1992. Duke has unsuccessfully run for the Louisiana State Senate, U.S. Senate, U.S. House of Representatives, and Governor of Louisiana.
A former Grand Wizard of the Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, Duke describes himself as a racial realist, asserting that "all people have a basic human right to preserve their own heritage." He is in strong opposition to what he asserts to be Jewish control of the Federal Reserve Bank, the federal government and the media. Duke supports stopping both legal and illegal Non-European immigration, preservation of what he labels Western culture and traditionalist Christian "family values", strict Constitutionalism, abolition of the Internal Revenue Service, voluntary racial segregation, ardent anti-communism and white separatism.
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Edgar Ray Killen
Edgar Ray "Preacher" Killen (born January 17, 1925) is a former Ku Klux Klan organizer who conspired in the murders of three civil rights activists—James Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael Schwerner—in 1964.
He was found guilty of three counts of manslaughter on June 21, 2005, the forty-first anniversary of the crime. He appealed the verdict, but his sentence of three times 20 years in prison was upheld on January 12, 2007, by the Mississippi Supreme Court.
Edgar Ray Killen was born on January 17, 1925, in Philadelphia, Mississippi, the second of eight children of Lonnie Ray Killen (1901–1992) and Etta Hitt (1903–1983).[citation needed]
Killen was a sawmill operator and a Southern Baptist minister. He was also a kleagle, or klavern recruiter and organizer, for the Neshoba and Lauderdale County chapters of the Ku Klux Klan.
During the "Freedom Summer" of 1964, James Chaney, 21, a young black man from Meridian, Mississippi and Andrew Goodman, 20, and Michael Schwerner, 24, two white men from New York, were murdered in Philadelphia, Mississippi. Killen, along with Cecil Price, then deputy sheriff of Neshoba County, was found to have assembled a group of armed men who conspired, pursued and killed the three civil rights workers. The Mississippi civil rights workers murders galvanized the nation and helped bring about the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act.
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Edward Young Clarke
Edward Young Clarke was an advertising executive from Louisiana and the Imperial Wizard pro tempore of the Ku Klux Klan who devised the "kluxing" system of payments to the hierarchy within the Klan. Along with Elizabeth Tyler, he helped to turn the initially anemic second Ku Klux Klan into a mass-membership organization with a broader social agenda.
In 1922, he stepped down from his position at the Klan. In March 1924, he pleaded guilty to violating the Mann Act. In 1940 he was arrested for failing to pay a $600 hotel bill, cashing a $76 worthless check, and the failure to repay $600 he borrowed from a Chicago woman.
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Eric Foner
Eric Foner (born February 7, 1943) is an American historian. On the faculty of the Department of History at Columbia University since 1982, he writes extensively on political history, the history of freedom, the early history of the Republican Party, African American biography, Reconstruction, and historiography. Foner is the leading contemporary historian of the post-Civil War Reconstruction period, having written Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863-1877, winner of many prizes for history writing, and more than ten other books on the topic. In 2011, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, Foner's most recent book, was selected as the recipient of the Pulitzer Prize, Lincoln Prize and the Bancroft Prize. Foner also won the Bancroft in 1989 for his book Reconstruction.
In 2000, he was elected president of the American Historical Association.
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Gay bashing
Gay bashing and gay bullying is verbal or physical abuse against a person who is perceived by the aggressor to be gay, lesbian, or bisexual, including persons who are actually heterosexual or of non-specific or unknown sexual orientation.
A "bashing" may be a specific incident, and one could also use the verb to bash (e.g. "I was gay bashed."). A verbal gay bashing might use sexual slurs, expletives, intimidation, or threats of violence. It also might take place in a political forum and include one or more common anti-gay slogans.
Gay bullying involves intentional and unprovoked actions toward the victim, repeated negative actions by one or more people against another person, and an imbalance of physical or psychological power. Similar terms such as lesbian bullying, queer bullying, and queer bashing may also be formed.
Gay bashing has occurred worldwide for many decades and continues today.Homophobia in the United States was especially serious in the late 1940s and early 1950s, when many gay people were forced out of government by boards set up by presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight Eisenhower. As historian David K. Johnson explains:
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German American
German Americans are citizens of the United States of German ancestry and comprise about 50 million people, or 17% of the U.S. population, the country's largest self-reported ancestral group.California, Texas and Pennsylvania have the largest numbers of German origin, although upper Midwestern states, including Ohio, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, have the highest proportion of German Americans at over one-third.
None of the historical German states had overseas colonies, so not until the 1680s did the first significant groups of German immigrants arrive in the British colonies, settling primarily in New York and Pennsylvania. Immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with some eight million arrivals from Germany. They were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, and others simply for the chance to start fresh in the New World. The arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where "Germania"—German-speaking districts—soon emerged.
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Henry Francis Hays
Henry Francis Hays (November 10, 1954 – June 6, 1997) was a member of the Ku Klux Klan in Alabama, who was convicted and sentenced to death for a 1981 lynching-style murder of 19-year old African-American Michael Donald.
The lynching was ordered by KKK leaders, reportedly to "show Klan strength in Alabama." Donald was abducted at random from a Mobile street by two men, beaten with a tree limb, strangled, and his throat cut to make sure he was dead. His body was strung up in a tree across the street from his home.
A brief investigation took place and the local police claimed that Donald had been murdered as a result of a disagreement over a drug deal (Donald was, in fact, not involved with drugs). Federal attorneys, as well as public pressure, led the FBI to examine case. Hays and fellow KKK member, James Knowles— the two men who lynched Donald— were arrested, tried, and convicted. Knowles, who appeared as the chief prosecution witness, was convicted of violating Donald's civil rights and sentenced to life in prison. Hays was tried six months later and received a death sentence.
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Heteronormativity
Heteronormativity is a term to describe any of a set of lifestyle norms that hold that people fall into distinct and complementary genders (man and woman) with natural roles in life. It also holds that heterosexuality is the normal sexual orientation, and states that sexual and marital relations are most (or only) fitting between a man and a woman. Consequently, a "heteronormative" view is one that involves alignment of biological sex, sexuality, gender identity, and gender roles.
Michael Warner popularized the term in 1991, in one of the first major works of queer theory. The concept's roots are in Gayle Rubin's notion of the "sex/gender system" and Adrienne Rich's notion of compulsory heterosexuality.
In a series of articles, Samuel A. Chambers calls for an understanding of heteronormativity as a concept that reveals the expectations, demands, and constraints produced when heterosexuality is taken as normative within a society. Originally conceived to describe the norms against which non-heterosexuals struggle, "heteronormativity" quickly became incorporated into both the gender and the transgender debate.
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Heterosexism
Heterosexism is a system of attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships. It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm and therefore superior. Although heterosexism is defined in the online editions of the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language and the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary as anti-gay discrimination and/or prejudice "by heterosexual people" and "by heterosexuals", people of any sexual orientation can hold such attitudes and bias. Nonetheless, heterosexism as discrimination ranks gay men, lesbians, bisexuals and other sexual minorities as second-class citizens with regard to various legal and civil rights, economic opportunities, and social equality in the majority of the world’s jurisdictions and societies.
While the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary notes first use of the term heterosexism as having occurred some time in 1972, the first published use was in 1971 by gay rights activist, Craig Rodwell.
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Hiram Wesley Evans
Hiram Wesley Evans (September 26, 1881 – September 14, 1966) was Imperial Wizard of the American white supremacist group Ku Klux Klan from 1922 to 1939. A native of Alabama, Evans attended Vanderbilt University and became a dentist. He operated a small, moderately successful dental practice in Texas until 1920, when he joined the Klan's Dallas chapter. He quickly rose through the ranks, and was part of a group that ousted William Joseph Simmons from the position of Imperial Wizard, the national leader, in November 1922. Evans succeeded him, and in that position, sought to transform the group into a political juggernaut.
Although Evans had kidnapped and tortured a black man while leader of the Dallas Klan, as Imperial Wizard he publicly discouraged vigilante actions, owing to his fear that they would hinder his attempts to gain political influence. In 1923, Evans presided over the largest Klan gathering in history, attended by over 200,000, and endorsed several successful candidates in 1924 elections. He moved their headquarters from Atlanta to Washington D.C., and organized a march of 30,000 members—the largest march in the organization's history—on Pennsylvania Avenue. Evans' efforts notwithstanding, the Klan was buffeted by damaging publicity—in part owing to leadership struggles between Evans and his rivals—in the early 1920s which hindered his political efforts. In the 1930s, the Great Depression significantly decreased the Klan's income, prompting Evans to work for a construction company to supplement his pay. He resigned his position with the group in 1939, after disavowing his former anti-Catholic beliefs. He was succeeded by his chief of staff, James A. Colescott. The next year, Evans faced accusations of accepting no-bid government highway contracts in return for his support of a politician in Georgia; he was fined $15,000 after legal proceedings.
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Hugo Black
Hugo Lafayette Black (February 27, 1886 – September 25, 1971) was an American politician and jurist. A member of the Democratic Party, Black represented Alabama in the United States Senate from 1927 to 1937, and served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1937 to 1971. Black was nominated to the Supreme Court by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and confirmed by the Senate by a vote of 63 to 13. (6 Democratic Senators and 10 Republican Senators voted against him.) He was first of nine Roosevelt nominees to the Court, and outlasted all except for William O. Douglas. Black is widely regarded as one of the most influential Supreme Court justices in the 20th century.
The fifth longest-serving justice in Supreme Court history, Black is noted for his advocacy of a textualist reading of the United States Constitution and of the position that the liberties guaranteed in the Bill of Rights were imposed on the states ("incorporated") by the Fourteenth Amendment. During his political career, Black was regarded as a staunch supporter of liberal policies and civil liberties. However, Black consistently opposed the doctrine of substantive due process (the anti-New Deal Supreme Court cited this concept in such a way as to make it impossible for the government to enact legislation that interfered with the freedom of business owners) and believed that there was no basis in the words of the Constitution for a right to privacy, voting against finding one in Griswold v. Connecticut. Black endorsed Roosevelt in both the 1932 and 1936 US Presidential elections and was a staunch supporter of the New Deal.
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James Ford Rhodes
James Ford Rhodes (May 1, 1848 – January 22, 1927), was an American industrialist and historian born in Cleveland, Ohio.
He attended New York University beginning in 1865. He also attended the Collège de France. During his studies in Europe he visited ironworks and steelworks. After his return to the United States, he investigated iron and coal deposits for his father.
In 1874, with his father, he started in the iron, coal, and steel industries at Cleveland. Having earned a considerable fortune, he retired in 1885, moved to Boston for its libraries, and devoted himself to writing history. His brother in law was Mark Hanna, a dominant leader of the Republican Party, but Rhodes himself was a Bourbon Democrat.[citation needed]
His major work, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 appeared in seven volumes, 1893–1906; the eight-volume edition appeared in 1920. The one-volume version History of the Civil War, 1861-1865 (1918), which is online, earned him a Pulitzer Prize in History in 1918.
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James Ford Seale
James Ford Seale (June 25, 1935 – August 2, 2011) was a Ku Klux Klan member charged by the U.S. Justice Department on January 24, 2007, and subsequently convicted on June 14, 2007, for the May 1964 kidnapping of Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore, two African-American young men in Meadville, Mississippi. At the time of his arrest, Seale worked at a lumber plant in Roxie, Mississippi. He also worked as a crop duster and was a police officer in Louisiana briefly in the 1970s.
Seale was convicted on June 14, 2007, by a federal jury on one count of conspiracy to kidnap two persons, and two counts of kidnapping where the victims were not released unharmed. He was sentenced on August 24, 2007, to three life terms for his part in the 1964 murders of the two Mississippi teens. In 2008, Seale's kidnapping conviction was overturned by a panel of the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit, before being reinstated by that court sitting en banc the following year. He was incarcerated at the Federal Correctional Institution (FCI) in Terre Haute, Indiana, where he died in 2011.
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Leo Frank
Leo Max Frank (April 17, 1884 – August 17, 1915) was a Jewish-American factory superintendent whose hanging in 1915 by a lynch mob, planned and led by prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, drew attention to antisemitism in the United States.
The superintendent of the National Pencil Company in Atlanta, Frank was convicted on August 26, 1913, of the murder of one of his factory workers, 13-year-old Mary Phagan. She had been strangled on April 26, and was found dead in the factory cellar the next day. Frank was the last person known to have seen her alive, and there were allegations that he had flirted with her in the past. His trial became the focus of powerful class, regional and political interests. Raised in New York, he was cast as a representative of Yankee capitalism, a rich northern Jew lording it over vulnerable working women, as the historian Albert Lindemann put it. Former U.S. Representative Thomas E. Watson used the sensational coverage of the case in his own publications to push for a revival of the Ku Klux Klan, calling Frank a member of the Jewish aristocracy who had pursued "Our Little Girl" to a hideous death. Frank and his lawyers resorted to stereotypes too, accusing another suspect—Jim Conley, a Black factory worker who testified against Frank—of being especially disposed to lying and murdering because of his race.
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Madge Oberholtzer
Madge Augustine Oberholtzer (November 10, 1896 – April 14, 1925) was a schoolteacher who worked in the city of Indianapolis, in the United States of America. She was kidnapped and raped repeatedly by D. C. Stephenson, Grand Dragon of the Indiana Ku Klux Klan. She later died of a staph infection from the bite wounds Stepheson inflicted on her. It was at first thought she had died from self-inflicted poisoning, but prosecution in Stephenson's trial proved it had been an infection. In a deathbed statement, she vividly described Stephenson's assaults on her. Her testimony led to his conviction and the subsequent decline of the KKK in Indiana.
Madge Oberholtzer was born to German American parents in Clay City, Indiana. She grew up in Fulton County, Indiana. After graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree, she taught in a state program for adult literacy. She lived with her parents in the Irvington area of Indianapolis.
In 1924, Oberholtzer attended a dinner at the Governor's mansion. She met David Curtiss Stephenson, who was instantly attracted to her. She dated Stephenson twice. On their second date, he admitted that he was Grand Dragon (state leader) of the Indiana Branch of the Ku Klux Klan. Oberholtzer immediately broke off the relationship.
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Medgar Evers
Medgar Wiley Evers (July 2, 1925 – June 12, 1963) was an African American civil rights activist from Mississippi involved in efforts to overturn segregation at the University of Mississippi. He became active in the civil rights movement after returning from overseas service in World War II and completing secondary education; he became a field secretary for the NAACP.
Evers was assassinated by Byron De La Beckwith, a member of the White Citizens' Council. As a veteran, Evers was buried with full military honors at Arlington National Cemetery. His murder and the resulting trials inspired civil rights protests, as well as numerous works of art, music, and film.
Medgar Evers was born July 2, 1925 in Decatur, Mississippi, the son of Jesse and her husband, James Evers; they owned a small farm and he also worked at a sawmill. Evers was the third of five children, after Charles and Elizabeth. His sister Ruth was the youngest. The family also included Eva Lee and Gene, Jesse’s children from a prior marriage. After the lynchings of family friends, Evers became determined to get an education. He walked 12 miles to and from school to earn his high school diploma.
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Michael Donald
Michael Donald (July 24, 1961 – March 20, 1981) was a young African American man who was murdered by two Ku Klux Klan members in Mobile, Alabama, in 1981. The murder is sometimes referred to as the last recorded lynching in the United States.
In 1981, a trial of Josephus Anderson, an African American charged with the murder of a white policeman, took place in Mobile. While Anderson was convicted at a subsequent trial, this one ended without the jury reaching a verdict. The mistrial upset members of the United Klans of America who believed that the reason for the lack of decision was that some members of the jury were African Americans. At a meeting held after the mistrial, Bennie Hays, the second-highest ranking official in the United Klans in Alabama, said: "If a black man can get away with killing a white man, we ought to be able to get away with killing a black man."
The same night other Klan members burnt a three-foot cross on the Mobile County courthouse lawn. Bennie Hays' son, Henry Hays (age 26), and James Llewellyn "Tiger" Knowles (age 17) drove around Mobile looking for a victim. Picked at random, they spotted Michael Donald walking home from getting his sister a pack of cigarettes. They kidnapped him, drove out to a secluded area in the woods, attacked him and beat him with a tree limb. They wrapped a rope around his neck, and pulled on it to strangle him, before slitting his throat and hanging him from a tree across the street from Hays' house.
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Morris Dees
Morris Seligman Dees, Jr. (born December 16, 1936) is the co-founder and chief trial counsel for the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), and a former direct mail marketeer for book publishing. Along with his law partner, Joseph J. Levin Jr., Dees founded the SPLC in 1971, the start of a legal career dedicated to suing organizations in discrimination cases.
Dees was born to a farming family in Alabama in 1936. After graduation from the University of Alabama School of Law in 1960, he returned to Montgomery, Alabama and opened a law office.
He ran a book publishing business, Fuller & Dees Marketing Group. After what Dees described in his autobiography as "a night of soul searching at a snowed-in Cincinnati airport" in 1967, he sold the company in 1969 to Times Mirror, the parent company of the Los Angeles Times. He used the revenue generated by the sale to found the Southern Poverty Law Center in 1971.
In his 1991 autobiography Dees wrote that in 1962 he represented Ku Klux Klan member Claude Henley who faced Federal charges for attacking Freedom Riders in an incident documented by a Life magazine photographer. When Dees learned that another lawyer had asked for $15,000 to represent Henley, Dees offered to do the job for $5,000, roughly the median household salary in America at the time. Dees's defense helped Henley earn an acquittal. But Dees said he later experienced an "epiphany" and regretted his defense of Henley.
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Reign of terror
The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 – 28 July 1794) (the latter is date 10 Thermidor, year II of the French Revolutionary Calendar), also known simply as The Terror (French: la Terreur), was a period of violence that occurred after the onset of the French Revolution, incited by conflict between rival political factions, the Girondins and the Jacobins, and marked by mass executions of "enemies of the revolution." The death toll ranged in the tens of thousands, with 16,594 executed by guillotine (2,639 in Paris), and another 25,000 in summary executions across France.
The guillotine (called the "National Razor") became the symbol of the revolutionary cause, strengthened by a string of executions: Marie Antoinette, King Louis XVI, the Girondins, Philippe Égalité (Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans) and Madame Roland, as well as many others, such as pioneering chemist Antoine Lavoisier, lost their lives under its blade. During 1794, revolutionary France was beset with conspiracies by internal and foreign enemies. Within France, the revolution was opposed by the French nobility, which had lost its inherited privileges. The Roman Catholic Church was generally against the Revolution, which had turned the clergy into employees of the state and required they take an oath of loyalty to the nation (through the Civil Constitution of the Clergy). In addition, the First French Republic was engaged in a series of wars with neighboring powers intent on crushing the revolution to prevent its spread.
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Reinhold Niebuhr
Karl Paul Reinhold Niebuhr (/ˈraɪnhoʊld ˈniːbʊər/; June 21st, 1892 – June 1st, 1971) was an American theologian and commentator on public affairs. Starting as a leftist minister in the 1920s indebted to theological liberalism, he shifted to the new Neo-Orthodox theology in the 1930s, explaining how the sin of pride created evil in the world. He attacked utopianism as ineffectual for dealing with reality, writing in The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (1944):
His realism deepened after 1945 and led him to support United States' efforts to confront Soviet communism around the world. A powerful speaker, he was one of the most influential religious leaders of the 1940s and 1950s in American public affairs.[citation needed] Niebuhr battled with the religious liberals over what he called their naïve views of sin and the optimism of the Social Gospel, and battled with the religious conservatives over what he viewed as their naïve view of Scripture and their narrow definition of "true religion".
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Rufus Bullock
Rufus Brown Bullock (March 28, 1834 – April 27, 1907) was an American politician.
He served as the 46th Governor of Georgia from 1868 to 1871 during Reconstruction and was the first Republican governor of Georgia. After various allegations of scandal, in 1871 he was obliged by the Ku Klux Klan to resign the governorship. He was succeeded by Republican State Senate president Benjamin Conley, who served as Governor for the two remaining months of the term to which Bullock had been elected.
He later became president of the Atlanta Chamber of Commerce and in 1895 served as master of ceremonies for the Cotton States and International Exposition.
Bullock was born in Bethlehem, New York, and moved to Augusta, Georgia, in 1857 for his job with the telegraph company Adams Express. He died in Albion, New York, in 1907 and was buried in Mt. Albion Cemetery nearby.
Bullock has had both detractors and admirers. He remains a controversial figure in Georgia state history.
The novel Gone With the Wind, by native Georgian Margaret Mitchell, references the election of Rufus Bullock at the end of Part Four, calling it the end of a process of Northern subjugation of Georgia that had begun with Sherman's March to the Sea in 1864. In the novel, the Republicans win the election, utilizing voter fraud with the help of their African-American constituency.
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Scapegoating
Scapegoating (from the verb "to scapegoat") is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals (e.g., "Jimmy did it, not me!"), individuals against groups (e.g., "I failed because our school favors boys"), groups against individuals (e.g., "Jane was the reason our team didn't win"), and groups against groups (e.g., "Immigrants are taking all of the jobs").
A scapegoat may be an adult, sibling, child, employee, peer, ethnic or religious group, or country. A whipping boy or "fall guy" is a form of scapegoat.
A medical definition of scapegoating is:
Scapegoating is a tactic often employed to characterize an entire group of individuals according to the unethical or immoral conduct of a small number of individuals belonging to that group, also known as guilt by association. (Stereotyping)
Scapegoated groups throughout history have included almost every imaginable group of people: genders, religions, people of different races or nations, people with different political beliefs, or people differing in behaviour from the majority. However, scapegoating may also be applied to organizations, such as governments, corporations, or various political groups.
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Sodomy law
A sodomy law is a law that defines certain sexual acts as crimes. The precise sexual acts meant by the term sodomy are rarely spelled out in the law, but are typically understood by courts to include any sexual act deemed unnatural. It also has a range of similar euphemisms. These acts typically include oral sex, anal sex and bestiality; in practice such laws have rarely been enforced against heterosexual couples.
Sodomy laws can be found around the world. Today, consensual homosexual acts between adults are illegal in about 70 out of the 195 countries of the world (approximately 36%); in 40 of these, only male-male sex is outlawed.
The Middle Assyrian Law Codes (1075 BC) state: If a man has intercourse with his brother-in-arms, they shall turn him into a eunuch. This is the earliest known law condemning the act of male-to-male intercourse in the military.
In the Roman Republic, the Lex Scantinia imposed penalties on those who committed a sex crime (stuprum) against a freeborn male minor. The law may also have been used to prosecute male citizens who willingly played the passive role in same-sex acts. The law was mentioned in literary sources but enforced infrequently; Domitian revived it during his program of judicial and moral reform. It is unclear whether the penalty was death or a fine. For adult male citizens to experience and act on homoerotic desire was considered natural and permissible, as long as their partner was a male of lower social standing.Pederasty in ancient Rome was acceptable only when the younger partner was a prostitute or slave.
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Stetson Kennedy
William Stetson Kennedy (October 5, 1916 – August 27, 2011) was an American author and human rights activist. One of the pioneer folklore collectors during the first half of the 20th century, he is remembered for having infiltrated the Ku Klux Klan in the 1940s, exposing its secrets to authorities and the outside world. His actions led to the 1947 revocation by the state of Georgia of the Klan's national corporate charter. Kennedy wrote or co-wrote ten books.
Kennedy was named for a member of his mother's family, the hatter John Batterson Stetson. As a teenager, he began collecting folklore material while seeking "a dollar down and dollar a week" accounts for his father, a furniture merchant. While a student at the University of Florida, Kennedy befriended one of his professors, the Pulitzer Prize-winning author Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings.
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Swedish American
Swedish Americans are Americans of Swedish descent, especially the descendants of about 1.2 million immigrants from Sweden during 1885–1915. Most were Lutherans who were affiliated with predecessor bodies of what are now the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) or Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod or North American Lutheran Church (NALC); some were Methodists. Historically Swedish Americans are concentrated in the Midwest, roughly in the area west and northwest of Chicago.
The first Swedish Americans were the settlers of New Sweden. A colony established by Queen Christina of Sweden in 1638, it centered around the Delaware Valley including parts of the present-day states of Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. New Sweden was incorporated into New Netherland in 1655 and ceased to be an official territory of the Realm of Sweden. However, many Swedish and Finnish colonists remained and were allowed some political and cultural autonomy.
Present day reminders of the history of New Sweden are reflected in the presence of the American Swedish Historical Museum in Philadelphia, Fort Christina State Park in Wilmington, Delaware, Governor Printz Park and The Printzhof in Essington, Pennsylvania.
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Vernon Dahmer
Vernon Ferdinand Dahmer, Sr. (March 10, 1908 - January 11, 1966) was an American civil rights leader and president of the Forrest County chapter of the NAACP in Hattiesburg, Mississippi.
Dahmer was born March 10, 1908, to George and Ellen Dahmer of Forrest County, Mississippi. He attended Bay Spring High School.
In March 1952 Dahmer married Ellie Jewell Davis, a teacher from Rose Hill, Mississippi. The couple had eight children in their family and their home in north Forrest County was part of the Kelly Settlement area. Ellie Dahmer taught for many years in Richton, Mississippi and retired in 1987 from the Forrest County school system.
Dahmer was a member of Shady Grove Baptist Church where he served as a music director and Sunday School teacher. Dahmer became the owner of a grocery store, sawmill, planing mill, and 200-acre (0.81 km2) farm.
Dahmer served several terms as president of the Forrest County Chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and led voter registration drives in the 1960s. He kept a voter registration book in his store in late 1965 to make it easier for African Americans to register. Dahmer also helped the local African American population pay a poll tax for the right to vote. His mantra was, "If you don't vote, you don't count," and those words, which he repeated on his deathbed, were used as his epitaph.
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Viola Liuzzo
Viola Fauver Gregg Liuzzo (April 11, 1925 – March 25, 1965) was a Unitarian Universalist civil rights activist from Michigan, who was murdered by Ku Klux Klan members after the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches in Alabama. One of the Klansmen in the car from which the shots were fired was a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) informant.
Liuzzo's name is one of those inscribed on a civil rights memorial in the state capital. She died at the age of 39.
Viola Gregg was born in California, Pennsylvania, and moved with her family to Chattanooga, Tennessee at the age of six. After just one year of high school, she dropped out, was married in 1941 at 16, then divorced within a year. In 1943, she married George Argyris. They had two children, Penny and Evangeline Mary, and divorced in 1949. She later married Anthony Liuzzo, a Teamsters union business agent. They had three children: Tommy, Anthony, Jr., and Sally.
Liuzzo sought to return to school, and attended the Carnegie Institute in Detroit, Michigan. She then enrolled part-time at Wayne State University in 1962, and was considered an average student who was academically still in her freshman year at the time of her death.
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Walter Scott
Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832) was a Scottish historical novelist, playwright, and poet, popular throughout much of the world during his time.
Scott was the first English-language author to have a truly international career in his lifetime, with many contemporary readers in Europe, Australia, and North America. His novels and poetry are still read, and many of his works remain classics of both English-language literature and of Scottish literature. Famous titles include Ivanhoe, Rob Roy, The Lady of the Lake, Waverley, The Heart of Midlothian and The Bride of Lammermoor.
Born in College Wynd in the Old Town of Edinburgh in 1771, the son of a solicitor, Scott survived a childhood bout of polio in 1773 that left him lame. To cure his lameness he was sent in 1773 to live in the rural Borders region at his paternal grandparents' farm at Sandyknowe, adjacent to the ruin of Smailholm Tower, the earlier family home. Here he was taught to read by his aunt Jenny, and learned from her the speech patterns and many of the tales and legends that characterised much of his work. In January 1775 he returned to Edinburgh, and that summer went with his aunt Jenny to take spa treatment at Bath in England, where they lived at 6 South Parade. In the winter of 1776 he went back to Sandyknowe, with another attempt at a water cure at Prestonpans during the following summer.
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Wife selling
Wife selling was the practice of a husband selling his wife, in some cases to a new husband.
The English custom of wife selling largely began in the late 17th century when divorce was a practical impossibility for all but the very wealthiest. In the ritualized form, after parading his wife with a halter around her neck, arm, or waist, a husband would publicly auction her to the highest bidder. Although the custom had no basis in law and frequently resulted in prosecution, particularly from the mid-19th century onwards, the attitude of the authorities was equivocal. At least one early 19th-century magistrate is on record as stating that he did not believe he had the right to prevent wife sales, and there were cases of local Poor Law Commissioners forcing husbands to sell their wives, rather than having to maintain the family in workhouses. The English custom of wife selling spread to Wales, Scotland, Australia, and the United States before dying out in the early 20th century.
The Chinese custom of wife selling or 'selling a divorce' (Chinese: 以财买休) has a long history, spanning both the Imperial and Modern eras.
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William Gibbs McAdoo
William Gibbs McAdoo, Jr. (October 31, 1863 – February 1, 1941) was an American lawyer and political leader who served as a U.S. Senator, United States Secretary of the Treasury and director of the United States Railroad Administration (USRA). By virtue of his position as Secretary of the Treasury, in August 1914, he served as an "ex-officio member" on the first Federal Reserve Board in Washington, DC.
McAdoo was born near Marietta, Georgia, to author Mary Faith Floyd (1832–1913) and attorney William Gibbs McAdoo (1820–1894). His uncle, John D. McAdoo, was a Civil War general and justice on the Texas Supreme Court. McAdoo attended rural schools until his family moved to Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1877, when his father became a professor at the University of Tennessee.
He graduated from the University of Tennessee and is an initiate of the Kappa Sigma Fraternity Lambda Chapter at the University of Tennessee. He was appointed deputy clerk of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Tennessee in 1882. He married his first wife, Sarah Hazelhurst Fleming, on November 18, 1885. They had seven children: Harriet Floyd McAdoo, Francis Huger McAdoo, Julia Hazelhurst McAdoo, Nona Hazelhurst McAdoo, William Gibbs MacAdoo III, Robert Hazelhurst McAdoo, and Sarah Fleming McAdoo.
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William Woods Holden
William Woods Holden (November 24, 1818 – March 1, 1892) was the 38th and 40th Governor of North Carolina in 1865 and from 1868 to 1871. He was the leader of the state's Republican Party during Reconstruction. Holden was the second governor in American history to be impeached, and the first to be removed from office. He is the only North Carolina governor to have been impeached.
Holden was born and raised near what is now Eno River State Park in present-day Durham County. At age of 10, he began a six-year apprenticeship with Dennis Heartt at the Hillsborough Recorder newspaper (in Hillsborough, North Carolina). By age 19, Holden was working as a printer and writer at the Raleigh Star, in Raleigh, North Carolina. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1841, and became a member of the Whig party. In 1843, he became owner and editor of the North Carolina Standard, changing its party affiliation to the Democratic party. When Holden took over the newspaper, it was struggling financially. Under his leadership, it became one of the most widely-read newspapers in the state.[citation needed]
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Willie Edwards
Willie Edwards, Jr. (November 13, 1932 - January 23, 1957) was a 24-year-old African American, husband and father, murdered by members of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan. He is buried at New Pleasant Valley Cemetery in Letohatchee, Alabama.
On the night of January 22, 1957, a small group of Klansmen gathered, armed with pistols and a rifle. They got into a car to look for Willie Edwards, who was recently hired as a driver for Winn-Dixie. They had allegedly heard that Edwards had been dating a white woman. Edwards left to go to work on the afternoon of January 23, never to return home. He was beaten by the Klansmen in a car as they drove him around the city. Then they stopped at a bridge along the Alabama River and pointed a gun at Edwards, before commanding him to jump off the bridge. He fell 125 feet to his death. Three months passed before his body was discovered washed up on the shores of the river. Officials stated that decomposition made it impossible to determine the cause of his death.
In 1976, then State Attorney General Bill Baxley re-opened the Edwards case. Four people were arrested and charged with Edward's murder: Sonny Kyle Livingston Jr. (38), Henry Alexander (46), James York (73), and Raymond Britt, Jr. Britt broke the long silence with his sworn affidavit (in exchange for immunity), dated February 20, 1976. In the statement to Attorney General Bill Baxley, Britt described how on the night of January 23, 1957, he along with three other men beat and forced Edwards to jump off the Tyler-Goodwin Bridge into the Alabama River. Edwards fell 125 feet (27 m), from the bridge into the Alabama River below.
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Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. Running against Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party candidate Theodore Roosevelt and Republican candidate William Howard Taft, Wilson was elected President as a Democrat in 1912.
In his first term as President, Wilson persuaded a Democratic Congress to pass major progressive reforms. Historian John M. Cooper argues that, in his first term, Wilson successfully pushed a legislative agenda that few presidents have equaled, and remained unmatched up until the New Deal. This agenda included the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm Loan Act and an income tax. Child labor was curtailed by the Keating–Owen Act of 1916, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1918. He also had Congress pass the Adamson Act, which imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads. Wilson, after first sidestepping the issue, became a major advocate for the women's suffrage.
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
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karaoke
Walking along just kicking stones
Minding my own business
I come face to face, with my foe
Disguised In violence from head to toe.
I holla and I bawl (Ku Klux Klan)
But dem naw let me go now
To let me go was not dem intention
Dem seh one nigger the less
The better for the show
Stand strong black skin and take your blow
It's the Ku, the Ku Klux Klan
Here to stamp out blackman yah
The Ku, the Ku Klux Klan heh!
To be taught a lesson not to walk alone
I was waiting for the Good Samaritan
But waiting was hopeless
It was all in vain
The Ku Klux Klan back again
I holla and I bawl (Ku Klux Klan)
Dem naw let me go now
Dem seh one nigger the less
The better the show
Stand strong blackskin and take your blow
The Ku, Ku Klux Klan
Rape, lynch, kill and maim
Things can't remain the same yah no!
Blackman do unto the Klan
AS they would do to you
In this case hate they neighbour
Those cowards only kill who they fear
That's why they hide behind
The hoods and cloaks they wear
I holla and I bawl, Ku Klux Klan
Dem naw let me go no, Ku Klux Klan
Oh no, oh no...
Here to stamp out black man yah
Rape, lynch, kill and maim
Things can't remain the same yah
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Ku Klux Klan- A Secret History [1/9]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
Since the days following the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan has preached a gospel of hate, intolerance and exclusion. But while it has attracted members who number in the millions at times, it has also repeatedly been battered into near-submission by activists, the government and changing public opinion. THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) ventures back to the days of the Reconstruction South and through the landmarks in Klan history to tell the complete story of the most famous hate group in America. Discover how the six original Klansmen came together and chose their name. See how the release of America's first blockbuster movie spurred a resurgence in the KKK and how they expanded their target to include Jews, Catholics and immigrants as well as blacks. Examine the tactics of Klan leaders like William Joseph Simmons and David Duke. And, finally, find out how the Klan has repeatedly battled back from the brink of extinction. Filled with rare and often disturbing footage as well as extensive interviews with, Klan experts, past and present members and reporters, THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) presents a comprehensive history of the Ku Klux Klan.
http://wn.com/Ku_Klux_Klan_A_Secret_History_1_9_
Since the days following the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan has preached a gospel of hate, intolerance and exclusion. But while it has attracted members who number in the millions at times, it has also repeatedly been battered into near-submission by activists, the government and changing public opinion. THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) ventures back to the days of the Reconstruction South and through the landmarks in Klan history to tell the complete story of the most famous hate group in America. Discover how the six original Klansmen came together and chose their name. See how the release of America's first blockbuster movie spurred a resurgence in the KKK and how they expanded their target to include Jews, Catholics and immigrants as well as blacks. Examine the tactics of Klan leaders like William Joseph Simmons and David Duke. And, finally, find out how the Klan has repeatedly battled back from the brink of extinction. Filled with rare and often disturbing footage as well as extensive interviews with, Klan experts, past and present members and reporters, THE 20TH CENTURY(TM) presents a comprehensive history of the Ku Klux Klan.
KKK: Then and Now
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Over the decades, the Ku Klux Klan has evolved to target its message of hate against many different populations. KKK: Inside American Terror : WED OCTOBER 15 8P et/pt : channel.nationalgeographic.com
http://wn.com/KKK_Then_and_Now
Over the decades, the Ku Klux Klan has evolved to target its message of hate against many different populations. KKK: Inside American Terror : WED OCTOBER 15 8P et/pt : channel.nationalgeographic.com
- published: 16 Oct 2008
- views: 2067078
- author: NationalGeographic
Inside the New Ku Klux Klan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:54
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Part 1: Witness a cross burning and other rituals outsiders rarely see.
http://wn.com/Inside_the_New_Ku_Klux_Klan
Part 1: Witness a cross burning and other rituals outsiders rarely see.
- published: 27 Oct 2012
- views: 42595
- author: ABCNews
Kelly Ogle Sits Down With Ku Klux Klan - News9.com
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
News 9 Kelly Ogle interview with United White Knights. Feb 16, 2012
http://wn.com/Kelly_Ogle_Sits_Down_With_Ku_Klux_Klan_News9com
News 9 Kelly Ogle interview with United White Knights. Feb 16, 2012
- published: 17 Feb 2012
- views: 43822
- author: uwkec8
American Heritage- KKK Lynching (killing) Republicans D9-P2-10:00
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:53
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Much more American Heritage videos can be found here: www.ahs.honradeus.com Votes for Republican tickets were killed by the KKK, regardless White or Black. Dr. Win Smith was attacked by the KKK because he defended Black's rights. Republicans were considered radical because they were Bi-racial. 1300 white Republicans and 3500 black Republicans were lynched. Wilson removed many Blacks from office. Time: 4:35 If you were Black, you were most likely Republican.
http://wn.com/American_Heritage_KKK_Lynching_killing_Republicans_D9-P2-1000
Much more American Heritage videos can be found here: www.ahs.honradeus.com Votes for Republican tickets were killed by the KKK, regardless White or Black. Dr. Win Smith was attacked by the KKK because he defended Black's rights. Republicans were considered radical because they were Bi-racial. 1300 white Republicans and 3500 black Republicans were lynched. Wilson removed many Blacks from office. Time: 4:35 If you were Black, you were most likely Republican.
- published: 16 Jul 2008
- views: 535936
- author: nvsvictor
Inside the New Ku Klux Klan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:20
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Part 2: A Grand Wizard says he's against hate and violence -- but is he?
http://wn.com/Inside_the_New_Ku_Klux_Klan
Part 2: A Grand Wizard says he's against hate and violence -- but is he?
- published: 27 Oct 2012
- views: 15474
- author: ABCNews
The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920's
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:49
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
This video, originally done as a project for my sophomore history class last year, is an informative, objective video about the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920's in the United States. Although this video is objective, I want to make it clear that I am in no way affiliated with the KKK, nor do I want to be. In my opinion, the views of the Ku Klux Klan are vile and unjust, but I beleive in freedom of speech and therefore will not judge them harshly. If you enjoyed this video and would like me to make more historically-oriented films, please feel free to contact me.
http://wn.com/The_Ku_Klux_Klan_of_the_1920's
This video, originally done as a project for my sophomore history class last year, is an informative, objective video about the Ku Klux Klan of the 1920's in the United States. Although this video is objective, I want to make it clear that I am in no way affiliated with the KKK, nor do I want to be. In my opinion, the views of the Ku Klux Klan are vile and unjust, but I beleive in freedom of speech and therefore will not judge them harshly. If you enjoyed this video and would like me to make more historically-oriented films, please feel free to contact me.
- published: 17 Dec 2007
- views: 86531
- author: darkvamp001
KKK Statue Sparks Outrage
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
"The renovation of a monument honoring a Civil War Confederate general, who was the first "Grand Wizard" of the Ku Klux Klan, is once more creating controversy in Selma, Ala., 11 years after protesters got it moved off of public property. The memorial is being repaired after the bust of Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest was stolen in March from the 7-foot-tall granite monument it rested upon at a cemetery in Selma, reported The Birmingham News. A group known as the Friends of Forrest are replacing it, according to local media; and the United Daughters of the Confederacy are adding a pedestal and fencing to make it harder to steal, Selma City Council President Dr. Cecil Williamson told NBC News...".* Ana Kasparian and Cenk Uygur discuss on The Young Turks. *Read more here from Miranda Leitsinger: usnews.nbcnews.com Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
http://wn.com/KKK_Statue_Sparks_Outrage
"The renovation of a monument honoring a Civil War Confederate general, who was the first "Grand Wizard" of the Ku Klux Klan, is once more creating controversy in Selma, Ala., 11 years after protesters got it moved off of public property. The memorial is being repaired after the bust of Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest was stolen in March from the 7-foot-tall granite monument it rested upon at a cemetery in Selma, reported The Birmingham News. A group known as the Friends of Forrest are replacing it, according to local media; and the United Daughters of the Confederacy are adding a pedestal and fencing to make it harder to steal, Selma City Council President Dr. Cecil Williamson told NBC News...".* Ana Kasparian and Cenk Uygur discuss on The Young Turks. *Read more here from Miranda Leitsinger: usnews.nbcnews.com Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
- published: 12 Sep 2012
- views: 65097
- author: TheYoungTurks
How the KKK got beat by 1 black guy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
Johnny Lee Clary (born June 18, 1959) is a former Ku Klux Klan leader who became a born again Christian and now travels around the globe preaching the gospel and teaching against racism and hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, Neo Nazis, and Aryan Nations.
http://wn.com/How_the_KKK_got_beat_by_1_black_guy
Johnny Lee Clary (born June 18, 1959) is a former Ku Klux Klan leader who became a born again Christian and now travels around the globe preaching the gospel and teaching against racism and hate groups such as the Ku Klux Klan, Neo Nazis, and Aryan Nations.
- published: 11 Oct 2009
- views: 777200
- author: Stephen Hall
Mr. Show The New Ku Klux Klan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:56
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
The title says it all
http://wn.com/Mr_Show_The_New_Ku_Klux_Klan
Ku Klux Klan (KKK)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:15
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Video on the KKK
http://wn.com/Ku_Klux_Klan_KKK
IF YOU LIKE THIS SUBSCRIBE Video on the KKK
- published: 16 Mar 2008
- views: 194827
- author: StalinLeninMao
Mitchell And Webb - KKK
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
The history of worlds goofiest uniform.
http://wn.com/Mitchell_And_Webb_KKK
Der Hass des Ku Klux Klan 1/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Der Ku-Klux-Klan zählt zu den gefürchtetsten rassistischen Geheimbünden der USA. Die Dokumentation beleuchtet die Geschichte des Ku-Klux-Klans und analysiert seine aktuelle Rolle als aktive Terrororganisation. Interviews mit Anführern des Klans, Bürgerrechtsexperten und Undercover-FBI-Agenten werfen Licht auf die skrupellosen Methoden des Ku-Klux-Klans und zeigen, wie die radikale Organisation mit anderen rechtsextremen Gruppen kooperiert.
http://wn.com/Der_Hass_des_Ku_Klux_Klan_1_5
Der Ku-Klux-Klan zählt zu den gefürchtetsten rassistischen Geheimbünden der USA. Die Dokumentation beleuchtet die Geschichte des Ku-Klux-Klans und analysiert seine aktuelle Rolle als aktive Terrororganisation. Interviews mit Anführern des Klans, Bürgerrechtsexperten und Undercover-FBI-Agenten werfen Licht auf die skrupellosen Methoden des Ku-Klux-Klans und zeigen, wie die radikale Organisation mit anderen rechtsextremen Gruppen kooperiert.
- published: 14 Feb 2010
- views: 143990
- author: Papillon0966
Ku Klux Klan - A Secret History
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 88:23
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
en.wikipedia.org
http://wn.com/Ku_Klux_Klan_A_Secret_History
Malcolm X: "My father was killed by the Ku Klux Klan."
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:57
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com In an interview on Chicago TV with Jim Hurlbut, Malcolm X describes his early childhood and explains that his house was burned down by the Klan and that they murdered his father. Mr. HURLBURT: You were born in Omaha, is that right? MALCOLM X: Yes, sir. Mr. HURLBURT: And you left -- your family left Omaha when you were about one year old? MALCOLM X: I imagine about a year old. Mr. HURBURT: And why did they leave Omaha? MALCOLM X: Well, to my understanding the Ku Klux Klan burned one of their homes in Omaha. There's a lot of Ku Klux Klan-- Mr. HURLBURT: They made your family feel very unhappy, I'm sure. MALCOLM X: Well, insecure, if not unhappy. Mr. HURLBURT: So you must have a somewhat prejudiced point of view -- a personally prejudiced point of view. In other words, you cannot look at this in a broad, academic sort of way, really, can you? MALCOLM X: I think that's incorrect, because despite the fact that that happened in Omaha and then when moved to Lansing, Michigan our home was burned down again -- in fact, my father was killed by the Ku Klux Klan, and despite all of that, no one was more thoroughly integrated with whites than I. No one has lived more so in the society of whites than I. malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Malcolm_X_My_father_was_killed_by_the_Ku_Klux_Klan
malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com In an interview on Chicago TV with Jim Hurlbut, Malcolm X describes his early childhood and explains that his house was burned down by the Klan and that they murdered his father. Mr. HURLBURT: You were born in Omaha, is that right? MALCOLM X: Yes, sir. Mr. HURLBURT: And you left -- your family left Omaha when you were about one year old? MALCOLM X: I imagine about a year old. Mr. HURBURT: And why did they leave Omaha? MALCOLM X: Well, to my understanding the Ku Klux Klan burned one of their homes in Omaha. There's a lot of Ku Klux Klan-- Mr. HURLBURT: They made your family feel very unhappy, I'm sure. MALCOLM X: Well, insecure, if not unhappy. Mr. HURLBURT: So you must have a somewhat prejudiced point of view -- a personally prejudiced point of view. In other words, you cannot look at this in a broad, academic sort of way, really, can you? MALCOLM X: I think that's incorrect, because despite the fact that that happened in Omaha and then when moved to Lansing, Michigan our home was burned down again -- in fact, my father was killed by the Ku Klux Klan, and despite all of that, no one was more thoroughly integrated with whites than I. No one has lived more so in the society of whites than I. malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com malcolmxfiles.blogspot.com
- published: 10 May 2007
- views: 872656
- author: antihostile
la storia segreta del ku klux klan (history channel )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 100:45
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/la_storia_segreta_del_ku_klux_klan_history_channel_
kkk ku klux klan oklahoma
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:58
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
KKK oklahoma ( I uploaded this for educational purposes, I am not affiliated with this organization.)
http://wn.com/kkk_ku_klux_klan_oklahoma
KKK oklahoma ( I uploaded this for educational purposes, I am not affiliated with this organization.)
- published: 03 Feb 2009
- views: 169137
- author: andrep13
The Ku Klux Klan Song
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:41
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JOKES, NO OFFENCE IS MEANT BY THIS VIDEO AND I DO NOT SUPPORT THE KU KLUX KLAN, IT'S MOTIVES OR IT'S AGENDA.
http://wn.com/The_Ku_Klux_Klan_Song
DISCLAIMER: THIS IS JOKES, NO OFFENCE IS MEANT BY THIS VIDEO AND I DO NOT SUPPORT THE KU KLUX KLAN, IT'S MOTIVES OR IT'S AGENDA.
- published: 19 Aug 2012
- views: 61187
- author: ThomasBallardTV
¿Qué fue el Ku Klux Klan? 1/3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:24
- Updated: 26 Dec 2012
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) es el nombre que han adoptado varias organizaciones en los Estados Unidos de extrema derecha creadas en el siglo XIX, inmediatamente después de la Guerra de Secesión que promueven principalmente la xenofobia, así como la supremacía de la raza blanca, homofobia, el antisemitismo, racismo, anticomunismo, y el anticatolicismo. Con frecuencia, estas organizaciones han recurrido al terrorismo, la violencia y actos intimidatorios como la quema de cruces, para oprimir a sus víctimas. La primera encarnación del Klan fue fundada a finales de 1865 por veteranos después de la Guerra de Secesión, quisieron resistirse a la Reconstrucción. La organización adoptó rápidamente métodos violentos para conseguir sus fines. Sin embargo, hubo una reacción que en poco tiempo llevó a la organización al declive, pues las élites sureñas veían al Klan como un pretexto para que las tropas federales estuvieran activas en los Estados del Sur. El KKK fue formalmente disuelto en 1870 por el Presidente republicano Ulysses S. Grant, a través del Acta de derechos civiles de 1871 (conocida como "El Acta Ku-Klux Klan"), En 1915 se fundó una nueva asociación que utilizaba el mismo nombre, inspirada por el poder que tenían los medios de comunicación de masas. La película El nacimiento de una nación, y el antisemitismo mostrado en las crónicas periodísticas del juicio y linchamiento del asesino Leo Frank, contribuyeron a dicha inspiración. El segundo KKK fue una organización más formal, con ...
http://wn.com/¿Qué_fue_el_Ku_Klux_Klan?_1_3
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) es el nombre que han adoptado varias organizaciones en los Estados Unidos de extrema derecha creadas en el siglo XIX, inmediatamente después de la Guerra de Secesión que promueven principalmente la xenofobia, así como la supremacía de la raza blanca, homofobia, el antisemitismo, racismo, anticomunismo, y el anticatolicismo. Con frecuencia, estas organizaciones han recurrido al terrorismo, la violencia y actos intimidatorios como la quema de cruces, para oprimir a sus víctimas. La primera encarnación del Klan fue fundada a finales de 1865 por veteranos después de la Guerra de Secesión, quisieron resistirse a la Reconstrucción. La organización adoptó rápidamente métodos violentos para conseguir sus fines. Sin embargo, hubo una reacción que en poco tiempo llevó a la organización al declive, pues las élites sureñas veían al Klan como un pretexto para que las tropas federales estuvieran activas en los Estados del Sur. El KKK fue formalmente disuelto en 1870 por el Presidente republicano Ulysses S. Grant, a través del Acta de derechos civiles de 1871 (conocida como "El Acta Ku-Klux Klan"), En 1915 se fundó una nueva asociación que utilizaba el mismo nombre, inspirada por el poder que tenían los medios de comunicación de masas. La película El nacimiento de una nación, y el antisemitismo mostrado en las crónicas periodísticas del juicio y linchamiento del asesino Leo Frank, contribuyeron a dicha inspiración. El segundo KKK fue una organización más formal, con ...
- published: 15 Sep 2011
- views: 25517
- author: jamacor4
KKKKKK
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:22
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
Não perca nenhum dos nossos vídeos: goo.gl Nosso Facebook: goo.gl Você reclama de Restart, One direction e Cine? Teve uma época onde os grupos eram muito menos "coloridos"... E muito menos divertidos. FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com TWITTER: twitter.com CONTATO: contato@portadosfundos.com.br
http://wn.com/KKKKKK
Não perca nenhum dos nossos vídeos: goo.gl Nosso Facebook: goo.gl Você reclama de Restart, One direction e Cine? Teve uma época onde os grupos eram muito menos "coloridos"... E muito menos divertidos. FACEBOOK: www.facebook.com TWITTER: twitter.com CONTATO: contato@portadosfundos.com.br
- published: 27 Aug 2012
- views: 902825
- author: portadosfundos
Ku Klux Klan (KKK) on the rise 1923
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:18
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
Ground angle shots of the parade coming to and past camera. Midnight ceremony with burning of the Fiery Cross, semi-long shot of burning cross, panning down from top of same to members of Klan gathered around it. Semi-long pan shot of Klan members. Col. Simmons, Chief of the Order, is presented with a house by the members, long shot of house, semi-close shot of bronze tablet on house. Close-up of William Joseph Simmons.
http://wn.com/Ku_Klux_Klan_KKK_on_the_rise_1923
Ground angle shots of the parade coming to and past camera. Midnight ceremony with burning of the Fiery Cross, semi-long shot of burning cross, panning down from top of same to members of Klan gathered around it. Semi-long pan shot of Klan members. Col. Simmons, Chief of the Order, is presented with a house by the members, long shot of house, semi-close shot of bronze tablet on house. Close-up of William Joseph Simmons.
- published: 01 Aug 2011
- views: 3780
- author: historycomestolife
Bobby Hemmitt - The Ku Klux Klan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 119:30
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
Bobby Hemmitt dvd's can be purchased at www.africanmoorishlectures.com
http://wn.com/Bobby_Hemmitt_The_Ku_Klux_Klan
Bobby Hemmitt dvd's can be purchased at www.africanmoorishlectures.com
- published: 04 Jan 2012
- views: 23653
- author: TYRONE7272
KKK and Anonymous vs. Westboro Baptist Church
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
"Members of the hacktivist group Anonymous have targeted the Westboro Baptist Church after the hate-mongering, quasi-religious group announced plans to protest a Sunday night vigil in remembrance of the Sandy Hook shooting victims, 20 of whom were just 6 and 7 years old. On Saturday, Westboro Baptist Church spokesperson Shirley Phelps-Roper tweeted that the group would be protesting the vigil in Newtown, Conn., to "sing praise to God for the glory of his work in executing his judgment."* You know you're doing something horribly wrong when the KKK thinks you're taking hate too for. Cenk Uygur and Ana Kasparian discuss the Ku Klux Klan and hactivist group 'Anonymous' becoming very unlikely allies in combating the Westboro Baptist Church's plans to picket the funerals of the children murdered in Newtown last week. *Read more from Huffington Post: www.huffingtonpost.com Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Support The Young Turks by Shopping bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
http://wn.com/KKK_and_Anonymous_vs_Westboro_Baptist_Church
"Members of the hacktivist group Anonymous have targeted the Westboro Baptist Church after the hate-mongering, quasi-religious group announced plans to protest a Sunday night vigil in remembrance of the Sandy Hook shooting victims, 20 of whom were just 6 and 7 years old. On Saturday, Westboro Baptist Church spokesperson Shirley Phelps-Roper tweeted that the group would be protesting the vigil in Newtown, Conn., to "sing praise to God for the glory of his work in executing his judgment."* You know you're doing something horribly wrong when the KKK thinks you're taking hate too for. Cenk Uygur and Ana Kasparian discuss the Ku Klux Klan and hactivist group 'Anonymous' becoming very unlikely allies in combating the Westboro Baptist Church's plans to picket the funerals of the children murdered in Newtown last week. *Read more from Huffington Post: www.huffingtonpost.com Support The Young Turks by Subscribing bit.ly Support The Young Turks by Shopping bit.ly Like Us on Facebook: www.fb.com Follow Us on Twitter: bit.ly Buy TYT Merch: theyoungturks.spreadshirt.com Find out how to watch The Young Turks on Current by clicking here: www.current.com
- published: 18 Dec 2012
- views: 115238
- author: TheYoungTurks
photo: AP / Altaf Qadri
29 Dec 2012
Police in India have sealed off much of the capital, Delhi, and issued an appeal for calm after the death of a woman who was gang-raped in the city. The 23-year old woman, who has not been identified, died early on Saturday at a hospital in Singapore, where she had been taken for specialist treatment. Her body is to be flown back to India for burial ... Gatherings of more than five people have been banned in the city centre ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
photo: US Navy / HMC Josh Ives
27 Dec 2012
Imperial adventures are nothing new in the Middle East. Neither is their glorification, as Peter O’Toole’s pained Lawrence of Arabia eternally reminds us. But for a decade or so now, things have been heating up, as if to coincide with climate change and fears of declining petroleum reserves ... The Belly for Belligerence? ... The question loomed over beltway intelligentsia like an ephemeral Gordian knot ... We’re All Hawks Now ... While George W ... ....(size: 9.3Kb)
photo: AP / Ben Curtis
28 Dec 2012
The president of Central African Republic (CAR) has urgently called on France and other foreign powers to help his government fend off rebels who are quickly seizing territory and approaching the capital. Speaking to crowds in Bangui, a city of some 600,000, Francois Bozize on Thursday pleaded with foreign powers to do what they could. He pointed in particular to France, Central African Republic's former colonial ruler ... 516 Share ... News ... ....(size: 19.5Kb)
photo: AP / Itsuo Inouye
29 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. A millennium before the English statesmen Edmund Burke, regarded as the father of Western Conservatism and who wrote, "good order is the foundation of all things," Japan's Seventeen-Article Constitution began with this conservative principle. "Harmony is to be cherished, and opposition for opposition's sake must be avoided as a matter of principle." ... militarism, those protesting U.S....(size: 9.7Kb)
photo: WN / Janice Sabnal
27 Dec 2012
Washington. Six people, including two young children, were left dead in weather-related accidents, as winter snowstorms complicated travel for many Americans in the Midwest and Northeast on Wednesday. Snow totals in parts of Indiana ranged from 6 to 12 inches, CNN reported. About 350 snowploughs were clearing roads throughout the city. New York Gov. Andrew Cuomo told residents they should avoid nonessential travel ... IANS ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
The Guardian
30 Dec 2012
The director tells how he transposed the violent spaghetti westerns of Sergio Corbucci to the antebellum south. Jean-Louis Trintignant in Sergio Corbucci's Il Grande Silenzio. Photograph. Allstar/Fantoma/Sportsphoto Ltd ... Tarantino's biggest influences for the film, he says, were the spaghetti westerns of the Italian director Sergio Corbucci ... In his Django, the bad guys aren't the Ku Klux Klan, but a surreal stand-in for them ... ....(size: 5.5Kb)
Chicago Sun-Times
29 Dec 2012
ELGIN — A police officer is suing the city and two other officers, accusing them of racial discrimination ... According to an order of suspension issued July 26, 2011, during a trip to Indianapolis in the late 1990s, Rafferty “posed for a picture making a joke about the Ku Klux Klan ... Brown was on the trip to an Indianapolis Colts football game with Rafferty and a number of other men about 14 years ago when the Klan picture was snapped....(size: 5.2Kb)
Sacramento Bee
29 Dec 2012
3 ... The Crocker exhibit also features Rockwell's 1965 painting "Murder in Mississippi," one of several powerful images he did honoring James Earl Chaney, Andrew Goodman and Michael "Mickey" Schwerner, the three civil rights workers murdered in June 1964 by members of the Mississippi White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, the Neshoba County Sheriff's Office and the Philadelphia, Miss., Police Department ... Jan. 13 ... All rights reserved....(size: 4.4Kb)
MSNBC
28 Dec 2012
STL Today
28 Dec 2012
We talked to Tarantino about his motivation to make the film, his controversial use of the N-word and how a hilarious interlude involving the Klu Klux Klan came about ... There’s a scene in the film involving an early version of the Ku Klux Klan that may be the funniest thing you’ve ever written ... Everyone at that time had seen or heard a production of the Klan....(size: 5.8Kb)
STL Today
28 Dec 2012
ST. LOUIS • The Traditionalist American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan has won an early legal victory against the city of Desloge, which told the KKK it couldn't distribute leaflets at an intersection in town earlier this year. The KKK filed a federal lawsuit Nov. 8, arguing the city's ban on solicitation in the street was overly broad and infringed on First Amendment rights. On Thursday U.S. District Court Judge Audrey G ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
noodls
28 Dec 2012
(Source. ACLU - American Civil Liberties Union). December 28, 2012. FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE. CONTACT. (212) 549-2666; media@aclu.org. ST. LOUIS, MO ... Fleissig ... The lawsuit was brought in November on behalf of Frank Ancona and members of the Traditionalist American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, a group that regularly hands out leaflets on public streets and sidewalks and tucks them under windshields to spread their message ... Located in St....(size: 3.2Kb)
Yahoo Daily News
28 Dec 2012
The family of a 16-year-old Philadelphia teenager who charges that her geometry teacher mocked her for wearing a Mitt Romney t-shirt has sued both the teacher and the school district for violating her First Amendment rights ... Gaymon also said the pink “Romney-Ryan” shirt the high schooler wore to school was akin to the garb Ku Klux Klan members wear, reports The Philadelphia Inquirer ... On Oct ... Not everyone championed her cause, however ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
CounterPunch
28 Dec 2012
These groups – the Redshirts, White League, and Ku Klux Klan – were a natural continuation of slave patrols. The Klan was the most successful, claiming as many as 5 million members at its peak in the 1920s. Klan members enjoyed close ties to local and state governments in the South through alliances with police, sheriffs, and Democratic politicians....(size: 11.6Kb)
Lexington Herald-Leader
27 Dec 2012
PINEVILLE, Ky ... He says KKK is usually associated with the Ku Klux Klan, but police aren't sure whether that group is responsible ... Information from....(size: 0.9Kb)
The Examiner
27 Dec 2012
Rating for Django Unchained (film). 5. I honestly didn’t know what to expect when I went to see Quentin Tarantino's latest project. Django Unchained. The much talked about movie received mixed reviews because of the controversial nature of the film ... On Christmas day, fans made their way to movie theaters all over the U.S ... You get to see how the Ku Klux Klan is formed, and what probably shouldn’t be a funny scene, turns out to be just that....(size: 5.5Kb)
my SA
27 Dec 2012
AUSTIN, Texas (AP) — Wiggling is perfectly acceptable — in fact, encouraged — in the Travis County courtroom of state District Judge John Dietz ... And everyone actually wiggles ... Life will go on irrespective of this lawsuit ... He regaled court observers during an early hearing with stories of different cases, one involving gay Republicans and another a Grand Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan, that ended up before the Texas Supreme Court ... "So what?"....(size: 6.4Kb)
The Examiner
27 Dec 2012
Rating for 'Django Unchained'. 5. Like the spaghetti westerns of old, ‘Django Unchained’ gallops onto the big screen. Directed by Quentin Tarentino and starring Jamie Foxx (Django) and Christoph Waltz (Dr ... Photo credit. ... There is also a scene that pokes fun at the Ku Klux Klan, reveling in all its absurdities and illogical thinking that is reminiscent of the scene in the Coen brothers’ movie ’O’Brother, Where Art Thou?’ ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)
"KKK" redirects here. For other uses, see KKK (disambiguation).
 Ku Klux Klan rally, Gainesville, Florida, December 31, 1922. |
|
| In existence | |
|---|---|
| 1st Klan | 1865–1870s |
| 2nd Klan | 1915–1944 |
| 3rd Klan1 | since 1946 |
| Members | |
| 1st Klan | 550,000 |
| 2nd Klan | 3,000,000–6,000,000[1] (peaked in 1920–1925 period) |
| 3rd Klan | 5,000–6,000 |
| Properties | |
| Origin | United States of America |
| Political ideology | White supremacy White nationalism Nativism Anti-communism Christian terrorism[2][3] Neo-Confederate Anti-Catholicism Antisemitism Homophobism |
| Political position | Far-right |
| Religion | Protestant Christianity |
| 1The current version had some 152 independent chapters as of 2010.[4] | |
Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right[5][6][7][8] organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism.[9] Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist.[9] The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters with no connections between each other; it is classified as a hate group.[10] It is estimated to have between 3,000 and 5,000 members as of 2012.[11]
The first Klan flourished in Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members adopted white costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities.[12] The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid 1920s, and adopted the same costumes and code words as the first Klan, while introducing cross burnings.[13] The third KKK emerged after World War II and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the USA's "Anglo-Saxon" and "Celtic" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism and claiming descent from the original 18th-century British colonial revolutionaries.[14] The first and third incarnations of the Klan have well-established records of engaging in terrorism and political violence, though historians debate whether or not the tactic was supported by the second KKK.
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Three Klans[link]
First KKK[link]
The first Klan was founded in 1865 in Pulaski, Tennessee, by six veterans of the Confederate Army.[15] They named it after the Greek word kuklos, which means circle. The name means "Circle of Brothers."[16]
Although there was no organizational structure above the local level, similar groups arose across the South, adopting the name and methods.[17] Klan groups spread throughout the South as an insurgent movement during the Reconstruction era in the United States. As a secret vigilante group, the Klan targeted freedmen and their allies; it sought to restore white supremacy by threats and violence, including murder, against black and white Republicans. In 1870 and 1871, the federal government passed the Force Acts, which were used to prosecute Klan crimes.[18] Prosecution of Klan crimes and enforcement of the Force Acts suppressed Klan activity. In 1874 and later, however, newly organized and openly active paramilitary organizations, such as the White League and the Red Shirts, started a fresh round of violence aimed at suppressing blacks' voting and running Republicans out of office. These contributed to segregationist white Democrats regaining political power in all the Southern states by 1877.
Second KKK[link]
In 1915, the second Klan was founded in Georgia. Starting in 1921, it adopted a modern business system of recruiting (which paid most of the initiation fee and costume charges to the organizers) and grew rapidly nationwide at a time of prosperity. Reflecting the social tensions of urban industrialization and vastly increased immigration, its membership grew most rapidly in cities, and spread to the Midwest and West out of the South. The second KKK preached "One Hundred Percent Americanism" demanded the purification of politics, calling for strict morality and better enforcement of prohibition. Its official rhetoric focused on the threat of the Catholic Church, using anti-Catholicism and nativism.[19] Its appeal was directed exclusively at white Protestants.[20] Some local groups took part in attacks on private houses and carried out other violent activities. The violent episodes were generally in the South.[21]
The second Klan was a formal fraternal organization, with a national and state structure. At its peak in the mid-1920s, the organization claimed to include about 15% of the nation's eligible population, approximately 4–5 million men. Internal divisions, criminal behavior by leaders, and external opposition brought about a collapse in membership, which had dropped to about 30,000 by 1930. It finally faded away in the 1940s.[22] Klan organizers also operated in Canada, especially in Saskatchewan in 1926-28, where it attacked immigrants from Eastern Europe.[23]
Third KKK[link]
The "Ku Klux Klan" name was used by many independent local groups opposing the Civil Rights Movement and desegregation, especially in the 1950s and 1960s. During this period, they often forged alliances with Southern police departments, as in Birmingham, Alabama; or with governor's offices, as with George Wallace of Alabama.[24] Several members of KKK groups were convicted of murder in the deaths of civil rights workers and children in the bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham. Today, researchers estimate that there may be approximately 150 Klan chapters with upwards of 5,000 members nationwide.[25]
Today, a large majority of sources consider the Klan to be a "subversive or terrorist organization".[25][26][27][28] In 1999, the city council of Charleston, South Carolina passed a resolution declaring the Klan to be a terrorist organization.[29] A similar effort was made in 2004 when a professor at the University of Louisville began a campaign to have the Klan declared a terrorist organization so it could be banned from campus.[30] In April 1997, FBI agents arrested four members of the True Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Dallas for conspiracy to commit robbery and to blow up a natural gas processing plant.[31]
First Klan 1865–1874[link]
Creation and naming[link]
Six well-educated Confederate veterans from Pulaski, Tennessee, created the original Ku Klux Klan on December 24, 1865, during Reconstruction of the South after the Civil War.[32][33] The name was formed by combining the Greek kyklos (κύκλος, circle) with clan.[34] The group was known for a short time as the "Kuklux Clan." The Ku Klux Klan was one among a number of secret, oath-bound organizations using violence, including the Southern Cross in New Orleans (1865) and the Knights of the White Camelia (1867) in Louisiana.[35]
Historians generally see the KKK as part of the post Civil War insurgent violence related not only to the high number of veterans in the population, but also to their effort to control the dramatically changed social situation by using extrajudicial means to restore white supremacy. In 1866, Mississippi Governor William L. Sharkey reported that disorder, lack of control and lawlessness were widespread; in some states armed bands of Confederate soldiers roamed at will. The Klan used public violence against blacks as intimidation. They burned houses, and attacked and killed blacks, leaving their bodies on the roads.[36]
In an 1867 meeting in Nashville, Tennessee, Klan members gathered to try to create a hierarchical organization with local chapters eventually reporting up to a national headquarters. Since most of the Klan's members were veterans, they were used to the hierarchical structure of the organization, but the Klan never operated under this centralized structure. Local chapters and bands were highly independent.
Former Confederate Brigadier General George Gordon developed the Prescript, or Klan dogma. The Prescript suggested elements of white supremacist belief. For instance, an applicant should be asked if he was in favor of "a white man's government", "the reenfranchisement and emancipation of the white men of the South, and the restitution of the Southern people to all their rights."[37] The latter is a reference to the Ironclad Oath, which stripped the vote from white persons who refused to swear that they had not borne arms against the Union. Confederate General Nathan Bedford Forrest became Grand Wizard, claiming to be the Klan's national leader.[15][38]
In an 1868 newspaper interview, Forrest stated that the Klan's primary opposition was to the Loyal Leagues, Republican state governments, people like Tennessee governor Brownlow and other carpetbaggers and scalawags. He argued that many southerners believed that blacks were voting for the Republican Party because they were being hoodwinked by the Loyal Leagues.[39] One Alabama newspaper editor declared "The League is nothing more than a nigger Ku Klux Klan."[40]
Despite Gordon's and Forrest's work, local Klan units never accepted the Prescript and continued to operate autonomously. There were never hierarchical levels or state headquarters. Klan members used violence to settle old feuds and local grudges, as they worked to restore white dominance in the disrupted postwar society. The historian Elaine Frantz Parsons describes the membership:
Lifting the Klan mask revealed a chaotic multitude of antiblack vigilante groups, disgruntled poor white farmers, wartime guerrilla bands, displaced Democratic politicians, illegal whiskey distillers, coercive moral reformers, sadists, rapists, white workmen fearful of black competition, employers trying to enforce labor discipline, common thieves, neighbors with decades-old grudges, and even a few freedmen and white Republicans who allied with Democratic whites or had criminal agendas of their own. Indeed, all they had in common, besides being overwhelmingly white, southern, and Democratic, was that they called themselves, or were called, Klansmen.[41]
Historian Eric Foner observed:
In effect, the Klan was a military force serving the interests of the Democratic party, the planter class, and all those who desired restoration of white supremacy. Its purposes were political, but political in the broadest sense, for it sought to affect power relations, both public and private, throughout Southern society. It aimed to reverse the interlocking changes sweeping over the South during Reconstruction: to destroy the Republican party's infrastructure, undermine the Reconstruction state, reestablish control of the black labor force, and restore racial subordination in every aspect of Southern life.[42]
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To that end they worked to curb the education, economic advancement, voting rights, and right to keep and bear arms of blacks.[42] The Ku Klux Klan soon spread into nearly every southern state, launching a "reign of terror against Republican leaders both black and white. Those political leaders assassinated during the campaign included Arkansas Congressman James M. Hinds, three members of the South Carolina legislature, and several men who served in constitutional conventions."[43]
Activities[link]
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Klan members adopted masks and robes that hid their identities and added to the drama of their night rides, their chosen time for attacks. Many of them operated in small towns and rural areas where people otherwise knew each other's faces, and sometimes still recognized the attackers. "The kind of thing that men are afraid or ashamed to do openly, and by day, they accomplish secretly, masked, and at night." With this method both the high and the low could be attacked.[44] The Ku Klux Klan night riders "sometimes claimed to be ghosts of Confederate soldiers so, as they claimed, to frighten superstitious blacks. Few freedmen took such nonsense seriously."[45]
The Klan attacked black members of the Loyal Leagues and intimidated southern Republicans and Freedmen's Bureau workers. When they killed black political leaders, they also took heads of families, along with the leaders of churches and community groups, because these people had many roles in society. Agents of the Freedmen's Bureau reported weekly assaults and murders of blacks. "Armed guerrilla warfare killed thousands of Negroes; political riots were staged; their causes or occasions were always obscure, their results always certain: ten to one hundred times as many Negroes were killed as whites." Masked men shot into houses and burned them, sometimes with the occupants still inside. They drove successful black farmers off their land. "Generally, it can be reported that in North and South Carolina, in 18 months ending in June 1867, there were 197 murders and 548 cases of aggravated assault."[46]
Klan violence worked to suppress black voting. More than 2,000 persons were killed, wounded and otherwise injured in Louisiana within a few weeks prior to the Presidential election of November 1868. Although St. Landry Parish had a registered Republican majority of 1,071, after the murders, no Republicans voted in the fall elections. White Democrats cast the full vote of the parish for Grant's opponent. The KKK killed and wounded more than 200 black Republicans, hunting and chasing them through the woods. Thirteen captives were taken from jail and shot; a half-buried pile of 25 bodies was found in the woods. The KKK made people vote Democratic and gave them certificates of the fact.[47]
In the April 1868 Georgia gubernatorial election, Columbia County cast 1,222 votes for Republican Rufus Bullock. By the November presidential election, however, Klan intimidation led to suppression of the Republican vote and only one person voted for Ulysses S. Grant.[48]
Klansmen killed more than 150 African Americans in a county in Florida, and hundreds more in other counties. Freedmen's Bureau records provided a detailed recounting of Klansmen's beatings and murders of freedmen and their white allies.[49]
Milder encounters also occurred. In Mississippi, according to the Congressional inquiry:[50]
One of these teachers (Miss Allen of Illinois), whose school was at Cotton Gin Port in Monroe County, was visited ... between one and two o'clock in the morning on March 1871, by about fifty men mounted and disguised. Each man wore a long white robe and his face was covered by a loose mask with scarlet stripes. She was ordered to get up and dress which she did at once and then admitted to her room the captain and lieutenant who in addition to the usual disguise had long horns on their heads and a sort of device in front. The lieutenant had a pistol in his hand and he and the captain sat down while eight or ten men stood inside the door and the porch was full. They treated her "gentlemanly and quietly" but complained of the heavy school-tax, said she must stop teaching and go away and warned her that they never gave a second notice. She heeded the warning and left the county.
By 1868, two years after the Klan's creation, its activity was beginning to decrease.[51] Members were hiding behind Klan masks and robes as a way to avoid prosecution for freelance violence. Many influential southern Democrats feared that Klan lawlessness provided an excuse for the federal government to retain its power over the South, and they began to turn against it.[52] There were outlandish claims made, such as Georgian B. H. Hill stating "that some of these outrages were actually perpetrated by the political friends of the parties slain."[51]
Resistance[link]
Union Army veterans in mountainous Blount County, Alabama, organized "the anti-Ku Klux". They put an end to violence by threatening Klansmen with reprisals unless they stopped whipping Unionists and burning black churches and schools. Armed blacks formed their own defense in Bennettsville, South Carolina and patrolled the streets to protect their homes.[53]
National sentiment gathered to crack down on the Klan, even though some Democrats at the national level questioned whether the Klan really existed or believed that it was just a creation of nervous Southern Republican governors.[54] Many southern states began to pass anti-Klan legislation.
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In January 1871, Pennsylvania Republican Senator John Scott convened a Congressional committee which took testimony from 52 witnesses about Klan atrocities. They accumulated 12 volumes of horrifying testimony. In February, former Union General and Congressman Benjamin Franklin Butler of Massachusetts introduced the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (Ku Klux Klan Act). This added to the enmity that southern white Democrats bore toward him.[55] While the bill was being considered, further violence in the South swung support for its passage. The Governor of South Carolina appealed for federal troops to assist his efforts in keeping control of the state. A riot and massacre in a Meridian, Mississippi, courthouse were reported, from which a black state representative escaped only by taking to the woods.[56] The 1871 Civil Rights Act allowed President Ulysses S. Grant to suspend Habeas Corpus.[57]
In 1871, President Ulysses S. Grant signed Butler's legislation. The Ku Klux Klan Act was used by the Federal government together with the 1870 Force Act, another act that President Grant signed, to enforce the civil rights provisions for individuals under the constitution. Under the 1871 Klan Act, after the Klan refused to voluntarily dissolve, President Grant issued a suspension of Habeas Corpus, and sent Federal troops into 9 South Carolina counties. The Klansmen were arrested and prosecuted in Federal court. More African Americans served on juries in Federal court than were selected for local or state juries, so they had a chance to participate in the process.[57][58] In the crackdown, hundreds of Klan members were fined or imprisoned.
The Klan declines and is superseded by other groups[link]
Although Forrest boasted that the Klan was a nationwide organization of 550,000 men and that he could muster 40,000 Klansmen within five days' notice, as a secret or "invisible" group, it had no membership rosters, no chapters, and no local officers. It was difficult for observers to judge its actual membership. It had created a sensation by the dramatic nature of its masked forays and because of its many murders.
In 1870 a federal grand jury determined that the Klan was a "terrorist organization".[59] It issued hundreds of indictments for crimes of violence and terrorism. Klan members were prosecuted, and many fled from areas that were under federal government jurisdiction, particularly in South Carolina.[60] Many people not formally inducted into the Klan had used the Klan's costume for anonymity, to hide their identities when carrying out acts of violence. Forrest ordered the Klan to disband in 1869, stating that it was "being perverted from its original honorable and patriotic purposes, becoming injurious instead of subservient to the public peace".[61] Historian Stanley Horn writes "generally speaking, the Klan's end was more in the form of spotty, slow, and gradual disintegration than a formal and decisive disbandment".[62] A reporter in Georgia wrote in January 1870, "A true statement of the case is not that the Ku Klux are an organized band of licensed criminals, but that men who commit crimes call themselves Ku Klux".[63]
While people used the Klan as a mask for nonpolitical crimes, state and local governments seldom acted against them. African Americans were kept off juries. In lynching cases, all-white juries almost never indicted Ku Klux Klan members. When there was a rare indictment, juries were unlikely to vote for a conviction. In part, jury members feared reprisals from local Klansmen.
Others may have agreed with lynching as a way of keeping dominance over black men. In many states, officials were reluctant to use black militia against the Klan out of fear that racial tensions would be raised.[58] When Republican Governor of North Carolina William Woods Holden called out the militia against the Klan in 1870, it added to his unpopularity. Combined with violence and fraud at the polls, the Republicans lost their majority in the state legislature. Disaffection with Holden's actions led to white Democratic legislators' impeaching Holden and removing him from office, but their reasons were numerous.[64]
The Klan was destroyed in South Carolina[65] and decimated throughout the rest of the South, where it had already been in decline. Attorney General Amos Tappan Ackerman led the prosecutions.[66]
In some areas, other local paramilitary organizations such as the White League, Red Shirts, saber clubs, and rifle clubs continued to intimidate and murder black voters.[67]
In 1874, organized white paramilitary groups were formed in the Deep South to replace the faltering Klan: the White League in Louisiana and the Red Shirts in Mississippi, North and South Carolina. They campaigned openly to turn Republicans out of office, intimidated and killed black voters, tried to disrupt organizing and suppressed black voting. They were out in force during the campaigns and elections of 1874 and 1876, contributing to the conservative Democrats regaining power in 1876, against a background of electoral violence.
Shortly after, in United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court ruled that the Force Act of 1870 did not give the Federal government power to regulate private actions, but only those by state governments. The result was that as the century went on, African Americans were at the mercy of hostile state governments that refused to intervene against private violence and paramilitary groups.
Whereas the number of indictments across the South was large, the number of cases leading to prosecution and sentencing was relatively small. The overloaded federal courts were not able to meet the demands of trying such a tremendous number of cases, a situation that led to selective pardoning. By late 1873 and 1874, most of the charges against Klansmen were dropped although new cases continued to be prosecuted for several more years. Most of those sentenced had either served their terms or had been pardoned by 1875. The Supreme Court of the United States eviscerated the Ku Klux Act in 1876 by ruling that the federal government could no longer prosecute individuals although states would be forced to comply with federal civil rights provisions. Republicans passed a second civil rights act (the Civil Rights Act of 1875) to grant equal access to public facilities and other housing accommodations regardless of race. Ironically, the Klan during this period served to further Northern reconstruction efforts, as Ku Klux violence provided the political climate needed to pass civil rights protections for blacks. Although the Ku Klux Act of 1871 dismantled the first Klan, Southern whites formed other, similar groups that kept blacks away from the polls through intimidation and physical violence. Reconstruction ended with the election of President Rutherford B. Hayes, who suspended the federal military occupation of the South; yet blacks still found themselves without the basic civil liberties that Congressional Republicans had sought to secure.[68]
In 1882, the Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Harris that the Klan Act was partially unconstitutional. It ruled that Congress's power under the Fourteenth Amendment did not extend to the right to regulate against private conspiracies.[69]
Klan costumes, also called "regalia", disappeared by the early 1870s (Wade 1987, p. 109). The fact that the Klan did not exist for decades was shown when Simmons's 1915 recreation of the Klan attracted only two aging "former Reconstruction Klansmen." All other members were new.[70] By 1872, the Klan was broken as an organization.[71] Nonetheless, the goals that the Klan had failed to achieve itself, such as suppressing suffrage for Southern blacks and driving a wedge between poor whites and blacks, were largely accomplished by the 1890s by militant Southern whites. Lynchings of African Americans, far from being ended by the Klan's disintegration, instead peaked in 1892 with 161 deaths.[72]
The second Klan: 1915–1944[link]
Refounding in 1915[link]
Three events in 1915 acted as catalysts to the revival of the Klan:
- The film The Birth of a Nation was released, mythologizing and glorifying the first Klan.
- Jewish businessman Leo Frank was lynched near Atlanta after the Georgia governor commuted his death sentence to life in prison. Frank had been convicted in 1913 and sentenced to death for the rape and murder of a young white factory worker named Mary Phagan, in a trial marked by intimidation of the jury and media frenzy. His legal appeals had been exhausted.
- The second Ku Klux Klan was founded by William J. Simmons at Stone Mountain, outside Atlanta. It added to the original anti-black ideology with a new anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic, prohibitionist and antisemitic agenda. Most of the founders were from an Atlanta-area organization calling itself the Knights of Mary Phagan, which had organized around Leo Frank's trial. The new organization emulated the fictionalized version of the Klan presented in The Birth of a Nation.
[edit] The Birth of a Nation
Director D. W. Griffith's The Birth of a Nation glorified the original Klan. His film was based on the book and play The Clansman and the book The Leopard's Spots, both by Thomas Dixon, Jr. Dixon said his purpose was "to revolutionize northern sentiment by a presentation of history that would transform every man in my audience into a good Democrat!" The film created a nationwide Klan craze. At the official premier in Atlanta, members of the Klan rode up and down the street in front of the theater.[73]
Much of the modern Klan's iconography, including the standardized white costume and the lighted cross, are derived from the film. Its imagery was based on Dixon's romanticized concept of old England and Scotland, as portrayed in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. The film's influence and popularity were enhanced by a widely reported endorsement by historian and U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. A Hollywood press agent claimed that after seeing the film Wilson said, "It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true." Historians doubt he said it.[74] Wilson's remarks immediately became controversial. Wilson tried to remain aloof, but finally, on April 30, his staff issued a denial. Wilson's aide, Joseph Tumulty said, "the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it."[75]
The new Klan was inaugurated in 1915 by William J. Simmons on top of Stone Mountain. It was a small local organization until 1921.
Simmons stated that he had been inspired by the original Klan's Prescripts, written in 1867 by Confederate veteran George Gordon in an attempt to create a national organization. These were never adopted by the Klan, however.[76] The Prescript stated the Klan's purposes in idealistic terms, hiding the fact that its members committed acts of vigilante violence and murder from behind masks.
Social factors[link]
The Second Klan saw threats from every direction. A religious tone was apparent in all of its activities; indeed, "two-thirds of the national Klan lecturers were Protestant ministers," says historian Brian R. Farmer.[77] Much of the Klan's energy went to guarding the home, in its view, says historian Kathleen Blee, to protect "the interests of white womanhood."[78]
The second Klan arose during the nadir of American race relations, in response to urbanization and industrialization. Massive immigration of Catholics and Jews from eastern and southern Europe led to fears among Protestants. The Great Migration of African Americans to the North stoked racism by whites in Northern industrial cities; thus the second Klan would achieve its greatest political power not in any Southern state, but in Indiana. The migration of African Americans and whites from rural areas to Southern cities further increased tensions. The Klan grew most rapidly in urbanizing cities which had high growth rates between 1910 and 1930, such as Detroit, Memphis, Dayton, Atlanta, Dallas, and Houston. In Michigan, more than half of the members lived in Detroit and were concerned about urban issues: limited housing, rapid social change, competition for jobs.[79] Stanley Horn, a Southern historian sympathetic to the first Klan, was careful in an oral interview to distinguish it from the later "spurious Ku Klux organization which was in ill-repute—and, of course, had no connection whatsoever with the Klan of Reconstruction days".[80]
In an era without Social Security or widely available life insurance, it was common for men to join fraternal organizations such as the Elks or the Woodmen of the World to provide for their families in case they died or were unable to work. The founder of the new Klan, William J. Simmons, was a member of twelve different fraternal organizations. He recruited for the Klan with his chest covered with fraternal badges, and consciously modeled the Klan after those organizations.[81]
Klan organizers, called "Kleagles", signed up hundreds of new members, who paid initiation fees and bought KKK costumes. The organizer kept half the money and sent the rest to state or national officials. When the organizer was done with an area, he organized a huge rally, often with burning crosses and perhaps presented a Bible to a local Protestant minister. He then left town with the money. The local units operated like many fraternal organizations and occasionally brought in speakers.
The Klan's growth was also affected by mobilization for World War I and postwar tensions, especially in the cities where strangers came up against each other more often. Southern whites resented the arming of black soldiers. Black veterans did not want to go back to second-class status in the United States. Some were lynched, still in uniform, upon returning from overseas service.[82]
Activities[link]
Simmons initially met with little success in either recruiting members or in raising money, and the Klan remained a small operation in the Atlanta area until 1920, when he handed its day-to-day activities over to two professional publicists, Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke.[83] The Klan now expanded exponentially, reaching a mass national base by 1925. The remodeled Klan downplayed the old issues left over from Reconstruction, and focused on anti-Jewish, anti-Catholic, anti-Communist and anti-immigrant appeals. It now sold itself as a nativist and strenuously patriotic organization, and it emphasized its support for vigorous enforcement of prohibition laws. Most of its members lived in the North and West.
Prohibition[link]
Historians agree that the Klan's resurgence in the 1920s was aided by the national debate over prohibition.[84] Thus Prendergast contends that the KKK’s "support for Prohibition represented the single most important bond between Klansmen throughout the nation".[85] The Klan opposed bootleggers, sometimes with violence. In 1922, two hundred Klan members set fire to saloons in Union County, Arkansas. The national Klan office was finally established in Dallas, Texas, but Little Rock, Arkansas was the home of the Women of the Ku Klux Klan. The first head of this auxiliary was a former president of the Arkansas WCTU.[86][verification needed] Membership in the Klan and in other prohibition groups overlapped, and they often coordinated activities.[87]
Labor and anti-unionism[link]
In southern cities such as Birmingham, Alabama, Klan members kept control of access to the better-paying industrial jobs but opposed unions. During the 1930s and 1940s, Klan leaders urged members to disrupt the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO), which advocated industrial unions and was open to African-American members. With access to dynamite and using the skills from their jobs in mining and steel, in the late 1940s some Klan members in Birmingham began to perpetrate bombings in order to intimidate upwardly mobile blacks who moved into middle-class neighborhoods. "By mid-1949, there were so many charred house carcasses that the area [College Hills] was informally named Dynamite Hill."[88] Independent Klan groups remained active in Birmingham and were deeply engaged in violent opposition to the Civil Rights Movement.[88]
Urbanization[link]
File:Theendkkk.jpg
"The End" Referring to the end of Catholic influence in the US. Klansmen: Guardians of Liberty 1926
A significant characteristic of the second Klan was that it was an organization based in urban areas, reflecting the major shifts of population to cities in both the North and the South. In Michigan, for instance, 40,000 members lived in Detroit, where they made up more than half of the state's membership. Most Klansmen were lower- to middle-class whites who were trying to protect their jobs and housing from the waves of newcomers to the industrial cities: immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, who tended to be Catholic and Jewish in numbers higher than earlier groups of immigrants; and black and white migrants from the South. As new populations poured into cities, rapidly changing neighborhoods created social tensions. Because of the rapid pace of population growth in industrializing cities such as Detroit and Chicago, the Klan grew rapidly in the U.S. Midwest. The Klan also grew in booming Southern cities such as Dallas and Houston.[89]
In the medium-size industrial city of Worcester, Massachusetts in the 1920s, the Klan ascended to power quickly but diminished as a result of opposition from the Catholic Church. There was no violence and the local newspaper ridiculed Klansmen as "night-shirt knights". Half of the members were Swedish American, including some first-generation immigrants. The ethnic and religious conflicts between Worcester residents is discussed. Swedish Protestants fought against Irish Catholics for political and ideological control of the city.[90]
For some states, historians have obtained membership rosters of some local units and matched the names against city directory and local records to create statistical profiles of the membership. Big city newspapers were often hostile and ridiculed Klansmen as ignorant farmers. Detailed analysis from Indiana showed the rural stereotype was false for that state:
Indiana's Klansmen represented a wide cross section of society: they were not disproportionately urban or rural, nor were they significantly more or less likely than other members of society to be from the working class, middle class, or professional ranks. Klansmen were Protestants, of course, but they cannot be described exclusively or even predominantly as fundamentalists. In reality, their religious affiliations mirrored the whole of white Protestant society, including those who did not belong to any church.[91]
The Klan attracted people but most of them did not remain in the organization for long. Membership in the Klan turned over rapidly as people found out that it was not the group they wanted. Millions joined, and at its peak in the 1920s, the organization included about 15% of the nation's eligible population. The lessening of social tensions contributed to the Klan's decline.
The burning cross[link]
The second Klan adopted a burning Latin cross as its symbol. No such crosses had been used by the first Klan, but the burning cross was used as a symbol of intimidation by the second Klan.[92] The burning of the cross was also used by the second Klan as a symbol of Christian fellowship, and its lighting during meetings was steeped in Christian prayer, the singing of hymns, and other overtly religious symbolism.[13]
The practice of cross burning had been loosely based on ancient Scottish clans' burning a St. Andrew's cross (an X-shaped cross) as a beacon to muster forces for war. In The Clansman (see above), Dixon had falsely claimed that the first Klan had used fiery crosses when rallying to fight against Reconstruction. Griffith brought this image to the screen in The Birth of a Nation; he portrayed the burning cross as an upright Latin cross rather than the St. Andrew's cross. Simmons adopted the symbol wholesale from the movie, prominently displaying it at the 1915 Stone Mountain meeting. The symbol has been associated with the Klan ever since.[93]
Education[link]
In 1921, in an attempt to gain a foothold in education, the Klan bought Lanier University, a struggling Baptist university in Atlanta. Nathan Bedford Forrest, grandson of the confederate general by the same name, was appointed business manager, and the school would teach "pure, 100 percent Americanism". Enrollment was dismal and the school closed after its first year of Klan ownership.[94]
Political role[link]
The Klan had numerous members in every part of the United States. At its peak, claimed Klan membership exceeded four million and comprised 20% of the adult white male population in many broad geographic regions, and 40% in some areas.[95] The Klan also moved north into Canada, especially Saskatchewan, where it opposed Catholics.[96]
The Klan issue played a significant role at the bitterly divisive 1924 Democratic National Convention in New York City. The leading candidates were Protestant William Gibbs McAdoo, with a base in areas where the Klan was strong, and Catholic New York Governor Al Smith, with a base in the large cities. After weeks of stalemate, both candidates withdrew in favor of a compromise. Anti-Klan delegates proposed a resolution indirectly attacking the Klan; it was narrowly defeated.[97][98]
In some states, such as Alabama and California, the KKK worked for political reform. In 1924, the Klan became active in local politics in Anaheim, California. The city had been controlled by an entrenched commercial-civic elite that was mostly German American. The elite gave little support to the prohibition laws—the mayor, for example, had been a saloon keeper. The Klan, led by the minister of the First Christian Church, represented a rising group of politically oriented non-German citizens who had been shut out of influence and who denounced the elite as corrupt, undemocratic and self-serving. Cocoltchos says the Klansmen sought to create a model orderly community. There were about 1200 Klan members in orange County, and Cocoltchos tracked them through local records, comparing them to 300 prominent anti-Klan activists. The economic and occupational profile of the pro and anti-Klan groups shows the two were similar and about equally prosperous. Cocoltchos finds no evidence of status anxiety. The Klansmen were all Protestants, as were most of the antis, but the antis also enlisted many Catholic Germans. The Klansmen had a much higher rate of voting and joining nonpartisan civic groups (such as the Chamber of Commerce) than the others before they joined the Klan, suggesting to Cocoltchos it was a high sense of civic activism that led to joining the KKK in the first place. The Klan easily won the hotly contested local election in Anaheim in April 1924. They systematically fired Catholic city employees and replaced them with Klansmen. The new city council tried to strictly enforce prohibition, and the Klan held large rallies and initiation ceremonies over the summer. The opposition organized, bribed a Klansman for the secret membership list, exposed the Klansmen running in the primaries and defeated most of them. The antis stepped up the campaign in 1925 and succeeded in a hotly contested election in voting to recall the Klansmen who had been elected in April 1924. The Klan in Anaheim quickly collapsed, its newspaper closed after losing a libel suit, and the minister who led the local Klavern moved to Kansas.[99]
In Alabama the Klansmen were among the foremost advocates of better public schools, effective prohibition enforcement, expanded road construction, and other political measures which benefited lower-class white people. By 1925, the Klan was a political force in the state, as leaders such as J. Thomas Heflin, David Bibb Graves, and Hugo Black manipulated the KKK membership to try to build political power against the Black Belt planters, who had long dominated the state.[100] Black was elected US senator in 1926; President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed Black to the Supreme Court not knowing he had been active in the Klan in the 1920s. In 1926, with Klan support, Bibb Graves won the Alabama governor's office. He was a former Klan chapter head. He pushed for increased education funding, better public health, new highway construction, and pro-labor legislation. Because the Alabama state legislature refused to redistrict until 1972, however, even the Klan was unable to break the planters' and rural areas' hold on legislative power.
Its predecessor had been an exclusively partisan Democratic organization in the South. The second Klan grew in the Midwest, where for a time, its members were courted by both Republicans and Democrats. The KKK state organizations endorsed candidates from either party that supported its goals; Prohibition in particular helped the Klan and some Republicans to make common cause in the Midwest. In the South, however, the southern Klan remained Democratic, closely allied with Democratic police, sheriffs, and other functionaries of local government. With continuing disfranchisement of most African Americans and many poor whites, the only political activity took place within the Democratic Party.
Resistance and decline[link]
The Ku Klux Klan rose to prominence in Indiana politics and society after World War I. It was made up of American-born, white Protestants of many income and social levels. Nationally, in the 1920s, Indiana had the most powerful Ku Klux Klan. Though it counted a high number of members statewide (over 30% of its white male citizens[101]), its importance peaked with the 1924 election of Edward Jackson for governor. A short time later, the scandal surrounding the murder trial of D.C. Stephenson destroyed the image of the Ku Klux Klan as upholders of law and order. By 1926 the Ku Klux Klan was "crippled and discredited."[102] D. C. Stephenson was the Grand Dragon of Indiana and 22 northern states. He led the states under his control to separate from the national KKK organization in 1923. In his 1925 trial, he was convicted for second degree murder for his part in the rape and subsequent death[103] of Madge Oberholtzer. After Stephenson's conviction in a sensational trial, the Klan declined dramatically in Indiana. Historian Leonard Moore concluded that a failure in leadership caused the Klan's collapse:
Stephenson and the other salesmen and office seekers who maneuvered for control of Indiana's Invisible Empire lacked both the ability and the desire to use the political system to carry out the Klan's stated goals. They were uninterested in, or perhaps even unaware of, grass roots concerns within the movement. For them, the Klan had been nothing more than a means for gaining wealth and power. These marginal men had risen to the top of the hooded order because, until it became a political force, the Klan had never required strong, dedicated leadership. More established and experienced politicians who endorsed the Klan, or who pursued some of the interests of their Klan constituents, also accomplished little. Factionalism created one barrier, but many politicians had supported the Klan simply out of expedience. When charges of crime and corruption began to taint the movement, those concerned about their political futures had even less reason to work on the Klan's behalf.[104]
Many groups and leaders, including prominent Protestant ministers such as Reinhold Niebuhr in Detroit, spoke out against the Klan. In response to blunt attacks against Jewish Americans and the Klan's campaign to outlaw private schools, the Jewish Anti-Defamation League was formed after the lynching of Leo Frank. When one civic group began to publish Klan membership lists, the number of members quickly declined. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People carried on public education campaigns in order to inform people about Klan activities and lobbied against Klan abuses in Congress. After its peak in 1925, Klan membership in most areas of the Midwest began to decline rapidly.[89]
In Alabama, KKK vigilantes, thinking that they had governmental protection, launched a wave of physical terror in 1927. They targeted both blacks and whites for violation of racial norms and for perceived moral lapses.[105] This led however to a large backlash beginning in the media. Grover C. Hall, Sr., editor of the Montgomery Advertiser, began publishing a series of editorials and articles that attacked the Klan for its "racial and religious intolerance". Hall won a Pulitzer Prize for his crusade.[106] Other newspapers kept up a steady, loud attack on the Klan, referring to the organization as violent and "un-American". Sheriffs cracked down. In the 1928 presidential election, the state voted for the Democratic candidate Al Smith, although he was Catholic.
Klan membership in Alabama dropped to less than 6,000 by 1930. Small independent units continued to be active in Birmingham, where in the late 1940s, members launched a reign of terror by bombing the homes of upwardly mobile African Americans. Activism by such independent KKK groups increased as a reaction against the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s.
Imperial Wizard Hiram Wesley Evans sold the organization in 1939 to James Colescott, an Indiana veterinarian, and Samuel Green, an Atlanta obstetrician. They were unable to staunch the declining membership. In 1944, the IRS filed a lien for $685,000 in back taxes against the Klan, and Colescott was forced to dissolve the organization in 1944. Local Klan groups closed over the following years.[107]
Due in part to the Klan terror directed at them, five million blacks left the South for northern, midwestern and western cities from 1940 to 1970.
After World War II, folklorist and author Stetson Kennedy infiltrated the Klan and provided information to media and law enforcement agencies. He also provided secret code words to the writers of the Superman radio program, resulting in episodes in which Superman took on the KKK. Kennedy's intention to strip away the Klan's mystique and trivialize the Klan's rituals and code words may have contributed to the decline in Klan recruiting and membership.[108] In the 1950s, Kennedy wrote a bestselling book about his experiences, which further damaged the Klan.[109]
The following table shows the change in the Klan's estimated membership over time.[110] (The years given in the table represent approximate time periods.)
| Year | Membership |
|---|---|
| 1920 | 4,000,000[111] |
| 1924 | 6,000,000 |
| 1930 | 30,000 |
| 1980 | 5,000 |
| 2008 | 6,000 |
Later Klans, 1950 through 1960s[link]
File:Poster35.jpg
Soviet propaganda poster (Freedom, American style, 1950, by Nikolay Dolgorukov and Boris Efimov), showing the KKK's lynchings of blacks.
The name "Ku Klux Klan" began to be used by several independent groups. Beginning in the 1950s, for instance, individual Klan groups in Birmingham, Alabama, began to resist social change and blacks' improving their lives by bombing houses in transitional neighborhoods. There were so many bombings in Birmingham of blacks' homes by Klan groups in the 1950s that the city's nickname was "Bombingham".[24]
During the tenure of Bull Connor as police commissioner in the city, Klan groups were closely allied with the police and operated with impunity. When the Freedom Riders arrived in Birmingham, Connor gave Klan members fifteen minutes to attack the riders before sending in the police to quell the attack.[24] When local and state authorities failed to protect the Freedom Riders and activists, the federal government established effective intervention.
In states such as Alabama and Mississippi, Klan members forged alliances with governors' administrations.[24] In Birmingham and elsewhere, the KKK groups bombed the houses of civil rights activists. In some cases they used physical violence, intimidation and assassination directly against individuals. Many murders went unreported and were not prosecuted by local and state authorities. Continuing disfranchisement of blacks across the South meant that most could not serve on juries, which were all white.
According to a report from the Southern Regional Council in Atlanta, the homes of 40 black Southern families were bombed during 1951 and 1952. Some of the bombing victims were social activists whose work exposed them to danger, but most were either people who refused to bow to racist convention or were innocent bystanders, unsuspecting victims of random violence.[112]
Among the more notorious murders by Klan members:
- The 1951 Christmas Eve bombing of the home of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, resulting in their deaths.[113]
- The 1957 murder of Willie Edwards, Jr. Klansmen forced Edwards to jump to his death from a bridge into the Alabama River.[114]
- The 1963 assassination of NAACP organizer Medgar Evers in Mississippi. In 1994, former Ku Klux Klansman Byron De La Beckwith was convicted.
- The 1963 bombing of the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, which killed four African-American girls. The perpetrators were Klan members Robert Chambliss, convicted in 1977, Thomas Blanton and Bobby Frank Cherry, convicted in 2001 and 2002. The fourth suspect, Herman Cash, died before he was indicted.
- The 1964 murders of three civil rights workers, Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner, in Mississippi. In June 2005, Klan member Edgar Ray Killen was convicted of manslaughter.[115]
- The 1964 murder of two black teenagers, Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore in Mississippi. In August 2007, based on the confession of Klansman Charles Marcus Edwards, James Ford Seale, a reputed Ku Klux Klansman, was convicted. Seale was sentenced to serve three life sentences. Seale was a former Mississippi policeman and sheriff's deputy.[116]
- The 1965 Alabama murder of Viola Liuzzo. She was a Southern-raised Detroit mother of five who was visiting the state in order to attend a civil rights march. At the time of her murder Liuzzo was transporting Civil Rights Marchers.
- The 1966 firebombing death of NAACP leader Vernon Dahmer Sr., 58, in Mississippi. In 1998 former Ku Klux Klan wizard Sam Bowers was convicted of his murder and sentenced to life. Two other Klan members were indicted with Bowers, but one died before trial, and the other's indictment was dismissed.
There was also resistance to the Klan. In 1953, newspaper publisher W. Horace Carter received a Pulitzer prize for reporting on the activities of the Klan. In a 1958 North Carolina incident, the Klan burned crosses at the homes of two Lumbee Native Americans who had associated with white people, and they threatened to return with more men. When the KKK held a nighttime rally nearby, they were quickly surrounded by hundreds of armed Lumbees. Gunfire was exchanged, and the Klan was routed at what became known as the Battle of Hayes Pond.[117]
While the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) had paid informants in the Klan, for instance in Birmingham in the early 1960s, its relations with local law enforcement agencies and the Klan were often ambiguous. The head of the FBI, J. Edgar Hoover, appeared more concerned about Communist links to civil rights activists than about controlling Klan excesses against citizens. In 1964, the FBI's COINTELPRO program began attempts to infiltrate and disrupt civil rights groups.[24]
As 20th-century Supreme Court rulings extended federal enforcement of citizens' civil rights, the government revived the Force Act and Klan Act from Reconstruction days. Federal prosecutors used these laws as the basis for investigations and indictments in the 1964 murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner;[118] and the 1965 murder of Viola Liuzzo. They were also the basis for prosecution in 1991 in Bray v. Alexandria Women's Health Clinic.
Contemporary Klan: 1970s–present[link]
Once African Americans secured federal legislation to protect civil and voting rights, the KKK shifted its focus to opposing court-ordered busing to desegregate schools, affirmative action and more open immigration. In 1971, KKK members used bombs to destroy 10 school buses in Pontiac, Michigan.
Altercation with Communist Workers Party[link]
Main article: Greensboro massacre
On November 3, 1979, five protesters were killed by KKK and American Nazi Party members in the Greensboro massacre in Greensboro, North Carolina.[119] This incident was the culmination of attempts by the Communist Workers Party to organize industrial workers, predominantly black, in the area.[120]
Jerry Thompson infiltration[link]
Jerry Thompson, a newspaper reporter who infiltrated the KKK in 1979, reported that the FBI's COINTELPRO efforts were highly successful. Rival KKK factions accused each other's leaders of being FBI informants. Bill Wilkinson of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was revealed to have been working for the FBI.[121]
Thompson, the journalist who claimed he had infiltrated the Klan, related that KKK leaders who appeared indifferent to the threat of arrest showed great concern about a series of civil lawsuits filed by the Southern Poverty Law Center for damages of millions of dollars. These were filed after KKK members shot into a group of African Americans. Klansmen curtailed activities to conserve money for defense against the lawsuits. The KKK also used lawsuits as tools; they filed a libel suit to prevent publication of a paperback edition of Thompson's book.
Tennessee shooting[link]
In 1980, three KKK members shot four elderly black women (Viola Ellison, Lela Evans, Opal Jackson and Katherine Johnson) in Chattanooga, Tennessee, following a KKK initiation rally. A fifth woman, Fannie Crumsey, was injured by flying glass in the incident. Attempted murder charges were filed against the three KKK members, two of whom—Bill Church and Larry Payne—were acquitted by an all-white jury, and the other of whom—Marshall Thrash—was sentenced by the same jury to nine months on lesser charges. He was released after three months.[122][123][124] In 1982, a jury awarded the five women $535,000 in a civil rights trial.[125]
Michael Donald lynching[link]
After Michael Donald was lynched in 1981 in Alabama, the FBI investigated his death and two local KKK members were convicted of having a role, including Henry Francis Hays, who was sentenced to death. With the support of attorneys Morris Dees and Joseph J. Levin of the Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC), Donald's mother, Beulah Mae Donald, sued the KKK in civil court in Alabama. Her lawsuit against the United Klans of America was tried in February 1987. The all-white jury found the Klan responsible for the lynching of Donald and ordered the Klan to pay US$7 million. To pay the judgment, the KKK turned over all of its assets, including its national headquarters building in Tuscaloosa. After exhausting the appeals process, Hays was executed for Donald's death in Alabama on June 6, 1997. It was the first time since 1913 that a white man had been executed in Alabama for a crime against an African American.
Neo-Nazi alliances and Stormfront[link]
Main article: Stormfront (website)
In 1995, Don Black and Chloê Hardin, former KKK Grand Wizard David Duke's ex-wife, began a small bulletin board system (BBS) called Stormfront. Today, Stormfront has become a prominent online forum for white nationalism, Neo-Nazism, hate speech, racism, and antisemitism.[126][127][128] Duke has an account on Stormfront which he uses to post articles from his own website, as well as polling forum members for opinions and questions, in particular during his internet broadcasts. Duke has worked with Don Black on numerous projects including Operation Red Dog in 1980.[129][130]
Current developments[link]
The modern KKK is not one organization; rather it is composed of small independent chapters across the U.S.[131] The formation of independent chapters has made KKK groups more difficult to infiltrate, and researchers find it hard to estimate their numbers. Estimates are that about two-thirds of KKK members are concentrated in the Southern United States, with another third situated primarily in the lower Midwest.[132][133][134]
Klan splinter divisions grew substantially after the 2008 election of U.S. President Barack Obama, the first African-American to hold the office.[135][136] The Klan has expanded its recruitment efforts to white supremacists at the international level.[137] But in the long run, the Klan's numbers are steadily dropping, with membership estimated to be between 3,000 and 5,000 as of 2012. This decline has been attributed to the Klan's lack of competence in the use of the Internet, their history of violence, a proliferation of competing hate groups, and a decline in the number of young racist activists who are willing to join groups at all.[11]
Recent membership campaigns have been based on issues such as people's anxieties about illegal immigration, urban crime and same-sex marriage.[138] Many KKK groups have formed strong alliances with other white supremacist groups, such as neo-Nazis. Some KKK groups have become increasingly "nazified", adopting the look and emblems of white power skinheads.[139]
The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has provided legal support to various factions of the KKK in defense of their First Amendment rights to hold public rallies, parades, and marches, as well as their right to field political candidates.[140]
Current Klan organizations[link]
A list is maintained by the Anti-Defamation League (ADL):[141]
- Bayou Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, prevalent in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Louisiana and other areas of the Southeastern U.S.
- Church of the American Knights of the Ku Klux Klan[132]
- Imperial Klans of America[142]
- Knights of the White Camelia[143]
- Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, headed by national director and self-claimed pastor Thom Robb, and based in Zinc, Arkansas.[144] It claims to be the biggest Klan organization in America today.
Other countries[link]
Aside from Canada, there have been various attempts to organise KKK chapters outside of the United States. In Australia in the late 1990s, former One Nation founding member Peter Coleman established branches throughout the country,[145][146] and in recent years the KKK has attempted to infiltrate other political parties such as Australia First.[147] Recruitment activity has also been reported in Britain.[148][149]
Vocabulary[link]
Membership in the Klan is secret. Like many fraternal organizations, the Klan has signs which members can use to recognize one another. A member may use the acronym AYAK (Are you a Klansman?) in conversation to surreptitiously identify himself to another potential member. The response AKIA (A Klansman I am) completes the greeting.[150]
Throughout its varied history, the Klan has coined many words[151] beginning with "Kl" including:
- Klabee: treasurers
- Klavern: local organization
- Imperial Kleagle: recruiter
- Klecktoken: initiation fee
- Kligrapp: secretary
- Klonvocation: gathering
- Kloran: ritual book
- Kloreroe: delegate
- Imperial Kludd: chaplain
All of the above terminology was created by William Simmons, as part of his 1915 revival of the Klan.[152] The Reconstruction-era Klan used different titles; the only titles to carry over were "Wizard" for the overall leader of the Klan and "Night Hawk" for the official in charge of security.
The Imperial Kludd was the chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and he performed "such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard." The Imperial Kaliff was the second highest position after the Imperial Wizard.[153]
See also[link]
- History of Ku Klux Klan in New Jersey
- History of the United States (1865–1918)#Social Discontent
- Knights of the Golden Circle
- Ku Klux Klan regalia and insignia
- Ku Klux Klan in Inglewood, California
- Ku Klux Klan in Maine
- Ku Klux Klan members in United States politics
- Ku Klux Klan recruitment
- Leaders of the Ku Klux Klan
- List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups
- List of white nationalist organizations
- The Order (group)
- Timeline of racial tension in Omaha, Nebraska
- Tulsa race riot
- White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan
Notes[link]
- ^ McVeigh, Rory. "Structural Incentives for Conservative Mobilization: Power Devaluation and the Rise of the Ku Klux Klan, 1915–1925". Social Forces, Vol. 77, No. 4 (June 1999), p. 1463.
- ^ Al-Khattar, Aref M. (2003). Religion and terrorism: an interfaith perspective. Westport, CT: Praeger. pp. 21, 30, 55.
- ^ Michael, Robert, and Philip Rosen. Dictionary of antisemitism from the earliest times to the present. Lanham, Maryland, USA: Scarecrow Press, 1997 p. 267.
- ^ Potok, Mark. "Intelligence Report, Spring 2012, Issue Number 145". Southern Poverty Law Center. http://www.splcenter.org/get-informed/intelligence-report/browse-all-issues/2012/spring/the-year-in-hate-and-extremism. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
- ^ O'Donnell, Patrick (Editor), 2006. Ku Klux Klan America's First Terrorists Exposed, p. 210. ISBN 1-4196-4978-7.
- ^ Chalmers, David Mark, 2003. Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement, p. 163. ISBN 978-0-7425-2311-1.
- ^ Berlet, Chip; Lyons, Matthew Nemiroff (2000). Right-wing populism in America: too close for comfort. Guilford Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-57230-562-5.
- ^ Rory McVeigh, The rise of the Ku Klux Klan: right-wing movements and national politics organizations. University of Minnesota Press. 2009.
- ^ a b Charles Quarles, The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations: a history and analysis, McFarland, 1999.
- ^ Both the Anti-Defamation League and the Southern Poverty Law Center include it in their lists of hate groups. See also Brian Levin, "Cyberhate: A Legal and Historical Analysis of Extremists' Use of Computer Networks in America" in Perry, Barbara, editor. Hate and Bias Crime: A Reader. p. 112 p. Google Books.
- ^ a b Palmer, Brian (8 March 2012). "Ku Klux Kontraction: How did the KKK lose nearly one-third of its chapters in one year?". Slate Magazine. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/politics/2012/03/ku_klux_klan_in_decline_why_did_the_kkk_lose_so_many_chapters_in_2010_.html. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
- ^ Elaine Frantz Parsons, "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". Journal of American History 92.3 (2005): 811–36, in History Cooperative.
- ^ a b Wade, Wyn Craig (1998). The fiery cross: the Ku Klux Klan in America. USA: Oxford University Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-512357-9. http://books.google.com/?id=6O_XYBMhNYAC&pg=PA185&dq=cross+burning+religious+kkk#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved May 3, 2011.
- ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida.
- ^ a b "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Adl.org. http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/kkk/history.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=4&item=kkk. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". New Georgia Encyclopedia. October 3, 2002. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-694. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ Trelease, White Terror (1971), p. 18.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan Act (1871): Major Acts of Congress". Enotes.com. http://www.enotes.com/major-acts-congress/ku-klux-klan-act. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ Thomas R. Pegram, One Hundred Percent American: The Rebirth and Decline of the Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s (2011), pp. 47-88.
- ^ Kelly J. Baker, Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK's Appeal to Protestant America, 1915-1930 (2011), p. 248.
- ^ Jackson 1992 ed., pp. 241–242.
- ^ Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2730.
- ^ Julian Sher, White hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983), pp. 52-53.
- ^ a b c d e McWhorter 2001.
- ^ a b "About the Ku Klux Klan". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/kkk/default.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=4&item=kkk. Retrieved February 19, 2010.
- ^ "Inquiry Begun on Klan Ties Of 2 Icons at Virginia Tech". NY Times. November 16, 1997. p. 138. http://www.nytimes.com/1997/11/16/us/inquiry-begun-on-klan-ties-of-2-icons-at-virginia-tech.html. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
- ^ Lee, Jennifer (November 6, 2006). "Samuel Bowers, 82, Klan Leader Convicted in Fatal Bombing, Dies". NY Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/06/us/06bowers.html. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
- ^ Brush, Pete (May 28, 2002). "Court Will Review Cross Burning Ban". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/05/28/supremecourt/main510317.shtml. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
- ^ "Klan named terrorist organization in Charleston". Reuters. October 14, 1999. http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=c0wPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=J4YDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6460,2081194&dq=klan+terrorist-organization&hl=en. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
- ^ "Ban the Klan? Professor has court strategy". Associated Press. May 21, 2004. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5030023. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
- ^ Domestic terrorism by the Klan remained a key concern. Dallas.FBI.gov.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 9. The founders were John C. Lester, John B. Kennedy, James R. Crowe, Frank O. McCord, Richard R. Reed, and J. Calvin Jones.
- ^ Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 11, states that Reed proposed κύκλος (kyklos) and Kennedy added clan. Wade 1987, p. 33 says that Kennedy came up with both words, but Crowe suggested transforming κύκλος into kuklux.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 679–680.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, p. 671–675.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan, Organization and Principles, 1868". State University of New York at Albany. http://www.albany.edu/faculty/gz580/his101/kkk.html.
- ^ Wills, Brian Steel (1992). A Battle from the Start: The Life of Nathan Bedford Forrest. New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers. p. 336. ISBN 0-06-092445-4.
- ^ Cincinnati Commercial, August 28, 1868, quoted in Wade, 1987.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 27.
- ^ Parsons 2005, p. 816.
- ^ a b Foner 1989, p. 425–426.
- ^ Foner 1989, p. 342.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 677–678.
- ^ Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877, New York: Perennial Classics, 1989; reprinted 2002, p. 432.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp. 674–675.
- ^ W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: 1860–1880, New York: Oxford University Press, 1935; reprint, The Free Press, 1998, pp.680–681.
- ^ Bryant, Jonathan M. "Ku Klux Klan in the Reconstruction Era". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Georgia Southern University. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-694.
- ^ Michael Newton, The Invisible Empire: The Ku Klux Klan in Florida, pp. 1–30. Newton quotes from the Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Enquire into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, Vol. 13. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1872. Among historians of the Klan, this volume is also known as The KKK testimony.
- ^ Rhodes 1920, pp. 157–158.
- ^ a b Horn 1939, p. 375.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 102.
- ^ Foner 1989, p. 435.
- ^ Wade 1987.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 373.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 88.
- ^ a b Scaturro, Frank (October 26, 2006). "The Presidency of Ulysses S. Grant, 1869–1877". The College of St. Scholastica. http://faculty.css.edu/mkelsey/usgrant/granthist4.html. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
- ^ a b Wormser, Richard. "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow—The Enforcement Acts (1870–1871)". Public Broadcasting Service. http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_events_enforce.html.
- ^ "White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction by Allen W. Trelease (Louisiana State University Press: 1995)". Isbn.nu. http://isbn.nu/toc/9780807119532. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ Trelease 1995.
- ^ Quotes from Wade 1987.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 360.
- ^ Horn 1939, p. 362.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 85.
- ^ Wade, p. 102.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 109, writes that by ca. 1871–1874, "For many, the lapse of the enforcement acts was justified since their reason for being—the Ku-Klux Klan—had been effectively smashed as a result of the dramatic showdown in South Carolina".
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 109–110.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871". Civil Rights in the United States. 2 vols. Macmillan Reference USA, 2000. Reproduced in History Resource Center. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. Galenet.Galegroup.com.
- ^ Balkin, Jack M. (2002). "History Lesson" (PDF). Yale University. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/jbalkin/opeds/historylesson1.pdf.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 144.
- ^ "The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow: The Enforcement Acts, 1870–1871", Public Broadcast Service. Retrieved April 5, 2008.
- ^ Varney, Blaine (1996). "Lynching in the 1890s (The Inhumanity of Lynching)". Bgsu.edu. Bowling Green, Ohio: BGSU. Archived from the original on March 16, 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5xDrTvjen. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
- ^ Dray 2002.
- ^ Dray 2002, p. 198. Griffith quickly relayed the comment to the press, where it was widely reported.
- ^ Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the NAACP, quoted in John Milton Cooper, Jr. (2011). Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Random House Digital, Inc.. p. 273. http://books.google.com/books?id=xOZVsyO4K2cC&pg=PA273.
- ^ The Ku Klux Klan and Related American Racialist and Antisemitic Organizations: A History and Analysis by Chester L. Quarles, p. 219. The second Klan's constitution and preamble, reprinted in Quarles book, stated that the second Klan was indebted to the original Klan's Prescripts.
- ^ Brian R. Farmer, American conservatism: history, theory and practice (2005), p. 208.
- ^ Kathleen M. Blee, Women of the Klan: racism and gender in the 1920s (2008), p. 47.
- ^ Jackson 1967, p. 241.
- ^ "An Interview with Stanley F. Horn – Oral History Interviews of the Forest History Society" (PDF). http://www.foresthistory.org/research/Biltmore_Project/OHIs/HornOHI.pdf. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ "Nation: The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581,00.html. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
- ^ Maxine D. Rogers et al., Documented History of Rosewood, Florida in January 1923, op. cit., pp. 4–6, accessed March 28, 2008; Clarence Lusane (2003), Hitler's Black Victims, p. 89.
- ^ Michael Newton, The Ku Klux Klan in Mississippi: a history, p. 70.
- ^ Pegram, One Hundred Percent American, pp. 119-56.
- ^ Prendergast 1987, pp. 25–52, 27.
- ^ Lender et al. 1982, p. 33.
- ^ Barr 1999, p. 370.
- ^ a b Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution, New York: Touchstone Book, 2002, p. 75.
- ^ a b Jackson 1992.
- ^ Emily Parker, "'Night-Shirt Knights' in the City: The Ku Klux Klan in 1920s Worcester, Massachusetts", New England Journal of History, Fall 2009, Vol. 66 Issue 1, pp. 62–78.
- ^ Moore 1991.
- ^ Greenhouse, Linda (May 29, 2002). "Supreme Court Roundup; Free Speech or Hate Speech? Court Weighs Cross Burning". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/29/us/supreme-court-roundup-free-speech-or-hate-speech-court-weighs-cross-burning.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved February 20, 2010.
- ^ Cecil Adams (June 18, 1993). "Why does the Ku Klux Klan burn crosses?". The Straight Dope. http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/1038/why-does-the-ku-klux-klan-burn-crosses. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
- ^ "Forrest tells aims of Ku Klux College". New York Times. 1921-09-12. http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=F50610FF3E5A1B7A93C0A81782D85F458285F9. Retrieved 2011-08-06.
- ^ Marty Gitlin, The Ku Klux Klan: a guide to an American subculture (2009) p. 20.
- ^ Julian Sher, White hoods: Canada's Ku Klux Klan (1983).
- ^ Lee N. Allen, "The McAdoo Campaign for the Presidential Nomination in 1924", Journal of Southern History, May 1963, Vol. 29 Issue 2, pp. 211–228.
- ^ Douglas B. Craig, After Wilson: The Struggle for the Democratic Party, 1920–1934 (1992), ch. 2–3.
- ^ Christopher N. Cocoltchos, "The Invisible Empire and the Search for the Orderly Community: The Ku Klux Klan in Anaheim, California", in Shawn Lay, ed. The invisible empire in the West (2004), pp. 97-120.
- ^ Feldman 1999.
- ^ "Indiana History Chapter Seven". Northern Indiana Center for History. Archived from the original on April 11, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080411163028/http://www.centerforhistory.org/indiana_history_main7.html. Retrieved October 7, 2008.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan in Indiana". Indiana State Library. 2000-11. http://www.in.gov/library/2848.htm. Retrieved September 27, 2009.
- ^ "D. C. Stephenson manuscript collection". Indianahistory.org. http://www.indianahistory.org/library/manuscripts/collection_guides/m0264.html. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ Moore 1991, p. 186.
- ^ Rogers et al., pp. 432–433.
- ^ Rogers et al., p. 433.
- ^ "Georgia Orders Action to Revoke Charter of Klan. Federal Lien Also Put on File to Collect Income Taxes Dating Back to 1921. Governor Warns of a Special Session if Needed to Enact 'De-Hooding' Measures Tells of Phone Threats Georgia Acts to Crush the Klan. Federal Tax Lien Also Is Filed". New York Times. May 31, 1946. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60D13F83B5E1B7B93C3AA178ED85F428485F9. Retrieved January 12, 2010. "Governor Ellis Arnall today ordered the State's legal department to bring action to revoke the Georgia charter of the Ku Klux Klan. ... 'It is my further information that on June 4, 1944, the Ku Klux Klan ..."
- ^ von Busack, Richard. "Superman Versus the KKK". MetroActive. http://www.metroactive.com/papers/metro/07.02.98/comics-9826.html.
- ^ Kennedy 1990.
- ^ "The Ku Klux Klan, a brief biography". The African American Registry. http://www.aaregistry.com/african_american_history/2207/The_Ku_Klux_Klan_a_brief__biography. [dead link] and Lay, Shawn. "Ku Klux Klan in the Twentieth Century". The New Georgia Encyclopedia. Coker College. http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-2730.
- ^ "The Various Shady Lives of The Ku Klux Klan". TIME. April 9, 1965. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898581-2,00.html. Retrieved December 24, 2009.
- ^ Egerton 1994, p. 562–563.
- ^ "Who Was Harry T. Moore?" — The Palm Beach Post, August 16, 1999.
- ^ Cox, Major W. (March 2, 1999). "Justice Still Absent in Bridge Death". Montgomery Advertiser. http://www.majorcox.com/columns/edwards1.htm. [dead link]
- ^ Axtman, Kris (June 23, 2005). "Mississippi verdict greeted by a generation gap". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0623/p01s03-ussc.html.
- ^ "Reputed Klansman, Ex-Cop, and Sheriff's Deputy Indicted For The 1964 Murders of Two Young African-American Men in Mississippi; U.S. v. James Ford Seale". January 24, 2007. http://news.findlaw.com/usatoday/docs/crights/usseale12407ind.html. Retrieved March 23, 2008.
- ^ Ingalls 1979; Graham, Nicholas (January 2005). "January 1958 – The Lumbees face the Klan". University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. http://www.lib.unc.edu/ncc/ref/nchistory/jan2005/jan05.html.
- ^ Simon, Dennis M. "The Civil Rights Movement, 1964–1968". Southern Methodist University. http://faculty.smu.edu/dsimon/Change-CivRts2.html.
- ^ "Remembering the 1979 Greensboro Massacre: 25 Years Later Survivors Form Country’s First Truth and Reconciliation Commission". Democracy Now. November 18, 2004. http://www.democracynow.org/2004/11/18/remembering_the_1979_greensboro_massacre_25. Retrieved August 15, 2009.
- ^ Mark Hand (November 18, 2004). "The Greensboro Massacre". Press Action.
- ^ Thompson 1982.
- ^ The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!", by Betty A. Dobratz & Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile. 2000-11. ISBN 978-0-8018-6537-4. http://books.google.com/?id=r59bGyH4lOAC&pg=PA22&lpg=PA22&dq=1980+chattanooga+kkk+shootings. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ "Women's Appeal for Justice in Chattanooga – US Department of Justice" (PDF). http://www.archives.gov/news/john-roberts/accession-60-89-0173/039-civil-rights-division-anti-klan/folder039.pdf. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ "The Victoria Advocate: Bonds for Klan Upheld". News.google.com. April 22, 1980. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=861&dat=19800422&id=5SMNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QmsDAAAAIBAJ&pg=6077,4796456. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ UPI (February 28, 1982). "New York Times: History Around the Nation; Jury Award to 5 Blacks Hailed as Blow to Klan". Tennessee; Chattanooga (Tenn): Nytimes.com. http://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/28/us/around-the-nation-jury-award-to-5-blacks-hailed-as-blow-to-klan.html?n=Top%2FReference%2FTimes%20Topics%2FSubjects%2FB%2FBlack%20Culture%20and%20. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
- ^ "RedState, White Supremacy, and Responsibility", Daily Kos, December 5, 2005.
- ^ Bill O'Reilly, "Circling the Wagons in Georgia", Fox News Channel, May 8, 2003.
- ^ "WIPO Arbitration and Mediation Center: Case No. DTV2001-0023", World Intellectual Property Organization, January 13, 2002.
- ^ Captmike works undercover with the US Government to stop the invasion of the Island Nation of Dominica, manana.com.
- ^ Operation Red Dog: Canadian neo-nazis were central to the planned invasion of Dominica in 1981,[dead link] canadiancontent.ca.
- ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/kkk/default.asp. According to the report, the KKK's estimated size then was "No more than a few thousand, organized into slightly more than 100 units."
- ^ a b "Church of the American Knights of the KKK". Anti-Defamation League. October 22, 1999. http://www.adl.org/backgrounders/american_knights_kkk.asp. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ "Active U.S. Hate Groups". Intelligence Report. Southern Poverty Law Center. http://www.splcenter.org/intel/map/hate.jsp.
- ^ "About the Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/kkk/default.asp. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ Mangus, Rhonda J. (February 1, 2009). "Obama Win Fuels Ku Klux Klan Membership". NowPublic (from news.com.au). http://www.nowpublic.com/world/obama-win-fuels-ku-klux-klan-membership. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ "U.S. police fear post-Obama Ku Klux Klan recruitment drive after woman is 'shot dead when she asked to leave initiation ritual'". Daily Mail (United Kingdom). November 13, 2008. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/worldnews/article-1085003/U-S-police-fear-post-Obama-Ku-Klux-Klan-recruitment-drive-woman-shot-dead-asked-leave-initiation-ritual.html.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan warns race war if Obama wins". Sify News. November 3, 2008. http://sify.com/news/ku-klux-klan-warns-race-war-if-obama-wins-news-international-jegv8yeajcg.html. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ Knickerbocker, Brad (February 9, 2007). "Anti-Immigrant Sentiments Fuel Ku Klux Klan Resurgence". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0209/p02s02-ussc.html.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Affiliations – Extremism in America". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/learn/ext_us/kkk/affiliations.asp?LEARN_Cat=Extremism&LEARN_SubCat=Extremism_in_America&xpicked=4&item=kkk. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
- ^ See, e.g., "A.C.L.U. Lawsuit Backs Klan In Seeking Permit for Cross". The New York Times. December 16, 1993. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/12/16/us/aclu-lawsuit-backs-klan-in-seeking-permit-for-cross.html. (accessed August 2009); "ACLU Defends KKK, Wins". Channel3000. January 4, 1999. http://www.channel3000.com/news/381962/detail.html. Retrieved July 28, 2010. The ACLU professes a mission to defend the constitutional rights of all groups, whether left, center, or right.
- ^ "Ku Klux Klan – Extremism in America – Active Groups (by state)". adl.org. Anti-Defamation League. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5xC58Y7PG. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
- ^ "No. 2 Klan group on trial in Ky. teen's beating". Associated Press. November 11, 2008. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27665247/. Retrieved November 22, 2008.
- ^ "White Camelia Knight of the Ku Klux Klan – Home page". wckkkk.org. White Camelia Knights of the Ku Klux Klan. 2011. Archived from the original on March 15, 2011. http://www.webcitation.org/5xC8qcI3u. Retrieved March 15, 2011.
- ^ "Arkansas Klan Group Loses Legal Battle with North Carolina Newspaper". Anti-Defamation League. July 9, 2009. http://www.adl.org/main_Extremism/Klan-vs-Rhino-Times.htm. Retrieved August 15, 2008.
- ^ BBC World: Ku Klux Klan sets up Australian branch
- ^ NZ Herald: Dark mystique of the KKK
- ^ Sydney Morning Herald - We have infiltrated party: KKK
- ^ BBC World: UK KKK plans 'infiltration' of the UK
- ^ Daily Mirror: We expose vile racist biker as British leader of the Ku Klux Klan
- ^ "A Visual Database of Extremist Symbols, Logos and Tattoos". Anti-Defamation League. http://www.adl.org/hate_symbols/acronyms_KIGY.asp.
- ^ Axelrod 1997, p. 160.
- ^ Wade 1987, p. 142. "'It was rather difficult, sometimes, to make the two letters fit in,' he recalled later, 'but I did it somehow.'"
- ^ Chester L. Quarles (1999). The Ku Klux Klan and related American racialist and antisemitic organizations. McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-7864-0647-X. http://books.google.com/?id=fhcnmDIQOW8C&pg=PA227&lpg=PA227&dq=imperial+kludd#v=onepage&q=imperial%20kludd&f=false. "Imperial Kludd: Is the Chaplain of the Imperial Klonvokation and shall perform such other duties as may be required by the Imperial Wizard ..."
References[link]
- Axelrod, Alan (1997). The International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies & Fraternal Orders. New York: Facts On File.
- Barr, Andrew (1999). Drink: A Social History of America. New York: Carroll & Graf.
- Chalmers, David M. (1987). Hooded Americanism: The History of the Ku Klux Klan. Durahm, N.C.: Duke University Press. p. 512. ISBN 978-0-8223-0730-3.
- Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: How the Ku Klux Klan Helped the Civil Rights Movement. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1.
- Dray, Philip (2002). At the Hands of Persons Unknown: The Lynching of Black America. New York: Random House.
- Egerton, John (1994). Speak Now Against the Day: The Generation Before the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Alfred and Knopf Inc..
- Feldman, Glenn (1999). Politics, Society, and the Klan in Alabama, 1915–1949. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
- Fleming, Walter J., Ku Klux Klan: Its Origins, Growth and Disbandment, p. 27, 1905, Neale Publishing.
- Foner, Eric (1989). Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877. Perennial (HarperCollins).
- Fox, Craig. Everyday Klansfolk: White Protestant Life and the KKK in 1920s Michigan (Michigan State University Press, 2011), 274 pp. ISBN 978-0-87013-995-6.
- Franklin, John Hope (1992). Race and History: Selected Essays 1938–1988. Louisiana State University Press.
- Horn, Stanley F. (1939). Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871. Montclair, New Jersey: Patterson Smith Publishing Corporation.
- Ingalls, Robert P. (1979). Hoods: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons.
- Jackson, Kenneth T. (1967; 1992 edition). The Ku Klux Klan in the City, 1915–1930. Oxford University Press.
- Kennedy, Stetson (1990). The Klan Unmasked. University Press of Florida.
- McVeigh, Rory. The Rise of the Ku Klux Klan: Right-Wing Movements and National Politics (2009), on 1920s.
- Lender, Mark E.; James K. Martin (1982). Drinking in America. New York: Free Press.
- Levitt, Stephen D.; Stephen J. Dubner (2005). Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything. New York: William Morrow.
- McWhorter, Diane (2001). Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, The Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- Moore, Leonard J. (1991). Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
- Newton, Michael; Judy Ann Newton (1991). The Ku Klux Klan: An Encyclopedia. New York & London: Garland Publishing.
- Parsons, Elaine Frantz (2005). "Midnight Rangers: Costume and Performance in the Reconstruction-Era Ku Klux Klan". The Journal of American History 92 (3): 811–836. DOI:10.2307/3659969.
- Prendergast, Michael L. (1987). "A History of Alcohol Problem Prevention Efforts in the United States". In Holder, Harold D.. Control Issues in Alcohol Abuse Prevention: Strategies for States and Communities. Greenwich, Connecticut: JAI Press
- Rhodes, James Ford (1920). History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896. 7. Winner of the 1918 Pulitzer Prize for history.
- Rogers, William; Robert Ward, Leah Atkins and Wayne Flynt (1994). Alabama: The History of a Deep South State. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press.
- Steinberg, Alfred (1962). The man from Missouri; the life and times of Harry S. Truman. New York: Putnam. OCLC 466366.
- Taylor, Joe G. (1974). Louisiana Reconstructed, 1863–1877. Baton Rouge.
- Thompson, Jerry (1982). My Life in the Klan. New York: Putnam. ISBN 0-399-12695-3.
- Trelease, Allen W. (1995). White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction. Louisiana State University Press.
- Wade, Wyn Craig (1987). The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Further reading[link]
- Blee, Kathleen M. (1992). Women of the Klan. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-07876-4.
- "White supremacist groups flourishing". Gainesville Press. Associated Press. February 6, 2007. http://www.gainesville.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070206/WIRE/702050325/-1/news.
- Nelson, Jack (1993). Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-69223-2.
- Chalmers, David M. (2003). Backfire: how the Ku Klux Klan helped the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 0-7425-2310-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=ziG-M2q3ckYC.
External links[link]
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- Civil Rights Greensboro
- "Ku Klux Klan", Southern Poverty Law Center
- "KKK", Anti-Defamation League
- "Inside Today's KKK", multimedia, Life magazine, April 13, 2009
- Interview with Stanley F. Horn, author of Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871 (1939), Forest History Society, Inc., May 1978
- Booknotes interview with Jack Nelson on Terror in the Night: The Klan's Campaign Against the Jews, February 7, 1993
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| City of license | Robstown, Texas |
|---|---|
| Broadcast area | Corpus Christi and Vicinity |
| Branding | Easy Listeniing 89.5 KLUX |
| Slogan | "Catholic Radio for the New Evangelization" |
| Frequency |
89.5 HD-2 for Relevant Radio |
| Format | Catholic |
| Power | 58,000 Watts |
| Class | C1 |
| Owner | Diocesan Telecommunications (Diocesan Telecommunications Corp.) |
| Webcast | KLUX Live Feed Relevant Radio Live Feed |
| Website | http://www.klux.org |
KLUX (branded as "Good Company 89.5") is a radio station serving the Corpus Christi area of Texas with a secular, light adult music format. It broadcasts on FM frequency 89.5 MHz and is under ownership of Diocesan Telecommunications.
KLUX also broadcasts Relevant Radio on 89.5 HD-2 (HD Radio needed).
External links[link]
- KLUX official website
- Query the FCC's FM station database for KLUX
- Radio-Locator information on KLUX
- Query Arbitron's FM station database for KLUX
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Coordinates: 27°44′28″N 97°36′07″W / 27.741°N 97.602°W / 27.741; -97.602
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| Mitchell and Webb | |
|---|---|
 Robert Webb and David Mitchell in 2007 |
|
| Medium | Television, radio, film |
| Nationality | British |
| Years active | 1995–present |
| Genres | Sketch comedy Character comedy |
| Influences | Morecambe and Wise, Monty Python, The Two Ronnies, Fry and Laurie[1] |
| Notable works and roles | That Mitchell and Webb Look Peep Show |
| Members | David Mitchell Robert Webb |
Mitchell and Webb are a British comedy double act, composed of David Mitchell (born 14 July 1974) and Robert Webb (born 29 September 1972). They are best known for starring in the Channel 4 sitcom Peep Show and their award-winning sketch show That Mitchell and Webb Look. The duo first met at the Footlights in 1993 and collaborated for the 1995 Revue whilst studying at Cambridge University.
Contents |
Works[link]
Television and radio[link]
After graduating from university, the duo did two-man shows at the Edinburgh Fringe Festival and some sketch writing, including a series of Big Train and also for Armstrong and Miller's eponymous show.[2] Their big break came in 2000 when they joined the writing team for the BBC Two sketch show Bruiser. The following year, the short-lived Play UK channel invited them to write their own sketch show, The Mitchell and Webb Situation. Despite the low ratings of the channel, the show was reasonably well-received by viewers. After the success, they wrote and starred in the Radio 4 sketch show, That Mitchell and Webb Sound – which was later adapted for television on BBC Two as That Mitchell and Webb Look. The first series of That Mitchell and Webb Look won the BAFTA for "Best Comedy Programme" in 2007.
They often appear with Olivia Colman, James Bachman, Mark Evans and Paterson Joseph.
In 2008, the duo wrote a pilot script for their first original sitcom; in Playing Shop, the two star as Eric and Jamie, friends who set up a business together after they are made redundant from their old jobs. Hartswood Films recorded the pilot episode on 20 December, with a view to producing a full series for BBC Two.[3] Although approved by BBC, plans for future episodes fell through as Mitchell and Webb decided not to proceed with it.
Mitchell and Webb collaborated with Armstrong and Miller again for the 2009 Red Nose Day fundraising event. They co-wrote and starred in two short sketches incorporating Armstrong and Miller's iconic World War II airmen characters from The Armstrong and Miller Show and their characters Sir Digby and Ginger from their radio show That Mitchell and Webb Sound.
Other[link]
Mitchell and Webb have also appeared in the short-lived U.K. regional versions of the 'Get a Mac' advertisements for Apple.
They also voiced a pair of peas on the Ant and Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway sponsorship adverts for Birds Eye.
Magicians, a film starring the pair was released on 18 May 2007.[4]
They have also released the book This Mitchell and Webb Book.
References[link]
- ^ "That Mitchell and Webb Look". BBC. 29 August 2006. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/08_august/29/mitchell_webb.shtml.
- ^ "BBC Four - Mark Lawson talks to...David Mitchell". bbc.co.uk. 26 March 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00zs80g.
- ^ Parker, Robin (8 December 2008). "Mitchell and Webb are Playing Shop on BBC2". Broadcastnow (Emap Media). Retrieved on 8 December 2008.
- ^ "Interview: David Mitchell and Robert Webb". telegraph.co.uk. 10 June 2009. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/5487340/Interview-David-Mitchell-and-Robert-Webb.html.
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This article is about the person. For other uses, see Malcolm X (disambiguation).
"Malik Shabazz" redirects here. For other people of that name, see Malik Shabazz (disambiguation).
| Malcolm X | |
|---|---|
 Malcolm X in March 1964 |
|
| Born | Malcolm Little (1925-05-19)May 19, 1925 Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Died | February 21, 1965(1965-02-21) (aged 39) New York City, New York, United States |
| Cause of death | Assassination (gunshot) |
| Resting place | Ferncliff Cemetery |
| Other names | El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Organization | Nation of Islam, Muslim Mosque, Inc., Organization of Afro-American Unity |
| Influenced by | Elijah Muhammad, Marcus Garvey |
| Political movement | Black nationalism, Pan-Africanism |
| Religion | Nation of Islam, (later) Sunni Islam |
| Spouse | Betty Shabazz (m. 1958) |
| Children | Attallah Shabazz Qubilah Shabazz Ilyasah Shabazz Gamilah Lumumba Shabazz Malikah Shabazz Malaak Shabazz |
| Parents | Earl Little, Louise Norton Little |
| Signature |  |
Malcolm X ( /ˈmælkəm ˈɛks/; May 19, 1925 – February 21, 1965), born Malcolm Little and also known as El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz[1] (Arabic: الحاجّ مالك الشباز), was an African-American Muslim minister and human rights activist. To his admirers, he was a courageous advocate for the rights of African Americans, a man who indicted white America in the harshest terms for its crimes against black Americans. Detractors accused him of preaching racism, black supremacy, antisemitism, and violence. He has been called one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.
Malcolm X's father died—killed by white supremacists, it was rumored—when he was young, and at least one of his uncles was lynched. When he was thirteen, his mother was placed in a mental hospital, and he was placed in a series of foster homes. In 1946, at age 20, he went to prison for breaking and entering.
In prison, Malcolm X became a member of the Nation of Islam and after his parole in 1952 he quickly rose to become one of its leaders. For a dozen years Malcolm X was the public face of the controversial group, but disillusionment with Nation of Islam head Elijah Muhammad led him to leave the Nation in March 1964. After a period of travel in Africa and the Middle East, he returned to the United States, where he founded Muslim Mosque, Inc. and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. In February 1965, less than a year after leaving the Nation of Islam, he was assassinated by three members of the group.
Malcolm X's expressed beliefs changed substantially over time. As a spokesman for the Nation of Islam he taught black supremacy and advocated separation of black and white Americans—in contrast to the civil rights movement's emphasis on integration. After breaking with the Nation of Islam in 1964—saying of his association with it, "I was a zombie then ... pointed in a certain direction and told to march"—and becoming a Sunni Muslim, he disavowed racism and expressed willingness to work with civil rights leaders, though still emphasizing black self-determination and self defense.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, the fourth of seven children to Earl Little and Louise Norton.[2] His father was an outspoken Baptist lay speaker. He supported Pan-African activist Marcus Garvey and was a local leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA).[3] Malcolm never forgot the values of black pride and self-reliance that his father and other UNIA leaders preached.[4] Malcolm X later said that three of Earl Little's brothers, one of whom was lynched, died violently at the hands of white men.[5] Because of Ku Klux Klan threats, the family relocated in 1926 to Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and shortly thereafter to Lansing, Michigan.[6]
Earl Little, who was dark-skinned, was born in Reynolds, Georgia.[7] He had three children from his first marriage: Ella, Mary, and Earl Jr.—and seven with his second wife, Louise: Wilfred, Hilda, Philbert, Malcolm, Reginald, Yvonne, and Wesley.[8] Louise Norton Little was born in Grenada. Because her father was Scottish, she was so light-skinned that she could have passed for white. Malcolm inherited his light complexion from his mother and maternal grandfather.[9] Initially he felt his light skin was a status symbol, but he later said he "hated every drop of that white rapist's blood that is in me."[10] Malcolm X later remembered feeling that his father favored him because he was the lightest-skinned child in the family; however, he thought his mother treated him harshly for the same reason.[11] One of Malcolm's nicknames, "Red", derived from the tinge of his hair. According to one biographer, at birth he had "ash-blonde hair ... tinged with cinnamon", and at age four, "reddish-blonde hair".[12] His hair darkened as he aged, yet he also resembled his paternal grandmother, whose hair "turned reddish in the summer sun."[2] The issue of skin and hair color took on very significant implications later in Malcolm's life.[7]
In December 1924, Louise Little was threatened by Klansmen while she was pregnant with Malcolm. She recalled that the Klansmen warned the family to leave Omaha, because Earl Little's activities with UNIA were "spreading trouble".[13] After they moved to Lansing, their house was burned in 1929; however, the family escaped without physical injury. On September 8, 1931, Earl Little was fatally struck by a streetcar in Lansing. Authorities ruled his death an accident. The police reported that Earl Little was conscious when they arrived on the scene, and he told them he had slipped and fallen under the streetcar's wheels.[14] The black community in Lansing disputed the cause of death, believing there was circumstantial evidence of assault. His family had frequently been harassed by the Black Legion, a white supremacist group that his father accused of burning down their home in 1929. Some blacks believed the Black Legion was responsible for Earl Little's death. One of the adults at the funeral told eight-year-old Philbert Little that his father had been hit from behind and shoved under the streetcar.[15]
Though Earl Little had two life insurance policies, his family received death benefits solely from the smaller policy. The insurance company of the larger policy claimed that his father had committed suicide and refused to issue the benefit.[16] The payout from the insurance policy was $1,000 (comparable to about $15,000 in 2010 dollars), and the probate court awarded Louise Little a monthly "widow's allowance" of $18. She rented space in the garden to raise more money, and her sons would hunt game for supper.[17]
In 1935 or 1936, Louise Little began dating an African-American man. A marriage proposal seemed a possibility, but the man disappeared from their lives when Louise became pregnant with his child in late 1937.[18] In December 1938, Louise Little had a nervous breakdown and was declared legally insane. The Little siblings were split up and sent to different foster homes. The state formally committed Louise Little to the state mental hospital at Kalamazoo, Michigan, where she remained until Malcolm and his siblings secured her release 24 years later.[19][20]
Malcolm Little was one of the best students in his junior high school, but he dropped out after a white eighth-grade teacher told him that his aspirations of being a lawyer were "no realistic goal for a nigger."[21] Years later, Malcolm X would laugh about the incident, but at the time it was humiliating. It made him feel that there was no place in the white world for a career-oriented black man, no matter how smart he was.[21] After living with a series of foster parents, Malcolm moved to Boston in February 1941 to live with his older half-sister, Ella Little Collins.[22][23]
Young adult years[link]
Collins lived in Roxbury, a predominantly African-American middle-class neighborhood of Boston. It was the first time Little had seen so many black people. He was drawn to the cultural and social life of the neighborhood.[24] In Boston, Little held a variety of jobs and found intermittent employment with the New Haven Railroad. Between 1943 and 1946, he drifted from city to city and job to job. He left Boston to live for a short time in Flint, Michigan. He moved to New York City in 1943. Living in Harlem, he became involved in drug dealing, gambling, racketeering, robbery, and pimping.[25] During this period, Little became known as "Detroit Red" because he came from Michigan and because of the reddish color of his hair.[26] According to recent biographies, Little occasionally engaged in sex with other men, usually for money.[27][28]
In 1943, the U.S. draft board ordered Little to register for military service.[29] He later recalled that he put on a display to avoid the draft by telling the examining officer that he could not wait to "steal us some guns, and kill us [some] crackers."[30] Military physicians classified him as "mentally disqualified for military service". He was issued a 4-F card, relieving him of his service obligations.[29] In late 1945, Little returned to Boston. With a group of associates, he began a series of elaborate burglaries targeting the residences of wealthy white families.[31] On January 12, 1946, Little was arrested for burglary while trying to pick up a stolen watch he had left for repairs at a jewelry shop.[32] The shop owner called the police because the watch was very expensive, and the police had alerted all Boston jewelers that it had been stolen. Little told the police that he had a gun on his person and surrendered so the police would treat him more leniently.[33] Three days later, Little was indicted for carrying firearms. On January 16, he was charged with larceny and breaking and entering, and eventually sentenced to eight to ten years in prison.[34]
On February 27, Little began serving his sentence at the Charlestown State Prison in Charlestown, Boston. While in prison, Little earned the nickname of "Satan" for his hostility toward religion.[35] Little met a self-educated man in prison named John Elton Bembry (referred to as "Bimbi" in The Autobiography of Malcolm X).[36] Bembry was a well-regarded prisoner at Charlestown, and Malcolm X would later describe him as "the first man I had ever seen command total respect ... with words."[37] Gradually, the two men became friends and Bembry convinced Little to educate himself.[38] Little developed a voracious appetite for reading, and he frequently read after the prison lights had been turned off.[39] In 1948, Little's brother Philbert wrote, telling him about the Nation of Islam. Like the UNIA, the Nation preached black self-reliance and, ultimately, the unification of members of the African diaspora, free from white American and European domination.[40] Little was not interested in joining until his brother Reginald wrote, saying, "Malcolm, don't eat any more pork and don't smoke any more cigarettes. I'll show you how to get out of prison."[41] Little quit smoking, and the next time pork was served in the prison dining hall, he refused to eat it.[42]
When Reginald came to visit Little, he described the group's teachings, including the belief that white people are devils. Afterward, Little thought about all the white people he had known, and he realized that he'd never had a relationship with a white person or social institution that wasn't based on dishonesty, injustice, greed, and hatred. Little began to reconsider his dismissal of all religion and he became receptive to the message of the Nation of Islam. Other family members who had joined the Nation wrote or visited and encouraged Little to join.[43] In February 1948, mostly through his sister's efforts, Little was transferred to the Norfolk Prison Colony, an experimental prison in Norfolk, Massachusetts, that had a much larger library.[44] In late 1948, he wrote a letter to Elijah Muhammad, the leader of the Nation of Islam. Muhammad advised him to atone for his crimes by renouncing his past and by humbly bowing in prayer to Allah and promising never to engage in destructive behavior again. Little, who always had been rebellious and deeply skeptical, found it very difficult to bow in prayer. It took him a week to bend his knees. Finally he prayed, and he became a member of the Nation of Islam.[45] For the remainder of his incarceration, Little maintained regular correspondence with Muhammad.[46] On August 7, 1952, Little was paroled and was released from prison.[47] He later reflected on the time he spent in prison after his conversion: "Between Mr. Muhammad's teachings, my correspondence, my visitors—usually Ella and Reginald—and my reading of books, months passed without my even thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I had never been so truly free in my life."[48]
Nation of Islam[link]
| Part of a series on the |
| Nation of Islam |
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| Leaders |
| Wallace Fard Muhammad Elijah Muhammad · Malcolm X Warith Deen Mohammed Louis Farrakhan Tynetta Muhammad Mustapha Farrakhan Ishmael Muhammad Ava Muhammad |
| History and beliefs |
| Saviours' Day Nation of Islam and antisemitism Tribe of Shabazz · Yakub Million Man March |
| Publications |
| A Torchlight for America The Final Call How to Eat to Live Muhammad Speaks |
| Subsidiaries and offshoots |
| American Society of Muslims Fruit of Islam The Nation of Gods and Earths New Black Panther Party United Nation of Islam Your Black Muslim Bakery |
Further information: Nation of Islam
When Little was released from prison in 1952, he had more than a new religion. He also had a new name. In a December 1950 letter to his brother Philbert, Little signed his name as Malcolm X for the first time.[49] In his autobiography, he explained why: "The Muslim's 'X' symbolized the true African family name that he never could know. For me, my 'X' replaced the white slavemaster name of 'Little' which some blue-eyed devil named Little had imposed upon my paternal forebears."[50]
Shortly after his release from prison, Malcolm X visited Elijah Muhammad in Chicago, Illinois.[51] In June 1953, Malcolm X was named assistant minister of the Nation of Islam's Temple Number One in Detroit.[52][53] Soon, he became a full-time minister.[54] By late 1953, Malcolm X established Boston's Temple Number 11.[55] In March 1954, he expanded Temple Number 12 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.[56] Two months later Malcolm X was selected to lead Temple Number Seven in Harlem,[57] and he rapidly expanded its membership.[58]
The FBI had opened a file on Malcolm X in 1950 after he wrote a letter to President Truman stating his opposition to the Korean War and declaring himself to be a communist.[59] It began surveillance of him in 1953, and soon the FBI turned its attention from concerns about possible Communist Party association to Malcolm X's rapid ascent in the Nation of Islam.[60]
During 1955, Malcolm X continued his successful recruitment efforts on behalf of the organization. He established temples in Springfield, Massachusetts (Number 13); Hartford, Connecticut (Number 14); and Atlanta, Georgia (Number 15). Hundreds of African Americans were joining the Nation of Islam every month.[61] Beside his skill as a speaker, Malcolm X had an impressive physical presence. He stood 6 feet 3 inches (1.91 m) tall and weighed about 180 pounds (82 kg).[62] One writer described him as "powerfully built",[63] and another as "mesmerizingly handsome ... and always spotlessly well-groomed".[62]
Johnson Hinton incident[link]
Malcolm X first came to the attention of the general public after the police beating of a Nation of Islam member named Johnson Hinton.[64][65] On April 26, 1957, two police officers were beating an African-American man with their nightsticks when three passersby who belonged to the Nation of Islam tried to intervene.[64] They shouted: "You're not in Alabama or Georgia. This is New York!"[65] One of the officers began to beat one of the passersby, Johnson Hinton. The blows were so severe, a surgeon later determined, that they caused brain contusions, subdural hemorrhaging, and scalp lacerations. All four men were arrested and taken to the police station.[64]
A woman who had seen the assault ran to the Nation of Islam's restaurant.[64] Within a few hours, Malcolm X and a small group of Muslims went to the police station and demanded to see Hinton. The police captain initially said no Muslims were being held there, but as the crowd grew to about 500, he allowed Malcolm X to speak with Hinton.[66] After a short talk, Malcolm X demanded that Hinton be taken to the hospital, so an ambulance was called and Hinton was taken to Harlem Hospital.[67]
Hinton was treated and released into the custody of the police, who returned him to the police station.[66] By this point, about 4,000 people had gathered; the police realized there was the potential for a riot and called for backup. Malcolm X went back into the police station with an attorney and made bail arrangements for the other two Muslims. The police said Hinton could not go back to the hospital until he was arraigned the following day.[67] Malcolm X realized things were at a stalemate. He stepped outside the station house and gave a hand signal.[67] The Nation of Islam members in the crowd silently walked away. The rest of the crowd dispersed minutes later. One police officer told the editor of the New York Amsterdam News: "No one man should have that much power."[67][68]
The following month, the Bureau of Special Services and Investigation of the New York Police Department (NYPD) began its surveillance of Malcolm X. The NYPD's Chief Inspector asked for information from the police department in every city where Malcolm X had lived, and from the prisons where he had served his sentence.[69] In October, when a grand jury declined to indict the officers who had beaten Hinton, Malcolm X wrote an angry telegram to the police commissioner. In response, undercover NYPD officers were placed inside the Nation of Islam.[70]
Marriage and family[link]
Malcolm X met Betty Sanders in 1955. She had been invited to listen to his lecture, and she was very impressed by him. They met again at a dinner party. Soon Sanders was attending all of Malcolm X's lectures at Temple Number Seven. In mid 1956, she joined the Nation of Islam and changed her name to Betty X.[71]
Malcolm X and Betty X did not have a conventional courtship. One-on-one dates were contrary to the teachings of the Nation of Islam. Instead, the couple shared their "dates" with dozens, or even hundreds of other members. Malcolm X frequently took groups to visit New York's museums and libraries, and he always invited Betty X.[72]
Although they had never discussed the subject, Betty X suspected that Malcolm X was interested in marriage. On January 12, 1958, he called from Detroit and asked her to marry him, and they were married two days later in Lansing, Michigan.[73][74]
The couple had six daughters. Their names were Attallah, born in 1958 and named after Attila the Hun;[75][76] Qubilah, born in 1960 and named after Kublai Khan;[77] Ilyasah, born in 1962 and named after Elijah Muhammad;[78] Gamilah Lumumba, born in 1964 and named after Patrice Lumumba;[79] and twins, Malikah and Malaak, born in 1965 after their father's assassination and named for him.[80]
[edit] The Hate That Hate Produced
After a 1959 television broadcast in New York City about the Nation of Islam, The Hate That Hate Produced, Malcolm X became known to white Americans. Representatives of the print media, radio, and television frequently asked him for comments on issues.[81] By the late 1950s, Malcolm X had acquired a new name, Malcolm Shabazz or Malik el-Shabazz, although he was still widely referred to as Malcolm X.[82]
In September 1960, Fidel Castro arrived in New York to attend the meeting of the United Nations General Assembly. He and his entourage stayed at the Hotel Theresa in Harlem. Malcolm X was a prominent member of a Harlem-based welcoming committee made up of community leaders who met with Castro.[83] Castro was so impressed by Malcolm X that he requested a private meeting with him. At the end of their two-hour meeting, Castro invited Malcolm X to visit him in Cuba.[84] During the General Assembly meeting, Malcolm X was also invited to many official embassy functions sponsored by African nations, where he met heads of state and other leaders, including Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, Ahmed Sékou Touré of Guinea, and Kenneth Kaunda of the Zambian African National Congress.[85]
From his adoption of the Nation of Islam in 1952 until he broke with it in 1964, Malcolm X promoted the Nation's teachings, including that black people are the original people of the world,[86] that white people are "devils",[87] that blacks are superior to whites, and that the demise of the white race is imminent.[88] While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. He proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in America[89] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence, and instead advocated that black people use any necessary means of self-defense to protect themselves.[91] Malcolm X's speeches had a powerful effect on his audiences, generally African Americans who lived in the Northern and Western cities, who were tired of being told to wait for freedom, justice, equality and respect.[92] Many blacks felt that he articulated their complaints better than the civil rights movement did.[93][94]
Malcolm X has been widely considered the second most influential leader of the Nation of Islam after Elijah Muhammad.[95] He was largely credited with the group's dramatic increase in membership between the early 1950s and early 1960s (from 500 to 25,000 by one author's estimate,[96] or from 1,200 to 50,000 or 75,000 by another's).[97][98] He inspired the boxer Cassius Clay (later known as Muhammad Ali) to join the Nation of Islam.[99] (though like Malcolm X himself, Ali later left the group to become a Sunni Muslim).[100]
Many white people, and even some blacks, were alarmed by Malcolm X and the things he said. He and the Nation of Islam were described as hatemongers, black supremacists, racists, violence-seekers, segregationists, and a threat to improved race relations. Civil rights organizations denounced Malcolm X and the Nation as irresponsible extremists whose views were not representative of African Americans.[101][102][103] Malcolm X was accused of being antisemitic.[104]
Malcolm X was equally critical of the civil rights movement.[105] He described its leaders as "stooges" for the white establishment, and he once described Martin Luther King, Jr. as a "chump".[106][107] He criticized the 1963 March on Washington, which he called "the farce on Washington".[108] He said he did not know why so many black people were excited about a demonstration "run by whites in front of a statue of a president who has been dead for a hundred years and who didn't like us when he was alive".[109]
Leaving the Nation[link]
On December 1, 1963, when he was asked for a comment about the assassination of President Kennedy, Malcolm X said that it was a case of "chickens coming home to roost". He added that "chickens coming home to roost never did make me sad; they've always made me glad."[110] The New York Times wrote, "in further criticism of Mr. Kennedy, the Muslim leader cited the murders of Patrice Lumumba, Congo leader, of Medgar Evers, civil rights leader, and of the Negro girls bombed earlier this year in a Birmingham church. These, he said, were instances of other 'chickens coming home to roost'."[110] The remarks prompted a widespread public outcry. The Nation of Islam, which had issued a message of condolence to the Kennedy family and ordered its ministers not to comment on the assassination, publicly censured their former shining star.[111] Although Malcolm X retained his post and rank as minister, he was prohibited from public speaking for 90 days.[112]
On March 8, 1964, Malcolm X publicly announced his break from the Nation of Islam. He said that he was still a Muslim, but he felt the Nation of Islam had "gone as far as it can" because of its rigid religious teachings.[113] Malcolm X said he was going to organize a black nationalist organization that would try to "heighten the political consciousness" of African Americans.[113] He also expressed his desire to work with other civil rights leaders and said that Elijah Muhammad had prevented him from doing so in the past.[113]
One reason for the separation was growing tension between Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad because of Malcolm X's dismay about rumors of Muhammad's extramarital affairs with young secretaries, actions that were against the teachings of the Nation. Although at first Malcolm X had ignored the rumors, after speaking with Muhammad's son Wallace and the women making the accusations, he came to believe that they were true. Muhammad confirmed the rumors in 1963 but tried to justify his actions by reference to precedents set by Biblical prophets.[114] Another reason for the separation was growing resentment by people within the Nation. As Malcolm X had become a favorite of the media, many in the Nation's Chicago headquarters felt that he was over-shadowing Muhammad. Louis Lomax's 1963 book about the Nation of Islam, When the Word Is Given, featured a picture of Malcolm X on its cover and included five of his speeches, but only one of Muhammad's, which greatly upset Muhammad. Muhammad was also envious that a publisher was interested in Malcolm X's autobiography.[115] After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X founded Muslim Mosque, Inc., a religious organization,[116][117] and the Organization of Afro-American Unity, a secular group that advocated Pan-Africanism.[118][119] On March 26, 1964, he met Martin Luther King, Jr. in Washington, D.C., after a press conference held when both men attended the Senate to hear the debate on the Civil Rights bill. This was the only time the two men ever met and their meeting lasted only one minute—just long enough for photographers to take a picture.[120][121] In April, Malcolm X made a speech titled "The Ballot or the Bullet" in which he advised African Americans to exercise their right to vote wisely.[122][123] Several Sunni Muslims encouraged Malcolm X to learn about Islam. Soon he converted to Sunni Islam, and decided to make his pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj).[124]
International travel[link]
Pilgrimage to Mecca[link]
On April 13, 1964, Malcolm X departed JFK Airport in New York for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. His status as an authentic Muslim was questioned by Saudi authorities because of his United States passport and his inability to speak Arabic. Since only confessing Muslims are allowed into Mecca, he was separated from his group for about 20 hours.[125][126]
According to his autobiography, Malcolm X saw a telephone and remembered the book The Eternal Message of Muhammad by Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam, which had been presented to him with his visa approval. He called Azzam's son, who arranged for his release. At the younger Azzam's home, he met Azzam Pasha, who gave Malcolm his suite at the Jeddah Palace Hotel. The next morning, Muhammad Faisal, the son of Prince Faisal, visited and informed Malcolm X that he was to be a state guest. The deputy chief of protocol accompanied Malcolm X to the Hajj Court, where he was allowed to make his pilgrimage.[127]
On April 19, Malcolm X completed the Hajj, making the seven circuits around the Kaaba, drinking from the Zamzam Well, and running between the hills of Safah and Marwah seven times.[128] After completing the Hajj, he was granted an audience with Prince Faisal.[129] Malcolm X said the trip allowed him to see Muslims of different races interacting as equals. He came to believe that Islam could be the means by which racial problems could be overcome.[130]
Africa[link]
Malcolm X visited Africa on three separate occasions, once in 1959 and twice in 1964. During his visits, he met officials, gave interviews to newspapers, and spoke on television and radio in Egypt, Ethiopia, Tanganyika (now Tanzania), Nigeria, Ghana, Guinea, Sudan, Senegal, Liberia, Algeria, and Morocco.[131] Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt, and Ahmed Ben Bella of Algeria invited Malcolm X to serve in their governments.[132]
In 1959, Malcolm X traveled to Egypt (then known as the United Arab Republic), Sudan, Nigeria, and Ghana to arrange a tour for Elijah Muhammad.[133] The first of the two trips Malcolm X made to Africa in 1964 lasted from April 13 until May 21, before and after his Hajj.[134] On May 8, following his speech at the University of Ibadan, Malcolm X was made an honorary member of the Nigerian Muslim Students' Association. During this reception the students bestowed upon him the name "Omowale", which means "the son who has come home" in the Yoruba language.[135] Malcolm X wrote in his autobiography that he "had never received a more treasured honor."[136]
On July 9, 1964, Malcolm X returned to Africa.[137] On July 17, he was welcomed to the second meeting of the Organization of African Unity in Cairo as a representative of the Organization of Afro-American Unity. By the time he returned to the United States on November 24, 1964, Malcolm had met with every prominent African leader and established an international connection between Africans on the continent and those in the diaspora.[132]
France and the United Kingdom[link]
On November 23, 1964, on his way home from Africa, Malcolm X stopped in Paris, where he spoke at the Salle de la Mutualité.[138][139] A week later, on November 30, Malcolm X flew to the United Kingdom, and on December 3 participated in a debate at the Oxford Union. The topic of the debate was "Extremism in the Defense of Liberty is No Vice; Moderation in the Pursuit of Justice is No Virtue", and Malcolm X argued the affirmative. Interest in the debate was so high that it was televised nationally by the BBC.[140][141]
On February 5, 1965, Malcolm X went to Europe again.[142] On February 8, he spoke in London, before the first meeting of the Council of African Organizations.[143] The next day, Malcolm X tried to go to France, but he was refused entry.[144] On February 12, he visited Smethwick, near Birmingham, which had become a byword for racial division after the 1964 general election, when the Conservative Party won the parliamentary seat after rumors that their candidate's supporters had used the slogan "If you want a nigger for your neighbour, vote Labour."[145]
Return to United States[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X spoke before a wide variety of audiences in the United States. He spoke at regular meetings of Muslim Mosque, Inc., and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. He was one of the most sought-after speakers on college campuses,[146] and one of his top aides later wrote that he "welcomed every opportunity to speak to college students."[147] Malcolm X also spoke before political groups such as the Militant Labor Forum.[148]
Tensions increased between Malcolm X and the Nation of Islam. As early as February 1964, a leader of Temple Number Seven ordered a member of the Fruit of Islam to wire explosives to Malcolm X's car.[149] In September 1964, Ebony published a photograph of Malcolm X holding an M1 Carbine and peering out a window. The photo was intended to illustrate his determination to defend himself and his family against the death threats he was receiving.[150][151]
The Nation of Islam and its leaders began making both public and private threats against Malcolm X. On March 23, 1964, Elijah Muhammad told Boston minister Louis X (later known as Louis Farrakhan) that "hypocrites like Malcolm should have their heads cut off."[152] The April 10 edition of Muhammad Speaks featured a cartoon in which his severed head was shown bouncing.[153] On July 9, John Ali, a top aide to Muhammad, answered a question about Malcolm X by saying that "anyone who opposes the Honorable Elijah Muhammad puts their life in jeopardy."[154] The December 4 issue of Muhammad Speaks included an article by Louis X that railed against Malcolm X, saying "such a man as Malcolm is worthy of death."[155]
Some threats were made anonymously. During the month of June 1964, FBI surveillance recorded two such threats. On June 8, a man called Malcolm X's home and told Betty Shabazz to "tell him he's as good as dead."[156] On June 12, an FBI informant reported getting an anonymous telephone call from somebody who said "Malcolm X is going to be bumped off."[157]
In June 1964, the Nation of Islam sued to reclaim Malcolm X's residence in Queens, New York, which they claimed to own. The suit was successful, and Malcolm X was ordered to vacate.[158] On February 14, 1965, the night before a scheduled hearing to postpone the eviction date, the house burned to the ground. Malcolm X and his family survived. No one was charged with any crime.[159]
Assassination[link]
On February 21, 1965, as Malcolm X prepared to address the Organization of Afro-American Unity in Manhattan's Audubon Ballroom, a disturbance broke out in the 400-person audience[160]—a man yelled, "Nigger! Get your hand outta my pocket!"[161][162] As Malcolm X and his bodyguards moved to quiet the disturbance,[163] a man seated in the front row rushed forward and shot him once in the chest with a double-barreled sawed-off shotgun.[164] Two other men charged the stage and fired semi-automatic handguns, hitting Malcolm X several times.[162] He was pronounced dead at 3:30 pm, shortly after he arrived at Columbia Presbyterian Hospital.[160] According to the autopsy report, Malcolm X's body had 21 gunshot wounds to his chest, left shoulder, and both arms and legs, many of them fatal; ten of the wounds were buckshot to his left chest and shoulder from the initial shotgun blast.[165]
One gunman, Nation of Islam member Talmadge Hayer (also known as Thomas Hagan) was seized and beaten by the crowd before the police arrived minutes later;[166][167] witnesses identified the others as Norman 3X Butler and Thomas 15X Johnson, also Nation members.[168] Hayer confessed at trial to have been one of the handgun shooters, but refused to identify the other assailants except to assert that they were not Butler and Johnson.[169] All three were convicted.[170]
Butler, now known as Muhammad Abdul Aziz, was paroled in 1985 and became the head of the Nation's Harlem mosque in 1998. He continues to maintain his innocence.[171] Johnson, who changed his name to Khalil Islam, rejected the Nation's teachings while in prison and converted to Sunni Islam. Released in 1987, he maintained his innocence until his death in August 2009.[172][173] Hayer, now known as Mujahid Halim,[174] was paroled in 2010.[175]
Funeral[link]
A public viewing was held at Harlem's Unity Funeral Home from February 23 through February 26, and it was estimated that between 14,000 and 30,000 mourners attended.[176] The funeral was held on February 27 at the Faith Temple Church of God in Christ in Harlem. The church was filled to capacity with more than 1,000 people.[177] Loudspeakers were set up outside the Temple so the overflowing crowd could listen[178] and a local television station broadcast the funeral live.[179]
Among the civil rights leaders attending were John Lewis, Bayard Rustin, James Forman, James Farmer, Jesse Gray, and Andrew Young.[177][180] Actor and activist Ossie Davis delivered the eulogy, describing Malcolm X as "our shining black prince".
There are those who will consider it their duty, as friends of the Negro people, to tell us to revile him, to flee, even from the presence of his memory, to save ourselves by writing him out of the history of our turbulent times. Many will ask what Harlem finds to honor in this stormy, controversial and bold young captain—and we will smile. Many will say turn away—away from this man, for he is not a man but a demon, a monster, a subverter and an enemy of the black man—and we will smile. They will say that he is of hate—a fanatic, a racist—who can only bring evil to the cause for which you struggle! And we will answer and say to them: Did you ever talk to Brother Malcolm? Did you ever touch him, or have him smile at you? Did you ever really listen to him? Did he ever do a mean thing? Was he ever himself associated with violence or any public disturbance? For if you did you would know him. And if you knew him you would know why we must honor him.[181]
Malcolm X was buried at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York.[179] At the gravesite after the ceremony, friends took the shovels from the waiting gravediggers and completed the burial themselves.[182] Actor and activist Ruby Dee (wife of Ossie Davis) and Juanita Poitier (wife of Sidney Poitier) established the Committee of Concerned Mothers to raise funds to buy a house and pay educational expenses for Malcolm X's family.[183]
Responses to assassination[link]
Reactions to Malcolm X's assassination were varied. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. sent a telegram to Betty Shabazz, expressing his sadness over "the shocking and tragic assassination of your husband."
While we did not always see eye to eye on methods to solve the race problem, I always had a deep affection for Malcolm and felt that he had a great ability to put his finger on the existence and root of the problem. He was an eloquent spokesman for his point of view and no one can honestly doubt that Malcolm had a great concern for the problems that we face as a race.[184]
Elijah Muhammad told the annual Savior's Day convention on February 26, "Malcolm X got just what he preached," while denying any involvement with the murder.[185] "We didn't want to kill Malcolm and didn't try to kill him," Muhammad said. "We know such ignorant, foolish teachings would bring him to his own end."[186]
The New York Times wrote that Malcolm X was "an extraordinary and twisted man" who "turn[ed] many true gifts to evil purpose" and that his life was "strangely and pitifully wasted".[187] The New York Post wrote that "even his sharpest critics recognized his brilliance—often wild, unpredictable and eccentric, but nevertheless possessing promise that must now remain unrealized."[188]
The international press, particularly that of Africa, was sympathetic. The Daily Times of Nigeria wrote that Malcolm X "will have a place in the palace of martyrs."[189] The Ghanaian Times likened him to John Brown and Patrice Lumumba among "a host of Africans and Americans who were martyred in freedom's cause".[190] Guangming Daily, published in Beijing, stated that "Malcolm was murdered because he fought for freedom and equal rights",[191] while in Cuba, El Mundo described the assassination as "another racist crime to eradicate by violence the struggle against discrimination".[192]
Allegations of conspiracy[link]
Within days of the assassination, questions were raised about who bore ultimate responsibility. On February 23, James Farmer, the leader of the Congress of Racial Equality, announced at a news conference that local drug dealers, and not the Nation of Islam, were to blame.[193] Others accused the NYPD, the FBI, or the CIA, citing the lack of police protection, the ease with which the assassins entered the Audubon Ballroom, and the failure of the police to preserve the crime scene.[194][195]
In the 1970s, the public learned about COINTELPRO and other secret FBI programs directed towards infiltrating and disrupting civil rights organizations during the 1950s and 1960s.[196] John Ali, national secretary of the Nation of Islam, was identified as an FBI undercover agent.[197] Malcolm X had confided in a reporter that Ali exacerbated tensions between him and Elijah Muhammad. He considered Ali his "archenemy" within the Nation of Islam leadership.[197] On February 20, 1965, the night before the assassination, Ali met with Talmadge Hayer, one of the men convicted of killing Malcolm X.[198]
In 1977 and 1978, Talmadge Hayer submitted two sworn affidavits re-asserting his claim that Butler and Johnson were not involved in the assassination. In his affidavits Hayer named four men, all members of the Nation of Islam's Newark Temple Number 25, as having participated with him in the crime. Hayer asserted that a man, later identified as Wilbur McKinley, was the one who shouted and threw a smoke bomb to create a diversion. Hayer said that another man, later identified as William Bradley, had a shotgun and was the first to fire on Malcolm X after the diversion. Hayer asserted that he and a man later identified as Leon Davis, both armed with pistols, fired on Malcolm X immediately after the shotgun blast. Hayer also said that a fifth man, later identified as Benjamin Thomas, was involved in the conspiracy.[199][200] Hayer's statements failed to convince authorities to reopen their investigation of the murder.[201]
Some, including the Shabazz family, have accused Louis Farrakhan of being involved in the plot to assassinate Malcolm X.[202][203][204][205] In a 1993 speech, Farrakhan seemed to acknowledge the possibility that the Nation of Islam was responsible for the assassination:
Was Malcolm your traitor or ours? And if we dealt with him like a nation deals with a traitor, what the hell business is it of yours? A nation has to be able to deal with traitors and cutthroats and turncoats.[206][207]
In a 60 Minutes interview that aired during May 2000, Farrakhan stated that some of the things he said may have led to the assassination of Malcolm X. "I may have been complicit in words that I spoke", he said. "I acknowledge that and regret that any word that I have said caused the loss of life of a human being."[208] A few days later Farrakhan denied that he "ordered the assassination" of Malcolm X, although he again acknowledged that he "created the atmosphere that ultimately led to Malcolm X's assassination."[209] No consensus on who was responsible has been reached.[210]
Philosophy[link]
Except for his autobiography, Malcolm X left no published writings. His philosophy is known almost entirely from the myriad speeches and interviews he gave from 1952 until his death in 1965.[211] Many of those speeches, especially from the last year of his life, were recorded and have been published.[212]
Beliefs of the Nation of Islam[link]
Further information: Beliefs and theology of the Nation of Islam
Before he left the Nation of Islam in 1964, Malcolm X taught its beliefs in his speeches. His speeches were peppered with the phrase "The Honorable Elijah Muhammad teaches us that...".[213] It is virtually impossible to discern whether Malcolm X's beliefs diverged from the teachings of the Nation of Islam.[214][215] Malcolm X once compared himself to a ventriloquist's dummy who could only say what Elijah Muhammad told him.[213]
Malcolm X taught that black people were the original people of the world,[86] and that white people were a race of devils who were created by an evil scientist named Yakub.[87] The Nation of Islam believed that black people were superior to white people, and that the demise of the white race was imminent.[88] When he was questioned concerning his statements that white people were devils, Malcolm X said that "history proves the white man is a devil."[216] He enumerated some of the historical reasons that, he felt, supported his argument: "Anybody who rapes, and plunders, and enslaves, and steals, and drops hell bombs on people... anybody who does these things is nothing but a devil."[217]
Malcolm X said that Islam was the "true religion of black mankind" and that Christianity was "the white man's religion" that had been imposed upon African Americans by their slave-masters.[218] He said that the Nation of Islam followed Islam as it was practiced around the world, but the Nation's teachings varied from those of other Muslims because they were adapted to the "uniquely pitiful" condition of black people in America.[219] He taught that Wallace Fard Muhammad, the founder of the Nation, was Allah incarnate,[220] and that Elijah Muhammad was his Messenger, or prophet.[221]
While the civil rights movement fought against racial segregation, Malcolm X advocated the complete separation of African Americans from white people. The Nation of Islam proposed the establishment of a separate country for black people in the Southern[89] or Southwestern United States[222] as an interim measure until African Americans could return to Africa.[90] Malcolm X suggested the United States government owed reparations to black people for the unpaid labor of their enslaved ancestors.[223] He also rejected the civil rights movement's strategy of nonviolence and instead advocated that black people should protect themselves by any necessary means.[91]
Independent views[link]
After leaving the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X announced his willingness to work with leaders of the civil rights movement,[113] though he felt that it should change its focus to human rights. So long as the movement remained a fight for civil rights, its struggle would remain a domestic issue, but by framing the struggle as a fight for human rights, it would become an international issue, and the movement could bring its complaint before the United Nations. Malcolm X said the emerging nations of the world would add their support to the cause of African Americans.[224]
Malcolm X declared that he and the other members of the Organization of Afro-American Unity were determined to defend themselves from aggressors, and to secure freedom, justice and equality "by whatever means necessary", arguing that if the government was unwilling or unable to protect black people, they should protect themselves.[225]
Malcolm X stressed the global perspective he gained from his international travels. He emphasized the "direct connection" between the domestic struggle of African Americans for equal rights with the liberation struggles of Third World nations.[226] He said that African Americans were wrong when they thought of themselves as a minority; in a global context, black people were a majority, not a minority.[227]
In his speeches at the Militant Labor Forum, which was sponsored by the Socialist Workers Party, Malcolm X criticized capitalism.[148] After one such speech, when he was asked what political and economic system he wanted, he said he didn't know, but that it was no coincidence the newly liberated countries in the Third World were turning toward socialism.[228] Malcolm X still was concerned primarily with the freedom struggle of African Americans. When a reporter asked him what he thought about socialism, Malcolm X asked whether it was good for black people. When the reporter told him it seemed to be, Malcolm X told him, "Then I'm for it."[228][229]
Although he no longer called for the separation of black people from white people, Malcolm X continued to advocate black nationalism, which he defined as self-determination for the African-American community.[230] In the last months of his life, however, Malcolm X began to reconsider his support of black nationalism after meeting northern African revolutionaries who, to all appearances, were white.[231]
After his Hajj, Malcolm X articulated a view of white people and racism that represented a deep change from the philosophy he had supported as a minister of the Nation of Islam. In a famous letter from Mecca, he wrote that his experiences with white people during his pilgrimage convinced him to "rearrange" his thinking about race and "toss aside some of [his] previous conclusions".[232] In a 1965 conversation with Gordon Parks, two days before his assassination, Malcolm said:
[L]istening to leaders like Nasser, Ben Bella, and Nkrumah awakened me to the dangers of racism. I realized racism isn't just a black and white problem. It's brought bloodbaths to about every nation on earth at one time or another.
Brother, remember the time that white college girl came into the restaurant—the one who wanted to help the [Black] Muslims and the whites get together—and I told her there wasn't a ghost of a chance and she went away crying? Well, I've lived to regret that incident. In many parts of the African continent I saw white students helping black people. Something like this kills a lot of argument. I did many things as a [Black] Muslim that I'm sorry for now. I was a zombie then—like all [Black] Muslims—I was hypnotized, pointed in a certain direction and told to march. Well, I guess a man's entitled to make a fool of himself if he's ready to pay the cost. It cost me 12 years.
That was a bad scene, brother. The sickness and madness of those days—I'm glad to be free of them.[233]
Legacy[link]
Malcolm X has been described as one of the greatest and most influential African Americans in history.[234][235][236] He is credited with raising the self-esteem of black Americans and reconnecting them with their African heritage.[237] He is largely responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the United States.[238][239][240] Many African Americans, especially those who lived in cities in the Northern and Western United States, felt that Malcolm X articulated their complaints concerning inequality better than the mainstream civil rights movement did.[93][94] One biographer says that by giving expression to their frustration, Malcolm X "made clear the price that white America would have to pay if it did not accede to black America's legitimate demands."[241]
In the late 1960s, as black activists became more radical, Malcolm X and his teachings were part of the foundation on which they built their movements. The Black Power movement,[62][242] the Black Arts Movement,[62][243] and the widespread adoption of the slogan "Black is beautiful"[244] can all trace their roots to Malcolm X.
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in Malcolm X among young people, fueled in part by use of him as an icon by hip hop groups such as Public Enemy.[245][246] His image was on display in hundreds of thousands of homes, offices, and schools,[247] as well as on T-shirts and jackets.[248]
This wave peaked in 1992 with the release of the film Malcolm X,[249] an adaptation of the The Autobiography of Malcolm X which Malcolm X began in 1963 in collaboration with Alex Haley on The Autobiography of Malcolm X.[115] (Malcolm X had told Haley, "If I'm alive when this book comes out, it will be a miracle";[250] indeed Haley completed and published it some months after the assassination).[251] In 1998 Time named The Autobiography of Malcolm X one of the ten most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century.[252]
Portrayals in film and on stage[link]
Denzel Washington played the title role in Malcolm X[253]—named one of the ten best films of the 1990s by both critic Roger Ebert and director Martin Scorsese.[254] Washington had previously played the part of Malcolm X in the 1981 off-Broadway play When the Chickens Came Home to Roost.[255] Other portrayals include:
- James Earl Jones, in the 1977 film The Greatest.[256]
- Dick Anthony Williams, in the 1978 television miniseries King[257] and the 1989 American Playhouse production of the Jeff Stetson play The Meeting.[258]
- Al Freeman, Jr., in the 1979 television miniseries Roots: The Next Generations.[259]
- Morgan Freeman, in the 1981 television movie Death of a Prophet.[260]
- Ben Holt, in the 1986 opera X, The Life and Times of Malcolm X at the New York City Opera.[261]
- Gary Dourdan, in the 2000 television movie King of the World.[262]
- Joe Morton, in the 2000 television movie Ali: An American Hero.[263]
- Mario Van Peebles, in the 2001 film Ali.[264]
Memorials and tributes[link]
The Malcolm X House Site, at 3448 Pinkney Street in North Omaha, Nebraska, marks the place where Malcolm Little first lived with his family. The house where the Little family lived was torn down in 1965 by owners who did not know of its connection with Malcolm X.[265] The site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984 and a historic marker identifies the site because of the importance of Malcolm X to American history and national culture.[266][267] In 1987 the site was added to the Nebraska register of historic sites and marked with a state plaque.[268]
Lansing, Michigan, where Malcolm Little spent his early, formative years, is home to a Michigan Historical Marker erected in 1975 marking his homesite.[269] The city is also home to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz Academy, a public charter school with an Afrocentric focus. The Academy is located in the building where Little attended elementary school.[270]
In cities around the world, Malcolm X's birthday (May 19) is commemorated as Malcolm X Day. The first known celebration of Malcolm X Day took place in Washington, D.C., in 1971.[271] The city of Berkeley, California, has recognized Malcolm X's birthday as a citywide holiday since 1979.[272]
Many cities have renamed streets after Malcolm X; in 1987, New York mayor Ed Koch proclaimed Lenox Avenue in Harlem to be Malcolm X Boulevard.[273] The name of Reid Avenue in Brooklyn, New York, was changed to Malcolm X Boulevard in 1985.[274][275] In 1997, Oakland Avenue in Dallas, Texas, was renamed Malcolm X Boulevard.[276] Main Street in Lansing, Michigan, was renamed Malcolm X Street in 2010.[277]
There have been dozens of schools named after Malcolm X, including Malcolm X Shabazz High School in Newark, New Jersey,[278] Malcolm Shabazz City High School in Madison, Wisconsin,[279] and Malcolm X College in Chicago, Illinois.[280] Meanwhile, the Malcolm X Library and Performing Arts Center of the San Diego Public Library system opened in 1996. It is the first library named after Malcolm X.[281]
The U.S. Postal Service issued a Malcolm X postage stamp in 1999.[282] In 2005, Columbia University announced the opening of the Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center. The memorial is located in the Audubon Ballroom, where Malcolm X was assassinated.[283] Collections of Malcolm X's papers are deposited at the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture and the Robert W. Woodruff Library.[284][285][286]
Published works[link]
- The Autobiography of Malcolm X. With the assistance of Alex Haley. New York: Grove Press, 1965. OCLC 219493184.
- Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Merit Publishers, 1965. OCLC 256095445.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People. New York: Young Socialist Alliance, 1965. OCLC 81990227.
- Two Speeches by Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1965. OCLC 19464959.
- Malcolm X on Afro-American History. New York: Merit Publishers, 1967. OCLC 78155009.
- The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Morrow, 1968. OCLC 185901618.
- By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1970. OCLC 249307.
- The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1971. OCLC 149849.
- The Last Speeches. Bruce Perry, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1989. ISBN 978-0-87348-543-2.
- Malcolm X Talks to Young People: Speeches in the United States, Britain, and Africa. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1991. ISBN 978-0-87348-962-1.
- February 1965: The Final Speeches. Steve Clark, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press, 1992. ISBN 978-0-87348-749-8.
See also[link]
References[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ This name includes the honorific El-Hajj, given on completion of the Hajj to Mecca. Malise Ruthven (1997). Islam: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-19-285389-9.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 2.
- ^ Perry, p. 3.
- ^ Natambu, p. 7.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 3–4. There have been many editions of The Autobiography of Malcolm X. Page numbers cited in the notes refer to the One World trade paperback edition (1992).
- ^ Natambu, p. 3.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 6.
- ^ Perry, pp. 3–4.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 5.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 7, 10–11.
- ^ Perry, pp. 2, 4.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 43–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 12.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 29.
- ^ Natambu, p. 10.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 32. Inflation information in source.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 35.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 35–36, 265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 33–34, 331.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 42.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 21–29.
- ^ Perry, pp. 32–48.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Perry, pp. 58–81.
- ^ Marable, pp. 37, 51–52.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Perry, pp. 77, 82–83.
- ^ a b Carson, p. 108.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 124.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 106–109.
- ^ Perry, p. 99.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 110–111.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 67–68.
- ^ Perry, pp. 104–106.
- ^ Natambu, p. 121.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 178; ellipsis in original.
- ^ Perry, pp. 108–110.
- ^ Perry, p. 118.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 127–128.
- ^ Natambu, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 113.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 132–138.
- ^ Perry, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 138–139.
- ^ Perry, p. 116.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 98.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 199.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 229.
- ^ Perry, pp. 142, 144–145.
- ^ Natambu, p. 168.
- ^ The Nation of Islam numbered its Temples according to the order in which they were established. Perry, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 104.
- ^ Perry, p. 147.
- ^ Perry, p. 152.
- ^ Perry, p. 153.
- ^ Perry, pp. 161–164.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 95.
- ^ Carson, p. 95.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 122–123.
- ^ a b c d Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 301.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 189.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 127.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 164.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 165.
- ^ a b c d Marable, Malcolm X, p. 128.
- ^ Perry, p. 166.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 132.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 134–135.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 36–45, 50–51.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Shabazz, Betty, "Malcolm X as a Husband and Father", Clarke, pp. 132–134.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 109–110.
- ^ In a 1992 interview, Attallah Shabazz said she was not named for Attila, rather her name was Arabic for "the gift of God". Miller, Russell (November 23, 1992). "X Patriot". New York. http://books.google.com/books?id=3-QCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
- ^ Rickford, p. 122.
- ^ Rickford, p. 123.
- ^ Rickford, p. 197.
- ^ Rickford, p. 286.
- ^ Perry, pp. 174–179.
- ^ Manning, Malcolm X, pp. 135, 193.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 172.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 18.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 231–233.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 55.
- ^ a b Perry, p. 115.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 57.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 149–152.
- ^ a b Malcolm X, End of White World Supremacy, p. 78.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 173–174.
- ^ Natambu, p. 182.
- ^ a b Cone, pp. 99–100.
- ^ a b West, Cornel (1984). "The Paradox of the Afro-American Rebellion". In Sayres, Sohnya; Stephanson, Anders; Aronowitz, Stanley et al.. The 60s Without Apology. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-8166-1336-6.
- ^ Cone, p. 91.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. pp. 15–16. "Estimates of the Black Muslim membership vary from a quarter of a million down to fifty thousand. Available evidence indicates that about one hundred thousand Negroes have joined the movement at one time or another, but few objective observers believe that the Black Muslims can muster more than twenty or twenty-five thousand active temple people."
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 123.
- ^ Clegg. p. 115. "The common response of Malcolm X to questions about numbers—'Those who know aren't saying, and those who say don't know'—was typical of the attitude of the leadership."
- ^ Natambu, pp. 296–297
- ^ Ali, Muhammad (2004). The Soul of a Butterfly: Reflections on Life's Journey. with Hana Yasmeen Ali. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 61. ISBN 978-0-7432-5569-1.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 162.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 215–216.
- ^ "The Black Supremacists". TIME. August 10, 1959. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811191-1,00.html. Retrieved July 28, 2009. (Subscription required)
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 172.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 79–80.
- ^ Perry, p. 203.
- ^ King expressed mixed feelings toward Malcolm X. "He is very articulate... but I totally disagree with many of his political and philosophical views... I don't want to seem to sound self-righteous, ... or that I think I have the only truth, the only way. Maybe he does have some of the answer... I have often wished that he would talk less of violence, because violence is not going to solve our problem. And in his litany of articulating the despair of the Negro without offering any positive, creative alternative, I feel that Malcolm has done himself and our people a great disservice... [U]rging Negroes to arm themselves and prepare to engage in violence, as he has done, can reap nothing but grief." Haley, Alex (January 1965). "The Playboy Interview: Martin Luther King". Playboy. http://www.playboy.com/playground/interviews/playboy-interview-martin-luther-king. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Cone, p. 113.
- ^ "Timeline". Malcolm X: Make It Plain, American Experience. PBS. May 19, 2005. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/malcolmx/timeline/timeline2.html. Retrieved July 27, 2008.
- ^ a b "Malcolm X Scores U.S. and Kennedy". The New York Times. December 2, 1963. p. 21. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0812FE35541A7B93C0A91789D95F478685F9. Retrieved July 28, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Natambu, pp. 288–290.
- ^ Perry, p. 242.
- ^ a b c d Handler, M. S. (March 9, 1964). "Malcolm X Splits with Muhammad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00D17FB395415738DDDA00894DB405B848AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Perry, pp. 230–234
- ^ a b Perry, p. 214.
- ^ Perry, pp. 251–252.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 18–22.
- ^ Perry, pp. 294–296.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 33–67.
- ^ Cone. p. 2. "There was no time for substantive discussions between the two. They were photographed greeting each other warmly, smiling and shaking hands."
- ^ Perry. p. 255. "Camera shutters clicked. The next day, the Chicago Sun-Times, the New York World Telegram and Sun, and other dailies carried a picture of Malcolm and Martin shaking hands."
- ^ Perry, pp. 257–259.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 23–44.
- ^ Perry, p. 261.
- ^ Perry, pp. 262–263.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 204.
- ^ Perry, pp. 263–265.
- ^ Perry, pp. 265–266.
- ^ Perry, p. 267.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, pp. 388–393.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b Natambu, p. 308.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 62.
- ^ Natambu, p. 303.
- ^ Perry, p. 269.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 403.
- ^ Carson, p. 305.
- ^ Bethune, Lebert, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 226–231.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 113–126.
- ^ Bethune, "Malcolm X in Europe", Clarke, pp. 231–233.
- ^ Malcolm X (December 3, 1964). "Malcolm X Oxford Debate". Malcolm X: A Research Site. http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2003/mx_oxford/index.html. Retrieved July 30, 2008.
- ^ Carson, p. 349.
- ^ Perry, p. 351.
- ^ Natambu, p. 312.
- ^ Kundnani, Arun (February 10, 2005). "Black British History: Remembering Malcolm's Visit to Smethwick". Independent Race and Refugee News Network. Institute of Race Relations. http://www.irr.org.uk/news/black-british-history-remembering-malcolms-visit-to-smethwick/. Retrieved May 30, 2012.
- ^ Terrill, p. 9.
- ^ Karim, p. 128.
- ^ a b Perry, pp. 277–278.
- ^ Karim, pp. 159–160.
- ^ Massaquoi, Hans J. (September 1964). "Mystery of Malcolm X". Ebony.
- ^ Lord, Lewis; Thornton, Jeannye; Bodipo-Memba, Alejandro (November 15, 1992). "The Legacy of Malcolm X". U.S. News & World Report. p. 3. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/culture/articles/921123/archive_018698.htm. Retrieved June 2, 2010.
- ^ Kondo, p. 170.
- ^ Majied, Eugene (April 10, 1964). "On My Own". Muhammad Speaks. [[|Nation of Islam]]. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccbh/mxp/images/sourcebook_img_111.jpg. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 248.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 264.
- ^ Carson, p. 473.
- ^ Carson, p. 324.
- ^ Perry, pp. 290–292.
- ^ Perry, pp. 352–356.
- ^ a b Kihss, Peter (February 22, 1965). "Malcolm X Shot to Death at Rally Here". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A15F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Karim, p. 191.
- ^ a b Evanzz, p. 295.
- ^ In his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Alex Haley wrote that Malcolm said, "Hold it! Hold it! Don't get excited. Let's cool it brothers." (p. 499.) According to a transcription of a recording of the shooting, Malcolm's only words were, "Hold it!", which he repeated 10 times. (DeCaro, p. 274.)
- ^ Perry, p. 366.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 450.
- ^ Perry, pp. 366–367.
- ^ Talese, Gay (February 22, 1965). "Police Save Suspect From the Crowd". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E12F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 1, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Kondo, p. 97.
- ^ Kondo, p. 110.
- ^ Rickford, p. 289.
- ^ "Malcolm X Killer Heads Mosque". BBC News. March 31, 1998. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/71838.stm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Jacobson, Mark (October 1, 2007). "The Man Who Didn't Shoot Malcolm X". New York. http://nymag.com/news/features/38358/. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 474.
- ^ Rickford, p. 489
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, pp. 474–475.
- ^ Perry, p. 374. Alex Haley, in his Epilogue to The Autobiography of Malcolm X, says 22,000 (p. 519).
- ^ a b Rickford, p. 252.
- ^ DeCaro, p. 291
- ^ a b Arnold, Martin (February 28, 1965). "Harlem Is Quiet as Crowds Watch Malcolm X Rites". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60615FD38591B7A93CAAB1789D85F418685F9. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ DeCaro, p. 290.
- ^ Davis, Ossie (February 27, 1965). "Malcolm X's Eulogy". The Official Website of Malcolm X. http://www.malcolmx.com/about/eulogy.html. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
- ^ Rickford, p. 255
- ^ Rickford, pp. 261–262.
- ^ King, Jr., Martin Luther (February 26, 1965). "Telegram from Martin Luther King, Jr. to Betty al-Shabazz". The Martin Luther King, Jr. Research and Education Institute. http://mlk-kpp01.stanford.edu/index.php/encyclopedia/documentsentry/telegram_from_martin_luther_king_jr_to_betty_al_shabazz/. Retrieved March 21, 2010.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 301.
- ^ Clegg, p. 232.
- ^ "Malcolm X". The New York Times. February 22, 1965. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20E13F63F5812738DDDAB0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Rickford, p. 247.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 305.
- ^ Kenworthy, E. W. (February 26, 1965). "Malcolm Called a Martyr Abroad". The New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20D15F73F5812738DDDAF0A94DA405B858AF1D3. Retrieved August 2, 2008. (Subscription required)
- ^ Evanzz, p. 306.
- ^ Rickford, p. 248.
- ^ Perry, p. 371.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 305–306.
- ^ Perry, p. 372.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 7–39.
- ^ a b Lomax, To Kill a Black Man, p. 198.
- ^ Evanzz, p. 294.
- ^ Bush, Roderick (1999). We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century. New York: New York University Press. p. 179. ISBN 978-0-8147-1317-4.
- ^ Friedly, Michael (1992). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-922-6.
- ^ Gardell, Mattias (1996). In the Name of Elijah Muhammad: Louis Farrakhan and the Nation of Islam. Durham, N. C.: Duke University Press. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-8223-1845-3.
- ^ Rickford, pp. 437, 492–495.
- ^ Evanzz, pp. 298–299.
- ^ Kondo, pp. 182–183, 193–194.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 305.
- ^ Rickford, p. 492.
- ^ Wartofsky, Alona (February 17, 1995). "'Brother Minister: The Martyrdom of Malcolm X'". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/movies/videos/brotherministerthemartyrdomofmalcolmx_c0098f.htm. Retrieved August 1, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Admission on Malcolm X". 60 Minutes. CBS News. May 14, 2000. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/05/10/60minutes/main194051.shtml. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Farrakhan Responds to Media Attacks". The Final Call. May 15, 2000. http://www.finalcall.com/columns/mlf/2000/mlf-60minutes05-15-2000.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ Natambu, pp. 315–316.
- ^ Kelley, Robin D. G. (1999). "Malcolm X". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. New York: Basic Civitas Books. p. 1233.
- ^ Terrill, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Terrill, p. 184.
- ^ Lomax. When the Word Is Given. p. 91. "'I'll be honest with you,' Malcolm X said to me. 'Everybody is talking about differences between the Messenger and me. It is absolutely impossible for us to differ.'"
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 67.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 171.
- ^ Lomax, When the Word Is Given, pp. 24, 137–138.
- ^ Malcolm X, Speeches at Harvard, p. 119.
- ^ DeCaro, pp. 166–167.
- ^ Malcolm X told Lewis Lomax that "The Messenger is the Prophet of Allah" (Lomax, When the Word Is Given, p. 80). On another occasion, he said "We never refer to the Honorable Elijah Muhammad as a prophet" (Malcolm X, Last Speeches, p. 46).
- ^ Lincoln, p. 95.
- ^ Lincoln, p. 96.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 33–35.
- ^ Malcolm X, By Any Means Necessary, pp. 43, 47.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 90.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, p. 117.
- ^ a b Cone, p. 284.
- ^ Perry, p. 277.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 38–41.
- ^ Malcolm X, Malcolm X Speaks, pp. 212–213.
- ^ Malcolm X, Autobiography, p. 391.
- ^ Parks, Gordon, "Malcolm X: The Minutes of Our Last Meeting", Clarke, p. 122.
- ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amhert, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-57392-963-9.
- ^ Marable, Manning; Nishani Frazier, John Campbell McMillian (2003). Freedom on My Mind: The Columbia Documentary History of the African American Experience. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-231-10890-4.
- ^ Salley, Columbus (1999). The Black 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential African-Americans, Past and Present. New York: Citadel Press. p. 88. ISBN 978-0-8065-2048-3.
- ^ Cone, pp. 291–292.
- ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2002). The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity. New York: HarperCollins. p. 97. ISBN 978-0-06-073064-2.
- ^ Perry, p. 379.
- ^ Turner, Richard Brent (2004). "Islam in the African-American Experience". In Bobo, Jacqueline; Hudley, Cynthia; Michel, Claudine. The Black Studies Reader. New York: Routledge. p. 445. ISBN 978-0-415-94554-7.
- ^ Perry, p. 380.
- ^ Sales, p. 187
- ^ Woodard, Komozi (1999). A Nation Within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) & Black Power Politics. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-8078-4761-9.
- ^ Cone, p. 291.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 301–302.
- ^ Sales, p. 5.
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", p. 302.
- ^ Sales, p. 3.
- ^ Sales, p. 4
- ^ Haley, "Epilogue", Autobiography, p. 471.
- ^ Perry, p. 375.
- ^ Gray, Paul (June 8, 1998). "Required Reading: Nonfiction Books". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,988496,00.html. Retrieved April 25, 2010.
- ^ "Malcolm X". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0104797/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ Anderson, Jeffrey M. "The Best Films of the 1990s". Combustible Celluloid. http://www.combustiblecelluloid.com/bestof90s.shtml. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ Rich, Frank (July 15, 1981). "The Stage: Malcolm X and Elijah Muhammad". The New York Times. http://theater2.nytimes.com/mem/theater/treview.html?res=9D0CE5DA1F38F936A25754C0A967948260. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "The Greatest". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076111/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ "King". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0077038/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ Goodman, Walter (May 3, 1989). "An Imaginary Meeting of Dr. King and Malcolm X". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/03/arts/review-television-an-imaginary-meeting-of-dr-king-and-malcolm-x.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Roots: The Next Generations". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078678/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ "Death of a Prophet". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0179757/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ Henahan, Donal (September 29, 1986). "Opera: Anthony Davis's 'X (The Life and Times of Malcolm X)'". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/29/arts/opera-anthony-davis-s-x-the-life-and-times-of-malcolm-x.html. Retrieved August 9, 2008.
- ^ "King of the World". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0219857/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ "Ali: An American Hero". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0229973/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ "Ali". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0248667/. Retrieved February 26, 2009.
- ^ McMorris, Robert (March 11, 1989). "Empty Lot Holds Dreams for Rowena Moore". Omaha World-Herald. http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2002/omaha/jpeg/moore1.jpg. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "National Register of Historic Places – Nebraska, Douglas County". National Register of Historic Places. http://www.nationalregisterofhistoricplaces.com/ne/Douglas/state2.html. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "More Nebraska National Register Sites in Douglas County". Nebraska State Historical Society. http://www.nebraskahistory.org/histpres/nebraska/douglas2.htm. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Nebraska Historical Marker". Malcolm X: A Research Site. http://www.brothermalcolm.net/2002/omaha/jpeg/marker1.jpg. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
- ^ "Malcolm X Homesite". Michigan Historical Markers. http://www.michmarkers.com/startup.asp?startpage=S0455.htm. Retrieved August 30, 2009.
- ^ Yancey, Patty (2000). "We Hold on to Our Kids, We Hold on Tight: Tandem Charters in Michigan". In Fuller, Bruce. Inside Charter Schools: The Paradox of Radical Decentralization. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-674-00325-5.
- ^ Gay, Kathlyn (2007). African-American Holidays, Festivals and Celebrations. Detroit: Omnigraphics. p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7808-0779-2.
- ^ Thaai, Walker (May 20, 2005). "Berkeley Honors Controversial Civil Rights Figure". San Jose Mercury News. http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-132645462/berkeley-honors-controversial-civil.html. Retrieved August 28, 2009. (Subscription required)
- ^ Rickford, p. 443.
- ^ Rickford, p. 419.
- ^ Barron, James (January 18, 2009). "'Not Much of a Block,' but It's Named for a King". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/19/nyregion/19mlk.html. Retrieved August 22, 2011.
- ^ Scoville, Jen (December 1997). "The Big Beat". Texas Monthly. Archived from the original on December 29, 2004. http://web.archive.org/web/20041229062251/http://www.texasmonthly.com/ranch/bigbeat/beat.edec.97.php. Retrieved October 5, 2009.
- ^ Vela, Susan (September 14, 2010). "Malcolm X, Cesar Chavez Get Nods for Lansing Street, Plaza Names". Lansing State Journal. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/lansingstatejournal/access/2137367801.html?FMT=ABS&date=Sep+14%2C+2010. Retrieved April 23, 2011. (Subscription required)
- ^ Lee, Felicia R. (May 15, 1993). "Newark Students, Both Good and Bad, Make Do". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1993/05/15/us/newark-students-both-good-and-bad-make-do.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Hunt, Lori Bona (February 26, 1991). "Malcolm X's Widow Sees Signs of Hope". Milwaukee Journal. http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19910226&id=F6AaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZiwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6890,3084158. Retrieved March 21, 2010.
- ^ Witkowsky, Kathy (Spring 2000). "A Day in the Life". National CrossTalk. http://www.highereducation.org/crosstalk/ct0500/news0500-citycollege1.shtml. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Flynn, Pat (January 7, 1996). "Big Crowd Welcomes New Library Warmly". The San Diego Union-Tribune. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/1242579811.html?dids=1242579811:1242579811&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT. Retrieved August 25, 2010. (Subscription required)
- ^ Marable, "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life", pp. 303–304.
- ^ "Malcolm X and Dr. Betty Shabazz Memorial and Educational Center Launches". Columbia University. May 17, 2005. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/05/malcolm.html. Retrieved August 8, 2008.
- ^ Marable, Malcolm X, p. 564.
- ^ Hendrick, Bill (September 2, 1999). "A Revelation in Letters: Educated, Tender Malcolm X". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://search.proquest.com/docview/413815431?accountid=35803. Retrieved January 15, 2012. (Subscription required)
- ^ Eakin, Emily (January 8, 2003). "Malcolm X Trove to Schomburg Center". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/08/arts/malcolm-x-trove-to-schomburg-center.html. Retrieved January 15, 2012.
Works cited[link]
- Carson, Clayborne (1991). Malcolm X: The FBI File. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-758-1.
- Clarke, John Henrik, ed. (1990) [1969]. Malcolm X: The Man and His Times. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press. ISBN 978-0-86543-201-7.
- Clegg III, Claude Andrew (1997). An Original Man: The Life and Times of Elijah Muhammad. New York: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-18153-6.
- Cone, James H. (1991). Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare. Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books. ISBN 978-0-88344-721-5.
- DeCaro, Jr., Louis A. (1996). On the Side of My People: A Religious Life of Malcolm X. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1864-3.
- Dyson, Michael Eric (1995). Making Malcolm: The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509235-6.
- Evanzz, Karl (1992). The Judas Factor: The Plot to Kill Malcolm X. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press. ISBN 978-1-56025-049-4.
- Karim, Benjamin; with Peter Skutches and David Gallen (1992). Remembering Malcolm. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-881-6.
- Kondo, Zak A. (1993). Conspiracys: Unravelling the Assassination of Malcolm X. Washington, D.C.: Nubia Press. OCLC 28837295.
- Lincoln, C. Eric (1961). The Black Muslims in America. Boston: Beacon Press. OCLC 422580.
- Lomax, Louis E. (1987) [1968]. To Kill a Black Man: The Shocking Parallel in the Lives of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King Jr. Los Angeles: Holloway House. ISBN 978-0-87067-731-1.
- Lomax, Louis E. (1963). When the Word Is Given: A Report on Elijah Muhammad, Malcolm X, and the Black Muslim World. Cleveland: World Publishing. OCLC 1071204.
- Malcolm X; with the assistance of Alex Haley (1992) [1965]. The Autobiography of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-37671-8.
- Malcolm X (1989) [1970]. By Any Means Necessary: Speeches, Interviews, and a Letter by Malcolm X. George Breitman, ed. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-150-2.
- Malcolm X (1989) [1971]. The End of White World Supremacy: Four Speeches by Malcolm X. Benjamin Karim, ed. New York: Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-006-1.
- Malcolm X (1990) [1965]. Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements. George Breitman, ed. New York: Grove Weidenfeld. ISBN 978-0-8021-3213-0.
- Malcolm X (1991) [1968]. The Speeches of Malcolm X at Harvard. Archie Epps, ed. New York: Paragon House. ISBN 978-1-55778-479-7.
- Marable, Manning (2011). Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention. New York: Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-02220-5.
- Marable, Manning (2009). "Rediscovering Malcolm's Life: A Historian's Adventures in Living History". In Marable, Manning; Aidi, Hishaam D. Black Routes to Islam. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8400-5.
- Natambu, Kofi (2002). The Life and Work of Malcolm X. Indianapolis: Alpha Books. ISBN 978-0-02-864218-5.
- Perry, Bruce (1991). Malcolm: The Life of a Man Who Changed Black America. Barrytown, N.Y.: Station Hill. ISBN 978-0-88268-103-0.
- Rickford, Russell J. (2003). Betty Shabazz: A Remarkable Story of Survival and Faith Before and After Malcolm X. Naperville, Ill.: Sourcebooks. ISBN 978-1-4022-0171-4.
- Sales, Jr., William W. (1994). From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 978-0-89608-480-3.
- Terrill, Robert (2004). Malcolm X: Inventing Radical Judgment. Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-730-3.
- Wood, Joe, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: In Our Image. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-06609-3.
Further reading[link]
- Baldwin, James (2007) [1973]. One Day, When I Was Lost: A Scenario Based on Alex Haley's "The Autobiography of Malcolm X". New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-307-27594-3.
- Boyd, Herb; Daniels, Ron; Karenga, Maulana et al., eds. (2012). By Any Means Necessary: Malcolm X: Real, Not Reinvented. Chicago: Third World Press. ISBN 978-0-88378-336-8.
- Breitman, George (1967). The Last Year of Malcolm X: The Evolution of a Revolutionary. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-004-8.
- Breitman, George; Porter, Herman; Smith, Baxter (1991) [1976]. The Assassination of Malcolm X. New York: Pathfinder Press. ISBN 978-0-87348-632-3.
- Cleage, Albert B.; Breitman, George (1968). Myths About Malcolm X: Two Views. New York: Merit. OCLC 615819.
- Collins, Rodnell P. (1998). Seventh Child: A Family Memoir of Malcolm X. Secaucus, N.J.: Birch Lane Press. ISBN 978-1-55972-491-3.
- Conyers, Jr., James L.; Smallwood, Andrew P., eds. (2008). Malcolm X: A Historical Reader. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-89089-228-2.
- DeCaro, Louis A. (1998). Malcolm and the Cross: The Nation of Islam, Malcolm X, and Christianity. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-1932-9.
- Friedly, Michael (1995). Malcolm X: The Assassination. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-40010-9.
- Gallen, David, ed. (1992). Malcolm X: As They Knew Him. New York: Carroll & Graf. ISBN 978-0-88184-850-2.
- Goldman, Peter (1979) [1973]. The Death and Life of Malcolm X. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-00774-3.
- Jamal, Hakim A. (1972). From The Dead Level: Malcolm X and Me. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-46234-9.
- Jenkins, Robert L. (2002). The Malcolm X Encyclopedia. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-29264-4.
- Kly, Yussuf Naim, ed. (1986). The Black Book: The True Political Philosophy of Malcolm X (El Hajj Malik El Shabazz). Atlanta: Clarity Press. ISBN 978-0-932863-03-4.
- Leader, Edward Roland (1993). Understanding Malcolm X: The Controversial Changes in His Political Philosophy. New York: Vantage Press. ISBN 978-0-533-09520-9.
- Lee, Spike; with Ralph Wiley (1992). By Any Means Necessary: The Trials and Tribulations of the Making of Malcolm X. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 978-1-56282-913-1.
- Shabazz, Ilyasah; with Kim McLarin (2002). Growing Up X: A Memoir by the Daughter of Malcolm X. New York: One World. ISBN 978-0-345-44495-0.
- Strickland, William; et al. (1994). Malcolm X: Make It Plain. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-017713-8.
- Terrill, Robert, ed. (2010). The Cambridge Companion to Malcolm X. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-73157-7.
- T'Shaka, Oba (1983). The Political Legacy of Malcolm X. Richmond, Calif.: Pan Afrikan Publications. ISBN 978-1-878557-01-8.
- Wolfenstein, Eugene Victor (1989). The Victims of Democracy: Malcolm X and the Black Revolution. London: Free Association Books. ISBN 978-1-85343-111-1.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Malcolm X |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- The Official Web Site of Malcolm X
- Malcolm X: Make It Plain
- malcolm-x.org
- Malcolm X: A Profile
- The Malcolm X Project at Columbia University
- Malcolm X Reference Archive
- Malcolm X: A Research Site
- Works by or about Malcolm X in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Interviews
- Interview with Dr. Kenneth Clark, Spring 1963
- Video interview with Herman Blake, October 1963
- Interview with Louis Lomax, from When the Word Is Given (December 1963)
- Interview with A.B. Spellman, May 1964
- CBC television interview, January 1965
- The short film OPEN MIND Special: Race Relations in Crisis 6/12/63 - 11/13/92 (1963/1992) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
- Speeches
- Other links
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Malcolm X |
| Alternative names | Little, Malcolm; El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz |
| Short description | Nation of Islam leader |
| Date of birth | May 19, 1925 |
| Place of birth | North Omaha, Nebraska, United States |
| Date of death | February 21, 1965 |
| Place of death | New York City, New York, United States |
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Wiki Summary
Ku Klux Klan, often abbreviated KKK and informally known as the Klan, is the name of three distinct past and present far-right organizations in the United States, which have advocated extremist reactionary currents such as white supremacy, white nationalism, and anti-immigration, historically expressed through terrorism. Since the mid-20th century, the KKK has also been anti-communist. The current manifestation is splintered into several chapters with no connections between each other; it is classified as a hate group. It is estimated to have between 3,000 and 5,000 members as of 2012.
The first Klan flourished in Southern United States in the late 1860s, then died out by the early 1870s. Members adopted white costumes: robes, masks, and conical hats, designed to be outlandish and terrifying, and to hide their identities. The second KKK flourished nationwide in the early and mid 1920s, and adopted the same costumes and code words as the first Klan, while introducing cross burnings. The third KKK emerged after World War II and was associated with opposing the Civil Rights Movement and progress among minorities. The second and third incarnations of the Ku Klux Klan made frequent reference to the USA's "Anglo-Saxon" and "Celtic" blood, harking back to 19th-century nativism and claiming descent from the original 18th-century British colonial revolutionaries. The first and third incarnations of the Klan have well-established records of engaging in terrorism and political violence, though historians debate whether or not the tactic was supported by the second KKK.
