__NOTOC__ The Scandinavian Monetary Union (, , ) was a monetary union formed by Sweden and Denmark on May 5, 1873 by fixing their currencies against gold at par to each other. Norway, which was in union with Sweden, however with full inner autonomy, entered the union two years later, in 1875 by pegging its currency to gold at the same level as Denmark and Sweden, 2.48 kroner/kronor per gram of gold, or roughly 0.403 grams per krone/krona. An equal valued krone/krona of the monetary union replaced the three legacy currencies at the rate of 1 krone/krona = ½ Danish rigsdaler = ¼ Norwegian speciedaler = 1 Swedish riksdaler. The monetary union was one of the few tangible results of the Scandinavian political movement of the 19th century.

The union provided fixed exchange rates and stability in monetary terms, but the member countries continued to issue their own separate currencies. Even if not initially foreseen, the perceived security led to a situation where the formally separate currencies were accepted on a basis of "as good as" the legal tender virtually throughout the entire area.

Upon acceding to the union Sweden had the name of its currency changed from Riksdaler Riksmynt to Swedish krona. The word "krone/krona" literally means "crown", and the differences in spelling of the name represent the differences between the Scandinavian languages.

In 1905 the political union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved, but this did not affect the basis for co-operation in the monetary union. It was instead the outbreak of World War I in 1914 that brought an end to the monetary union. Sweden abandoned the tie to gold on August 2, 1914 and without a fixed exchange rate the free circulation came to an end.

All three countries still use the same currencies as during the monetary union, but they lost their peg, one to one, in 1914. The Icelandic króna is a derivative of the Danish krone, established after Iceland was elevated to a separate kingdom in union with Denmark in 1918. Iceland cut its ties to Denmark in 1944 and became a republic.

See also

Economics

Economy of Denmark

Economy of Norway

Economy of Sweden

Monetary policy of Sweden

Banks

Danmarks Nationalbank

Norges Bank

Skandinaviska Banken

Sveriges Riksbank

Currencies before the union

Danish rigsdaler

Norwegian rigsdaler

Norwegian speciedaler

Swedish riksdaler

Currencies during and after the union

Danish krone

Norwegian krone

Swedish krona

References

Category:Scandinavian history Category:Numismatics Category:Monetary unions Category:History of Denmark Category:History of Norway Category:History of Sweden Category:1873 establishments Category:19th century in economics Category:20th century in economics

cs:Skandinávská měnová unie da:Skandinaviske Møntunion de:Skandinavische Währungsunion et:Skandinaavia Rahaliit es:Unión Monetaria Escandinava eo:Skandinavia valuta unio fr:Union monétaire scandinave ko:스칸디나비아 통화 동맹 is:Norræna myntbandalagið it:Unione monetaria scandinava nl:Scandinavische Monetaire Unie no:Skandinaviske myntunion nn:Den skandinaviske myntunionen pl:Skandynawska Unia Monetarna pt:União Monetária Escandinava ru:Скандинавский валютный союз fi:Skandinavian rahaliitto sv:Skandinaviska myntunionen zh:斯堪的納維亞貨幣聯盟

A currency union (also known as ''monetary union'') is where two or more states share the same currency, though without there necessarily having any further integration such as an Economic and Monetary Union, which has in addition a customs union and a single market.

There are three types of currency unions: #''Informal'' - unilateral adoption of foreign currency #''Formal'' - adoption of foreign currency by virtue of bilateral or multilateral agreement with the issuing authority, sometimes supplemented by issue of local currency in currency peg regime #''Formal with common policy'' - establishment by multiple countries of common monetary policy and issuing authority for their common currency

The theory of the optimal currency area addresses the question of how to determine what geographical regions should share a currency in order to maximize economic efficiency.

List of currency unions

''Every Customs and monetary union and Economic and monetary union also has a Currency Union''

! Currency	! Union	! Users	! Est.	! Status	! Population	! GDP (nominal $)
CFA franc	''Issued by Overseas Issuing Institute (France)''	''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''	1945	Formal, common policy
CFP franc	''Issued by Overseas Issuing Institute (France)''	''''''''''''	1945	Formal, common policy
East Caribbean dollar		''''''''	1965	Formal, common policy de-facto economic and monetary union
[[Euro	International status and usage of the euro			1999/2002	Formal, common policy and Economic and monetary union
[[Singapore dollarBrunei dollar	''Managed together by the Monetary Authority of Singapore		1967	Formal; currencies mutually exchangeable
Armenian dram			1994	Informal
Australian dollar			1966	Informal
Pound sterling	Sterling area			1939	Formal, local variants used.
Norwegian krone				Formal
Indian rupee			1974	InformalNepal minor usage
New Zealand dollar		''''	1967	Informal
Israeli new sheqel			1927/1986	Informal
Jordanian dinar		(West Bank only)		Informal
Russian ruble			2008	Informal
South African rand			1974
Swiss franc			1920	Informalsince 1924 creation of a customs union and common market in European Free Trade Association
[[Turkish lira			1983	Informal
United States dollar		''''''''	1904(Panama only)	Informal

Additionally the autonomous and dependent territories, such as some of the EU member state special territories, are sometimes treated as separate customs territory from their mainland state or have varying arrangements of formal or de-facto customs union, common market and currency union (or combinations thereof) with the mainland and in regards to third countries trough the trade pacts signed by the mainland state.

Proposed

! Community	! Currency	! Region	! Target date	Notes
Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas		Latin America/Caribbean	2010	It is planned to begin as an electronic currency involving all countries of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas.
East African Community		Africa	2015
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation		Asia	2020
West African Monetary Zone		Africa	2020
ASEAN+3	Asian Monetary Unit	Asia		a free trade agreements matrix partially established
Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf		Persian Gulf	circa 2013-2020	Oman and the United Arab Emirates do not intent to adopt the currency at first but will do at a later date.
	Guilder	Europe	Theoretical (2011)	See European sovereign debt crisis, and Scandinavian Monetary Union

Previous

between Bahrain and Abu Dhabi using the Bahraini dinar

between Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and the Trucial States, using the Gulf rupee from 1959 until 1966

between Aden and South Arabia, Bahrain, Kenya, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, British Somaliland, the Trucial States, Uganda, Zanzibar and British India (later independent India) using the Indian rupee

between British India and the Straits Settlements (1837–1867) using the Indian rupee

between Czech Republic and Slovakia (briefly from January 1, 1993 to February 8, 1993) using the Czechoslovak koruna

between Ethiopia and Eritrea using the Ethiopian birr

between France, Monaco, and Andorra using the French franc

between the Eastern Caribbean, Barbados, Trinidad and Tobago and British Guiana using the Eastern Caribbean dollar

between Italy, Vatican City, and San Marino using the Italian lira

between Ireland, and the United Kingdom using the Pound Sterling (Ireland used its own coins/banknotes of equivalent value) dissolved in 1979 when Ireland joined the European Monetary System without Britain

between Jamaica and the Cayman Islands using the Jamaican pound and later Jamaican dollar

between Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar using the East African rupee

between Kenya, Uganda and Zanzibar (and later Tanganyika) using the East African florin

between Kenya, Tanganyika and Zanzibar (later merged as Tanzania), Uganda, South Arabia, British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland using the East African shilling

Latin Monetary Union (1865–1927), initially between France, Belgium, Italy and Switzerland, and later involving Greece, Spain and other countries.

between Liberia and the United States using the United States dollar

between Mauritius and Seychelles using the Mauritian rupee

between Nigeria, the Gambia, Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast and Liberia using the British West African pound

North German thaler (basically the Prussian thaler)

Ruble zone countries

between Qatar and all the emirates of the UAE, except Abu Dhabi using the Qatari and Dubai riyal

between Saudi Arabia and Qatar using the Saudi riyal

between Samoa and New Zealand using the New Zealand pound

between Denmark, Norway and Sweden in the Scandinavian Monetary Union

between the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea and Australia using the Australian dollar

South German guilder

between Spain and Andorra using the Spanish peseta

between Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore - 1953-1967

between South Africa and Botswana, using the South African rand from 1966 until 1976

between Egypt and Sudan using the Egyptian pound - until 1956

between West Germany and East Germany between 1 July 1990 and 3 October 1990, as part of a temporary Monetary, Economic and Social Union prior to German reunification.

proposed Pan-American monetary union - abandoned in the form proposed by Argentina

proposed monetary union between the United Kingdom and Norway using the pound sterling during the late 1940s and early 1950s

See also

List of pegged currencies

North American Currency Union (Amero)

References

External links

{| | African monetary union inches closer || United States of Southern Africa? |- | East Africa's first steps towards union || West Africa opts for currency union |- | Gulf States push for single currency || 'Limited gains' from Gulf single currency |- | Do the Mercosur Countries Form an Optimum Currency Area? || Argentina plans monetary union |- | Quadrant Magazine article on the Pacific || Economist- Antipodean currencies (Australia and New Zealand) |- | Three Perspectives on an Australasian Monetary Union || Reasons for the collapse of the Rouble Zone |- | In Search of the "Ruble Zone" || OECD Development Centre- the Rand Zone |- | A single African currency in our time? || South Africa proposes adoption of the rand as provisional SADC common currency |}

Category:Currency * Category:Macroeconomics Category:Proposed currencies Category:Economic integration

es:Unión monetaria ca:Unió monetària cs:Měnová unie da:Møntunion de:Währungsunion fr:Zone monétaire it:Unione monetaria he:איחוד מוניטרי nl:Muntunie ja:通貨同盟 no:Økonomisk union pl:Unia walutowa pt:União monetária sk:Menová únia sv:Valutaunion tr:Parasal birlik

David Iokhelevich Rozenberg, (November 15/27, 1879, Šateikiai/Шатейкяй, Vilna district (''guberniya''), Russia – February 17, 1950, Moscow), was a Lithuanian economist for the Soviet Union.

Literary works

''Comments on the "Capital" Karl Marx'', 1931–1933

''History of Political Economy'', 1934–1936

External links

(Korean)

:

Category:1879 births Category:1950 deaths Category:Lithuanian Jews Category:Russian economists

pl:Dawid I. Rozenberg

name	The Greek
media	The Wire
portrayer	Bill Raymond
creator	David Simon
gender	Male
first	"Ebb Tide" ''(episode 2.01)''
last	"–30–" ''(episode 5.10)''
occupation	International smuggling/Organized Crime Boss
footnotes	}}

The Greek is a fictional character on the HBO drama ''The Wire'', played by actor Bill Raymond. The Greek is the head of an international criminal organization involved in narcotics and human trafficking. The Greek is a mysterious figure involved in numerous criminal activities. His given name is never mentioned on the show, and though he is known only as "The Greek", he has stated (in the episode Port in a Storm) that he is not actually Greek. A quiet and unassuming man, the Greek prefers to keep a low profile, operating all of his business through his lieutenant Spiros "Vondas" Vondopoulos. His smuggling organization operated from a small diner in Baltimore for years, and while Vondas would conduct business the Greek would listen in quietly at the counter. Nick Sobotka, upon seeing the Greek identify himself, was amazed that the shadowy figure had been in plain sight the entire time.

Despite his calm appearance, the Greek is cunning and ruthless, and only interested in facts that make him more money. Series creator David Simon has said that The Greek is an embodiment of raw unencumbered capitalism. Anyone interfering in this process is eliminated immediately, and he prefers to leave victims headless and handless to hinder identification.

The Greek's smuggling operation includes importing sex trade workers, illicit drugs, stolen goods and chemicals for drug processing. He bribes union stevedores to move containers through the Baltimore port for him and uses his muscle, Sergei "Serge" Malatov, to run containers back and forth from the port to his warehouse, a front managed by "Double G" Glekas. The Greek supplies the major drug dealers in East Baltimore with pure cocaine and heroin, using Eton Ben-Eleazer to move his drugs. His chief client is Proposition Joe, but he is also affiliated with smaller drug dealing organizations like those run by "White Mike" McArdle. His sex trade interests in Baltimore include a brothel run by a madam named Ilona Petrovitch, bringing in girls from eastern Europe. He manages to avoid prosecution for his crimes because an FBI counter-terrorism agent named Kristos Koutris tips him off if a criminal investigation gets too close. It is suggested he and Vondas may serve as federal informants.

Biography

Season 2

thumb|right|250px|The Greeks The Greek began to draw police attention in Baltimore when his contact at the docks, Frank Sobotka, became the target of an investigation. At the same time a container of thirteen dead young women intended for the sex trade was discovered at the docks, triggering a high-profile homicide investigation. The container belonged to the Greek and the girls were killed by a crewman onboard the vessel that had delivered them. The ship's crew had been paying the girls for sex and when one of the girls refused, she was killed. The crewman responsible dumped her overboard and collapsed the air pipe to kill the remaining women. The Greek had Sergei track the crewman down, interrogated him personally, and had Vondas kill him.

As the investigation continued the police were able to link Eton and Sergei to the drug smuggling operation. When police began tracking containers as they left the port, The Greek and Vondas began to close down the operation temporarily by dumping their cell phones and stealing "clean" containers. Persuading Sobotka to keep the smuggling operation going he bought further protection from Agent Koutris by betraying a load of Colombian cocaine, giving him time to destroy incriminating evidence in the warehouse and Glekas' store.

The Greek recognized that the investigation was too extensive to stop and made plans to leave, sending Vondas to assure Proposition Joe that supply of drugs would continue albeit with new faces. He attempted to buy Sobotka's silence with promised legal aid for his son, but when he learned from Koutris that Frank was planning to turn informant he had the union man killed. Although Frank's nephew Nick Sobotka was able to identify The Greek in a photo and Sergei was pressured to give up the location of his hotel suite, Vondas and the Greek had already boarded a flight to Chicago. Aware that the Greek and Vondas were gone, the police left the investigation behind and moved on to the drug dealers he supplied.

Seasons 4 & 5

The Greek continued to supply "Proposition Joe" Stewart, who formed an organization with other drug dealers called the New Day Co-Op to provide The Greek's product to them in exchange for reduced violence and sharing of territory. When Omar Little steals an entire shipment of heroin from the Greek's men as it is being delivered to Stewart's people, Marlo Stanfield demands a meeting with Spiros "Vondas" Vondopoulos in order to allay his fears that Stewart was responsible. Once Stanfield is satisfied, he waits for the Major Crimes Unit's investigation into his activities to cease and then moves to establish a direct relationship with Vondas and the Greek. After getting in communication with Vondas through former soldier Sergei, Marlo eventually sells himself as Joe's replacement by convincing the Greek that he requires an insurance policy in the form of a replacement for Proposition Joe, in the event that anything should happen to him. Realizing that Stanfield will move against Stewart regardless of his approval, the Greek accepts Marlo's proposal to act as an "insurance policy," knowing that it will mean Joe's death.

After Stewart's murder, Stanfield meets with Vondas to initiate their new business relationship. Stanfield's tenure proves short lived when he is forced into retirement by an investigation, and the other Co-Op members purchase the connection from Stanfield. In the closing scenes of the series finale, Slim Charles and Fat-Face Rick take over meeting with Vondas while the Greek listens quietly in the background.

References

Category:The Wire (TV series) characters Category:Fictional American people of Greek descent

name	Tanya Roberts
birth date	October 15, 1955
birth place	The Bronx, New York City, United States
birth name	Victoria Leigh Blum
yearsactive	1975–present
occupation	Actress
spouse	Barry Roberts (1974-2006) }}

Victoria Leigh Blum (born October 15, 1955), professionally recognized as Tanya Roberts, is an American actress best known for her role in as Julie Rogers on the fifth and final season of ''Charlie's Angels'' (1980-1981) and as Midge Pinciotti on ''That '70s Show'' (1998-2001).

She later headlined the films: ''The Beastmaster'', ''A View to a Kill'', and ''Sheena''. Roberts was groomed as a Hollywood sex symbol during the early 1980s.

Early life

Blum was born in The Bronx of Irish and Jewish descent. Her father was an ink pen salesman. Her parents divorced when she was a teenager. She lived with her mother in Toronto for several years, where she started formulating a photo portfolio and laying plans for a career. At age 15, she abandoned her studies to marry and lived for a while hitch-hiking across the United States, until her mother-in-law annulled the union.

She returned to New York City and became a fashion and cover model. After meeting a psychology student, Barry Roberts (while waiting in line for a movie), she proposed to him in a subway station and they were soon married. While Barry pursued a career as a screenwriter, she began to study at the Actors Studio with Lee Strasberg and Uta Hagen under the name Tanya Roberts.

Acting career

1970s

Her career began as a model in TV ads for Ultra Brite, Clairol and Cool Ray sunglasses. She played serious roles in the Off-Broadway productions, ''Picnic'' and ''Antigone''. She also supported herself as an Arthur Murray dance instructor. Her film debut was the 1975 thriller, ''Forced Entry''. This was followed in 1976 by ''The Yum-Yum Girls'', a comedy.

In 1977, as her husband was securing his own screenwriting career, the couple moved to Hollywood. The following year, Roberts participated in the drama, ''Fingers''. Roles in the 1979 cult-movie, ''Tourist Trap'', ''Racket'' and ''California Dreaming'' followed. Roberts was featured in several television pilots that were never picked up: ''Zuma Beach'' (a 1978 comedy); ''Pleasure Cove'' (1979); and ''Waikiki'' (1980).

1980s

In 1980, Roberts was chosen from some 2,000 candidates to replace Shelley Hack in the television series, ''Charlie's Angels'' (in what would be the last season of the series). She was featured on the February 9, 1981 cover of ''People'' magazine and afterward was offered more ambitious projects. In 1982, Roberts played Kiri in ''The Beastmaster''. She was featured in a nude pictorial in ''Playboy'' to help promote the movie, appearing on that issue's October 1982 cover.

In 1983, Roberts filmed the Italian-made, and little-known adventure, ''Paladini-storia d'armi e d'amori'' (''Paladins—the story of love and arms''; also released as ''Hearts and Armour''), based on the medieval novel, ''Orlando Furioso''. She played the role of Velda, a buxom secretary to private detective, Mike Hammer, in the television movie, ''Murder Me, Murder You''. The two-part pilot spawned the syndicated television series, ''Mickey Spillane's Mike Hammer''. She declined to continue the role in the Mike Hammer series so she could work on her next project, ''Sheena: Queen of the Jungle''. The movie was a box office and critical disaster, garnering her a nomination for "Worst Actress" at the Razzie Awards.

Her subsequent appearance as Bond girl, Stacey Sutton, a well-educated and articulate geologist, in ''A View to a Kill'' (1985), which provided her a number of scenes with Roger Moore's James Bond. She again found herself nominated by the critics for a Razzie Award. Her career took a downturn. Later films in the 1980s included ''Body Slam'' (1987), an action movie set in the professional wrestling world; and ''Purgatory'', a movie about a woman wrongfully imprisoned in Africa.

1990spresent

In 1991, Roberts starred in the erotic thriller, ''Inner Sanctum'' (1991), alongside Margaux Hemingway. In 1992, she played Kay Egan in ''Sins of Desire''. She appeared on the cable TV series, ''Hot Line'', in 1994; and in the video game, ''The Pandora Directive'', in 1996.

In 1998, she took the role of Midge Pinciotti on the successful, long-running television sitcom, ''That '70s Show''. Roberts claimed to ''E! True Hollywood Story'' that she left the series in 2001 because her husband, Barry Roberts, had become terminally ill. Barry Roberts died in 2006. In 2008, Tanya Roberts wrote the foreword to the book, ''The Q Guide to Charlie's Angels''.

References

External links

Official website

Category:1955 births Category:American film actors Category:American television actors Category:Living people Category:People from the Bronx Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American people of Jewish descent

cs:Tanya Roberts de:Tanya Roberts es:Tanya Roberts fr:Tanya Roberts fy:Tanya Roberts it:Tanya Roberts nl:Tanya Roberts ja:タニア・ロバーツ pl:Tanya Roberts pt:Tanya Roberts ru:Робертс, Таня sr:Танја Робертс sh:Tanya Roberts sv:Tanya Roberts th:ทันย่า โรเบิตส์ zh:譚雅·羅拔絲