- published: 24 Sep 2009
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Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: 
Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Baltic Exchange
The Baltic Exchange is the world's only independent source of maritime market information for the trading and settlement of physical and derivative contracts. Its international community of over 550 members encompasses the majority of world shipping interests and commits to a code of business conduct overseen by the Baltic.
Baltic Exchange members are responsible for a large proportion of all dry cargo and tanker fixtures as well as the sale and purchase of merchant vessels.
The company was founded in the mid-18th century. The first use of the name was at the Virginia and Baltick Coffee House in Threadneedle Street in 1744, and was registered as a private limited company with shares in 1900. Today the exchange is owned by its member companies and is not publicly traded on a stock exchange. It is operated by a member-elected Board of Directors. It has 20 employees and is located at 38 St Mary Axe in central London.
The exchange provides daily freight market prices and maritime shipping cost indices which are used to settle freight futures (known as Forward Freight Agreements or FFAs). Originally operating a trading floor, the exchange's members' transactions are today done solely over the telephone.
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BASF
BASF SE is the largest diversified chemical company in the world and is headquartered in Ludwigshafen, Germany.BASF originally stood for Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabrik (English: Baden Aniline and Soda Factory). Today, the four letters are a registered trademark and the company is listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange, London Stock Exchange, and Zurich Stock Exchange. The company delisted its ADR from the New York Stock Exchange in September 2007.
The BASF Group comprises subsidiaries and joint ventures in more than 80 countries and operates six integrated production sites and 390 other production sites in Europe, Asia, Australia, Americas and Africa. Its headquarters is located in Ludwigshafen am Rhein (Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany). BASF has customers in over 200 countries and supplies products to a wide variety of industries. Despite its size and global presence BASF receives little public attention as it abandoned consumer product lines in the 90s.
At the end of 2010, the company employed more than 109,000 people, with over 50,800 in Germany alone. In 2010, BASF posted sales of €63.87 billion and income from operations before special items of about €8.1 billion. The company is currently expanding its international activities with a particular focus on Asia. Between 1990 and 2005, the company invested €5.6 billion in Asia, for example in sites near Nanjing and Shanghai, China and Mangalore in India.
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Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
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Bergslagen
Bergslagen is a historically, culturally, and linguistically distinct[citation needed] mining district located north of Lake Mälaren in northern Svealand, Sweden. In Bergslagen mining and metallurgic industry have been important since the Middle Ages. The region is to be distinguished from Malmfälten ("the Ore Fields"), the mining district of northernmost Sweden centered at the towns of Kiruna and Malmberget, that has been of greater importance during the 20th century.
Bergslagen covers part of the provinces of Västmanland, Dalarna (the southern part), and Värmland (the eastern part). Typical towns in the area include Nora, Fagersta, Sala, Kristinehamn, Filipstad, Ludvika and Hedemora. Also parts of northern Östergötland, around Finspång, as well as southern Närke can be included, then often referring to South Bergslagen. A wider definition of the area can include parts of Gästrikland (Hofors) and Uppland (the former iron manufacturing district centred around Dannemora) as well.
The conflict of interests between iron exports from Bergslagen and territorial conflicts at Denmark's southern border was a chief reason behind the Engelbrekt rebellion in 1434 and the following strifes that ultimately resulted in the dissolution of the Kalmar Union in 1523.
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Birmingham
Birmingham (i/ˈbɜrmɪŋəm/ BUR-ming-əm, locally /ˈbɜrmɪŋɡəm/ BUR-ming-gəm) is a city and metropolitan borough in the West Midlands of England. It is the most populous British city outside the capital London, with a population of 1,036,900 (2010 estimate), and lies at the heart of the West Midlands conurbation, the second most populous urban area in the United Kingdom with a population of 2,284,093 (2001 census). Birmingham's metropolitan area is also the United Kingdom's second most populous with a population of 3,683,000.
A medium-sized market town during the medieval period, Birmingham grew to international prominence in the 18th century at the heart of the Midlands Enlightenment and subsequent Industrial Revolution, which saw the town at the forefront of worldwide developments in science, technology and economic organisation, producing a series of innovations that laid many of the foundations of modern industrial society. By 1791 it was being hailed as "the first manufacturing town in the world". Birmingham's distinctive economic profile, with thousands of small workshops practising a wide variety of specialised and highly-skilled trades, encouraged exceptional levels of creativity and innovation and provided a diverse and resilient economic base for industrial prosperity that was to last into the final quarter of the 20th century. Its resulting high level of social mobility also fostered a culture of broad-based political radicalism, that under leaders from Thomas Attwood to Joseph Chamberlain was to give it a political influence unparalleled in Britain outside London and a pivotal role in the development of British democracy.
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Borinage
The Borinage is an area in the Walloon province of Hainaut. The provincial capital Mons is located in the east of the Borinage. In French the inhabitants are called Borains. But there was a great sociological difference between Mons and the Borains of all the villages around Mons.
Charles White wrote for the Belgian revolution: The Borains, like the dark spirits of the melo-drame, rose from their mines, and helter-skelter pushed upon the capital But he was using this name for all the inhabitants in the Province of Hainaut which is an error.
From the 18th century to 1850, the economy of thirty municipalities in the Borinage was founded on coal mining. Between 1822 and 1829, production more than doubled in that region i.e. from 602.000 to 1.260.000 tons. That was more than the total production of France and Germany at the time! The Borinage exported its coal mostly to France and Flanders...
In 1957 out of 64,800 people recorded as being in employment in the Borinage 23,000 worked in the coal industry. Only 7,000 people in services, although in Belgium as a whole 49 percent of employment was in the tertiary sector.
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Bristol
Bristoli/ˈbrɪstəl/ is a city, unitary authority area and ceremonial county in South West England, with an estimated population of 433,100 for the unitary authority in 2009, and a surrounding Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) with an estimated 1,070,000 residents in 2007. It is England's sixth and the United Kingdom's eighth most populous city, one of the group of English Core Cities and the most populous city in South West England.
Historically within Gloucestershire, the city received a Royal Charter in 1155 and was granted County status in 1373. From the 13th century, for half a millennium, it ranked amongst the top three English cities after London, alongside York and Norwich, on the basis of tax receipts, until the rapid rise of Liverpool, Birmingham and Manchester during the Industrial Revolution in the latter part of the 18th century. It borders the counties of Somerset and Gloucestershire, and is also located near the historic cities of Bath to the south east and Gloucester to the north. The city is built around the River Avon, and it also has a short coastline on the Severn Estuary, which flows into the Bristol Channel.
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
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Broseley
Coordinates: 52°36′44″N 2°28′55″W / 52.612357°N 2.481945°W / 52.612357; -2.481945
Broseley is a small town in Shropshire, England with a population of 4,912 (2001 census). The River Severn flows to the north and east of the town. Broseley has a town council and is part of the area controlled by Shropshire Council. The first iron bridge in the world was built in 1779 to link Broseley with Coalbrookdale and Madeley. This led to the development of the Ironbridge Gorge, which is now part of a World Heritage Site.
A settlement existed in 1086 and is listed as Bosle in the Domesday Book.
The town is located on the south bank of the Ironbridge Gorge and so shares much of the history of its better known, but more recent, neighbour, Ironbridge.
In 1600, the town of Broseley consisted of only 27 houses and was part of the Shirlett Royal Forest. The area was known for mining; some of the stone used to build Buildwas Abbey was taken from Broseley and there is evidence that wooden wagonways existed in Broseley in 1605 [1], giving Broseley a serious claim to the oldest railways in Britain. The wagonways were almost certainly constructed for the transport of coal and clay and it was these resources that led to the huge expansion of the town during the Industrial Revolution.
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Canary Wharf
Coordinates: 51°30′13″N 0°01′06″W / 51.503611°N 0.018333°W / 51.503611; -0.018333
Canary Wharf is a major business district located in London, United Kingdom. It is one of London's two main financial centres – alongside the traditional City of London – and contains many of the UK's tallest buildings, including the second-tallest (and tallest completed), One Canada Square.
Canary Wharf contains around 14,000,000 square feet (1,300,000 m2) of office and retail space, of which around 7,900,000 square feet (730,000 m2) is owned by Canary Wharf Group. Around 90,000 people work in Canary Wharf and it is home to the world or European headquarters of numerous major banks, professional services firms and media organisations including Barclays, Citigroup, Clifford Chance, Credit Suisse, HSBC, J.P. Morgan, KPMG, MetLife, Morgan Stanley, Skadden, State Street and Thomson Reuters.
Canary Wharf is located in the West India Docks on the Isle of Dogs in the Borough of Tower Hamlets in East London. The West India Docks once formed part of the busiest port in the world. After the docks were closed in 1980 the British Government adopted various policies to stimulate the redevelopment of the area, including through the creation of the London Docklands Development Corporation in 1981 and granting the Isle of Dogs Enterprise Zone status in 1982. In 1987 the Canadian company Olympia and York agreed to construct a major office development on the Isle of Dogs, with construction commencing in 1988.
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Cardiff Bay
Coordinates: 51°27′47″N 3°09′50″W / 51.463°N 3.164°W / 51.463; -3.164
Cardiff Bay (Welsh: Bae Caerdydd) is the area created by the Cardiff Barrage in South Cardiff, the capital of Wales. The regeneration of Cardiff Bay is now widely regarded as one of the most successful regeneration projects in the United Kingdom. The Bay is supplied by two rivers (Taff and Ely) to form a 500-acre (2.0 km2) freshwater lake round the former dockland area south of the city centre. The Bay was formerly tidal, with access to the sea limited to a couple of hours each side of high water but now provides 24 hour access through three locks.
Cardiff Bay played a major part in Cardiff’s development by being the means of exporting coal from the South Wales Valleys to the rest of the world, helping to power the industrial age. The coal mining industry helped fund the building of Cardiff into the Capital city of Wales and helped the Third Marquis of Bute, who owned the docks, become the richest man in the world at the time.
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Chance Brothers
Chance Brothers and Company was a glassworks originally based in Spon Lane, Smethwick, West Midlands (formerly in Staffordshire), in England. It was a leading glass manufacturer and a pioneer of British glassmaking technology.
The Chance family originated in Bromsgrove as farmers and craftsmen before setting up business in Smethwick in 1824. Situated between nearby Birmingham and the Black Country in the agglomeration of the Midlands industrial heartland, they took advantage of the skilled workers, canals and many advances that were taking place in the Industrial West Midlands at the time.
Throughout its almost two centuries of history many changes have affected the company which, now privatised, continues as a specialised industrial glass manufacturer in Malvern, Worcestershire at one of the former small subsidiary factories. The social and economic impact of the company on the region is the subject of a project sponsored by the Heritage Lottery Fund.
Robert Lucas Chance (8 October 1782 – 7 March 1865), always known as 'Lucas', bought the glassworks of the British Crown Glass Company in Spon Lane in 1824, which specialised in making blown window glass. The company soon ran into difficulty and its survival was guaranteed in 1832 by investment from his brother William Chance (29 August 1788 – 8 February 1856) who owned a successful iron merchants in Great Charles Street, Birmingham. After the partnership with the Hartley Brothers was dissolved, Lucas and William Chance became partners in the business, which was then called Chance Brothers and Company.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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City of London
The City of London is an area in central London, England. In the medieval period it constituted most of London, but the conurbation has grown far beyond it. As the City’s boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages, it is now only a tiny part of the metropolis, though it remains a notable part of central London, holds city status in its own right, and is a separate ceremonial county.
It is often referred to as the City (often written on maps as "City") or the Square Mile, as it is just over one square mile (1.12 sq mi/2.90 km2) in area. These terms are also often used as metonyms for the United Kingdom's financial services industry, which continues a notable history of being based in the City.
The term London now refers to a much larger conurbation roughly corresponding to Greater London, a local government area which includes 32 London boroughs including the City of Westminster as well as the City of London. The local authority for the City, the City of London Corporation, is unique in the United Kingdom, and has some unusual responsibilities for a local authority in Britain, such as being the police authority for the City. It also has responsibilities and ownerships beyond the City's boundaries. The Corporation is headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London.
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Coalbrookdale
Coalbrookdale is a village in the Ironbridge Gorge in Shropshire, England, containing a settlement of great significance in the history of iron ore smelting. This is where iron ore was first smelted by Abraham Darby using easily mined "coking coal". The coal was drawn from drift mines in the sides of the valley. As it contained far fewer impurities than normal coal, the iron it produced was of a superior quality. Along with many other industrial developments that were going on in other parts of the country, this discovery was a major factor in the growing industrialisation of Britain, which was to become known as the Industrial Revolution. Today, Coalbrookdale is home to the Ironbridge Institute, a partnership between the University of Birmingham and the Ironbridge Gorge Museum Trust offering postgraduate and professional development courses in heritage.
Before the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Madeley and the adjacent Little Wenlock belonged to Much Wenlock Priory. At the Dissolution there was a bloomsmithy called "Caldebroke Smithy". The manor passed about 1572 to John Brooke, who developed coal mining in his manor on a substantial scale. His son Sir Basil Brooke was a significant industrialist, and invested in ironworks elsewhere. It is probable that he also had ironworks at Coalbrookdale, but evidence is lacking. He also acquired an interest in the patent for the cementation process of making steel in about 1615. Though forced to surrender the patent in 1619, he continued making iron and steel until his estate was sequestrated during the Civil War, but the works continued in use.
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Cottonopolis
Cottonopolis denotes a metropolis of cotton trading and cotton mills. It was inspired by Manchester, in England, and its status as the international centre of the cotton and textile processing industries during the 19th century. More recently it has become a sobriquet applied solely to the city of Manchester.
Cotton mills powered by water turning machinery were built in Lancashire and neighbouring counties. In 1781 Richard Arkwright opened the world's first steam-driven textile mill on Miller Street, Manchester. The mill was destroyed by bombing during the Manchester Blitz but was recently uncovered in an archaeological dig. Although it was inefficient at first, the arrival of steam power signified the beginning of a level of mechanisation that was to further enhance the burgeoning textile industries into the world's first centre of mass production. As textile manufacture switched from the home to purpose built large factories, beside fast-flowing streams (for water power), Manchester and the surrounding towns in south and east Lancashire became the largest and most productive cotton spinning centre in the world.[citation needed]Ancoats was part of a planned expansion of Manchester and became the first industrial suburb centred on steam power. There were mills whose architectural innovations included fireproofing by use of iron and stone.[citation needed]
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Cromford
Coordinates: 53°06′29″N 1°33′40″W / 53.108°N 1.561°W / 53.108; -1.561
Cromford is a village, two miles to the south of Matlock in the Derbyshire Dales district in Derbyshire, England. It is principally known for its historical connection with Richard Arkwright, and the Cromford Mill which he built here in 1771. Cromford is in the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage site.
The River Derwent, with its sources on Bleaklow in the Dark Peak flows southward to Derby and then to the River Trent. The geology of this section in the Derbyshire Dales is that of limestone, and the river has cut itself a deep valley and is fast flowing. The valley floor hosts the A6 trunk road, which was the main road between London and Manchester in former times, and also the Cromford Canal and the Derwent Valley Line linking Derby and Matlock. The Via Gellia dry valley joins the Derwent at Cromford.
The village of Cromford lies to the south of the A6 and the river on land rising from 80m to 150m above mean sea level. It is 27 km north of Derby, 3 km south of Matlock and 1 km south of Matlock Bath. Trains operate from Cromford Station, on the north bank of the Derwent to Derby and Nottingham.
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Croydon Vision 2020
Croydon Vision 2020 is a regeneration programme by the London Borough of Croydon for the centre of Croydon in South London. The original study was carried out in 1999 by EDAW and is being taken forward through the Local Development Framework process. The programme seeks to affect the urban planning of Croydon extensively and promote Croydon as hub of living, retailing, culture and business in South London and South East England. It was also highlighted by architect Will Alsop's 'Third City' work. Private developers have responded to this initiative and currently £3.5 billion has been committed to consented and proposed development projects with more in the pipeline. The Council is now working with the Mayor of London on the Croydon Opportunity Area. An Opportunity Area Planning Framework (OAPF) has been proposed for the town centre to coordinate this investment. Work is underway on six masterplans underpinning the preparation of this framework. These are: East Croydon, West Croydon, Mid Croydon, College Green, Wellesley Road, and Old Town. More information can be found at the Council's 'Third City' website [1]. The website also includes information on the regeneration of Wandle Park (one of central Croydon's three key greenspaces).
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Derby
Derby (i/ˈdɑːbi/ DAR-bi), is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands region of England. It lies upon the banks of the River Derwent and is located in the south of the ceremonial county of Derbyshire. In the 2001 census, the population of the city was 233,700, whilst that of the Derby Urban Area was 229,407. According to the 2001 census, Derby was at that time the 18th largest settlement in England, measured by urban area.
The city has Roman, Saxon and Viking origins.
The Roman camp of 'Derventio' was probably at Little Chester/Chester Green (grid reference SK353375); The site of the old Roman fort is at Chester Green. Later the town was one of the 'Five Boroughs' (fortified towns) of the Danelaw.
Djúra-bý, recorded in Anglo-Saxon as Deoraby "Village of the Deer". This popular belief is asserted by Tim Lambert who states, "The name Derby is derived from the Danish words deor by meaning deer settlement" without reference or proof. However some[who?] assert that it is a corruption of the original Roman name 'Derventio'. The proven origin of the name "Derby" would seem to be elusive.
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Derbyshire
Coordinates: 53°8′N 1°36′W / 53.133°N 1.6°W / 53.133; -1.6
Derbyshire (i/ˈdɑrbɨʃə/ DAR-bi-shər or /ˈdɑrbɪʃɪər/ DAR-bi-sheer; abbreviated Derbys. or Derbs.) is a county in the East Midlands of England. A substantial portion of the Peak District National Park lies within Derbyshire. The southern extremity of the Pennine range of hills extends into the north of the county. The county contains within its boundary of approximately 225 miles part of the National Forest. It borders on Greater Manchester to the northwest, West Yorkshire to the north, South Yorkshire to the northeast, Nottinghamshire to the east, Leicestershire to the southeast, Staffordshire to the west and southwest and Cheshire also to the west. In 2003 the Ordnance Survey placed Church Flatts farm, near Coton in the Elms, as the furthest point from the sea in Great Britain.
The city of Derby is now a unitary authority area, but remains part of the ceremonial county of Derbyshire. The non-metropolitan county contains 30 towns with between 10,000 and 100,000 inhabitants. There is a large amount of sparsely populated agricultural upland: 75% of the population live in 25% of the area.[citation needed]
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Derwent Valley Mills
Derwent Valley Mills is a World Heritage Site along the River Derwent in Derbyshire, England, designated in December 2001. It is administered by the Derwent Valley Mills Partnership. The modern factory, or 'mill', system was born here in the 18th century to accommodate the new technology for spinning cotton developed by Richard Arkwright. With advancements in technology, it became possible to produce cotton continuously. The system was adopted throughout the valley, and later spread so that by 1788 there were over 200 Arkwright-type mills in Britain. Arkwright's inventions and system of organising labour was exported to Europe and the United States.
Water-power was first introduced to England by John Lombe at his silk mill in Derby in 1719, but it was Richard Arkwright who applied water-power to the process of producing cotton in the 1770s. His patent of a water frame allowed cotton to be spun continuously and meant it could be produced by unskilled workers. Cromford Mill and Cromford was the site of Arkwright's first mill, and his system of production and worker's housing was copied throughout the valley. To ensure the presence of a labour force, it was necessary to construct housing for the mill workers. Thus, new settlements were established by mill owners around the mills – sometimes developing a pre-existing community – with their own amenities such as schools, chapels, and markets. Most of the housing still exists and is still in use. Along with the transport infrastructure form part of the site. A transport infrastructure was built to open new markets for the mills' produce.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Glasgow
Coordinates: 55°51′29″N 4°15′32″W / 55.858°N 4.259°W / 55.858; -4.259
Glasgow (i/ˈɡlɑːzɡəʊ/, locally /ˈɡlazɡo/, GLAZ-goh; Scots: Glesga listen (help·info); Scottish Gaelic: Glaschu ([ˈkɫ̪as̪əxu] listen (help·info))) is the largest city in Scotland and third most populous in the United Kingdom. The city is situated on the River Clyde in the country's West Central Lowlands.
Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become one of the largest seaports in Britain. Expanding from the medieval bishopric of Glasgow and the later establishment of the University of Glasgow in the 15th century, it became a major centre of the Scottish Enlightenment in the 18th century. From the 18th century the city also grew as one of Britain's main hubs of transatlantic trade with British North America and the British West Indies. With the Industrial Revolution, the city and surrounding region shifted to become one of the world's pre-eminent centres of heavy engineering, most notably in shipbuilding and marine engineering industry, which produced many innovative and famous vessels. Glasgow was known as the "Second City of the British Empire" for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period. Today it is one of Europe's top ten financial centres and is home to many of Scotland's leading businesses. Glasgow is also ranked as the 57th most liveable city in the world.
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Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain (Welsh: Prydain Fawr, Scottish Gaelic: Breatainn Mhòr, Cornish: Breten Veur) is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, the largest European island, and the largest of the British Isles. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populous island in the world, after Java and Honshū. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
All of the island is territory of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and most of the United Kingdom's territory is in Great Britain. Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island of Great Britain, as are their respective capital cities: London, Edinburgh, and Cardiff.
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Hectare
The hectare ( /ˈhɛktɛər/ or /ˈhɛktɑr/; symbol ha) is a metric unit of area defined as 10,000 square metres (100 m by 100 m), and primarily used in the measurement of land. In 1795, when the metric system was introduced, the 'are' was defined as being 100 square metres and the hectare ('hecto-' + 'are') was thus 100 'ares' or 1/100 km2. A hectare of land is about 2.47 acres.
When the metric system was further rationalised in 1960, resulting in the International System of Units (SI), the are was not included as a recognised unit. The hectare is one of the non-SI units accepted for use with the SI units.
The metric system of measure was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government. The law of 18 Germinal, Year III (7 April 1795) defined five units of measure:
Although the law defined the length of the metre, there was no practical way of accurately measuring the metre (and hence the are) until 1799 when the first standard metre was manufactured and adopted.
The standard metre remained in the custody of successive French governments until 1875 when, under the Convention of the Metre, its supervision passed into international control under the auspices of the General Conference on Weights and Measures (GCPM). At the first meeting of the GCPM in 1889 when a new standard metre, manufactured by Johnson Matthey & Co of London was adopted, the are and hectare were automatically redefined.
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HM Treasury
Her Majesty's Treasury, or HM Treasury or informally The Treasury, is the United Kingdom government department responsible for developing and executing the British government's public finance policy and economic policy. The Treasury maintains the Combined Online Information System (COINS) containing a detailed analysis of departmental spending under thousands of category headings.
The Treasury of the United Kingdom traces its origins to the Treasury of the Kingdom of England, which had come into existence by 1126, in the reign of Henry I. The Treasury emerged out of the Royal Household, and served as the location where the king kept his treasures. The head of the Treasury was called the Lord Treasurer. Starting in Tudor times, the Lord Treasurer became one of the chief officers of state, and competed with the Lord Chancellor for the principal place. In 1667 Charles II of England was responsible for appointing George Downing, the builder of Downing Street, to radically reform the Treasury and the collection of taxes.
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Horsehay
Coordinates: 52°39′23″N 2°29′27″W / 52.65648°N 2.490699°W / 52.65648; -2.490699
Horsehay is a village on the western outskirts of Dawley, which, along with several other towns and villages, now forms part of the new town of Telford in Shropshire, England. Horsehay lies in the Dawley Hamlets parish, and on the northern edge of the Ironbridge Gorge area.
Its name is Anglo Saxon for 'an enclosure for horses'. Horsehay has four pubs - The Station Inn, The Forester Arms, the All Labour In Vain and the Travellers Joy - a Methodist Chapel and a post office. Horsehay also has its very own golf course, complete with restaurant.
Originally Horsehay was nothing more than a farm, until the 1750s when Abraham Darby II built a blast furnace next to what is now known as Horsehay Pool. Coalbrookdale Company further developed the area, constructing brickworks and later a pottery in 1838. Coalbrookdale specialised in the smaller and more decorative ironwork pieces, whereas Horsehay produced many larger scale products, including the railway bridge in nearby Shifnal. As the iron trade in the area began to slump in 1857 the railway arrived, and Horsehay is still home to the Telford Steam Railway to this day. A.B. Cranes bought the site previously occupied by the ironworks to manufacture some of the largest cranes in Europe until it closed down in 1983. The site has been transformed into both a small factory estate and a housing estate. The houses which were kept for the ironworks employees were clustered around Horsehay Pool in Spring Village, and they are still lived in today.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Ironbridge
Coordinates: 52°37′40″N 2°29′07″W / 52.6278°N 2.4854°W / 52.6278; -2.4854
Ironbridge is a settlement on the River Severn, at the heart of the Ironbridge Gorge, in Shropshire, England. It lies in the civil parish of The Gorge, in the borough of Telford and Wrekin. Ironbridge developed beside, and takes its name from, the famous Iron Bridge, a 30 metre (100 ft) cast iron bridge that was built across the river there in 1779.
The area around Ironbridge is described by those promoting it as a tourist destination as the "Birthplace of the Industrial Revolution". This description is based on the idea that Abraham Darby perfected the technique of smelting iron with coke, in Coalbrookdale, allowing much cheaper production of iron. However, the industrial revolution did not "begin" in one place, but in many. The growth of railways, spinning machines, weaving and other industrial inventions and activities were going on all over the country. Smelting iron by Darby was but one small part of this generalised revolution and was soon superseded by the great iron-smelting areas. However, the bridge - being the first of its kind fabricated from cast iron, and one of the few which have survived to the present day - remains an important symbol representative of the dawn of the industrial age.[citation needed]
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Japan
Japan
i/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国 
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
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Ketley
Coordinates: 52°41′41″N 2°28′51″W / 52.69480°N 2.48084°W / 52.69480; -2.48084
Ketley is a suburb of the new town of Telford in the borough of Telford and Wrekin and ceremonial county of Shropshire, England. It is a civil parish. East Ketley is currently being re-developed as part of the Telford Millennium Community, part of the Millennium Communities Programme. It will consist of around 750 new homes and some live/work units, a new primary school, some small offices and retail and leisure services.
The site is currently home to a terrace of Victorian houses amid old mineshafts, colliery spoil, a golf course (which was later used as a driving range) and playing fields. Most of the site has been left fallow for many years and some areas have become locally important habitats for wildlife. Ketley was formerly the home of Ketley Iron works. William Reynolds (the ironmaster of said works in the late 18th century) undertook the construction of three tub boat canals: the Wombridge Canal, the Ketley Canal and the Shropshire Canal with the first successful inclined planes in Great Britain.
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Leominster
Coordinates: 52°13′42″N 2°44′19″W / 52.2282°N 2.7385°W / 52.2282; -2.7385
Leominster (i/ˈlɛmstər/ LEM-stər) (Welsh: Llanllieni) is a market town in Herefordshire, England, and is located at the confluence of the River Lugg and its tributary the River Kenwater, approximately 12 miles (19 km) north of the city of Hereford and 11 miles (18 km) south of Ludlow, at grid reference SO496590. With a population of approximately 11,000 people,. It is the largest of the five towns in the county that surround the City of Hereford.
From 1974 to 1996, Leominster served as the administrative centre for the former local government district of Leominster District.
The town takes its name from a minster, that is a community of clergy in the district of Lene or Leon, probably in turn from an Old Welsh root lei to flow. Contrary to certain reports, the name has nothing to do with Leofric, an 11th-century Earl of Mercia (most famous for being the miserly husband of Lady Godiva). The Welsh name for Leominster, still used today on the Welsh side of the nearby border, is Llanllieni.
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Llangollen
Coordinates: 52°58′12″N 3°10′12″W / 52.970°N 3.170°W / 52.970; -3.170
Llangollen (Welsh pronunciation: [ɬaŋˈɡɔɬɛn]) is a small town and community in Denbighshire, north-east Wales, situated on the River Dee and on the edge of the Berwyn mountains. It has a population of 3,412.
Llangollen takes its name from Saint Collen (from the Welsh llan meaning 'church' or 'saint' or perhaps 'holy') and Collen, a 6th century monk who founded a church beside the river there. St Collen is said to have arrived in Llangollen by coracle. As there are no other churches in Wales dedicated to St. Collen, it is possible that this St. Collen may also have connections in both Colan, Cornwall and Langolen, Brittany.
Standing high above the town to the north is Castell Dinas Bran, the former stronghold of the Princes of Powys. Beyond the castle is the limestone escarpment known as the Eglwyseg Rocks. The outcrop continues north to the area known as World's End. The area nearest to the castle is the Panorama Walk, and a monument to local poet I.D. Hooson (from the nearby village of Rhosllanerchrugog) can be found there.
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M11 Corridor
Coordinates: 51°54′25″N 0°14′42″E / 51.907°N 0.245°E / 51.907; 0.245
The M11 Corridor is an area along the M11 motorway in the United Kingdom which begins in East London and runs from Essex to Cambridgeshire, which has been identified by the British government as a key location for economic and population growth. London Stansted Airport is situated within the area, and is one of the main reasons the government has earmarked this region for house building and infrastructure improvements.
There is also a housing shortage in the South East, East, and London regions of the country and new homes are required for this purpose also. A similar scheme is already underway to the south of Essex and North of Kent, known as the Thames Gateway project.
Major towns covered in this corridor include Harlow, Great Dunmow, Epping and Braintree in Essex, Bishop's Stortford in Hertfordshire and parts of South Cambridgeshire.
"Stansted M11 Corridor Study". Colin Buchanan Partners. December 2003. pp. 137. http://www.eera.gov.uk/publications-and-resources/studies/geographical-studies/london-stanstead-cambridgeshire/stansted-m11-corridor-study--december-2003-/. Retrieved 2 March 2010.
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M4 corridor
The M4 corridor is the area in the United Kingdom adjacent to the M4 motorway, which runs from London to South Wales. The area is a major hub for high-technology companies. Technology companies with major operations located in the area include Citrix Systems, Dell, Huawei, Lexmark, LG, Novell, Nvidia, Panasonic, SAP and Symantec.
Important cities and towns in the area include Bath, Bracknell, Bristol, Cardiff, Maidenhead, Reading, Newbury, Newport, Slough, Swansea and Swindon. The area is served by the M4 Motorway, the Great Western Main Line, including the South Wales Main Line, and London Heathrow Airport.
The eastern end of the English M4 corridor is home to a large number of technology companies, particularly in Berkshire, Swindon and the Thames Valley. For this reason this part of the M4 Corridor is sometimes described as England's "Silicon Valley".Slough, Windsor, Maidenhead, Reading, Bracknell and Newbury are the main towns in the Berkshire stretch of the M4.
Reading is home to many information technology and financial services businesses, including Cisco, Microsoft, ING Direct, Oracle, Prudential, Yell Group and Ericsson. Vodafone is located in Newbury, O2 plc is in Slough and the headquarters of Hutchison 3G UK are in Maidenhead.
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Manchester
Coordinates: 53°28′N 2°14′W / 53.467°N 2.233°W / 53.467; -2.233
Manchesteri/ˈmæntʃɛstər/ is a city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England with an estimated population of 498,800 in 2010. Manchester lies within one of the United Kingdom's largest urban areas; the Greater Manchester Urban Area which has a population of 2.2 million. The demonym of Manchester is Mancunian and the local authority is Manchester City Council.
Manchester is situated in the south-central part of North West England, fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south and the Pennines to the north and east. The recorded history of Manchester began with the civilian settlement associated with the Roman fort of Mamucium, which was established in c. 79 AD on a sandstone bluff near the confluence of the rivers Medlock and Irwell. Historically, most of the city was a part of Lancashire, although areas south of the River Mersey were in Cheshire. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a manorial township, but it began to expand "at an astonishing rate" around the turn of the 19th century. Manchester's unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, and resulted in it becoming the world's first industrialised city. An early 19th-century factory building boom transformed Manchester from a township into a major mill town and borough that was granted city status in 1853. In 1894 the Manchester Ship Canal was built, creating the Port of Manchester.
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
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Netherlands
The Netherlands (i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
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New England
New England is a region in the northeastern corner of the United States consisting of the six states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. New England is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, Canada (the Canadian Maritimes and Quebec) and the state of New York.
In one of the earliest English settlements in North America, Pilgrims from England first settled in New England in 1620, to form Plymouth Colony. Ten years later, the Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 130 years, New England fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their native allies in North America. In the late 18th century, the New England Colonies initiated the resistance to the British Parliament's efforts to impose new taxes without the consent of the colonists. The Boston Tea Party was a protest that angered Great Britain, which responded with the "Intolerable Acts", stripping the colonies of self-government. The confrontation led to open warfare in 1775, the expulsion of the British from New England in spring 1776, and the Declaration of Independence in July 1776.
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New Lanark
Coordinates: 55°40′N 3°47′W / 55.66°N 3.78°W / 55.66; -3.78
New Lanark is a village on the River Clyde, approximately 1.4 miles (2.2 kilometres) from Lanark, in South Lanarkshire, and some 40 km southeast of Glasgow, Scotland. It was founded in 1786 by David Dale, who built cotton mills and housing for the mill workers. Dale built the mills there in a brief partnership with the English inventor and entrepreneur Richard Arkwright to take advantage of the water power provided by the only waterfalls on the River Clyde. Under the ownership of a partnership that included Dale's son-in-law, Robert Owen, a Welsh philanthropist and social reformer, New Lanark became a successful business and an epitome of utopian socialism as well as an early example of a planned settlement and so an important milestone in the historical development of urban planning.
The New Lanark mills operated until 1968. After a period of decline, the New Lanark Conservation Trust (NLCT) was founded in 1974 (now known as the New Lanark Trust (NLT)) to prevent demolition of the village. By 2006 most of the buildings have been restored and the village has become a major tourist attraction. It is one of five UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Scotland and an Anchor Point of ERIH - The European Route of Industrial Heritage.
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Northampton
Northamptoni/nɔrˈθæmptən/ is a large market town and local government district in the East Midlands region of England. Situated about 67 miles (108 km) north-west of London and around 50 miles (80 km) south-east of Birmingham, Northampton lies on the River Nene and is the county town of Northamptonshire. The demonym of Northampton is Northamptonian.
Original settlements in Northampton date back to the 6th century. Its modern development is largely due to its rapid population increase since the 1960s after a planned expansion occurred under the New Towns Commission in the early 1970s. In 2001, its urban area population was 197,199 while its town population was 189,474, making Northampton the 27th largest settlement in England, and the UK's 3rd largest town without official city status after Reading and Dudley. Northampton is the most populous district in England that is not a unitary authority, a status it failed to obtain in the 1990s local government reform.
Northampton has a history of the manufacture of boots and shoes yet engineering has taken over as a modern key industry; other industries include food processing, brewing, and the manufacture of shoe machinery, cosmetics, leather goods, and car accessories. At present, the major employers are public administration, financial services, and the distribution trade.
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Northern England
Northern England, also known as the North of England, the North or the North Country, is a cultural region of England. It is not an official government region, but rather an informal amalgamation of counties. The southern extent of the region is roughly the River Trent, while the North is bordered by Scotland.
Northern England comprises three regions of England - the North East, North West and Yorkshire and the Humber. The counties of Northern England combined have a population of around 14.5 million covering an area of 37,331 km2 (14,414 sq mi).
During antiquity most of the area was part of Brigantia — homeland of the Brigantes and the largest Brythonic kingdom of Great Britain. After the Roman conquest of Britain the city of York became capital of the area, called Britannia Inferior then Britannia Secunda. In Sub-Roman Britain new Brythonic kingdoms of the Hen Ogledd emerged. The Angle settlers created Bernicia and Deira from which came Northumbria and a Golden Age in cultural, scholarly and monastic activity, centred around Lindisfarne and aided by Irish monks.Norse and Gaelic Viking raiders gained control of much of the area, creating the Danelaw. During this time there were close relations with Mann and the Isles, Dublin and Norway. Northumbria was unified with the rest of England under Eadred around 952.
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Nottingham
Nottingham (i/ˈnɒtɪŋəm/ NOT-ing-əm) is a city and unitary authority in the East Midlands of England in the ceremonial county of Nottinghamshire and is one of eight members of the English Core Cities Group.
Nottingham is famed for its links with the legend of Robin Hood and, during the Industrial Revolution, obtained worldwide recognition for its lace-making, bicycle and tobacco industries. With origins tracable back to 600 AD, Nottingham was granted its city charter as part of the Diamond Jubilee celebrations of Queen Victoria in 1897 and has since been officially titled the City of Nottingham. The city has historically been nicknamed The Queen of the Midlands, being the smaller yet less industrialised regional neighbour to the Midlands biggest city, Birmingham. Nottingham is considered the primary centre of England's East Midlands region, being home to numerous regional headquarters and media stations including the BBC East Midlands and the Regional Government Office.
Whilst Nottingham has always had a tightly-drawn authority boundary, accounting for its relatively small population of 306,700, Nottingham's Urban Area has a population of approximately 670,000; in the 2001 census, it was the eighth largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Eurostat's concept of the Larger Urban Zone listed the area's population at 825,600 as of 2004.
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Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States.
It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture.
Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747, then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896. The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies. Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination and today imposes no religious requirements on its students.
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Quarry Bank Mill
Quarry Bank Mill in Cheshire, England, is one of the best preserved textile mills of the Industrial Revolution and is now a museum of the cotton industry. It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building.
The mill was founded by Samuel Greg in 1784 in the village of Styal on the River Bollin. Its original iron water wheel was designed by Thomas Hewes and built between 1816 and 1820. The over head shafts above the machines were attached to the water wheel by a belt. When the water wheel turned, the motion moved the belt and powered the machine.
The Hewes wheel finally broke in 1904. After that the River Bollin continued to power the mill through two water turbines. When steam engines were being made, the mill owners in 1810 bought a Boulton and Watt steam engine and then a few years later purchased another. This is because water was a struggle to get in summer and brought production of cloth to a standstill during some years. Steam engines were consistent and produced power all year round. Today the Mill is home to the most powerful working waterwheel in Europe, an iron water wheel which was originally at Glasshouses Mill at Pateley Bridge. This wheel was designed by Sir William Fairbairn, the Scottish engineer who had been an apprentice of Thomas Hewes.
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Royal Arsenal
The Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, originally known as the Woolwich Warren, carried out armaments manufacture, ammunition proofing and explosives research for the British armed forces. It was sited on the south bank of the River Thames in Woolwich in south-east London, England.
The Warren in Tower Place was established as an Ordnance Storage Depot in 1671 on a 31-acre (13 ha) site. An ammunition laboratory (the Royal Laboratory) was added in 1695, and a gun foundry (the Royal Brass Foundry) was established in 1717. By 1777 it had expanded to 104 acres (0.4 km²). Shortly afterwards, convict labour was used to construct a 2.5-mile-long (4.0 km) (approximately) brick boundary wall, generally 8 feet (2.4 m) high. In 1804 this wall was raised to 20 feet (6.1 m) near the Plumstead road, and to 15 feet (4.6 m) in other parts. In 1814–16, convict labour was also used to dig a canal (the Ordnance Canal), which formed the eastern boundary.
In 1805, during the reign of King George III, at the King's suggestion, it became known as the Royal Arsenal. By this time, Woolwich was already a busy military centre, with the Woolwich Dockyard to the west of the Arsenal, the Royal Military Academy and the headquarters of the Royal Artillery next to each other to the south. The Royal Military Academy had been originally based at the Royal Arsenal but it was moved to Woolwich Common in 1806, although some of the Cadets did not finally vacate the Arsenal until as late as 1882. The old Military Academy building then became part of the Royal Laboratory. Several buildings within the Arsenal are attributed to architect Sir John Vanbrugh.
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Ruhr
The Ruhr (German Ruhrgebiet, colloquial Ruhrpott, Kohlenpott, Pott or Revier), is an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. With a population density of 7100/km² and a population of some 7.3 million, it is the largest urban agglomeration in Germany. It consists of several large, formerly industrial cities bordered by the rivers Ruhr to the south, Rhine to the west, and Lippe to the north. In the Southwest it borders to the Bergisches Land. It is considered part of the larger Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region of more than 12 million people.
Since the Ruhr is polycentric, coordinates shown are general in nature and so can be used to focus on the entire region of the Ruhr: 51°30′N 7°30′E / 51.5°N 7.5°E / 51.5; 7.5.
From west to east, the region includes the cities of Duisburg, Oberhausen, Bottrop, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Essen, Gelsenkirchen, Bochum, Herne, Hagen, Dortmund, and Hamm, as well as parts of the more "rural" districts Wesel, Recklinghausen, Unna and Ennepe-Ruhr-Kreis. Historically, the western Ruhr towns, such as Duisburg and Essen, belonged to the historic region of the Rhineland, whereas the eastern part of the Ruhr, including Gelsenkirchen, Bochum, Dortmund and Hamm, were part of the region of Westphalia. Since the 19th century, these districts have grown together into a large complex with a vast industrial landscape, inhabited by some 7.3 million people (when including Düsseldorf and Wuppertal). It is the fifth largest urban area in Europe after Istanbul, Moscow, London and Paris.
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Shropshire
Shropshire ( /ˈʃrɒpʃər/ or /ˈʃrɒpʃɪər/; alternatively Salop; abbreviated, in print only, Shrops) is a county in the West Midlands region of England. It borders Wales to the west, Cheshire to the north, Staffordshire to the east, Worcestershire to the south-east and Herefordshire to the south. A unitary authority (Shropshire Council) was created on 1 April 2009, taking over from the previous county council and 5 district councils, and covers most of the county. The borough of Telford and Wrekin, included in Shropshire for ceremonial purposes, has been a separate unitary authority since 1998.
The county's population and economy is centred on five towns: the county town of Shrewsbury, which is culturally and historically important and is located in the centre of the county;Telford, a new town in the east which was constructed around a number of older towns, most notably Wellington, Dawley and Madeley, which is today the most populous; and Oswestry in the north-west, Bridgnorth just to the south of Telford, and Ludlow in the south. The county has many further smaller towns, including Whitchurch in the north, Newport just to the north-east of Telford, and Market Drayton in the north-east of the county.
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Soho Foundry
Soho Foundry was a factory created in 1795 by Matthew Boulton and James Watt at Smethwick, West Midlands, England (grid reference SP037885), for the manufacture of steam engines.
The factory was built on the edge of the Birmingham Canal on land bought in 1795. The following year the foundry was open. By 1840 James Watt Junior owned the factory after the death of the founding Boulton and Watt. He died in 1848 and his place was taken by H. W. Blake and the name changed from Soho Foundry to James Watt & Co..
In 1857 the screw engines for the steamship SS Great Eastern were built at the foundry. In 1860 a new mint was started at the Foundry, the Manufactory having closed in 1850.
In 1861 tests were performed at the Soho Foundry for the London Pneumatic Despatch Company.
In 1895 W & T Avery Ltd. acquired the Foundry as a going concern.
It is now the home of Avery Weigh-Tronix (formerly Avery Berkel), who make weighing scales. The site includes William Murdoch's cottage and overlooks Black Patch Park.
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Soho Manufactory
The Soho Manufactory (grid reference SP051890) was an early factory which pioneered mass production on the assembly line principle, in Soho, Smethwick, England, during the Industrial Revolution.
The factory was established by the "toy" manufacturer Matthew Boulton and his business partner John Fothergill. In 1761, they leased a site on Handsworth Heath, containing a cottage and a water-driven metal-rolling mill. The mill was replaced by a new factory, designed and built by the Wyatt family of Lichfield, and completed in 1766. The cottage was later demolished and Boulton's home (Soho House) was built on the site, also by the Wyatts.
Water was drawn from Hockley Brook.
The Manufactory produced a wide range of goods from buttons, buckles and boxes to japanned ware (collectively called "toys"), and later luxury products such as silverware and ormolu (a type of gilded bronze). It was also home to the first steam-powered mint, whose presses were subsequently used at the first Birmingham Mint
In later years, the Manufactory was served by canal at Soho Wharf, at the end of the short Soho Branch of the Birmingham Canal Navigations' Soho Loop.
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South Wales
South Wales (Welsh: De Cymru) is an area of Wales bordered by England and the Bristol Channel to the east and south, and Mid Wales and West Wales to the north and west. The most densely populated region in the south-west of the United Kingdom, it is home to around 2.1 million people and includes the capital city of Cardiff (population approximately 324,800), as well as Swansea and Newport. The Brecon Beacons national park covers about a third of South Wales, containing Pen y Fan, the highest mountain south of Snowdonia.
The extent of South Wales is loosely defined, but it is generally considered to be the area surrounding the M4 motorway, including the historic counties of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire and sometimes extending westwards to include south Carmarthenshire and south Pembrokeshire. In the western extent, from Swansea westwards, local people would probably recognise that they lived in both South Wales and in West Wales — there is considerable overlap in these somewhat artificial boundaries. The northern border is particularly ill-defined, but the A40 may be a good approximation whilst others consider the more southerly Heads of the Valleys Road as the boundary.
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Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
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Thames Gateway
Coordinates: 51°29′13″N 0°19′05″E / 51.487°N 0.318°E / 51.487; 0.318 The Thames Gateway is an area of land stretching 70 kilometres (43 mi) east from inner east London on both sides of the River Thames and the Thames Estuary. The area, which includes much brownfield land, has been designated a national priority for urban regeneration, taking advantage of the development opportunities realised by the completion of the High Speed 1 (officially known as the Channel Tunnel Rail Link) rail line. It stretches from Westferry in Tower Hamlets to the Isle of Sheppey and extends across three of the regions of England. The development is delivered through regional development agencies, special purpose development corporations and local partnerships.
The Thames Gateway comprises sections of 16 different local government districts in three regions:
The area accommodates around 1.6 million people and contains some of the most deprived wards in the country, characterised by lack of access to public transport, services, employment and affordable quality housing. Its boundary was drawn to capture the riverside strip that formerly hosted many land extensive industries, serving London and the South East, whose decline has left a legacy of large scale dereliction and contaminated land, such as around Tilbury.[citation needed]
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Thames Tunnel
The Thames Tunnel is an underwater tunnel, built beneath the River Thames in London, United Kingdom, connecting Rotherhithe and Wapping. It measures 35 feet (11 m) wide by 20 feet (6 m) high and is 1,300 feet (396 m) long, running at a depth of 75 feet (23 m) below the river's surface (measured at high tide). It was the first tunnel known successfully to have been constructed underneath a navigable river, and was built between 1825 and 1843 using Thomas Cochrane and Marc Isambard Brunel's newly invented tunnelling shield technology, by him and his son Isambard Kingdom Brunel.
The tunnel was originally designed for, but never used by, horse-drawn carriages and now forms part of the London Overground railway network.
At the start of the 19th century, there was a pressing need for a new land connection between the north and south banks of the Thames to link the expanding docks on each side of the river. The engineer Ralph Dodd tried, but failed, to build a tunnel between Gravesend and Tilbury in 1799.
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The Crystal Palace
The Crystal Palace was a cast-iron and plate-glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m). Because of the recent invention of the cast plate glass method in 1848, which allowed for large sheets of cheap but strong glass, it was at the time the largest amount of glass ever seen in a building and astonished visitors with its clear walls and ceilings that did not require interior lights, thus a "Crystal Palace".
After the exhibition, the building was rebuilt in an enlarged form on Penge Common next to Sydenham Hill, an affluent South London suburb full of large villas. It stood there from 1854 until its destruction by fire in 1936. The name Crystal Palace (the satirical magazine Punch usually gets the credit for coining the phrase) was later used to denote this area of south London and the park that surrounds the site, home of the Crystal Palace National Sports Centre.
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The Great Exhibition
The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations or The Great Exhibition, sometimes referred to as the Crystal Palace Exhibition in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held, was an international exhibition that took place in Hyde Park, London, from 1 May to 15 October 1851. It was the first in a series of World's Fair exhibitions of culture and industry that were to become a popular 19th-century feature. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, the spouse of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was attended by numerous notable figures of the time, including Charles Darwin, Samuel Colt, members of the Orléanist Royal Family and the writers Charlotte Brontë, Lewis Carroll, and George Eliot.
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Tolpuddle
Tolpuddle is a small village in the southern English county of Dorset, situated in the Piddle valley, eight miles east of Dorchester and 12 miles west of Poole. The village has a population of 331 (2001).
In 1999 the A35 trunk road, which cuts through south Dorset, was moved to bypass the village. The effect of the bypass was dramatic and is still being felt in 2011, with regard to the release of land for building purposes in the village alongside the old A35. The road from Puddletown has been passed to district council ownership. The quality of new developments is not the concern of an information page, except to remark that the village has fairly chronic foul water drainage problems, with the water authority spending a substantial sum on a new pumping system to the nearest main foul drain at Affpuddle. Many houses are still using septic tanks and are happy with that arrangement. A vain attempt was made by the water authority to persuade them to join the foul main, but the cost put many householders off.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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Wales
Walesi/ˈweɪlz/ (Welsh: Cymru;Welsh pronunciation: [ˈkəm.rɨ] ( listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain,bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,200 km (750 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands; the largest, Anglesey (Ynys Môn), is also the largest island in the Irish Sea. Wales is largely mountainous, with its highest peaks in the north and central areas, especially in Snowdonia (Eryri), which contains Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit.
During the Iron Age and early medieval period, Wales was inhabited by the Celtic Britons. A distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations today. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was recognised as King of Wales in 1057. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales. The castles and town walls erected to ensure its permanence are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales, in the early 15th century. Wales was subsequently annexed by England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 since when, excluding those matters now devolved to Wales, English law has been the legal system of Wales and England. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and The Welsh Language Society in 1962. The National Assembly for Wales, created in 1999 following a referendum, holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters.
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Wallonia
Wallonia (French: Wallonie [wa.lɔ.ni], German: Wallonie(n), Dutch: Wallonië [wɐˈloːnɪə] ( listen) or [βɐˈloːnɪə], Walloon: Walonreye) is the predominantly French-speaking southern region of Belgium. It is governed as the Walloon Region, which makes up 55% of the territory of Belgium but with only a third of its population. Contrary to the situation in Flanders, the Walloon Region was not merged with the French Community of Belgium, a political level responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education. The small German-speaking minority in the east forms the German-speaking Community of Belgium, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues. The demonym for Wallonia is Walloon.
During the industrial revolution, Wallonia trailed only the United Kingdom in industrialization, capitalizing on its extensive deposits of coal and iron. This brought the region wealth, and, from the beginning of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries, Wallonia was the more prosperous half of Belgium. Since World War II, however, the importance of heavy industry has greatly declined, and the Flemish Region surpassed Wallonia in wealth as Wallonia economically declined. Wallonia now suffers from high unemployment and has a significantly lower GDP per capita than Flanders. The economic inequalities and linguistic divide between the two are major sources of political conflict in Belgium.
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Warmley
Warmley is a village in South Gloucestershire, England, to the east of Kingswood on the outskirts of Bristol.
In the mid 18th century it contained the Warmley Works of William Champion. It is the home of a football team, Warmley F.C., and the brewery Bath Ales.
The Bristol & Bath Railway Path passes through Warmley.
One of its most famous residents is Neil Wilmer, famed for working on the hit television shows Deal or No Deal and Springwatch.[citation needed]
Warmley features a public green space known as Warmley Forest Park, which includes a skate park and a scout hut. Siston Brook flows through Warmley Forest Park, and a fantastic tree swing is positioned over the brook.
The Warmley War Memorial Park sits on the High Street opposite the landmark sign of the bicycle shop which has been plying its trade in the heart of the village since the beginning of the 20th century.
The 21st century has seen a 'ring road' snake around the edge of the village bringing with it its encumbant services and turning the local garage into an ' tesco express' fuel and grocery shop.
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Woolwich
Coordinates: 51°29′46″N 0°04′05″E / 51.4961°N 0.0681°E / 51.4961; 0.0681
Woolwich ( /ˈwʊlɪtʃ/ or /ˈwʊlɪdʒ/) is a district in south London, England, located in the Royal Borough of Greenwich. The area is identified in the London Plan as one of 35 major centres in Greater London.
Woolwich formed part of Kent until 1889 when the County of London was created. It is notable as a river crossing point, having the Woolwich Ferry (and the lesser-known Woolwich foot tunnel) to North Woolwich, and as the one-time home of the Woolwich Building Society (now owned by Barclays plc).
In 1796 Daniel Lysons wrote, "this place in old charters is called Hulviz, Wolwiche, Wollewic, &c. I can find nothing satisfactory relating to its etymology." But it is now generally believed that the name Woolwich derives from the Anglo-Saxon name, "trading place for wool". Woolwich has been inhabited since at least the Iron Age, and a Roman fort was found in the current Riverside park.
Woolwich remained a small Kentish village until it started to become a leading military and industrial town. It was home to the Woolwich Dockyard (founded in 1512), the Royal Arsenal (dating back to 1471), the Royal Military Academy (1741) and the Royal Horse Artillery (1793); the town still retains an army base at the Royal Artillery Barracks (although 16RA Royal Artillery left in 2007, Woolwich Barracks still house the Royal Artillery Band and more recently Second Battalion Princess of Wales Royal Regiment and Kings Troop Royal Horse Artillery), and the Royal Artillery Museum, Firepower. The nearby Greenwich Heritage Centre also houses exhibits relating to the Royal Arsenal.
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Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He, formerly spelled Hwang Ho, is the second-longest river in China after the Yangtze and the sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 kilometers (3,395 mi). Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into the Bohai Sea. The Yellow River basin has an east-west extent of 1900 km (1,180 mi) and a north-south extent of 1100 km (684 mi). Its total basin area is 742,443 km² (290,520 mi²).
The Yellow River is called "the cradle of Chinese civilization" as its basin – specifically, the Wei valley that cuts across the long Ordos loop – was the birthplace of ancient Chinese civilizations and the most prosperous region in early Chinese history. However, frequent devastating floods and course changes produced by the continual elevation of the river bed, sometimes above the level of its surrounding fields has also earned it the unenviable names "China's Sorrow" and "Scourge of the Sons of Han."
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Abraham Darby I
Abraham Darby I (14 April 1678 – 8 March 1717) was the first, and most famous, of three generations with that name in an English Quaker family that played an important role in the Industrial Revolution. He developed a method of producing pig iron in a blast furnace fuelled by coke rather than charcoal. This was a major step forward in the production of iron as a raw material for the Industrial Revolution.
Abraham Darby was the son of John Darby, a yeoman farmer and locksmith by trade, and his wife Ann Baylies. He was born at Wren's Nest, Woodsetton, Staffordshire, just across the county boundary from Dudley, Worcestershire. He was descended from nobility; his great-grandmother Jane was an illegitimate child of Edward Sutton, 5th Baron Dudley.
Abraham's great-grandmother was a sister of the whole blood to Dud Dudley, who claimed to have smelted iron using coke as a fuel. Unfortunately, the iron that Dudley produced was not acceptable to the charcoal ironmasters. However, this may have inspired his great-grandnephew Darby to perfect this novel method of smelting.
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Abraham Darby II
Abraham Darby II (12 May 1711 – 31 March 1763) was the second Abraham Darby in three generations of an English Quaker family that played a role in the period leading up to the Industrial Revolution.
He was born in Coalbrookdale, Shropshire to Abraham and Mary (née Sergeant) Darby.
He followed in his father's footsteps in the Darby foundry business in Coalbrookdale, producing cast iron cooking pots, kettles, and other goods. The Coalbrookdale Company also played an important role in using iron to replace the more expensive brass for cylinders for Thomas Newcomen's steam engines.
He and his partners were responsible for a very important innovation in introducing the use of coke pig iron as the feedstock for finery forges. This formed a significant part of the output of Horsehay and Ketley Furnaces, which they built in the late 1750s. His father's successful use of coke pig iron as foundry feedstock, and his own success in using it as forge feedstock were two of the steps towards the industrial revolution for the iron industry, but the final breakthrough that permitted the great expansion of iron production that constitutes the industrial revolution for it came later.
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Abraham Darby III
Abraham Darby III (24 April 1750–1791) was an English ironmaster and Quaker. He was the third Abraham Darby in three generations of an English Quaker family that played a role in the Industrial Revolution.
He was born on Coalbrookdale, Shropshire in 1750, the eldest son of Abraham Darby II (1711–1763) and his second wife, Abiah (née Maude) Darby and educated at a school in Worcester.
Having inherited at 13 his father's shares in the family iron-making businesses, in 1768 he took over the management of the Coalbrookdale ironworks in the Severn Valley. He took various measures to improve the conditions of his work force. In times of food shortage he bought up farms to grow food for his workers, he built housing for them, and he offered higher wages than were paid in other local industry (such as mining or pottery). He built the largest cast iron structure of his era: the first iron bridge ever built. It crossed over the Severn near Coalbrookdale. The bridge caused the village of Ironbridge, Shropshire, to grow up around it, with the area being subsequently named Ironbridge Gorge.
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Abraham Rees
Abraham Rees (1743 – 9 June 1825) was a Welsh nonconformist minister, and compiler of Rees's Cyclopaedia (in 45 volumes).
He was the second son of Lewis Rees, by his wife Esther, daughter of Abraham Penry, and was born at born in Llanbrynmair, Montgomeryshire. Lewis Rees (b. 2 March 1710; d 21 March 1800) was independent minister at Llanbrynmair (1734–1759) and Mynyddbach, Glamorganshire (1759–1800). Abraham was educated for the ministry at Coward's academy in Wellclose Square, near London, under David Jennings, entering in 1759. In 1762 he was appointed assistant tutor in mathematics and natural philosophy; on the move of the academy to Hoxton after Jennings's death in 1762 he became resident tutor, a position which he held till 1785, his colleagues being Andrew Kippis and Samuel Morton Savage; subsequently he was tutor in Hebrew and mathematics in the New College at Hackney (1786–96).
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Adam Smith
Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Principles Which Lead and Direct Philosophical Enquiries, Illustrated by the History of Astronomy, prior to 1758, The Theory of Moral Sentiments, 1759, and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 1776. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. It earned him an enormous reputation and would become one of the most influential works ever published. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics and capitalism and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today. In 2009, Smith was named among the 'Greatest Scots' of all time, in a vote run by Scottish television channel STV.
Smith studied social philosophy at the University of Glasgow and at Balliol College in the University of Oxford, where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by his fellow Glaswegian John Snell. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at Edinburgh, leading him to collaborate with David Hume during the Scottish Enlightenment. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published The Theory of Moral Sentiments. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith then returned home and spent the next ten years writing The Wealth of Nations, publishing it in 1776. He died in 1790 at the age of 67.
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Andrew Meikle
Andrew Meikle (1719 – 27 November 1811) was an early mechanical engineer credited with inventing the threshing machine, a device used to remove the outer husks from grains of wheat. He also had a hand in assisting Firbeck in the invention of the Rotherham Plough. This was regarded as one of the key developments of the British Agricultural Revolution in the late 18th century. The invention was made around 1786, although some say he only improved on an earlier design.
Earlier (c.1772), he also invented windmill 'Spring sails', which replaced the simple canvas designs previously used with sails made from a series of shutters that could be operated by levers, allowing windmill sails to be quickly and safely controlled in the event of a storm.
Meikle worked as a millwright at Houston Mill in East Linton, East Lothian, and inspired John Rennie to become a noted civil engineer.
He died at Houston Mill and is buried in East Linton's Prestonkirk Parish Church kirkyard, close to Rennie's father, George Rennie, who farmed the nearby Phantassie estate by the River Tyne.
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Angus Maddison
Angus Maddison (6 December 1926 – 24 April 2010) was a British economist and a world scholar on quantitative macroeconomic history, including the measurement and analysis of economic growth and development. He was Emeritus Professor at the Faculty of Economics at the University of Groningen (RUG).
Born in Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, Maddison was schooled at Darlington Grammar School and attended the University of Cambridge as an undergraduate. After attending McGill University and Johns Hopkins University as a graduate student, he decided not to pursue a Ph.D. and returned to the United Kingdom to teach for a year at the University of St. Andrews. He subsequently got his doctorate.
In 1953, Maddison joined the Organisation for European Economic Cooperation (OEEC), and afterwards became Head of the OEEC Economics Division. In 1963, when the OEEC became the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Maddison became Assistant Director of the Economic Development Department. In 1966-71 he took leave of absence and spent the next 15 years in a series of consulting appointments during which he returned to the OECD for four years.
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Arnold Toynbee
Arnold Toynbee (23 August 1852 – 9 March 1883) was a British economic historian also noted for his social commitment and desire to improve the living conditions of the working classes.
Toynbee was born in London, the son of the physician Joseph Toynbee, a pioneering otolaryngologist.
Arnold Toynbee was the uncle, via his brother Harry Valpy Toynbee, of universal historian Arnold Joseph Toynbee (1889–1975); with whom he is often confused.
Toynbee attended public schools in Blackheath and Woolwich. In 1873 he began to study political economy at Oxford University, first at Pembroke College and from 1875 at Balliol College, where he went on to teach after his graduation in 1878. His lectures on the history of the Industrial Revolution in 18th and 19th century Britain proved widely influential; in fact, Toynbee coined, or at least effectively popularised, the term "Industrial Revolution" in the Anglophone world—in Germany and elsewhere it had been brought into circulation earlier by Friedrich Engels, also under the impression of the industrial changes in Britain.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Benjamin Huntsman
Benjamin Huntsman (4 June 1704 – 20 June 1776) was an English inventor and manufacturer of cast or crucible steel.
Huntsman was born the third son of a Quaker farmer in Epworth, Lincolnshire. His parents were Germans who had emigrated only a few years before his birth.
Huntsman started business as a clock, lock and tool maker in Doncaster. His reputation enabled him to also practice surgery in an experimental fashion and was also consulted as an oculist.
Huntsman experimented in steel manufacture, first at Doncaster. Then in 1740 he moved to Handsworth, near Sheffield. Eventually, after many experiments, Huntsman was able to make satisfactory cast steel, in clay pots or crucibles holding about 34 pounds of blistered steel each. A flux was added and they were covered and heated by means of coke for about three hours. The molten steel is then poured into moulds and the crucibles reused. The local cutlery manufacturers refused to buy it as it was harder than the German steel they were accustomed to using. For a long time Huntsman exported his whole output to France.
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Charles Tennant
Charles Tennant (3 May 1768 - 1 October 1838) was a Scottish chemist and industrialist. He discovered bleaching powder and founded an industrial dynasty.
Born at Laigh Corton, Alloway, Ayrshire to John Tennant (1725–1810) and his second wife Margaret McClure (1738–1784). The family had worked the land for generations and were friends with local poet Robert Burns (1759–1796). In Burns' epistle to "James Tennant of Glenconner" Tennant is mentioned as "wabster Charlie" (Scots language: weaver). This referring to the occupation on which Tennant had embarked, namely silk weaving, being apprenticed at the village of Kilbarchan, Renfrewshire.
Charles was the ninth of John Tennants sixteen children. As a baby, he moved from Laigh corton farm to Glenconner, Ochiltree, Ayrshire This was the humble beginning of the man who was destined to become founder and master of a mighty chemical empire and a great liberal reformer. He became one of the most progressive thinkers of his time.
He was fortunate to receive schooling both at home and at the Ochiltree parish school. He was apprenticed by his father to a master handloom weaver. This was a highly paid occupation, requiring great skill and considerable intelligence. Weavers were to be envied at the end of the eighteenth century for weaving had developed into Scotland's first industry, the counterpart of the woolen industry in England. Most farmers grew flax for their wives to spin and this, along with imported cotton, provided the material for many newly established cotton mills.
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Confucius
Confucius (551–479 BC) was a Chinese teacher, editor, politician, and philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period of Chinese history.
The philosophy of Confucius emphasized personal and governmental morality, correctness of social relationships, justice, and sincerity. His followers competed successfully with many other schools during the Hundred Schools of Thought era only to be suppressed in favor of the Legalists during the Qin Dynasty. Following the victory of Han over Chu after the collapse of Qin, Confucius's thoughts received official sanction and were further developed into a system known as Confucianism.
Confucius is traditionally credited with having authored or edited many of the Chinese classic texts including all of the Five Classics, but modern scholars are cautious of attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but only many years after his death.
Confucius's principles had a basis in common Chinese tradition and belief. He championed strong family loyalty, ancestor worship, respect of elders by their children (and in traditional interpretations of husbands by their wives), and family as a basis for ideal government. He espoused the well-known principle "Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself", an early version of the Golden Rule.
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Cranege brothers
Thomas and George Cranege developed the use of the reverberatory furnace for the production of wrought iron from cast iron. Their experimentation using coal in 1766 at the Coalbrookdale iron works under the sponsorship of Richard Reynolds was a precursor to the work of Henry Cort, who further refined their techniques, together with those of Peter Onions, leading to his patent of 1784.
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Daniel Bourn
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David Landes
David S. Landes (born 1924) is a professor emeritus of economics at Harvard University and retired professor of history at George Washington University. He is the author of Revolution in Time, The Unbound Prometheus, The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, and Dynasties. Such works have received both praise for detailed retelling of economic history, as well as scorn on charges of blatant Eurocentrism, a charge he embraces explicitly, arguing that an explanation for an economic miracle that happened originally only in Europe must of necessity be a eurocentric analysis.
Landes earned a Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1953 and an A.B. from City College of New York in 1942.
Historian Niall Ferguson called him one of his 'most revered mentors'.
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Denis Papin
Denis Papin (22 August 1647 - c. 1712) was a French physicist, mathematician and inventor, best known for his pioneering invention of the steam digester, the forerunner of the steam engine and of the pressure cooker.
Born in Chitenay, (Loir-et-Cher, Centre Région), Papin attended a Jesuit school there, and from 1661 attended University at Angers, from which he graduated with a medical degree in 1669. In 1673, while working with Christiaan Huygens and Gottfried Leibniz in Paris, he became interested in using a vacuum to generate motive power.
Papin first visited London in 1675, and worked with Robert Boyle from 1676 to 1679, publishing an account of his work in Continuation of New Experiments (1680). During this period, Papin invented the steam digester, a type of pressure cooker with a safety valve. He first addressed the Royal Society in 1679 on the subject of his digester, and remained mostly in London until about 1687, when he left to take up an academic post in Germany.
As a Huguenot, Papin found himself greatly affected by the increasing restrictions placed on Protestants by Louis XIV of France and by the King's ultimate revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. In Germany he was able to live with fellow Huguenot exiles from France.
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Didot family
Didot is the name of a family of French printers, punch-cutters and publishers. Through its achievements and advancements in printing, publishing and typography, the family has lent its name to typographic measurements developed by François-Ambroise Didot and the Didot typeface developed by Firmin Didot.
François Didot (son of Denis Didot) was a merchant who was born in Paris in 1689 and died in 1757. In 1713 he opened a bookstore called "À la Bible d'or" (which could be translated "The Golden Bible") on the Quai des Grands-Augustins. The celebrated Abbé de Bernis served for a time there as a clerk after leaving the seminary. François Didot was a learned man, and held by his colleagues in such great esteem that he was elected to the dignity of Syndic of the Booksellers' Corporation in 1735. He received his printer's charter from the king in 1754. Among the books he published should be mentioned the "Histoire des voyages" ("Story of Voyages/Travels") (20 vols., quarto), the first seventeen volumes of which are attributed to the Abbé Prévost.
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Eaton Hodgkinson
Eaton A. Hodgkinson (26 February 1789 - 18 June 1861) was an English engineer, a pioneer of the application of mathematics to problems of structural design.
Hodgkinson was born in the village of Anderton, near Great Budworth, Cheshire to a farming family. His father died when Hodgkinson was six years old and he was raised with his two sisters by his mother who maintained the farming business. She sent her son to Witton Grammar School in Northwich where he studied the classics with the intention that he would fulfill the family's ambition that he prepares for a career in the Church of England. Unfortunately, the regime was unsuited to his tastes and talents which were already showing promise in mathematics. His mother moved him to a less prestigious private school in Northwich where his enthusiasm for mathematics was encouraged and fostered but, as the young Hodgkinson grew physically, he became indispensable on the family farm and soon left education to devote himself there.
However, farming was no more to his taste than Greek and Latin and his mother yearned to satisfy her son's appetites. Family friends advised that Hodgkinson might find some more suitable outlet in nearby Manchester and so, in 1811, the family left for Salford to open a pawnbroking business. Hodgkinson used all his spare time in reading science and mathematics and soon introduced himself into Manchester's scientific community, meeting, among others, his future collaborator, Sir William Fairbairn. He became a pupil of John Dalton, studying mathematics, and the two remained firm friends until Dalton's death in 1844. He retired early from the family business to devote a modest pension to his scientific work.
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Edmund Cartwright
Edward (Edmund) Cartwright (24 April 1743 – 30 October 1823) was an English clergyman and inventor of the power loom.
Cartwright was taught at Queen Elizabeth Grammar School, Wakefield and University College, Oxford and became a clergyman of the Church of England. Cartwright began his career as a clergyman, becoming, in 1779, rector of Goadby Marwood, Leicestershire; in 1783 he was a prebendary in Lincoln (Lincolnshire) cathedral.
He addressed the problem of mechanical weaving. Mechanical spinning and the factory system, were already in place. He designed his first power loom in 1784 and patented it in 1785, but it proved to be valueless. In 1789, he patented another loom which served as the model for later inventors to work upon. For a mechanically driven loom to become a commercial success, either one person would have to attend one machine, or each machine must have a greater productive capacity than one manually controlled. An old man named Zach Dijkhoff assisted him in his work with creating this contraption.
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Eric Hobsbawm
Eric John Ernest Hobsbawm, CH, FBA, FRSL (born 9 June 1917) is a British Marxist historian, public intellectual, and author. His best known works include the trilogy about the long 19th century: The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789-1848, The Age of Capital: 1848-1875 and The Age of Empire: 1875-1914; and an edited volume which introduced the influential idea of 'invented traditions'.
Hobsbawm was born in 1917 in Alexandria, Egypt, to Leopold Percy Obstbaum and Nelly Grün, both Jewish, and he grew up in Vienna, Austria and Berlin, Germany. A clerical error at birth altered his surname from Obstbaum to Hobsbawm. Although the family lived in German-speaking countries, his parents spoke to him and his younger sister Nancy in English.
His father died in 1929, and he started working as an au pair and English tutor. He became an orphan at age 14 upon the death of his mother. Subsequently, he and Nancy were adopted by his maternal aunt, Gretl, and paternal uncle, Sidney, who married and had a son named Peter. Hobsbawm was a schoolboy in Berlin when Hitler came to power in 1933; that year the family moved to London where he attended St Marylebone Grammar School.
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Friedrich Engels
Friedrich Engels (German pronunciation: [ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɛŋəls]; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German-English industrialist, social scientist, author, political theorist, philosopher, and father of Marxist theory, alongside Karl Marx. In 1845 he published The Condition of the Working Class in England, based on personal observations and research. In 1848 he co-authored The Communist Manifesto with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write Das Kapital. After Marx's death Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value" and this was later published as the "fourth volume" of Capital.
Friedrich (Frederick) Engels was born on November 28, 1820 in Barmen, Prussia (now Wuppertal, Germany). At the time, Barmen was an expanding industrial metropole and Frederick was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. As his father, Friederich Sr., was a Methodist. Accordingly, Fredrick was raised Christian Pietist. As he grew up, his relationship with his parents became strained because of his atheist beliefs. Parental disapproval of his revolutionary activities is recorded in an October, 1848 letter from his mother, Elizabeth Engels. In this letter his mother berates him for having "really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further.". "You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest." At the point this letter was written Frederick Engels was in hiding in Brussels, Belgium and was soon to make his way to Switzerland and then in 1849 make his way back into Germany to participate in the revolutionary uprising in Baden and Palatinate.
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Gautama Buddha
Gautama Buddha or Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." Gautama Buddha may also be referred to as Śākyamuni (Sanskrit: शाक्यमुनि "Sage of the Śākyas"). The Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
The time of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal, as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha. There are also claims about birth place of Gautama Buddha to be Kapileswara, Orissa or Kapilavastu at Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.
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George Stephenson
George Stephenson (9 June 1781 – 12 August 1848) was an English civil engineer and mechanical engineer who built the first public railway line in the world to use steam locomotives. Renowned as being the "Father of Railways", the Victorians considered him a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement, with self-help advocate Samuel Smiles particularly praising his achievements. His rail gauge of 4 feet 8+1⁄2 inches (1,435 mm), sometimes called "Stephenson gauge", is the world's standard gauge.
George Stephenson was born in Wylam, Northumberland, 9.3 miles (15.0 km) west of Newcastle upon Tyne. He was the second child of Robert and Mabel, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a very low wage, so that there was no money for schooling. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at Water Row Pit, Newburn. George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic—he was illiterate till the age of 18. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton colliery as a 'brakesman', controlling the winding gear of the pit. In 1802 he married Frances (Fanny) Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage. George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income.
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Gustave Doré
Paul Gustave Doré (French pronunciation: [pɔl ɡystav dɔʁe]; January 6, 1832 – January 23, 1883) was a French artist, engraver, illustrator and sculptor. Doré worked primarily with wood engraving and steel engraving.
Doré was born in Strasbourg and his first illustrated story was published at the age of fifteen. His talent was evident even earlier, however. At age five he had been a prodigy troublemaker, playing pranks that were mature beyond his years. Seven years later, he began carving in cement. Subsequently, as a young man, he began work as a literary illustrator in Paris, winning commissions to depict scenes from books by Rabelais, Balzac, Milton and Dante.
In 1853, Doré was asked to illustrate the works of Lord Byron. This commission was followed by additional work for British publishers, including a new illustrated English Bible. A decade later, he illustrated a French edition of Cervantes's Don Quixote, and his depictions of the knight and his squire, Sancho Panza, have become so famous that they have influenced subsequent readers, artists, and stage and film directors' ideas of the physical "look" of the two characters. Doré also illustrated an oversized edition of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Raven", an endeavor that earned him 30,000 francs from publisher Harper & Brothers in 1883.
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Han Fei
Han Fei (Chinese: 韓非; pinyin: Hán Fēi; Wade–Giles: Han Fei; ca. 280–233 BC), also known as Han Feizi, was a Chinese philosopher who, along with Li Si, Gongsun Yang, Shen Dao and Shen Buhai, developed the doctrine of Legalism. Unlike the other famed philosophers of the time, Han Fei was a member of the ruling aristocracy, having been born into the ruling family of the state of Han during the end phase of the Warring States Period. In this context, his works have been interpreted by some scholars as being directed to his cousin, the King of Han.
Han Fei is his name, while zi (子, meaning "Master") was often added to philosophers' names as an honorific—such as Kong Fuzi (孔夫子) for Confucius—thus Han Feizi (韓非子) can denote the book written by him, but is also used in reference to the person himself.
Han Fei belonged to the school of Ancient Chinese Philosophy called Legalism. Legalism assumed that people were naturally evil and always acted to avoid punishment while simultaneously trying to achieve gains; Thus, the law must severely punish any unwanted action, while at the same time reward those who follow it. Han Fei Synthesized the ideas of Shang Yang, Shen Buhai, and Shen Dao, while borrowing Shang Yang's emphasis on laws, Shen Buhai's emphasis on techniques, and Shen Dao's ideas on authority and prophecy. Hen Fei's interpretation of Legalism stressed that the autocrat will be able achieve the ultimate ends of Legalist philosophy of firmly control the state with the mastering of three concepts: his position of power (勢, Shì); certain techniques (術, Shù), and laws (法, Fǎ) as described in his classic work, the Han Feizi (book).
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Henry Bessemer
Sir Henry Bessemer (19 January 1813 – 15 March 1898) was an English engineer, inventor, and businessman. Bessemer's name is chiefly known in connection with the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel.
Bessemer's father, Anthony, was born in London, but moved to Paris when he was 21 years old. He was an inventor who, while he was engaged by the Paris Mint, made a machine for making medallions that could produce steel dies from a larger model. He became a member of the French Academy of Science, for his improvements to the optical microscope, when he was only 26. He was forced to leave Paris by the French Revolution, and returned to Britain. There he invented a process for making gold chains, which was successful, and enabled him to buy a small estate in the village of Charlton, near Hitchin in Hertfordshire, where Henry was born in 1813.
The invention from which Henry Bessemer made his first fortune was a series of six steam-powered machines for making bronze powder. As he relates in his autobiography, he examined the bronze powder made in Nuremberg which was the only place where it was made at the time. He then copied and improved the product and made it capable of being made on a simple production line. It was an early example of reverse engineering where a product is analysed, and then reconstituted. The process was kept a closely guarded secret, with only members of his immediate family having access to the factory. It was a widely used alternative to a patent, and such trade secrets are still used today. The Nuremberg powder, which was made by hand, retailed in London for £5 12s per pound and he eventually reduced the price to half a crown, or about 1/40th. The profits from sale of the paint allowed him to pursue his other inventions.
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Henry Cort
Henry Cort (1741? – May 23, 1800) was an English ironmaster. During the Industrial Revolution in England, Cort began refining iron from pig iron to wrought iron (or bar iron) using innovative production systems. In 1783 he patented the puddling process for refining iron ore. The Henry Cort Community College bears his name, located in the large town of Fareham, in the south of Hampshire, England.
The son of a builder, Cort was born in Lancaster. Although his date of birth has traditionally been given as 1740, evidence from the time of his first marriage suggests he was born in April or May 1791. As a young man, he worked as a Royal Navy pay agent in London, where his interest in the poor quality of English iron against overseas supplies developed, leading to his inventions that greatly increased the quality of iron production. He left his job as an agent in 1775. His 1768 marriage to Elizabeth Heysham had connected him to the Attwick family of Gosport, and to Elizabeth's uncle, William Attwick. Cort joined Attwick in the family iron business, living and working in Gosport.
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Henry Fourdrinier
(Henry Fourdrinier) (February 11, 1766 – September 3, 1854) was a British inventor.
He was born in 1766, the son of a paper maker and stationer. With his brother, Sealy, he invented and improved the Fourdrinier machine, a papermaking machine that could make continuous paper (rolls). A patent was granted on July 24, 1806 , for a machine that could make any size of paper, very quickly.
The invention cost £60000, and caused the brothers to go bankrupt. Due to various laws, it was difficult to protect the patent on the machine, and the new system was widely adopted. In 1814, two machines were made in Peterhof, Russia, by order of the Russian emperor on the condition £700 would be paid to Fourdrinier every year for ten years — but, despite petitioning Tsar Nicholas, no money was ever paid. In 1839, a petition was brought before parliament, and in 1840, £7000 was paid to Fourdrinier and his family.
Fourdrinier died in 1854, at the age of 88.
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Henry Maudslay
Henry Maudslay (pronunciation and spelling) (22 August 1771 – 14 February 1831) was a British machine tool innovator, tool and die maker, and inventor. He is considered a founding father of machine tool technology.
Maudslay's father, also named Henry, served as a wheelwright in the Royal Engineers. After being wounded in action he became a storekeeper at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, London.[when?] There he married a young widow, Margaret Laundy and they had seven children, among which young Henry was the fifth. Henry’s father died in 1780. Like many boys of his era, Henry began his work in manufacturing quite young; by the age of 12, he was a "powder monkey", one of the boys employed in filling cartridges at the Arsenal. After two years, he was transferred to a carpenter’s shop followed by a blacksmith’s forge, where at the age of fifteen he began training as a blacksmith. He seems to have specialised in the lighter, more complex kind of forge work.
Maudslay acquired such a good reputation for his skill that Joseph Bramah (the inventor of the hydraulic press) called for his services. Bramah had recently designed and patented an improved type of lock based on the tumbler principle, but was having difficulty manufacturing the complex lock at an economic price. Having sent for Maudslay on the recommendation of one of his employees, Bramah was surprised to discover that he was only eighteen, but Maudslay demonstrated his ability and started work at Bramah’s workshop in Denmark Street, St Giles. It was Maudslay who built the lock that was displayed in Bramah’s shop window with a notice offering a reward of 200 guineas to anyone who could pick it. It resisted all efforts for forty-seven years. Maudslay designed and made a set of special tools and machines that allowed the lock to be made at an economic price.
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Henry Phelps Brown
Professor Sir Henry Phelps Brown (10 February 1906 – 15 December 1994) was a prominent British economist.
Phelps Brown was born in Calne, Wiltshire He won a scholarship to The Taunton Academy before winning an open scholarship to Wadham College at Oxford University to study first history, and then politics philosophy & economics. He won a half blue for cross country running in 1926, and was Secretary of the Oxford Union in 1928.
Directly following completion of his undergraduate studies in 1929, Phelps Brown was named a Fellow of the New College, where he taught economics from 1930 to 1947, following a year in the United States as a Rockefeller Travelling Fellow.
Phelps Brown joined the British Army at the outbreak of World War II and was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant in the Royal Artillery. This followed a failed attempt to present himself for service in the Board of Trade as an economic statistician. The chief statistician at that beginning of the war was attempting to reduce the work-force and was releasing statisticians for other war-related work, and by the time a new chief statistician was in place and looked to hire statisticians again, Phelps Brown was embedded with his unit and chose not to leave them. In November 1939 he was posted to France as part of the British Expeditionary Force, and then in 1940 evacuated from Dunkirk.Following a period anti-aircraft gunning around London during the Blitz, in January 1943 he took part in the Operation Torch landings in Algeria, and subsequently in Tunisia became part of the 8th Army. With this formation he took part in the invasion of Sicily and the subsequent campaign in Italy, where he took part in battles such as Monte Cassino. His unit fired their guns for the last time at the crossing of the River Po, by which time he was an acting Lieutenant Colonel commanding a battalion. At the end of the war, he was awarded the MBE.
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Hilaire Belloc
Joseph Hilaire Pierre René Belloc (/hɨˈlɛər ˈbɛlək/; French: [ilɛʁ bɛlɔk]; 27 July 1870 – 16 July 1953) was an Anglo-French writer and historian who became a naturalised British subject in 1902. He was one of the most prolific writers in England during the early twentieth century. He was known as a writer, orator, poet, satirist, man of letters, and political activist. He is most notable for his Catholic faith, which had a strong impact on most of his works and his writing collaboration with G. K. Chesterton. He was President of the Oxford Union and later MP for Salford from 1906 to 1910. He was a noted disputant, with a number of long-running feuds, but also widely regarded as a humane and sympathetic man.
His most lasting legacy is probably his verse, which encompasses cautionary tales and religious poetry. Among his best-remembered poems are Jim, who ran away from his nurse, and was eaten by a lion and Matilda, who told lies and was burnt to death"'
Recent biographies of Belloc have been written by A. N. Wilson and Joseph Pearce.
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Humphry Davy
Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet FRS MRIA FGS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and inventor. He is probably best remembered today for his discoveries of several alkali and alkaline earth metals, as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. Berzelius called Davy's 1806 Bakerian Lecture On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity "one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry." This paper was central to any chemical affinity theory in the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1815 he invented the Davy lamp, which allowed miners to work safely in the presence of flammable gases.
Davy was born in Penzance in Cornwall, United Kingdom, on 17 December 1778. The parish register of Madron (the parish church) records ‘Humphry Davy, son of Robert Davy, baptized at Penzance, January 22nd, 1779.’ Robert Davy was a wood carver at Penzance, who pursued his art rather for amusement than profit. As the representative of an old family (monuments to his ancestors in Ludgvan Church date as far back as 1635), he became possessor of a modest patrimony. His wife, Grace Millet, came from an old but no longer wealthy family. Her parents died within a few hours of each other from malignant fever, whereupon Grace and her two sisters were adopted by John Tonkin, an eminent surgeon in Penzance. Robert Davy and his wife became the parents of five children — two boys, Humphry, the eldest, and John, and three girls.
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James Brindley
James Brindley (1716 – 27 September 1772) was an English engineer. He was born in Tunstead, Derbyshire, and lived much of his life in Leek, Staffordshire, becoming one of the most notable engineers of the 18th century.
Born into a well-to-do family of yeoman farmers and craftsmen in the Peak District which in those days was extremely isolated, he received little formal education but was educated at home by his mother. At age 17, encouraged by his mother, he was apprenticed to a millwright in Sutton, Macclesfield and soon showed exceptional skill and ability. Having completed his apprenticeship he set up business for himself as a wheelwright in Leek, Staffordshire. In 1750 he expanded his business by renting a millwright's shop in Oakham. He soon established a reputation for ingenuity and skill at repairing many different kinds of machinery. In 1752 he designed and built an engine for draining a coal mine, the Wet Earth Colliery at Clifton in Lancashire. Three years later he built a machine for a silk-mill at Congleton.
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James Hargreaves
James Hargreaves (1720 – 1778) was a weaver, carpenter and inventor in Lancashire, England. He is credited with inventing the spinning jenny in 1764.
Born at Knuzden Brook near Stanhill, Oswaldtwistle in Lancashire, he lived at Blackburn, then a town with a population of about 5,000, known for the production of "Blackburn greys," cloths of linen Warp and cotton weft. They were usually sent to London to be printed. The demand for cotton yarn outstripped supply, and the one-thread spinning wheel could not keep up.
The idea for the spinning jenny is said to have come from the inventor seeing a one-thread wheel overturned upon the floor, when both the wheel and the spindle continued to revolve. He realised that if a number of spindles were placed upright and side by side, several threads might be spun at once. The spinning jenny was confined to producing cotton weft, it was unable to produce yarn of sufficient quality for the warp. High quality warp was later supplied by Arkwright's spinning frame.
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James Watt
James Watt, FRS, FRSE (19 January 1736 – 25 August 1819) was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer whose improvements to the Newcomen steam engine were fundamental to the changes brought by the Industrial Revolution in both his native Great Britain and the rest of the world.
While working as an instrument maker at the University of Glasgow, Watt became interested in the technology of steam engines. He realised that contemporary engine designs wasted a great deal of energy by repeatedly cooling and re-heating the cylinder. Watt introduced a design enhancement, the separate condenser, which avoided this waste of energy and radically improved the power, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness of steam engines. Eventually he adapted his engine to produce rotary motion, greatly broadening its use beyond pumping water.
Watt attempted to commercialize his invention, but experienced great financial difficulties until 1775 he entered a partnership with Matthew Boulton. The new firm of Boulton and Watt was eventually highly successful and Watt became a wealthy man. In his retirement, Watt continued to develop new inventions though none were as significant as his steam engine work. He died in 1819 at the age of 83. Watt has been described as one of the most influential figures in human history.
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Jenny Uglow
Jennifer Sheila Uglow OBE (née Crowther) is a British biographer, critic and publisher. The editorial director of Chatto & Windus, she has written critically acclaimed biographies of Elizabeth Gaskell, William Hogarth, Thomas Bewick and the Lunar Society, among others, and has also compiled a women's biographical dictionary.
She won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize and the Hessell-Tiltman Prize for The Lunar Men: The Friends who Made the Future 1730–1810, and her works have twice been shortlisted for the Whitbread Prize.
Uglow was brought up in Cumbria and later Dorset. She attended Cheltenham Ladies' College (1958–64) and St Anne's College, University of Oxford. After gaining a first in English, she took a B.Litt. In 1971, she married Steve Uglow, a professor of criminal justice at the University of Kent; the couple have three sons and a daughter. As of 2008, Uglow lives at Canterbury in Kent.
Uglow has worked in publishing since leaving university; as of 2008, she is the editorial director of the publishing company Chatto & Windus, an imprint of Random House.
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Joel Mokyr
Joel Mokyr (PhD Yale, 1974) is an American economic historian. He is the Robert H. Strotz Professor of Arts and Sciences at Northwestern University.
He holds a joint appointment in economics as well as a Sackler Professorial Fellow at the Eitan Berglas School of Economics at the University of Tel Aviv. He is particularly interested in the economic history of technology and population, but considers himself a general-purpose economic historian. A former editor of the Journal of Economic History, he served as the editor in chief of the Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, and continues to be editor in chief of a book series published by Princeton University Press, The Princeton University Press Economic History of the Western World. A former chair of the Economics Department and President of the Economic History Association, he is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and a number of comparable institutions in Europe.
Books:
Mokyr is married to Margalit Mokyr and they have two daughters.
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John Chafee
John Lester Hubbard Chafee ( /ˈtʃeɪfiː/ CHAY-fee; October 22, 1922 – October 24, 1999) was an American politician. He served as an officer in the United States Marine Corps, as the 66th Governor of Rhode Island, as the Secretary of the Navy, and as a United States Senator.
Chafee was born in Providence, Rhode Island to a politically active family. He was the son of Janet (née Hunter) and John S. Chafee. His great-grandfather, Henry Lippitt, was governor of Rhode Island (1875–1877) and among his great-uncles were a Rhode Island governor, Charles Warren Lippitt, and United States Senator Henry Frederick Lippitt. His uncle, Zechariah Chafee, was a Harvard law professor, and a notable civil libertarian.
John Chafee graduated from a coeducational primary school, Providence's Gordon School, in 1931 and then attended Providence Country Day School. In 1940, he graduated from Deerfield Academy in Massachusetts. Chafee was in his third year as an undergraduate at Yale University when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. He interrupted his undergraduate studies and enlisted in the Marine Corps, spending his 20th birthday on Guadalcanal fighting on the island from August 8, 1942 until November 1942, when the First Marine Division was relieved, during the Battle of Guadalcanal. After receiving his commission, he fought in the Battle of Okinawa in the spring of 1945 as a Second Lieutenant. Following the war, he received degrees from Yale University in 1947 and Harvard Law School in 1950. At Yale, he was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon (Phi chapter) and Skull and Bones fraternities. In 1951, he was recalled to active service to be a Marine rifle company commander during the Korean War with Dog Company, 2nd Battalion, 7th Marines.
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John Clapham
Sir John Harold Clapham, CBE, LittD, FBA (13 September 1873 – 29 March 1946) was a British economic historian.
He was educated at The Leys School in Cambridge and King's College, Cambridge. He was the first Professor of Economic History at Cambridge University from 1928 to 1938, and Vice-Provost of King's College, Cambridge from 1933 until 1943 in which year he received a knighthood.. He is also remembered for his work, The Bank of England, A History (1944) ISBN 0-521-04662-9
A famous quotation from him is: "Economic advance is not the same thing as human progress".
John Habakkuk was one of his students.
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John Keats
John Keats ( /ˈkiːts/; 31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English Romantic poet. He was one of the main figures of the second generation of romantic poets along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley, despite his work only having been in publication for four years before his death.
Although his poems were not generally well received by critics during his life, his reputation grew after his death, so that by the end of the 19th century he had become one of the most beloved of all English poets. He had a significant influence on a diverse range of later poets and writers. Jorge Luis Borges stated that his first encounter with Keats was the most significant literary experience of his life.
The poetry of Keats is characterized by sensual imagery, most notably in the series of odes. Today his poems and letters are some of the most popular and most analyzed in English literature.
John Keats was born on 31 October 1795 to Thomas and Frances Jennings Keats. Keats and his family seemed to have marked his birthday on 29 October, however baptism records give the birth date as the 31st. He was the eldest of four surviving children; George (1797–1841), Thomas (1799–1818) and Frances Mary "Fanny" (1803–1889). Another son was lost in infancy. John was born in central London although there is no clear evidence of the exact location. His father first worked as a hostler at the stables attached to the Swan and Hoop inn, an establishment he later managed and where the growing family lived for some years. Keats believed that he was born at the inn, a birthplace of humble origins, but there is no evidence to support this. The Keats at the Globe pub now occupies the site, a few yards from modern day Moorgate station. He was baptised at St Botolph-without-Bishopsgate and sent to a local dame school as a child.
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John Lombe
John Lombe (Norwich, 1693 - Derby, November 20, 1722) was a silk spinner in the 18th century Derby, England.
Lombe was born in Norwich in approximately 1693, the son of a worsted weaver. He was a younger half-brother of Thomas Lombe, who after his death, would go on to amass a fortune as a silk merchant in Norwich and London.
In the early 18th century, the centre for producing silk stockings by framework knitting had moved to the Midlands from London and the demand for spun silk was outstripping demand.
Thomas Lombe's brother John had obtained employment at an abortive silk mill built in Derby by the well-known inventor and engineer George Sorocold for the silk "spinner" Thomas Cotchett of Derby. The mill was built on the River Derwent in the city of Derby. It may have been the first instance of workers being gathered under one roof to work machinery driven by an inanimate power source.
The Italians had been using power spinning since the early 17th century, with a description published by Vittorio Zonca. Leonardo Da Vinci had sketched a similar model, but Zonca's was more complete; it is unknown if there was contact. John was sent by his brother to investigate the Italian machines spinning fine organzine thread. Organzine are raw silk warp threads and are essential for weaving fine silk cloth. As the story goes, he obtained employment at one of the Italian shops where the secret silk-throwing machinery was used. He stole into the shops at night and carefully diagrammed them by candlelight. He then brought the designs back to England in 1716.
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John Loudon McAdam
John Loudon McAdam (21 September 1756 – 26 November 1836) was a Scottish engineer and road-builder. He invented a new process, "macadamisation", for building roads with a smooth hard surface that would be more durable and less muddy than soil-based tracks.
Modern road construction still reflects McAdam's influence. Of subsequent improvements, the most significant was the introduction of tar (originally coal tar) to bind the road surface's stones together – "tarmac" (for Tar Macadam) – followed later by the use of hot-laid tarred aggregate or tar-sprayed chippings to create better road metalling. More recently, oil-based asphalt laid on reinforced concrete has become a major road surface, but its use of granite or limestone chippings still recalls McAdam's innovation.
McAdam was born in Ayr, Scotland. He was the youngest of ten children and second son of the Baron of Waterhead. The family name had traditionally been McGregor, but was changed to McAdam (claiming descent from the Biblical Adam) for political reasons in James I's reign. He moved to New York in 1770 and, as a merchant and prize agent during the American Revolution, made his fortune working at his uncle's counting house. He returned to Scotland in 1783 and purchased an estate at Sauchrie, Ayrshire.
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John Roebuck
This article is about the English inventor. For the 19th century British politician, see John Arthur Roebuck.
John Roebuck FRS (1718 – 17 July 1794) was an English inventor who played an important role in the Industrial Revolution and who is known for developing the industrial-scale manufacture of sulfuric acid.
John Roebuck was born at Sheffield, where his father had a prosperous manufacturing business. After attending Sheffield Grammar School and Dr. Philip Doddridge's academy at Northampton, Roebuck studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he developed a taste for chemistry from the lectures of William Cullen and Joseph Black. He finally graduated M.D. at the University of Leiden in 1742. Roebuck started medical practice at Birmingham, but devoted much of his time to chemistry, especially its practical applications. Among the most important of his early achievements in this field was the introduction, in 1746, of leaden condensing chambers for the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Together with Samuel Garbett, in 1749 he built a factory at Prestonpans, in Scotland, for the production of the acid, and for some years they enjoyed a monopoly. Having omitted to take out patents, Roebuck's was unable to prevent others from making use of his methods as they eventually became known.
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John Smeaton
John Smeaton, FRS, (8 June 1724 – 28 October 1792) was an English civil engineer responsible for the design of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, and often regarded as the "father of civil engineering".
He was associated with the Lunar Society.
Smeaton was born in Austhorpe, Leeds, England. After studying at Leeds Grammar School he joined his father's law firm, but left to become a mathematical instrument maker (working with Henry Hindley), developing, among other instruments, a pyrometer to study material expansion and a whirling speculum or horizontal top (a maritime navigation aid).
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1753, and in 1759 won the Copley Medal for his research into the mechanics of waterwheels and windmills. His 1759 paper "An Experimental Enquiry Concerning the Natural Powers of Water and Wind to Turn Mills and Other Machines Depending on Circular Motion" addressed the relationship between pressure and velocity for objects moving in air (Smeaton noted that the table doing so was actually contributed by "my friend Mr Rouse" "an ingenious gentleman of Harborough, Leicestershire" and calculated on the basis of Rouse's experiments), and his concepts were subsequently developed to devise the 'Smeaton Coefficient'.
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Jonathan Hornblower
Jonathan Hornblower (Chacewater, 5 July 1753 – Penryn, 23 February 1815) was a British pioneer of steam power.
The son of Jonathan Hornblower the Elder and the brother of Jabez Carter Hornblower, two fellow pioneers, the young Hornblower was educated at Truro Grammar School, then apprenticed to a metal-working tradesman at Penryn. He was baptized at Trelever on 25 July 1773.
He developed a compound engine in 1781 but was prevented from pursuing his invention by litigation with James Watt (Boulton & Watt) over intellectual property. His compound steam engine principle was not revived until 1804 by Arthur Woolf. Following the expiration of Boulton and Watt's patent, Hornblower's compound steam engine principle contributed significantly to the increases in steam engine efficiency.
He invented the double-beat steam valve in around 1800.
In other developments in steam technology, however, he was more successful and he died a rich man at Penryn in 1815. He is buried in St Gluvias churchyard.
He had married twice, firstly to Rosamund Phillips in 1775 and afterwards to Elizabeth Jordan with whom he had two surviving daughters, Rosamund (1789) and Elizabeth (1790).
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Joseph Aspdin
Joseph Aspdin (December? 1778 – 20 March 1855) was a British cement manufacturer who obtained the patent for Portland cement on 21 October 1824.
Joseph Aspdin (or Aspden) was the eldest of the six children of Thomas Aspdin, a bricklayer living in the Hunslet district of Leeds, Yorkshire. He was baptized on Christmas Day, 1778. He entered his father's trade, and married Mary Fotherby at Leeds Parish Church (the Parish Church of St Peter at Leeds) [1] on 21 May 1811.
By 1817 he had set up in business on his own in central Leeds. He must have experimented with cement manufacture during the next few years, because on 21 October 1824 he was granted the British Patent BP 5022 entitled An Improvement in the Mode of Producing an Artificial Stone, in which he coined the term "Portland cement" by analogy with the Portland stone, an oolitic limestone that is quarried on the channel coast of England, on the Isle of Portland in Dorset. See below for the text of the patent.
Almost immediately after this, in 1825, in partnership with a Leeds neighbour, William Beverley, he set up a production plant for this product in Kirkgate, Wakefield. Beverley stayed in Leeds, but Aspdin and his family moved to Wakefield (about 9 miles away) at this point. He obtained a second patent, for a method of making lime, in 1825. The Kirkgate plant was closed in 1838 after compulsory purchase of the land by the Manchester and Leeds Railway Company, and the site was cleared. He moved his equipment to a second site nearby in Kirkgate.
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Joseph Bramah
Joseph Bramah (13 April 1748 – 9 December 1814), born Stainborough Lane Farm, Wentworth, Yorkshire, England, was an inventor and locksmith. He is best known for having invented the hydraulic press. Along with William George Armstrong, he can be considered one of the two fathers of hydraulic engineering.
He was the second son in the family of three sons and two daughters of Joseph Bramma (note the different spelling of the surname), a farmer, and his wife, Mary Denton. He was educated at the local school in Silkstone and on leaving school he was apprenticed to a local carpenter. On completing his apprenticeship he moved to London, where he started work as a cabinet-maker. In 1783 he married Mary Lawton of Mapplewell, near Barnsley, and the couple set up home in London. They subsequently had a daughter and four sons. The couple lived first at 124 Piccadilly, but later moved to Eaton Street, Pimlico.
In London, Bramah worked for a Mr. Allen, installing water closets (toilets) which were designed to a patent obtained by Alexander Cumming in 1775. He found that the current model being installed in London houses had a tendency to freeze in cold weather. Although it was Allen who improved the design by replacing the usual slide valve with a hinged flap that sealed the bottom of the bowl, Bramah obtained the patent for it in 1778, and began making toilets at a workshop in Denmark Street, St Giles. The design was a success and production continued well into the 19th century.
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Joseph Clement
Joseph Clement ( 1779 – 28 February 1844) was a British engineer and industrialist, chiefly remembered as the maker of Charles Babbage's first Difference engine, between 1824 and 1833.
Joseph Clement was born on 13 June 1779 at Great Asby in Westmorland, the son of a hand-loom weaver. Although he was taught to read and write at the local school, he learned mechanics and natural history from his father, Thomas, who had built himself a lathe. He worked, first as a weaver, then as a slater, and learned metalwork from the local blacksmith. With these skills, he built himself his own lathe, on which he turned woodwind musical instruments, which he then learned to play.
By 1805 he was making looms at a factory in Kirkby Stephen, then moved first to Carlisle, then to Glasgow where he learned draughtsmanship from Peter Nicholson. By 1812 he was with Leys, Masson & Co. in Aberdeen, where he attended lectures in natural philosophy at Marischal College.
In 1813, he moved to London, first working for Alexander Galloway in Holborn. He soon left in search of wages more suiting his skills, moving to Joseph Bramah at Pimlico. Bramah doubled the wages Galloway had paid and entered into a formal agreement with Clement for a term of five years, dated 1 April 1814, making him chief draughtsman and superintendent of Bramah's Pimlico works.
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Joseph Gillott
Joseph Gillott (11 October 1799 - 5 January 1873) was an English pen-maker and patron of the arts.
For some time he was a working cutler in his home town Sheffield, but in 1821 he moved to Birmingham, where he found employment in the steel toy trade, the technical name for the manufacture of steel buckles, chains and light ornamental steel-work generally.
About 1830 he turned his attention to the manufacture of steel pens by machinery, establishing its own company, Joseph Gillott's in Birmingham, which still produces nibs nowadays.
Gillott was a liberal art-patron, and one of the first to recognize the merits of J.M.W. Turner. He died in Birmingham and was buried in Key Hill Cemetery. His collection of pictures, sold after his death, realized £170,000. A white marble bust of Gillott stands in the main foyer of Birmingham Council House, and may be viewed by members of the public.
The family home for many years was 'The Grove' on Westbourne Road in Edgbaston and this was were Joseph junior grew up. In later years, Gillott (jnr) purchased a vast estate in the village of Catherine-de-Barnes, Solihull on which he built New Berry Hall, a large gothic mansion with North and South Lodges. He also built the school in the village.
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Joseph Whitworth
Sir Joseph Whitworth, 1st Baronet (21 December 1803 – 22 January 1887) was an English engineer, entrepreneur, inventor and philanthropist. In 1841, he devised the British Standard Whitworth system, which created an accepted standard for screw threads. Whitworth also created the Whitworth rifle, often called the 'sharpshooter' because of its accuracy and is considered one of the earliest examples of a sniper rifle.
Upon his death in 1887, he bequeathed much of his fortune for the people of Manchester, with the Whitworth Art Gallery and Christie Hospital partly funded by Whitworth's money. Whitworth Street and Whitworth Hall in Manchester are named in his honour.
Whitworth was born in Stockport, the son of Charles Whitworth, a teacher and Congregational minister, and at an early age developed an interest in machinery. He was educated at Idle, near Bradford; his aptitude for mechanics became apparent when he began work for his uncle.
After leaving school Whitworth became an indentured apprentice to his uncle, Charles Hulse, a cotton spinner at Amber Mill, Oakerthorpe in Derbyshire. This was for a four year term after which he worked for another four years as a mechanic in a factory in Manchester. He then moved to London where he found employment working for Henry Maudslay, the inventor of the screw-cutting lathe, alongside such people as James Nasmyth (inventor of the steam hammer) and Richard Roberts.
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Josiah Wedgwood
Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was an English potter, founder of the Wedgwood company, credited with the industrialization of the manufacture of pottery. A prominent abolitionist, Wedgwood is remembered for his "Am I Not a Man And a Brother?" anti-slavery medallion. He was a member of the Darwin–Wedgwood family. He was the grandfather of Charles Darwin and Emma Darwin.
Born in Burslem, Staffordshire, England, the twelfth and last child of Thomas Wedgwood and Margret Wedgwood (née Stringer; d. 1766), Josiah was raised within a family of English Dissenters. By the age of nine, he was proving himself to be a skilled potter. He survived a childhood bout of smallpox to serve as an apprentice potter under his eldest brother Thomas Wedgwood IV. Smallpox left Josiah with a permanently weakened knee, which made him unable to work the foot pedal of a potter's wheel. As a result, he concentrated from an early age on designing pottery and then making it etc.
In his early twenties, Wedgwood began working with the most renowned English pottery-maker of his day, Thomas Whieldon, who eventually became his business partner in 1754. He began experimenting with a wide variety of techniques, an experimentation that coincided with the burgeoning of the nearby industrial city of Manchester. Inspired, Wedgwood leased the Ivy Works in the town of Burslem. Over the course of the next decade, his experimentation (and a considerable injection of capital from his marriage to a richly-endowed distant cousin) transformed the sleepy artisan works into the first true pottery factory.
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Karl Marx
Karl Heinrich Marx (5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, sociologist, historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867–1894); some of his works were co-written with his friend and fellow German revolutionary socialist, Friedrich Engels.
Born into a wealthy middle class family in Trier, formerly in Prussian Rhineland now called Rhineland-Palatinate, Marx studied at both the University of Bonn and the University of Berlin, where he became interested in the philosophical ideas of the Young Hegelians. In 1836, he became engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, marrying her in 1843. After his studies, he wrote for a radical newspaper in Cologne, and began to work out his theory of dialectical materialism. Moving to Paris in 1843, he began writing for other radical newspapers. He met Engels in Paris, and the two men worked together on a series of books. Exiled to Brussels, he became a leading figure of the Communist League, before moving back to Cologne, where he founded his own newspaper. In 1849 he was exiled again and moved to London together with his wife and children. In London, where the family was reduced to poverty, Marx continued writing and formulating his theories about the nature of society and how he believed it could be improved, and also campaigned for socialism—he became a significant figure in the International Workingmen's Association.
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Laozi
Laozi (Chinese: 老子; pinyin: Lǎozi; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu; also romanized as Lao Tse, Lao Tu, Lao-Tsu, Laotze, Laosi, Laocius, and other variations) was a philosopher of ancient China, best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching (often simply referred to as Laozi). His association with the Tao Te Ching has led him to be traditionally considered the founder of philosophical Taoism (pronounced as "Daoism"). He is also revered as a deity in most religious forms of Taoist philosophy, which often refers to Laozi as Taishang Laojun, or "One of the Three Pure Ones".
According to Chinese traditions, Laozi lived in the 6th century BCE. Historians variously contend that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures, that he is a mythical figure, or that he actually lived in the 5th–4th century BCE, concurrent with the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period.
A central figure in Chinese culture, both nobility and common people claim Laozi in their lineage. He was honored as an ancestor of the Tang imperial family, and was granted the title Taishang xuanyuan huangdi, meaning "Supreme Mysterious and Primordial Emperor". Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various anti-authoritarian movements.
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Lewis Mumford
Lewis Mumford (October 19, 1895 – January 26, 1990) was an American historian, sociologist, philosopher of technology, and influential literary critic. Particularly noted for his study of cities and urban architecture, he had a broad career as a writer. Mumford was influenced by the work of Scottish theorist Sir Patrick Geddes.
Mumford was also a contemporary and friend of Frank Lloyd Wright, Clarence Stein, Frederic Osborn, Edmund N. Bacon, and Vannevar Bush.
Mumford was born in Flushing, Queens, New York, and graduated from Stuyvesant High School in 1912. He studied at the City College of New York and The New School for Social Research, but became ill with tuberculosis and never finished his degree. In 1918 he joined the navy to serve in World War I and was assigned as a radio electrician. He was discharged in 1919 and became associate editor of The Dial, an influential modernist literary journal. He later worked for The New Yorker where he wrote architectural criticism and commentary on urban issues.
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Lewis Paul
Lewis Paul (died 1759) was the original inventor of roller spinning, the basis of the water frame for spinning cotton in a cotton mill.
Lewis Paul was of Huguenot descent. His father was physician to Lord Shaftesbury. He may have begun work on designing a spinning machine for cotton as early as 1729, but probably did not make practical progress until after 1732 when he met John Wyatt, a carpenter then working in Birmingham for a gun barrel forger. Wyatt had designed a machine, probably for cutting files, in which Paul took an interest.
Roller spinning was certainly Paul's idea, and Wyatt built a machine (or model) for him. Paul obtained a patent for this on 24 June 1738. He then set about trying to license his machine, though some licenses were granted in satisfaction of debts. In 1741, he set up a machine powered by two asses in the Upper Priory in Birmingham, near his house in Old Square.
Edward Cave, a publisher, obtained a licence and set up machines in a warehouse in London. In 1742, he acquired Marvel's Mill on the River Nene at Northampton. He rebuilt the mill to hold four or five water-powered spinning machines, each with 50 spindles. This was thus the first cotton mill. Cave died on 10 January 1754, so that the mill passed to his brother William and his nephew Paul. Samuel Touchet, a London merchant had the mill until 1755, but made no profit. It may then have been let to Lewis Paul, but he died in 1759. The Caves forfeited the lease for non-payment of rent in March 1761 and advertised the mill to let in November 1761. By 1768, the mill had reverted to being a corn mill.
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Luddite
The Luddites were a social movement of 19th-century English textile artisans who protested – often by destroying mechanized looms – against the changes produced by the Industrial Revolution, that replaced them with less-skilled, low-wage labour, and which they felt were leaving them without work and changing their way of life. Eric Hobsbawm called machine wrecking: "collective bargaining by riot". It had been used in Britain since the Restoration as, due to the scattering of manufactories throughout different regions, large-scale strikes were impractical. The movement was named after Ned Ludd, a youth who had allegedly smashed two stocking frames thirty years earlier, and whose name had become emblematic of machine destroyers. The name evolved into the imaginary General Ludd or King Ludd, a figure who also, like Robin Hood, was reputed to live in Sherwood Forest.
The movement emerged in the harsh economic climate of the Napoleonic Wars and difficult working conditions in the new textile factories. The principal objection of the Luddites was to the introduction of new wide-framed automated looms that could be operated by cheap, relatively unskilled labour, resulting in the loss of jobs for many skilled textile workers. The movement began in Nottingham in 1811 and spread rapidly throughout England in 1811 and 1812. Mills and pieces of factory machinery were burned by handloom weavers, and for a short time Luddites were so strong that they clashed in battles with the British Army. Many wool and cotton mills were destroyed until the British government suppressed the movement.
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Marc Isambard Brunel
Sir Marc Isambard Brunel, FRS FRSE (25 April 1769 – 12 December 1849) was a French-born engineer who settled in England. He preferred the name Isambard, but is generally known to history as Marc to avoid confusion with his more famous son Isambard Kingdom Brunel. His most famous achievement was the construction of the Thames Tunnel.
Brunel was the second son of Jean Charles Brunel and Marie Victoire Lefebvre. Jean Charles was a prosperous farmer in Hacqueville, Normandy, and Marc was born on the family farm. It was customary for the first son to inherit the farm and the second son to enter the priesthood. His father therefore started Marc on a classical education, but he showed no liking for Greek or Latin and instead showed himself proficient in drawing and mathematics. He was also very musical from an early age. At the age of eleven he was sent to a seminary in Rouen. The superior of the seminary allowed him to learn carpentry and he soon achieved the standards of a cabinetmaker. He also sketched ships in the local harbour. As he showed no desire to become a priest, his father sent him to stay with relatives in Rouen, where a family friend tutored him on naval matters. In 1786, as a result of this tuition, Marc became a naval cadet on a French frigate and during his service visited the West Indies several times. He made a quadrant for himself of brass and ivory and used it during his service.
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Mary Shelley
Mary Shelley (née Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin; 30 August 1797 – 1 February 1851) was an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus (1818). She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and philosopher Percy Bysshe Shelley. Her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft.
Mary Godwin's mother died when she was eleven days old; afterwards, she and her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, were raised by her father. When Mary was four, Godwin married his neighbour, Mary Jane Clairmont. Godwin provided his daughter with a rich, if informal, education, encouraging her to adhere to his liberal political theories. In 1814, Mary Godwin began a romantic relationship with one of her father’s political followers, the married Percy Bysshe Shelley. Together with Mary's stepsister, Claire Clairmont, they left for France and travelled through Europe; upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percy's child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter. They married in late 1816 after the suicide of Percy Shelley's first wife, Harriet.
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Matthew Boulton
Matthew Boulton FRS (/ˈboʊltən/; 3 September 1728 – 17 August 1809) was an English manufacturer and business partner of Scottish engineer James Watt. In the final quarter of the 18th century the partnership installed hundreds of Boulton & Watt steam engines, which were a great advance on the state of the art, making possible the mechanisation of factories and mills. Boulton applied modern techniques to the minting of coins, striking millions of pieces for Britain and other countries, and supplying the Royal Mint with up-to-date equipment.
Born in Birmingham, England in 1728, Boulton was the son of a Birmingham manufacturer of small metal products who died when Boulton was 31. By then Boulton had managed the business for several years, and thereafter expanded it considerably, consolidating operations at the Soho Manufactory, built by him near Birmingham. At Soho, he adopted the latest techniques, branching into silver plate, ormolu and other decorative arts. He became associated with James Watt when Watt's business partner, John Roebuck, was unable to pay a debt to Boulton, who accepted Roebuck's share of Watt's patent as settlement. He then successfully lobbied Parliament to extend Watt's patent for an additional 17 years, enabling the firm to market Watt's steam engine. The firm installed hundreds of Boulton & Watt steam engines in Britain and abroad, initially in mines and then in factories.
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Matthew Murray
Matthew Murray (1765 – 20 February 1826) was an English steam engine and machine tool manufacturer, who designed and built the first commercially viable steam locomotive, the twin cylinder Salamanca in 1812. He was an innovative designer in many fields, including steam engines, machine tools and machinery for the textile industry.
Little is known about Matthew Murray’s early years. He was born in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1765. He left school at fourteen and was apprenticed to be either a blacksmith or a whitesmith. In 1785, when he concluded his apprenticeship, he married Mary Thompson (1764-1836) of Whickham, County Durham. The following year he moved to Stockton and began work as a journeyman mechanic at the flax mill of John Kendrew in Darlington, where the mechanical spinning of flax had been invented.
Murray and his wife, Mary, had 3 daughters and a son, also called Matthew.
In 1789, due to a lack of trade in the Darlington flax mills, Murray and his family moved to Leeds to work for John Marshall, who was a prominent flax manufacturer. Murray maintained the machinery for Marshall's mills at Adel, and made improvements that pleased his employer. At this stage it seems that Murray was the chief engineer in the mill, and when Marshall decided to set up a new mill at Holbeck in 1791, Murray was in charge of the installation. The installation included new flax-spinning machines of his own design, which Murray patented in 1790. In 1793 Murray took out a second patent on a design for “Instruments and Machines for Spinning Fibrous Materials”. His patent included a carding engine and a spinning machine that introduced the new technique of “wet spinning” flax, which revolutionised the flax trade.
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Max Weber
Maximilian Karl Emil "Max" Weber (German pronunciation: [ˈmaks ˈveːbɐ]; 21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself.
Weber was a key proponent of methodological antipositivism, presenting sociology as a non-empiricist field which must study social action through interpretive means based upon understanding the meanings and purposes that individuals attach to their own actions. Weber is often cited, with Émile Durkheim and Karl Marx, as one of the three principal architects of modern social science.
Weber's main intellectual concern was understanding the processes of rationalisation, secularization, and "disenchantment" that he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. Weber argued that the most important difference among societies is not how people produce things but how people think about the world. In Weber’s view, modern society was the product of a new way of thinking. Weber is perhaps best known for his thesis combining economic sociology and the sociology of religion, elaborated in his book The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Weber proposed that ascetic Protestantism was one of the major "elective affinities" associated with the rise of capitalism, bureaucracy and the rational-legal nation-state in the Western world. Against Marx's "historical materialism," Weber emphasised the importance of cultural influences embedded in religion as a means for understanding the genesis of capitalism. The Protestant Ethic formed the earliest part in Weber's broader investigations into world religion: he would go on to examine the religions of China, the religions of India and ancient Judaism, with particular regard to the apparent non-development of capitalism in the corresponding societies, as well as to their differing forms of social stratification.
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Mencius
Mencius (Chinese: 孟子; pinyin: Mèng Zǐ; Wade–Giles: Meng Tzu; Zhuyin Fuhao: ㄇㄥˋ ㄗˇ, most accepted dates: 372 – 289 BCE; other possible dates: 385 – 303/302 BCE) was a Chinese philosopher who was arguably the most famous Confucian after Confucius himself.
Mencius, also known by his birth name Meng Ke or Ko, was born in the State of Zou, now forming the territory of the county-level city of Zoucheng (originally Zouxian), Shandong province, only thirty kilometres (eighteen miles) south of Qufu, Confucius' birthplace.
He was an itinerant Chinese philosopher and sage, and one of the principal interpreters of Confucianism. Supposedly, he was a pupil of Confucius' grandson, Zisi. Like Confucius, according to legend, he travelled China for forty years to offer advice to rulers for reform. During the Warring States Period (403–221 BCE), Mencius served as an official and scholar at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi (1046 BCE to 221 BCE) from 319 to 312 BCE. He expressed his filial devotion when he took an absence of three years from his official duties for Qi to mourn his mother's death. Disappointed at his failure to effect changes in his contemporary world, he retired from public life.
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Ned Ludd
Ned Ludd or Ned Lud, possibly born Ned Ludlam or Edward Ludlam, is the person from whom the Luddites took their name.
In 1779 Ludd is supposed to have broken two stocking frames in a fit of rage. After this incident attacks on the frames were jokingly blamed on Ludd. When the "Luddites" emerged in the 1810s, his identity was appropriated to become the folkloric character of Captain Ludd, also known as King Ludd or General Ludd, the Luddites' alleged leader and founder.
Supposedly, Ned Ludd was a weaver from Anstey, near Leicester. He is described as an "idiot" or "half-witted", suggesting he had a mental disability. In 1779, either after being whipped for idleness, or after being taunted by local youths, he smashed two knitting frames in what was described as a "fit of passion". This story is tracable to an article in The Nottingham Review on 20 December 1811, but there is no independent evidence of its truth. John Blackner's book History of Nottingham, also published in 1811, provides a variant tale, of a lad called "Ludnam" who was told by his father, a framework-knitter, to "square his needles". Ludnam took a hammer and "beat them into a heap". News of the incident spread, and whenever frames were sabotaged, people would jokingly say "Ned Ludd did it". Nothing more is known about the life of Ludd.
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Neil Smelser
Neil Joseph Smelser (born July 22, 1930, Kahoka, Missouri) is an emeritus professor of sociology at the University of California, Berkeley. He was an active researcher from 1958 to 1994. His research has been on collective behavior.
He received his undergraduate degree from Harvard University in 1952. From 1952-54, he was a Rhodes scholar at Oxford University where he studied economics, philosophy, and politics. At 24, he co-authored "Economy and Society" with Talcott Parsons. He earned his Ph.D in sociology from Harvard in 1958, and was a junior fellow of the Society of Fellows. He was the fifth director of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences from 1994-2001. He retired in 1994 and is now an emeritus professor.
His value added theory (or strain theory) argued that six elements were necessary for a particular kind of collective behaviour to emerge:
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Nicholas Crafts
Nicholas F. R. Crafts (born 9 March 1949, Nottingham, England) is Professor of Economics and Economic History at the University of Warwick, a post he has held since 2005. Previously he was a Professor of Economic History at London School of Economics and Political Science (LSE) between 1995-2005. He also teaches for the TRIUM Global Executive MBA Program, an alliance of NYU Stern, the LSE and HEC School of Management. His main fields of interest are the British economy in the last 200 years, European economic growth, historical data on the British economy, the Industrial Revolution and international income distribution, especially with reference to the Human Development Index. He has produced a substantial body of papers for academic journals, the British government and international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund.
During the 1980s Crafts argued that during the Industrial Revolution an abnormally high (compared to countries which industrialised later) proportion of the British economy came to be devoted to industry and international trade, and that the British economy always tended to grow slowly. When Britain was overtaken by Germany and the USA - both larger countries - in the late nineteenth century, this was not because of any deceleration of British performance.
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Nicolas Leblanc
Nicolas Leblanc (6 December 1742 – 16 January 1806) was a French chemist and surgeon who discovered how to manufacture soda from common salt.
Leblanc was born in Ivoy le Pré, Cher, France. His father, a minor official at an iron works, died in 1751. Leblanc was sent to Bourges to live with Dr. Bien, a close family friend. Under the influence of his guardian, Leblanc developed an interest in medicine. When Bien died in 1759, Leblanc enrolled at the École de Chirurgie (College of Surgeons) in Paris to study medicine.
Graduating with a master's degree in surgery, Leblanc opened a medical practice. He married in 1775, and the couple's first child followed four years later. Unable to provide adequately for his family on the medical fees he obtained from his patients, Leblanc in 1780 accepted a position as the private physician to the household of the Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans.
In 1775, the French Academy of Sciences offered a prize for a process whereby soda ash could be produced from salt. The French Academy wanted to promote the production of much-needed sodium carbonate from inexpensive sodium chloride.
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Oliver Evans
Oliver Evans (13 September 1755 – 15 April 1819) was an American inventor. Evans was born in Newport, Delaware to a family of Welsh settlers. At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a wheelwright.
Evans' first invention was in 1777, when he designed a machine for making card teeth for carding wool. He went into business with his brothers and produced a number of improvements in the flour milling industry.
Evans devoted a great deal of his time to patents, patent extensions, and enforcement of his patents.
In 1792 he moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
He produced an improved high-pressure steam engine in 1801. For some years he contemplated the idea of applying steam power to wagons. He was granted a patent for a steam-carriage design in 1789, but did not produce a working example of such a machine until over a decade later (see below on his Oruktor Amphibolos). Part of his difficulties was a failure to get financial backing. After lack of support in his native land, in 1794 he sent copies of some his designs to Great Britain in an attempt to interest investors there.
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Pat Hudson
Pat Hudson is a Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Cardiff.
In 1971 Hudson was awarded a B.Sc. Economics from the London School of Economics and this was followed in 1981 by a PhD in History and Economic History from the University of York.
She is noted economic historian of the British Industrial revolution whose research has been noted for its stress on the wider economic, social and cultural aspects rather than an over-simplistic concentration of the role of individual entrepreneurs and gadgets. She has also researched, the textile industry especially wool textiles, proto-industrialisation, regional and local history. Some of her work has also stressed the appropriate use of economic theory for historians and quantitative research method.
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Paul Mantoux
Paul Mantoux (1877 – 1956) was a historian and has written about the industrial revolution in Great Britain. He was a Co-Founder of the Graduate Institute of International Studies (GIIS) and interpreter for Georges Clemenceau at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.
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Percy Bysshe Shelley
Percy Bysshe Shelley ( /ˈpɜrsi ˈbɪʃ ˈʃɛli/; 4 August 1792 – 8 July 1822) was one of the major English Romantic poets and is critically regarded as among the finest lyric poets in the English language. Shelley was famous for his association with John Keats and Lord Byron. The novelist Mary Shelley (née Godwin) was his second wife.
He is most famous for such classic anthology verse works as "Ozymandias", Ode to the West Wind, To a Skylark, Music, When Soft Voices Die, The Cloud and The Masque of Anarchy, which are among the most popular and critically acclaimed poems in the English language. His major works, however, are long visionary poems which included Queen Mab (later reworked as The Daemon of the World), Alastor, The Revolt of Islam, Adonaïs and the unfinished work The Triumph of Life. The Cenci (1819) and Prometheus Unbound (1820) were dramatic plays in five and four acts respectively. Although he has typically been figured as a "reluctant dramatist", he was passionate about the theatre, and his plays continue to be performed today. He wrote the Gothic novels Zastrozzi (1810) and St. Irvyne (1811) and the short prose works "The Assassins" (1814), "The Coliseum" (1817) and "Una Favola" (1819). In 2008, he was credited as the co-author of the novel Frankenstein (1818) in a new edition by the Bodleian Library in Oxford and Random House in the U.S. entitled The Original Frankenstein, edited by Charles E. Robinson.
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Rajani Palme Dutt
Rajani Palme Dutt (19 June 1896 – 1974), best known as R. Palme Dutt, was a leading journalist and theoretician in the Communist Party of Great Britain.
Rajani Palme Dutt was born 19 June 1896 on Mill Road in Cambridge, England. His father, Upendra Dutt, was an Indian surgeon, his mother Anna Palme Dutt was Swedish. Anna Palme Dutt was a great aunt of the future Prime Minister of Sweden Olof Palme.
Dutt was educated at The Perse School, Cambridge and Balliol College, Oxford, where he obtained a first class degree in classics after having been suspended for a time due to his status as a conscientious objector in World War I.
Dutt married an Estonian, Salme Murrik, the sister of Finnish writer Hella Wuolijoki, in 1922. His wife had come to Great Britain in 1920 as a representative of the Communist International.
Dutt joined the Labour Research Department, a left wing statistical bureau, in 1919. The following year, he joined the newly formed Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) and in 1921 founded a monthly magazine called Labour Monthly, a publication which he edited until his death.
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Raymond Williams
Raymond Henry Williams (31 August 1921 – 26 January 1988) was a Welsh academic, novelist and critic. He was an influential figure within the New Left and in wider culture. His writings on politics, culture, the mass media and literature are a significant contribution to the Marxist critique of culture and the arts. Some 750,000 copies of his books have sold in UK editions alone and there are many translations available. His work laid the foundations for the field of cultural studies and the cultural materialist approach.
Born in Llanfihangel Crucorney, near Abergavenny, Wales, Williams was the son of a railway worker in a village where all of the railwaymen voted Labour while the local small farmers mostly voted Liberal. It was not a Welsh-speaking area: he described it as "Anglicised in the 1840s". There was, nevertheless, a strong Welsh identity. "There is the joke that someone says his family came over with the Normans and we reply: 'Are you liking it here?'".
He attended King Henry VIII Grammar School in Abergavenny. His teenage years were overshadowed by the rise of Nazism and the threat of war. He was 14 when the Spanish Civil War broke out, and was very conscious of what was happening through his membership of the local Left Book Club. He also mentions the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) and Edgar Snow's Red Star Over China, originally published in Britain by the Left Book Club.
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Reform Act 1832
The Representation of the People Act 1832 (commonly known as the Reform Act 1832 or sometimes as The Great Reform Act) was an Act of Parliament (2 & 3 Will. IV) that introduced wide-ranging changes to the electoral system of England and Wales. According to its preamble, the act was designed to "take effectual Measures for correcting divers Abuses that have long prevailed in the Choice of Members to serve in the Commons House of Parliament."
Calls for reform had been mooted long before 1832, but perennially without success. The Act which finally succeeded was proposed by the Whigs, led by the Prime Minister Lord Grey. It met with significant opposition from the Pittite factions in Parliament that had governed the country for so long (opposition was especially pronounced in the House of Lords). Nevertheless, as a result of public pressure, the bill was eventually passed. The Act granted seats in the House of Commons to large cities that had sprung up during the Industrial Revolution, and took away seats from the "rotten boroughs"—those with very small populations. The Act also increased the number of individuals entitled to vote, increasing the size of the electorate from about 400,000 to 650,000, and allowing a total of one out of six adult males to vote, in a population of some 14 million.
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Richard Arkwright
Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 – 3 August 1792), was an Englishman who, although the patents were eventually overturned, is often credited with inventing the spinning frame — later renamed the water frame following the transition to water power. He also patented a carding engine that could convert raw cotton into yarn. A self-made man, he was a leading entrepreneur of the Industrial Revolution. Arkwright's achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour, and a new raw material (cotton) to create, more than a century before Ford, mass produced yarn. His skills of organization made him more than anyone else, the creator of the modern factory system, especially in his mill at Cromford.
Richard Arkwright, the youngest of thirteen children, was born in Preston, Lancashire, England on the 23rd December 1732. His father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. The family are recorded in the Preston Guild Rolls now held by Lancashire Record Office. Richard's parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. Richard was apprenticed to a Mr. Nicholson, a barber at nearby Kirkham and began his working life as a barber and wig-maker, setting up a shop at Churchgate in Bolton in the early 1750s. It was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable 'periwigs' (wigs) of the time, the income from which later facilitated his financing of prototype cotton machinery.
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Richard Trevithick
Richard Trevithick (13 April 1771 – 22 April 1833) was a British inventor and mining engineer from Cornwall. Born in the mining heartland of Cornwall, Trevithick was immersed in mining and engineering from a young age. The son of a mining captain, he performed poorly in school, but went on to be an early pioneer in steam-powered rail. His most significant contribution was to the development of the first high pressure steam engine, he also built the first full-scale working railway steam locomotive. On 21 February 1804 the world's first locomotive-hauled railway journey took place as Trevithick's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren Ironworks, in Merthyr Tydfil in Wales.
Turning his interests abroad, Trevithick also worked as a mining consultant in Peru and later explored parts of Costa Rica. Throughout his professional career, he went through many ups and downs, and at one point faced financial ruin, also suffering from the strong rivalry of many mining and steam engineers of the day. During the prime of his career, he was a well-respected and known figure in mining and engineering, but near the end of his life and after he fell out of the public eye. Today, his legacy is mostly known to the mining, engineering, and railway circles.
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Robert Fogel
Robert William Fogel (born July 1, 1926) is an American economic historian and scientist, and winner (with Douglass North) of the 1993 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. He is now the Charles R. Walgreen Distinguished Service Professor of American Institutions and director of the Center for Population Economics (CPE) at the University of Chicago's Booth School of Business. He is best known as a leading advocate of New economic history or cliometrics—the use of quantitative methods in history.
Fogel was born in New York City, the son of Russian Jewish immigrants, where he graduated from the Stuyvesant High School in 1944. He attended Cornell University where he majored in history, with an economics minor, and became president of the campus branch of American Youth for Democracy, a communist organization. After graduation in 1948, he became a professional organizer for the Communist Party. He later rejected communism and attended Columbia University where he obtained an MA in 1958. He received a PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1964. Fogel has taught at Johns Hopkins (1958–1959), the University of Rochester (1960–1965 and 1968–1975), the University of Chicago (1964–1975 and 1981-), the University of Cambridge, where he was visiting Pitt Professor of American History and Institutions in 1975 and Harvard University (1975–1981). Fogel married Enid Cassandra Morgan in 1949 and has two children.
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Robert Owen
Robert Owen (14 May 1771 – 17 November 1858) was a Welsh social reformer and one of the founders of utopian socialism and the cooperative movement.
Owen's philosophy was based on three intellectual pillars: First, no one was responsible for his [] will and his [] own actions because his whole character is formed independently of himself; people are products of their heredity and environment, hence his support for education and labour reform, rendering him a pioneer in human capital investment. Second, all religions are based on the same ridiculous imagination, that make man a weak, imbecile animal; a furious bigot and fanatic; or a miserable hypocrite; (though in his later years he embraced Spiritualism). Third, support for the putting-out system instead of the factory system[citation needed].
Robert Owen was born in Newtown, a small market town in Montgomeryshire, Mid Wales, in 1771. He was the sixth of seven children. His father, also named Robert Owen, had a small business as a saddler and ironmonger. Owen's mother was a Miss Williams, and came from one of the prosperous farming families. Here young Owen received almost all his school education, which ended at the age of ten. In 1787, after serving in a draper's shop for some years, he settled in London. He travelled to Manchester, and obtained employment at Satterfield's Drapery in St. Ann's Square (a plaque currently marks the site). By the time he was 21 he was a mill manager in Manchester at the Chorlton Twist Mills. His entrepreneurial spirit, management skill and progressive moral views were emerging by the early 1790s. In 1793, he was elected as a member of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, where the ideas of reformers and philosophers of the Enlightenment were discussed. He also became a committee member of the Manchester Board of Health which was set up to promote improvements in the health and working conditions of factory workers.
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Robert Southey
Robert Southey (12 August 1774 – 21 March 1843) was an English poet of the Romantic school, one of the so-called "Lake Poets", and Poet Laureate for 30 years from 1813 to his death in 1843. Although his fame has been long eclipsed by that of his contemporaries and friends William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Southey's verse still enjoys some popularity.
Moreover, Southey was a prolific letter writer, literary scholar, essay writer, historian and biographer. His biographies include the life and works of John Bunyan, John Wesley, William Cowper, Oliver Cromwell and Horatio Nelson. The last has rarely been out of print since its publication in 1813 and was adapted for the screen in the 1926 British film, Nelson. He was also a renowned Portuguese and Spanish scholar, translating a number of works of those two countries into English and writing both a History of Brazil (part of his planned History of Portugal which was never completed) and a History of the Peninsular War. Perhaps his most enduring contribution to literary history is the immortal children's classic, The Story of the Three Bears, the original Goldilocks story, which first saw print in 1834 in Southey's prose collection, The Doctor.
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Robert Stephenson
Robert Stephenson FRS (16 October 1803 – 12 October 1859) was an English civil engineer. He was the only son of George Stephenson, the famed locomotive builder and railway engineer; many of the achievements popularly credited to his father were actually the joint efforts of father and son.
He was born on the 16th of October, 1803, at Willington Quay, east of Newcastle Upon Tyne, the only son of George Stephenson and his wife, Fanny. At the time, George and Fanny were living in a single room and George was working as a brakesman on a stationary colliery engine. In 1804, the family moved to a cottage in West Moor when George was made brakeman at West Moor Colliery. In 1805 Fanny gave birth to a daughter who died after a few weeks. The next year Robert’s mother died of consumption. George then went and worked in Scotland for a short time, leaving the infant Robert with a local woman. However, George soon returned to West Moor, and his sister Nelly came to live at the cottage to look after Robert.
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Roy Porter
Roy Sydney Porter (31 December 1946 — 3 March 2002) was a British historian noted for his prolific work on the history of medicine.
Porter grew up in South London and attended Wilson's School in Camberwell. He won a scholarship to Christ's College, Cambridge, where he studied under J. H. Plumb. His contemporaries included Simon Schama and Andrew Wheatcroft. He achieved a double starred first and became a junior Fellow in 1968, studying under Robert M. Young and lecturing on the British Enlightenment. In 1972, he moved to Churchill College as the Director of Studies in History, later becoming Dean in 1977. He received his doctorate in 1974, publishing a thesis on the history of geology as a scientific discipline. He was then appointed to the post of Assistant Lecturer in European History at Cambridge University and promoted to Lecturer in European History in 1977.
In 1979 he joined the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine (part of the University College, London) as a lecturer. In 1993 he became Professor of Social History at the Institute. He briefly served as its Director. In 2000, Porter published The Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World. He retired in September 2001, moving to the Sussex coast, where he wanted to learn to play the saxophone, cultivate his allotment and engage in some travelling. He died of a heart attack five months later, while cycling. His memorial service was on April 22, 2002 at St Pancras Parish Church.
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Samuel Crompton
Samuel Crompton (3 December 1753 – 26 June 1827) was an English inventor and pioneer of the spinning industry.
Samuel Crompton was born at 10 Firwood Fold, Bolton, Lancashire to George and Betty Crompton (née Elizabeth Holt of Turton). Samuel had two younger sisters. While he was a boy, he lost his father, and had to contribute to the family resources by spinning yarn. The defects of the spinning jenny imbued him with the idea of devising something better, and for five or six years the effort absorbed all his spare time and money, including what he earned by playing the violin at the Bolton theatre.
On 16 February 1780 at Bolton Parish Church, Crompton married Mary Pimlott (or Pimbley). They had eight children including George Crompton (born 8 January 1781), who followed in the family business.
About 1779, Samuel Crompton succeeded in producing a machine which spun yarn suitable for use in the manufacture of muslin, and which was known as the muslin wheel or the Hall i' th' Wood (pronounced Hall-ith-wood) wheel, from the name of the house in which he and his family resided. The muslin wheel later became known as the spinning mule. About the same time, a good demand arose for the yarn which Crompton made at Hall i' th' Wood. However, lacking the means to take out a patent, the prying to which his methods were subjected drove Crompton to the choice of either destroying his machine or making it public. He adopted the latter alternative on the promise by a number of manufacturers to pay him for the use of the mule, but all he received was about £60. He then resumed spinning on his own account, but with indifferent success.
wn.com/Samuel_Crompton -
Samuel Slater
Samuel Slater (June 9, 1768 – April 21, 1835) was an early English-American industrialist known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution", (a phrase coined by Andrew Jackson), the "Father of the American Factory System" or "Slater the Traitor" (In the UK) because he brought British textile technology to America. He learned textile machinery as an apprentice to a pioneer in the British industry. He brought the knowledge to America where he designed the first textile mills, went into business for himself and grew wealthy. By the end of Slater's life he owned thirteen spinning mills and had established tenant farms and towns around his textile mills such as Slatersville, Rhode Island.
Samuel Slater was born in Belper, Derbyshire, England June 9, 1768, the fifth son of a farming family of eight children. Samuel received a basic education at a school run by a Mr. Jackson in Belper. At age ten he began work at the cotton mill opened that year by Jedediah Strutt utilising the water frame pioneered by Richard Arkwright at nearby Cromford Mill. In 1782, his father died and his family indentured Samuel as an apprentice to Strutt. Slater was well-trained by Strutt, and by age 21 had gained a thorough knowledge of the organisation and practice of cotton spinning. Hearing of the American interest in developing similar machines, and aware of British laws against exporting the designs, he memorized as much as he could and departed for New York in 1789.
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Thomas Boulsover
Thomas Boulsover (1705 – 9 September 1788), Sheffield cutler and the inventor of Sheffield Plate, was born in what is now the Ecclesfield district of the city and died at his home at Whiteley Wood Hall, on the River Porter.
Boulsover completed his apprenticeship as a cutler in 1726 and, around 1740 set up his own workshop on the corner of Tudor Street and Surrey Street in Sheffield's city centre. It was at these premises that, in 1743, he discovered (by accident it is said, while repairing the handle of a knife) that silver could be relatively easily fused onto copper and that the resulting "sandwich" could be fabricated effectively, by hammering and rolling, as one material while maintaining the outer appearance of pure silver. This material became known as Sheffield Plate and Boulsover, in partnership with fellow Sheffielder Joseph Wilson, began to manufacture buttons, buckles, spurs and small boxes of the material. The business was funded by Strelley Pegge of Beauchief who later sold Boulsover Whiteley Wood Hall in 1757. [1]
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Thomas Highs
Thomas Highs (1718–1803), of Leigh, Lancashire, was a reed-maker and manufacturer of cotton carding and spinning engines in the 1780s, during the Industrial Revolution. He is known for claiming patents on a spinning jenny, a carding machine, the throstle (a machine for the continuous twisting and winding of wool), and the water frame .
Thomas Highs, sometimes spelled Thomas Hayes, was born in Leigh, Lancashire in 1718 and lived most of his life there. It is said he was a reed maker. The reed is a comb-like strip attached to the batten of a loom, which keeps the warp threads apart and helps the weaver pack the weft threads tightly on the newly-woven cloth.
He married Sarah Moss on 23 February 1747, at Leigh Parish Church. Five years after his marriage, he became interested in cotton-spinning machinery and between 1763 and 1764, he worked to produce a spinning engine with John Kay, a clockmaker, who was a close neighbour of his at the time. Between 1766 and 1767 he discovered the method of spinning by rollers similar to that patented by Lewis Paul and John Wyatt and employed John Kay to help him with the construction of the mechanism.
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Thomas Newcomen
Thomas Newcomen (shortly before 24 February 1664 – 5 August 1729) created the first practical steam engine for pumping water, the Newcomen steam engine. He was an ironmonger by trade and a Baptist lay preacher by calling. He was born in Dartmouth, Devon, England, near a part of the country noted for its tin mines. Flooding was a major problem, limiting the depth at which the mineral could be mined.
He could be said to have been more than a lay preacher as he was a teaching elder in the local Baptist church. That he continued in business is almost certainly because the church could not afford to pay him as a full-time elder. His father had been one of a group who brought the well-known Puritan John Flavel to Dartmouth. Later one of Newcomen's business contacts in London, Edward Wallin, was another Baptist minister who had connections with the well known Dr. John Gill of Horsleydown, Southwark. Newcomen's connection with the Baptist church at Bromsgrove materially aided the spread of his steam engine.
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Thomas Savery
Thomas Savery (c. 1650–1715) was an English inventor, born at Shilstone, a manor house near Modbury, Devon, England.
Savery became a military engineer, rising to the rank of Captain by 1702, and spent his free time performing experiments in mechanics. In 1696 he took out a patent for a machine for polishing glass or marble and another for "rowing of ships with greater ease and expedicion than hitherto beene done by any other" which involved paddle-wheels driven by a capstan and which was dismissed by the Admiralty following a negative report by the Surveyor of the Navy, Edmund Dummer.
Savery also worked for the Sick and Hurt Commissioners, contracting the supply of medicines to the Navy Stock Company, which was connected with the Society of Apothecaries. His duties on their behalf took him to Dartmouth, which is probably how he came into contact with Thomas Newcomen.
On 2 July 1698 Savery patented an early steam engine, "A new invention for raiseing of water and occasioning motion to all sorts of mill work by the impellent force of fire, which will be of great use and advantage for drayning mines, serveing townes with water, and for the working of all sorts of mills where they have not the benefitt of water nor constant windes." He demonstrated it to the Royal Society on 14 June 1699. The patent has no illustrations or even description, but in 1702 Savery described the machine in his book The Miner's Friend; or, An Engine to Raise Water by Fire, in which he claimed that it could pump water out of mines.
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Thomas Somers
Thomas Somers was one of the original investors and architects for the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in Beverly, Massachusetts.
Thomas Somers had traveled, under his own expense, to England the fall of 1785 on behalf of the Tradesmen and Manufacturers of Baltimore (Maryland Branch) in an attempt to procure the machines used for carding and spinning cotton. After some difficulty, he was able to leave England with descriptions and models of the machines used. He returned to Baltimore in the summer of 1786.
Shortly after Thomas Somers returned, he found out that the boat that was carrying much of his personal property during his stay in England had crashed at Cape Cod. It is reported that he lost one-half of the property he brought with him.
Thomas Somers created a petition to the Legislature of Massachusetts requesting financial assistance in order to afford the equipment needed to begin manufacturing of his designs of a cotton mill. March 8, 1787, the Legislation granted Somers twenty pounds from the Public Treasury which was used to assist both Somers and the startup costs of the Beverly Cotton Manufactory.
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Thomas Telford
Thomas Telford FRS, FRSE (1757–1834) was a Scottish civil engineer, architect and stonemason, and a noted road, bridge and canal builder.
Telford was born on 9 August 1757 at Glendinning, a hill farm 3 miles west of Eskdalemuir Kirk, in the rural parish of Westerkirk, in Eskdale, Dumfriesshire. His father John Telford, a shepherd, died soon after Thomas was born. Thomas was raised in poverty by his mother Janet Jackson (d.1794).
At the age of 14 he was apprenticed to a stonemason, and some of his earliest work can still be seen on the bridge across the River Esk in Langholm in the Scottish borders. He worked for a time in Edinburgh and in 1782 he moved to London where (after meeting architects Robert Adam and Sir William Chambers) he was involved in building additions to Somerset House there. Two years later he found work at Portsmouth dockyard and — although still largely self-taught — was extending his talents to the specification, design and management of building projects.
In 1787, through his wealthy patron William Pulteney, he became Surveyor of Public Works in Shropshire. Civil engineering was a discipline still in its infancy, so Telford was set on establishing himself as an architect. His projects included renovation of Shrewsbury Castle, the town's prison (during the planning of which he met leading prison reformer John Howard), the Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Bridgnorth and another church in Madeley. (Called in to advise on a leaking roof at St Chad's Church Shrewsbury in 1788, he correctly warned the church was in imminent danger of collapse; his reputation was made locally when it collapsed 3 days later, but he was not the architect for its replacement).
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Tolpuddle Martyrs
The Tolpuddle Martyrs were a group of 19th century Dorset agricultural labourers who were arrested for and convicted of swearing a secret oath as members of the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers. The rules of the society show it was clearly structured as a friendly society and operated as a trade-specific benefit society. But at the time, friendly societies had strong elements of what are now considered to be the predominant role of trade unions. The Tolpuddle Martyrs were subsequently sentenced to transportation to Australia.
In 1824/5 the Combination Acts, which made "combining" or organising in order to gain better working conditions illegal, had been repealed, so trade unions were no longer illegal. In 1832, the year of a Reform Act which extended the vote in England but did not grant universal suffrage, six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of agricultural wages in the 1830s caused by the surplus supply of labour in an era when mechanisation was beginning to have an impact on agricultural working practices for the first time. This was a particular problem in remote parts of southern England, such as Dorset, where farmers did not have to compete with the higher wages paid to workers in London and in the northern towns experiencing the Industrial Revolution. They refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six shillings. The society, led by George Loveless, a Methodist local preacher, met in the house of Thomas Standfield.
wn.com/Tolpuddle_Martyrs -
William Blake
William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827) was an English poet, painter, and printmaker. Largely unrecognised during his lifetime, Blake is now considered a seminal figure in the history of both the poetry and visual arts of the Romantic Age. His prophetic poetry has been said to form "what is in proportion to its merits the least read body of poetry in the English language". His visual artistry has led one contemporary art critic to proclaim him "far and away the greatest artist Britain has ever produced". Although he lived in London his entire life except for three years spent in Felpham he produced a diverse and symbolically rich corpus, which embraced the imagination as "the body of God", or "Human existence itself".
Considered mad by contemporaries for his idiosyncratic views, Blake is held in high regard by later critics for his expressiveness and creativity, and for the philosophical and mystical undercurrents within his work. His paintings and poetry have been characterised as part of both the Romantic movement and "Pre-Romantic", for its large appearance in the 18th century. Reverent of the Bible but hostile to the Church of England – indeed, to all forms of organised religion – Blake was influenced by the ideals and ambitions of the French and American revolutions, as well as by such thinkers as Jakob Böhme and Emanuel Swedenborg. Despite these known influences, the singularity of Blake's work makes him difficult to classify. The 19th-century scholar William Rossetti characterised Blake as a "glorious luminary," and as "a man not forestalled by predecessors, nor to be classed with contemporaries, nor to be replaced by known or readily surmisable successors".
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William Fairbairn
Sir William Fairbairn, 1st Baronet (of Ardwick) (19 February 1789 – 18 August 1874) was a Scottish civil engineer, structural engineer and shipbuilder.
Born in Kelso to a local farmer, Fairbairn showed an early mechanical aptitude and served as an apprentice millwright in Newcastle upon Tyne where he befriended the young George Stephenson. He moved to Manchester in 1813 to work for Adam Parkinson and Thomas Hewes. In 1817, he launched his mill-machinery business with James Lillie as Fairbairn and Lillie Engine Makers.
Fairbairn was a life-long learner and joined the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1830. In the 1820s and 30s, he and Eaton Hodgkinson conducted a search for an optimal cross section for iron-beams. They designed, for example, the bridge over Water Street for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, which opened in 1830. In the 1840s, when Robert Stephenson, the son of his youthful friend George, was trying to develop a way of crossing the Menai Strait, he retained both Fairbairn and Hodgkinson as consultants. It was Fairbairn who conceived of the idea of a rectangular tube or box girder to bridge the large gap between Anglesey and North Wales. He conducted many tests on prototypes in his Millwall shipyard and at the site of the bridge, showing how such a tube should be constructed. The design was first used in a shorter span at Conway, and followed by the much larger Britannia Bridge. The tube bridge ultimately proved far too costly a concept for widespread use owing to the sheer mass and cost of wrought iron needed. Fairbairn himself developed wrought iron trough bridges which used some of the ideas he had developed in the tubular bridge.
wn.com/William_Fairbairn -
William Murdoch
William Murdoch (sometimes spelled Murdock) (21 August 1754 – 15 November 1839) was a Scottish engineer and long-term inventor.
Murdoch was employed by the firm of Boulton and Watt and worked for them in Cornwall, as a steam engine erector for ten years, spending most of the rest of his life in Birmingham, England.
He was the inventor of the oscillating steam engine, and gas lighting is attributed to him in the early 1790s, also the term "gasometer". However, Archibald Cochrane, ninth Earl of Dundonald, had already in 1789 used gas for lighting his family estate. Murdoch also made innovations to the steam engine, including the sun and planet gear and D slide valve. He invented the steam gun and the pneumatic tube message system, and worked on one of the first British paddle steamers to cross the English Channel. Murdoch built a prototype steam locomotive in 1784 and made a number of discoveries in chemistry.
He remained an employee and later a partner of Boulton & Watt until the 1830s, and his reputation as an inventor has been obscured by the reputations of Boulton and Watt and the firm they founded.
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William Radcliffe
William Radcliffe (1761?, Mellor, Derbyshire – 20 May 1842, Stockport) was a British inventor and author of the essay Origin of the New System of Manufacture, Commonly Called Power loom Weaving.
Radcliffe came from a modest family which had made the transition from farming to weaving. His father taught him about carding and spinning. In 1785, he purchased several spinning machines that had been developed by James Hargreaves. Hargreaves machines, called the spinning jenny, were the first wholly successful improvement on the traditional spinning wheel. Its advantage was to multiply many times the amount of yarn that could be spun by a single operator. This development and others such as weavers being able to rely on uninterrupted supplies of yarn led to spinning being concentrated in factories.
In 1789, Radcliffe opened a large cotton weaving factory at Mellor, in Lancashire.He streamlined the process by inventing a machine to improve the quality of cloth. In 1804 he invented a ratchet wheel that moved the cloth forward automatically. Radcliffe also contributed to the debate amongst entrepreneurs on what constituted profits in a capitalist system. In a letter dated 1 May 1804, which was never sent but later published in an 1811 book called Letters on the Evils of the Exportation of Cotton Yarns, Radcliffe said he regarded profit as being made up of two parts: interest on money and a sort of entrepreneurial wage.
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William Wordsworth
William Wordsworth (7 April 1770 – 23 April 1850) was a major English Romantic poet who, with Samuel Taylor Coleridge, helped to launch the Romantic Age in English literature with the 1798 joint publication Lyrical Ballads.
Wordsworth's magnum opus is generally considered to be The Prelude, a semiautobiographical poem of his early years which he revised and expanded a number of times. It was posthumously titled and published, prior to which it was generally known as the poem "to Coleridge". Wordsworth was Britain's Poet Laureate from 1843 until his death in 1850.
The second of five children born to John Wordsworth and Ann Cookson, William Wordsworth was born on 7 April 1770 in Wordsworth House in Cockermouth, Cumberland—part of the scenic region in northwest England, the Lake District. His sister, the poet and diarist Dorothy Wordsworth, to whom he was close all his life, was born the following year, and the two were baptised together. They had three other siblings: Richard, the eldest, who became a lawyer; John, born after Dorothy, who went to sea and died in 1805 when the ship of which he was Master, the Earl of Abergavenny, was wrecked off the south coast of England; and Christopher, the youngest, who entered the Church and rose to be Master of Trinity College, Cambridge. Their father was a legal representative of James Lowther, 1st Earl of Lonsdale and, through his connections, lived in a large mansion in the small town. Wordsworth, as with his siblings, had little involvement with their father, and they would be distant from him until his death in 1783.
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Dead Can Dance- Indus HQ
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:24
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
another song from the "spiritchaser "album enjoy and rate and comment thanks :)
http://wn.com/Dead_Can_Dance_Indus_HQ
another song from the "spiritchaser "album enjoy and rate and comment thanks :)
Indus Valley Civilization: Crash Course World History #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:35
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships. Additional Resources: Empires of the Indus - dft.ba Indus Valley on Wikipedia - dft.ba Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - dft.ba Follow us! @thecrashcourse @realjohngreen @raoulmeyer @crashcoursestan @saysdanica @thoughtbubbler Like us! www.facebook.com Follow us again! thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization_Crash_Course_World_History_2
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships. Additional Resources: Empires of the Indus - dft.ba Indus Valley on Wikipedia - dft.ba Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - dft.ba Follow us! @thecrashcourse @realjohngreen @raoulmeyer @crashcoursestan @saysdanica @thoughtbubbler Like us! www.facebook.com Follow us again! thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
- published: 02 Feb 2012
- views: 475884
- author: crashcourse
Achievements of the Indus River Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:15
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
http://wn.com/Achievements_of_the_Indus_River_Valley_Civilization
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
- published: 18 Oct 2009
- views: 40436
- author: Scohen245
BBC - In the footsteps of Alexander (Indus Delta) 29
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:28
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
In thefootsteps of Alexander the Great In this award winning adventure Micheal Wood embarks on a 2000 mile journey in the foot steps of Alexander's triumphal march from Greece to India. Travelling with Lebanese traders, Iranian pilgrims and Afghan guerillas, by jeep, train, boat, camel and on foot, he interweaves the momentous events of the past with present day reality and brings us new insights into a man whose myth and acheivements still resonate down the centuries. "We saw things I can scarcely believe. We took shelter for the night with an Afghan warlord who had delivered pizzas in the United States, and were hauled off to jail more than once. It was one of the great experiences of my life" - Michael Wood Additional Tags: Hydaspes Battle Of Μακεδονια ελλας θεσσαλονικη Megas Alexandros Macedonians Greece Hellas Hellenistic Persian Empire King Darius Cyrus Great Engineeer Asia Iran Afghanistan Tribe Greek World Religion Zeus Dionysus Apollo Athena Achilles Troy Pagans Descent DNA blood Islam Muslim Dance Hinduism Sikhism Indus Valley Punjabi the five rivers indo aryans King Porus Indian Elephants War Khyber Pass Issus Gaugamela Indus River Delta Karachi Turbat Pakistan Army
http://wn.com/BBC_In_the_footsteps_of_Alexander_Indus_Delta_29
In thefootsteps of Alexander the Great In this award winning adventure Micheal Wood embarks on a 2000 mile journey in the foot steps of Alexander's triumphal march from Greece to India. Travelling with Lebanese traders, Iranian pilgrims and Afghan guerillas, by jeep, train, boat, camel and on foot, he interweaves the momentous events of the past with present day reality and brings us new insights into a man whose myth and acheivements still resonate down the centuries. "We saw things I can scarcely believe. We took shelter for the night with an Afghan warlord who had delivered pizzas in the United States, and were hauled off to jail more than once. It was one of the great experiences of my life" - Michael Wood Additional Tags: Hydaspes Battle Of Μακεδονια ελλας θεσσαλονικη Megas Alexandros Macedonians Greece Hellas Hellenistic Persian Empire King Darius Cyrus Great Engineeer Asia Iran Afghanistan Tribe Greek World Religion Zeus Dionysus Apollo Athena Achilles Troy Pagans Descent DNA blood Islam Muslim Dance Hinduism Sikhism Indus Valley Punjabi the five rivers indo aryans King Porus Indian Elephants War Khyber Pass Issus Gaugamela Indus River Delta Karachi Turbat Pakistan Army
- published: 17 Oct 2007
- views: 48579
- author: alexandros1821
Rajesh Rao: Computing a Rosetta Stone for the Indus script
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:02
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
www.ted.com Rajesh Rao is fascinated by "the mother of all crossword puzzles" How to decipher the 4000 year old Indus script. At TED 2011 he tells how he is enlisting modern computational techniques to read the Indus language, the key piece to understanding this ancient civilization.TEDTalks is a daily video podcast of the best talks and performances from the TED Conference, where the world's leading thinkers and doers give the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. Featured speakers have included Al Gore on climate change, Philippe Starck on design, Jill Bolte Taylor on observing her own stroke, Nicholas Negroponte on One Laptop per Child, Jane Goodall on chimpanzees, Bill Gates on malaria and mosquitoes, Pattie Maes on the "Sixth Sense" wearable tech, and "Lost" producer JJ Abrams on the allure of mystery. TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design, and TEDTalks cover these topics as well as science, business, development and the arts. Closed captions and translated subtitles in a variety of languages are now available on TED.com, at www.ted.com
http://wn.com/Rajesh_Rao_Computing_a_Rosetta_Stone_for_the_Indus_script
www.ted.com Rajesh Rao is fascinated by "the mother of all crossword puzzles" How to decipher the 4000 year old Indus script. At TED 2011 he tells how he is enlisting modern computational techniques to read the Indus language, the key piece to understanding this ancient civilization.TEDTalks is a daily video podcast of the best talks and performances from the TED Conference, where the world's leading thinkers and doers give the talk of their lives in 18 minutes. Featured speakers have included Al Gore on climate change, Philippe Starck on design, Jill Bolte Taylor on observing her own stroke, Nicholas Negroponte on One Laptop per Child, Jane Goodall on chimpanzees, Bill Gates on malaria and mosquitoes, Pattie Maes on the "Sixth Sense" wearable tech, and "Lost" producer JJ Abrams on the allure of mystery. TED stands for Technology, Entertainment, Design, and TEDTalks cover these topics as well as science, business, development and the arts. Closed captions and translated subtitles in a variety of languages are now available on TED.com, at www.ted.com
- published: 28 Jun 2011
- views: 45287
- author: TEDtalksDirector
Very Funny Indus Tv Karachi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
very Funny Video From Indus TV
http://wn.com/Very_Funny_Indus_Tv_Karachi
Dead Can Dance - Indus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:24
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
great song made by Dead Can Dance from "Spiritchaser" album :) rate & comment
http://wn.com/Dead_Can_Dance_Indus
great song made by Dead Can Dance from "Spiritchaser" album :) rate & comment
- published: 18 May 2010
- views: 35490
- author: mad21a1
Funny Indus News Reporter - Karachi se log
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:07
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Pakistani TV Channel INDUS news reporter having some hard time recording a news clip. Very funny Indus News Reporter. Pakistani TV Channel Indus News Reporter.
http://wn.com/Funny_Indus_News_Reporter_Karachi_se_log
Pakistani TV Channel INDUS news reporter having some hard time recording a news clip. Very funny Indus News Reporter. Pakistani TV Channel Indus News Reporter.
- published: 07 Dec 2008
- views: 216168
- author: desiupdate
2006 - The Indus Valley Civilisation (The Masters of the River) of India/Pakistan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 52:20
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
One of the most mysterious of these four civilisations is no doubt that which developed around the Indus, discovered only in 1920. Considered to be one of the world's most powerful rivers, the Indus has a flow rate twice as high as the Nile, and three times that of the Tigris and the Euphrates.Its geographical course enabled extensive communication to be developed and, at the same time, the rise of a prosperous civilisation, the Harappeans.What was the story of this recently discovered civilisation, and how can we explain its decline?
http://wn.com/2006_The_Indus_Valley_Civilisation_The_Masters_of_the_River_of_India_Pakistan
One of the most mysterious of these four civilisations is no doubt that which developed around the Indus, discovered only in 1920. Considered to be one of the world's most powerful rivers, the Indus has a flow rate twice as high as the Nile, and three times that of the Tigris and the Euphrates.Its geographical course enabled extensive communication to be developed and, at the same time, the rise of a prosperous civilisation, the Harappeans.What was the story of this recently discovered civilisation, and how can we explain its decline?
- published: 11 Sep 2012
- views: 11965
- author: Arslan Akhtar
Meluhha: the Indus Civilization and Its Contacts with Mesopotamia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:48
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Meluhha: the Indus Civilization and Its Contacts with Mesopotamia Mark Kenoyer, University of Wisconsin, Madison Meluhha -- the name for the Indus civilization found in Mesopotamian texts -- was an important source of exotic goods, many of which are preserved in the archaeological record of Mesopotamia. The movement of people and goods between these two regions established a pattern of interaction that continued in later periods and is still seen today. This lecture presents an overview of the Indus civilization and its contact with the Mesopotamia during the forth to second millennia BC.
http://wn.com/Meluhha_the_Indus_Civilization_and_Its_Contacts_with_Mesopotamia
Meluhha: the Indus Civilization and Its Contacts with Mesopotamia Mark Kenoyer, University of Wisconsin, Madison Meluhha -- the name for the Indus civilization found in Mesopotamian texts -- was an important source of exotic goods, many of which are preserved in the archaeological record of Mesopotamia. The movement of people and goods between these two regions established a pattern of interaction that continued in later periods and is still seen today. This lecture presents an overview of the Indus civilization and its contact with the Mesopotamia during the forth to second millennia BC.
- published: 07 Oct 2010
- views: 6181
- author: JamesHenryBreasted
Chand Nawab Indus News Funny News Report
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
Masterpiece by Chand Nawab of Indus News. Read related report on Faking News - www.fakingnews.com
http://wn.com/Chand_Nawab_Indus_News_Funny_News_Report
Masterpiece by Chand Nawab of Indus News. Read related report on Faking News - www.fakingnews.com
- published: 13 Jan 2009
- views: 48324
- author: fakingnews
Indus Creed - Fireflies
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Music video by Indus Creed performing Fireflies. (C) 2012 Universal Music India Pvt. Ltd.
http://wn.com/Indus_Creed_Fireflies
Music video by Indus Creed performing Fireflies. (C) 2012 Universal Music India Pvt. Ltd.
- published: 12 Jul 2012
- views: 13174
- author: IndusCreedVEVO
Adventure Roads along the Indus Valley and the Karakoram Highway
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
Pakistan, Land of the Pure! Pure Nature, pure Culture, pure Adventure! Especially the Northern Areas are amazing. Forget all the generalizing media, Pakistan does offer beautiful and peaceful places with friendly people, old culture and incredible nature. This video gives a little impression of the Karakoram Highway and the valley roads long this route, from Skardu following the Indus river to Rupal Face and on to Rakhiot Side of Nanga Parbat and further up to Hunza and Gojal and so on.....one big fun ride!
http://wn.com/Adventure_Roads_along_the_Indus_Valley_and_the_Karakoram_Highway
Pakistan, Land of the Pure! Pure Nature, pure Culture, pure Adventure! Especially the Northern Areas are amazing. Forget all the generalizing media, Pakistan does offer beautiful and peaceful places with friendly people, old culture and incredible nature. This video gives a little impression of the Karakoram Highway and the valley roads long this route, from Skardu following the Indus river to Rupal Face and on to Rakhiot Side of Nanga Parbat and further up to Hunza and Gojal and so on.....one big fun ride!
- published: 23 Jun 2009
- views: 57230
- author: popcatepetl2
![Andrew Dickey- Indus[trial]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/7zktSJMaj7Y/default.jpg "Andrew Dickey- Indus[trial]")
Andrew Dickey- Indus[trial]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:32
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Andrew Dickey explores the industrial wastelands of Melbourne in search of new lines. Thanks to Gemma, Paul and Aaron for additional filming. Music: The Council, Celluloid Mata
http://wn.com/Andrew_Dickey_Indus_trial_
Andrew Dickey explores the industrial wastelands of Melbourne in search of new lines. Thanks to Gemma, Paul and Aaron for additional filming. Music: The Council, Celluloid Mata
- published: 11 May 2011
- views: 23230
- author: AndrewTrials
Indus on Vicarious - Dead Can Dance ( Tool )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:25
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
mix indus from dead can dance on tool video vicarious
http://wn.com/Indus_on_Vicarious_Dead_Can_Dance_Tool_
mix indus from dead can dance on tool video vicarious
- published: 01 Aug 2010
- views: 25789
- author: tonyskunky
Indus Creed @ Independence Rock XXV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:42
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
Trapped 5th December 2010 - Mumbai www.independencerock.in
http://wn.com/Indus_Creed_@_Independence_Rock_XXV
Trapped 5th December 2010 - Mumbai www.independencerock.in
- published: 29 Dec 2010
- views: 8700
- author: independencerockin
Let's Play Banjo-Tooie, Part 47: Dino Indus... Well, Maybe Not
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:48
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
Heading out to clean up some stuff we missed earlier.
http://wn.com/Let's_Play_Banjo-Tooie,_Part_47_Dino_Indus_Well,_Maybe_Not
Heading out to clean up some stuff we missed earlier.
- published: 07 Dec 2009
- views: 59130
- author: NintendoCapriSun
Indus Vision Part 3 26-11-09.mpg
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 05 Sep 2012
http://wn.com/Indus_Vision_Part_3_26-11-09mpg
Hazrat Sultan Bahoo documentary by indus news P 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:04
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
Hazrat Sultan Bahu Documentary Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Ali Explain,s Whole Life And Educations of Hazrat Sultan Bahoo. Hazrat Sultan Bahoo is the most famous Sufi in the World. Sultan Bahoo written about one hundred and forty books. The teaching of Sultan Bahoo about Sufi-ism, Spirituality and Humanity. Name of books are Ain-ul-faqr, Shams-ul-Arifeen, Nur-ul-Huda, Rasala Rohi Shareef. One of these books are written in Lehndi ( Punjabi, Hindko, Sariky and Hindi) and others in Persian language and some of them are translated in Urdu and English language. Sultan Bahoo is the famous Sufi in World specially subcontinent Pakistan india Bangladesh kalam e bahoo
http://wn.com/Hazrat_Sultan_Bahoo_documentary_by_indus_news_P_1
Hazrat Sultan Bahu Documentary Sahibzada Sultan Ahmad Ali Explain,s Whole Life And Educations of Hazrat Sultan Bahoo. Hazrat Sultan Bahoo is the most famous Sufi in the World. Sultan Bahoo written about one hundred and forty books. The teaching of Sultan Bahoo about Sufi-ism, Spirituality and Humanity. Name of books are Ain-ul-faqr, Shams-ul-Arifeen, Nur-ul-Huda, Rasala Rohi Shareef. One of these books are written in Lehndi ( Punjabi, Hindko, Sariky and Hindi) and others in Persian language and some of them are translated in Urdu and English language. Sultan Bahoo is the famous Sufi in World specially subcontinent Pakistan india Bangladesh kalam e bahoo
- published: 11 May 2010
- views: 19333
- author: adplahorepk
Indus Vision Part 1 Anti aging.flv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 21 Jun 2012
Prof. Moiz Hussain shares tips on anti aging and remaining YOUNG, on Indus Tv morning show, Pakistan on Nov 19, 2009. Part - 1
http://wn.com/Indus_Vision_Part_1_Anti_agingflv
Prof. Moiz Hussain shares tips on anti aging and remaining YOUNG, on Indus Tv morning show, Pakistan on Nov 19, 2009. Part - 1
- published: 21 Nov 2009
- views: 30764
- author: Moiz Hussain
Pakistan Railways Tezro crossing Indus River and then Kotri Jn
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:43
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
Tezro at Kotri Bridge over Indus River, then reaching Kotri Junction... Beautiful Train, Beautiful Journey, Beautiful Sind, Beautiful PAKISTAN... LONG LIVE PAKISTAN :)
http://wn.com/Pakistan_Railways_Tezro_crossing_Indus_River_and_then_Kotri_Jn
Tezro at Kotri Bridge over Indus River, then reaching Kotri Junction... Beautiful Train, Beautiful Journey, Beautiful Sind, Beautiful PAKISTAN... LONG LIVE PAKISTAN :)
- published: 30 Aug 2009
- views: 21953
- author: mtsfk
Syed Zaid Hamid on his memoirs 'From Indus to Oxus' - Waqt News
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 41:03
- Updated: 05 Jul 2012
21-01-12 - Sir Zaid Hamid answering questions about his phenomenal memoirs 'From Indus to Oxus' in the program Gustakhi Maaf on Waqt News.
http://wn.com/Syed_Zaid_Hamid_on_his_memoirs_'From_Indus_to_Oxus'_Waqt_News
21-01-12 - Sir Zaid Hamid answering questions about his phenomenal memoirs 'From Indus to Oxus' in the program Gustakhi Maaf on Waqt News.
- published: 21 Jan 2012
- views: 15563
- author: cherie22579
![Indus Creed - Fireflies [Audio]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/j1seque82f4/default.jpg "Indus Creed - Fireflies [Audio]")
Indus Creed - Fireflies [Audio]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:55
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
We will always have a soft spot for Indus Creed. For us children of the late 1980s and early 1990s, they were the first Indian rock band we saw, both on TV, and live. That was when "indie" was not a term associated with Indian acts at all, and Rock Machine, as they were known then, were just a pop-rock act, albeit one we could call our own. Today, the term "pop" has come to mean a bad thing while "indie" has come to be a catch-all phrase for anything other than Bollywood. As a band of the late 1980s and early 1990s, Indus Creed remain decidedly old-school however at least in their decision to wait for, of all things, a suitably lucrative record deal before releasing their fourth album and the first by their current configuration, which got together in 2010. The album, entitled Evolve, was released in April. A collection of earworms and growers, Evolve surprisingly works much better on record than in shows. There are guitar and keyboard solos aplenty, notably on "Dissolve" and "No Disgrace", tracks where guitarist Mahesh Tinaikar and keyboardist Zubin Balaporia respectively share writing credits with chief songsmith and vocalist Uday Benegal. However, they aren't elongated to the extent they are on stage. In concerts, the instrumental breaks make Indus Creed appear like prog-rock pretenders rather than hair metal heroes of yore. Never mind that they moved to a more alternative rock sound in the mid-nineties via tabla tinged tunes like "Trapped"; when it comes to the ...
http://wn.com/Indus_Creed_Fireflies_Audio_
We will always have a soft spot for Indus Creed. For us children of the late 1980s and early 1990s, they were the first Indian rock band we saw, both on TV, and live. That was when "indie" was not a term associated with Indian acts at all, and Rock Machine, as they were known then, were just a pop-rock act, albeit one we could call our own. Today, the term "pop" has come to mean a bad thing while "indie" has come to be a catch-all phrase for anything other than Bollywood. As a band of the late 1980s and early 1990s, Indus Creed remain decidedly old-school however at least in their decision to wait for, of all things, a suitably lucrative record deal before releasing their fourth album and the first by their current configuration, which got together in 2010. The album, entitled Evolve, was released in April. A collection of earworms and growers, Evolve surprisingly works much better on record than in shows. There are guitar and keyboard solos aplenty, notably on "Dissolve" and "No Disgrace", tracks where guitarist Mahesh Tinaikar and keyboardist Zubin Balaporia respectively share writing credits with chief songsmith and vocalist Uday Benegal. However, they aren't elongated to the extent they are on stage. In concerts, the instrumental breaks make Indus Creed appear like prog-rock pretenders rather than hair metal heroes of yore. Never mind that they moved to a more alternative rock sound in the mid-nineties via tabla tinged tunes like "Trapped"; when it comes to the ...
- published: 13 Jun 2012
- views: 11588
- author: Mehernosh Sanjana
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:20
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Indus Valley Civilization project - Nick, Nick, and Will
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization project - Nick, Nick, and Will
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 1676
- author: ebendovroton
CM Modi explains Rich heritage of dholavira-Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Honorable CM Modi explains the rich heritage and civilization of Indus Valley addressing gathering at International Sindhi Conferance, Ahemdabad.
http://wn.com/CM_Modi_explains_Rich_heritage_of_dholavira-Indus_Valley_Civilization
Honorable CM Modi explains the rich heritage and civilization of Indus Valley addressing gathering at International Sindhi Conferance, Ahemdabad.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 270
- author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Indus valley civilization most ancient advanced civilization
http://wn.com/Indus_valley_civilization
Indus valley civilization most ancient advanced civilization
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 450
- author: ebendovroton
History Of Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
All about Indus Valley Civilization
http://wn.com/History_Of_Indus_Valley_Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:07
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The Great Indus Civilization informational Video
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization
The Great Indus Civilization informational Video
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 8193
- author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization EXTENDED
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://adf.ly/5FaDR
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus -
Indus Valley on Wikipedia -
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - #John Green, Crashcourse, Documentary, Valley, Culture, History, vlogbrothers, India, Pakistan, Indus, agricultural, revolution, ancient history, AP, world history, civilization, world civ, civilizations extended
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization_EXTENDED
http://adf.ly/5FaDR
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus -
Indus Valley on Wikipedia -
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - #John Green, Crashcourse, Documentary, Valley, Culture, History, vlogbrothers, India, Pakistan, Indus, agricultural, revolution, ancient history, AP, world history, civilization, world civ, civilizations extended
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 2949
- author: ebendovroton
world history indus valley civilization.wmv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:49
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
World History Indus Valley Civilization Travelogue
http://wn.com/world_history_indus_valley_civilizationwmv
World History Indus Valley Civilization Travelogue
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 2414
- author: ebendovroton
Mohen Jo Daro -Indus Valley Civilization -2600 BC- World Heritage Site By UNESCO- 1980- Pakistan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
BEST TIME TO VISIT: November to March
Plan with Tourist Guide:
Mr Liqa Ansari, Cell: 00923227030450, E-mail: ansariguide2pakistan@gmail.com
MOHENJO DARO-SINDH-PAKISTAN:
Mound of the Dead.This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mohen Jo Daro was one of the large cities of Indus valley civilization situated in the province of Sindh of Pakistan.
It was built around 2600 BC.
This archeological site was re-designated by UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
Learn More: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moenjodaro
http://wn.com/Mohen_Jo_Daro_-Indus_Valley_Civilization_-2600_BC_World_Heritage_Site_By_UNESCO_1980_Pakistan
BEST TIME TO VISIT: November to March
Plan with Tourist Guide:
Mr Liqa Ansari, Cell: 00923227030450, E-mail: ansariguide2pakistan@gmail.com
MOHENJO DARO-SINDH-PAKISTAN:
Mound of the Dead.This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mohen Jo Daro was one of the large cities of Indus valley civilization situated in the province of Sindh of Pakistan.
It was built around 2600 BC.
This archeological site was re-designated by UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
Learn More: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moenjodaro
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 3733
- author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:34
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000--1500 BCE, Mature period 2600--1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus river valleys primarily in Sindh and southern Punjab provinces of Pakistan, extending westward into Balochistan province, and in north western and western India. Other remains of the IVC can also be found in present-day Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran. The mature phase of this civilization is technically known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa. Excavation of IVC sites has been ongoing since the 1920s, and the recent big findings have been occurring as late as 1999 .
Pakistan is an ancient land: a cradle of civilizations, cross roads of empires, cultures, languages and peoples as well as religions.
It was in Pakistan that Arabs got their knowledge of the concept of Zero.
The first linguistic system of grammar came from a anicient grammarian named Panini in Northern Pakistan.
The acclaimed intriguing political treatise written by Kautilya "Artashastra" was written in Pakistan.
It was here that Alexander's army stopped
It was in Pakistan that the foundation of Vedic culture was seeded which later influenced land beyond its borders into modern day India, Indo China, East Indies and such. All word containing the epithat "Indo" or "Ind" originate from a territory and river in Pakistan the Indus.
From Islamic mysticism to the shrines of Sikh gurus, from the Muslim mughal archistecture and Greco-Bactrian arts to Persian influence and bedrock of Buddhism and various dharmic cults and now considered the fort of Islam, Pakistan and her diverse people are a nation to be reckoned with. Love and peace for the world and appreciation of each other's accomplishments as well as perpetual learning and interaction is virtue which resides in the hearts of Pakistanis.
Hopefully people will rediscover the treasures of the great nation of Pakistan and leave with fond memories.
Sumer together with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization".
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000--1500 BCE, Mature period 2600--1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus river valleys primarily in Sindh and southern Punjab provinces of Pakistan, extending westward into Balochistan province, and in north western and western India. Other remains of the IVC can also be found in present-day Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran. The mature phase of this civilization is technically known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa. Excavation of IVC sites has been ongoing since the 1920s, and the recent big findings have been occurring as late as 1999 .
Pakistan is an ancient land: a cradle of civilizations, cross roads of empires, cultures, languages and peoples as well as religions.
It was in Pakistan that Arabs got their knowledge of the concept of Zero.
The first linguistic system of grammar came from a anicient grammarian named Panini in Northern Pakistan.
The acclaimed intriguing political treatise written by Kautilya "Artashastra" was written in Pakistan.
It was here that Alexander's army stopped
It was in Pakistan that the foundation of Vedic culture was seeded which later influenced land beyond its borders into modern day India, Indo China, East Indies and such. All word containing the epithat "Indo" or "Ind" originate from a territory and river in Pakistan the Indus.
From Islamic mysticism to the shrines of Sikh gurus, from the Muslim mughal archistecture and Greco-Bactrian arts to Persian influence and bedrock of Buddhism and various dharmic cults and now considered the fort of Islam, Pakistan and her diverse people are a nation to be reckoned with. Love and peace for the world and appreciation of each other's accomplishments as well as perpetual learning and interaction is virtue which resides in the hearts of Pakistanis.
Hopefully people will rediscover the treasures of the great nation of Pakistan and leave with fond memories.
Sumer together with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization".
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 7725
- author: ebendovroton
Dravidian Origin of Indus Valley Civilization.wmv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:33
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In this video we discuss the Dravidian foundation of the Indus Valley Civillization. Careful attention is given to the Dravidian character of the Harappan civilization and the expansion of this civilization into Central Asia and India.
http://wn.com/Dravidian_Origin_of_Indus_Valley_Civilizationwmv
In this video we discuss the Dravidian foundation of the Indus Valley Civillization. Careful attention is given to the Dravidian character of the Harappan civilization and the expansion of this civilization into Central Asia and India.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 31137
- author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
ancient Indian civilization
http://wn.com/Indus_valley_civilization
Indus Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Indus Valley Civilization (3500-1700 BC, aka Harappan Civilization) was mostly based in present day region of Pakistan, with its periphery or colonies stretching as far as northwest India in the east, Turkmenistan in the north, and southeast Iran/Persian Gulf in the West.
As a cradle of civilization, its contributions include the world's first: largest planned cities, drainage systems, cotton clothing, dentistry, standardized weights, possibly the writing system, and much more.
Indus people had extensive trade and cultural links with the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia.
The linguistic identity of the Harappans is unknown because the Indus script is still undeciphered. There are many theories of them being Indo-Iranian, Dravidian, Semitic, Altaic, Mundic, or even an isolate.
Indus religion remains a mystery as it is distinct from any known religion. There seems to be some sort of a Bull Cult prevelant among Harappans. There is also similarity with Gilgemish/Enkidu and even the Cernunnos.
Harappans were a multi-racial people with closest genetic affiliation to present day people of Indus valley and surroundings.
Despite waves of invasions throughout the centuries, the Harappan legacy lives on with continuation of many aspects of the culture, traditions, arts, etc. in present day Indus Valley and surroundings.
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (3500-1700 BC, aka Harappan Civilization) was mostly based in present day region of Pakistan, with its periphery or colonies stretching as far as northwest India in the east, Turkmenistan in the north, and southeast Iran/Persian Gulf in the West.
As a cradle of civilization, its contributions include the world's first: largest planned cities, drainage systems, cotton clothing, dentistry, standardized weights, possibly the writing system, and much more.
Indus people had extensive trade and cultural links with the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia.
The linguistic identity of the Harappans is unknown because the Indus script is still undeciphered. There are many theories of them being Indo-Iranian, Dravidian, Semitic, Altaic, Mundic, or even an isolate.
Indus religion remains a mystery as it is distinct from any known religion. There seems to be some sort of a Bull Cult prevelant among Harappans. There is also similarity with Gilgemish/Enkidu and even the Cernunnos.
Harappans were a multi-racial people with closest genetic affiliation to present day people of Indus valley and surroundings.
Despite waves of invasions throughout the centuries, the Harappan legacy lives on with continuation of many aspects of the culture, traditions, arts, etc. in present day Indus Valley and surroundings.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 15848
- author: ebendovroton
Ancient Indian History - Indus Valley Civilization 3D
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://wn.com/Ancient_Indian_History_Indus_Valley_Civilization_3D
Achievements of the Indus River Valley Civilization
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:15
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
http://wn.com/Achievements_of_the_Indus_River_Valley_Civilization
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 40470
- author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization(mohenjo-daro)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:32
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
©http://www.hexolabs.com
e-learning research on ancient Indian civilization produced at Hexolabs,SIIC, IIT Kanpur for a better insight, visit
Kindly do not treat this video clipping as an exact archaeological reference. The idea is to make children aware/understand the whole Indus valley cultural system.
http://wn.com/Indus_valley_civilizationmohenjo-daro
©http://www.hexolabs.com
e-learning research on ancient Indian civilization produced at Hexolabs,SIIC, IIT Kanpur for a better insight, visit
Kindly do not treat this video clipping as an exact archaeological reference. The idea is to make children aware/understand the whole Indus valley cultural system.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 192886
- author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization: Crash Course World History #2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus - http://dft.ba/-1Kwn
Indus Valley on Wikipedia - http://dft.ba/-1Kwp
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - http://dft.ba/-1Kwq
Follow us!
@thecrashcourse
@realjohngreen
@raoulmeyer
@crashcoursestan
@saysdanica
@thoughtbubbler
Like us!
http://www.facebook.com/youtubecrashcourse
Follow us again!
http://thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
http://wn.com/Indus_Valley_Civilization_Crash_Course_World_History_2
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus - http://dft.ba/-1Kwn
Indus Valley on Wikipedia - http://dft.ba/-1Kwp
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - http://dft.ba/-1Kwq
Follow us!
@thecrashcourse
@realjohngreen
@raoulmeyer
@crashcoursestan
@saysdanica
@thoughtbubbler
Like us!
http://www.facebook.com/youtubecrashcourse
Follow us again!
http://thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 476342
- author: ebendovroton
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Soman - Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:08
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Artist: Soman
Song: Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
http://wn.com/Soman_Noise_Anthem_Infacted_Version_
Artist: Soman
Song: Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 40399
- author: Edvonstras
Valium Era - Fcuk Me
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:52
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
CD: Mutation (2009). Model: TwiggX. If you like, please suscribe.
Also, Twiggx is not related in any way to the song name or lyrics, but we can dream. And yes, i asked her for permission.
http://wn.com/Valium_Era_Fcuk_Me
CD: Mutation (2009). Model: TwiggX. If you like, please suscribe.
Also, Twiggx is not related in any way to the song name or lyrics, but we can dream. And yes, i asked her for permission.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1313948
- author: Edvonstras
T3RR0R 3RR0R - Domination
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:33
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
CD: Digital Infection. Check them out at http://www.MySpace.com/TerrorErrorSite
Buy their CD at: http://www.disconexus.com/index.php?route=product/product&manufacturer;_id=8&product;_id=226
-- Suscribe 4 More --
http://wn.com/T3RR0R_3RR0R_Domination
CD: Digital Infection. Check them out at http://www.MySpace.com/TerrorErrorSite
Buy their CD at: http://www.disconexus.com/index.php?route=product/product&manufacturer;_id=8&product;_id=226
-- Suscribe 4 More --
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 344544
- author: Edvonstras
Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:03
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Track: Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Support: http://www.myspace.com/frozenplasma & http://www.myspace.com/djtoffel
More Mixxes and DJ-Sets avaible on my myspace account!
http://wn.com/Frozen_Plasma_Tanz_Die_Revolution_international_DJ_Mix_by_DJ_Toffel
Track: Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Support: http://www.myspace.com/frozenplasma & http://www.myspace.com/djtoffel
More Mixxes and DJ-Sets avaible on my myspace account!
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1950
- author: Edvonstras
Korsakoff - My Empty Bottle
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:53
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Geniet van het prachtige nummer van Korsakoff, 'My Empty Bottle'!
Hardcore en een knappe meid. 't Kan niet beter!
http://wn.com/Korsakoff_My_Empty_Bottle
Geniet van het prachtige nummer van Korsakoff, 'My Empty Bottle'!
Hardcore en een knappe meid. 't Kan niet beter!
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 495672
- author: Edvonstras
DJ Korsakoff - Still Wasted
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:55
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Geil geil geil [!!]
http://wn.com/DJ_Korsakoff_Still_Wasted
Korsakoff - Birth
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:51
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Kick ass track from Korsakoff's new album "Unrivalled"
http://wn.com/Korsakoff_Birth
Kick ass track from Korsakoff's new album "Unrivalled"
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 333453
- author: Edvonstras
Angerfist & Korsakoff
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Let me hear you scream for.. DJ KORSAKOFF !
http://wn.com/Angerfist_Korsakoff
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST - RAISE CAIN 2007
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:48
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
RAISE CAIN 2007
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST
http://wn.com/KORSAKOFF_ANGERFIST_RAISE_CAIN_2007
Phosgore - Diagnosis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Brutal track by Phosgore. CD: Domination.
If you like, please suscribe.
http://wn.com/Phosgore_Diagnosis
Brutal track by Phosgore. CD: Domination.
If you like, please suscribe.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 36165
- author: Edvonstras
Paradoxie - Indoxication
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:10
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Excellent track by Paradoxie.
If you like, please suscribe.
http://wn.com/Paradoxie_Indoxication
Excellent track by Paradoxie.
If you like, please suscribe.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 429037
- author: Edvonstras
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:26
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard
http://wn.com/Noisuf-X_Hit_Me_Hard
Noisuf-X - Hit me Hard (As Hard as you can Mix)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:25
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Funny fact: The human brain has the capacity to store everything that you experience.
Song download: http://www.4shared.com/audio/FJjCu8C9/Noisuf-X_-_Hit_Me_Hard.htm?aff=7637829
Lyrics:
{{Repeating}}
Hit me hard and hit me fast.
(Hit me hard, Hit me fast)
Song: Hit Me Hard
Artist: Noisuf-X
Album: Voodoo Ritual
Year: 27 Feb 2009
Song on album: 15
Genre: Electronic [Rhythmic Noise, Electro, Industrial]
http://wn.com/Noisuf-X_Hit_me_Hard_As_Hard_as_you_can_Mix
Funny fact: The human brain has the capacity to store everything that you experience.
Song download: http://www.4shared.com/audio/FJjCu8C9/Noisuf-X_-_Hit_Me_Hard.htm?aff=7637829
Lyrics:
{{Repeating}}
Hit me hard and hit me fast.
(Hit me hard, Hit me fast)
Song: Hit Me Hard
Artist: Noisuf-X
Album: Voodoo Ritual
Year: 27 Feb 2009
Song on album: 15
Genre: Electronic [Rhythmic Noise, Electro, Industrial]
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 7892
- author: Edvonstras
Agonoize - Glaubenskrieger
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:03
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
A Hellgate: London fan video with music by Agonoize.
Lyrics:
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Oder wird der Krieg nur durch deinen Glauben entfacht?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Hast du jemals erlebt,
wie dein Gott zu dir spricht,
dir Befehle erteilt?
Ja das glaube ich wohl nicht!
Ist dein Glaube so stark,
dass du dich ständig fragst,
wie ein anderer Gott
ihm zu trotzen vermag.
Auf in den Kampf,
in die heilige Schlacht
hier geht's nicht um Religion
sondern nur blanke Macht.
Also zieh in den Kampf
doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn der Zorn den du säest
in Gewalt nieder bricht...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Die Gewalt ist doch nur noch das Mittel zum Ziel,
Unterbewusst wirst du Teil dieses Spiels.
Also zieh in den Krieg
Doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn die Welt die du kennst,
in Flammen erlischt...
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Glaubenskrieger...
For an english translation have a look at
http://lyricwiki.org/Agonoize:Glaubenskrieger
Also, please visit Agonoize at
http://agonoize.de/ and
http://www.myspace.com/agonoize !
http://wn.com/Agonoize_Glaubenskrieger
A Hellgate: London fan video with music by Agonoize.
Lyrics:
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Oder wird der Krieg nur durch deinen Glauben entfacht?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Hast du jemals erlebt,
wie dein Gott zu dir spricht,
dir Befehle erteilt?
Ja das glaube ich wohl nicht!
Ist dein Glaube so stark,
dass du dich ständig fragst,
wie ein anderer Gott
ihm zu trotzen vermag.
Auf in den Kampf,
in die heilige Schlacht
hier geht's nicht um Religion
sondern nur blanke Macht.
Also zieh in den Kampf
doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn der Zorn den du säest
in Gewalt nieder bricht...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Die Gewalt ist doch nur noch das Mittel zum Ziel,
Unterbewusst wirst du Teil dieses Spiels.
Also zieh in den Krieg
Doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn die Welt die du kennst,
in Flammen erlischt...
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Glaubenskrieger...
For an english translation have a look at
http://lyricwiki.org/Agonoize:Glaubenskrieger
Also, please visit Agonoize at
http://agonoize.de/ and
http://www.myspace.com/agonoize !
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 991180
- author: Edvonstras
Combichrist "Get Your Body Beat" Music Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:39
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Get Your Body Beat, Combichrist's new single released in the summer of 6/6/06 following the music video containing clips from the movie "The Gene Generation"
http://wn.com/Combichrist_Get_Your_Body_Beat_Music_Video
Get Your Body Beat, Combichrist's new single released in the summer of 6/6/06 following the music video containing clips from the movie "The Gene Generation"
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 3306000
- author: Edvonstras
PSYCLON NINE "parasitic" -official-
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:55
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Directed by Richard Thomas {Mushroomhead, Ventana} {this is the official video}
http://wn.com/PSYCLON_NINE_parasitic_-official-
Directed by Richard Thomas {Mushroomhead, Ventana} {this is the official video}
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 2001525
- author: Edvonstras
Combichrist - Blut Royal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:34
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Combichrist Blut Royale
All copyrights go the CC label, no intentions in breaking any law at any form
http://wn.com/Combichrist_Blut_Royal
Combichrist Blut Royale
All copyrights go the CC label, no intentions in breaking any law at any form
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 16129
- author: Edvonstras
Dioxyde - Geist
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Fan Vid.
http://wn.com/Dioxyde_Geist
Nachtmahr - Mein Name
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
for more info from Nachtmahr http://www.nachtmahr.at/
country: AUSTRIA
album: Feuer Frei!
year: 2008
Not an official Nachtmahr video.
Just a fanvid!!!
for more info from Nachtmahr
http://www.nachtmahr.at/
http://wn.com/Nachtmahr_Mein_Name
for more info from Nachtmahr http://www.nachtmahr.at/
country: AUSTRIA
album: Feuer Frei!
year: 2008
Not an official Nachtmahr video.
Just a fanvid!!!
for more info from Nachtmahr
http://www.nachtmahr.at/
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 1290761
- author: Edvonstras
Eisenfunk - Pong
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:51
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Eisenfunk "Pong" the official music video, taken from the upcoming album "8bit".
Worldwide Release: 26. March 2010
http://wn.com/Eisenfunk_Pong
Eisenfunk "Pong" the official music video, taken from the upcoming album "8bit".
Worldwide Release: 26. March 2010
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 6659993
- author: Edvonstras
Blutengel- Reich mir die Hand
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The new clip from Blutengel. Directed by Silvan Büge (Blackstage TV). Single in shops on January 21st, 2011!
http://wn.com/Blutengel_Reich_mir_die_Hand
The new clip from Blutengel. Directed by Silvan Büge (Blackstage TV). Single in shops on January 21st, 2011!
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 4430678
- author: Edvonstras
Feindflug - Ätherkrieg
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:30
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
This is the music song "Ätherkrieg" from the band "Feindflug" Album "Volk und Armee".
http://wn.com/Feindflug_Ätherkrieg
This is the music song "Ätherkrieg" from the band "Feindflug" Album "Volk und Armee".
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 260669
- author: Edvonstras
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Birthday Celebration
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:15
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
To be continued... (My birthday was on the 21st)
http://wn.com/Birthday_Celebration
To be continued... (My birthday was on the 21st)
- published: 01 Jan 2013
- views: 15
- author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 9, Halloween
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Tricky Treat. Watch in HD.
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_9,_Halloween
Indus' Vlog 8, Sexy Costumes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:13
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Halloween Party! This is what ladies do in the powder room....
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_8,_Sexy_Costumes
Halloween Party! This is what ladies do in the powder room....
- published: 25 Oct 2012
- views: 535
- author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 7, One Man's Trash
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:56
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
I stopped to take a photo but realized there was more to my picture. follow me on twitter @indusalelia
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_7,_One_Man's_Trash
I stopped to take a photo but realized there was more to my picture. follow me on twitter @indusalelia
- published: 16 Oct 2012
- views: 301
- author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 6, Rolling Joints at Church
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:36
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Rolling "joints" at church
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_6,_Rolling_Joints_at_Church
Indus' Vlog 5, Scab
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:17
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Not sure what I did to my knee but the scab came off...
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_5,_Scab
Not sure what I did to my knee but the scab came off...
- published: 08 Oct 2012
- views: 301
- author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 4, Masturbation Station
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:37
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Bus Stop or Masturbation Station?
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_4,_Masturbation_Station
Indus' Vlog 3, Mollie not Jessica
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Watch in HD. Mollie not Jessica.
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_3,_Mollie_not_Jessica
Indus' Vlog 2, Busy People on Set
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:33
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
On the movie set of BFE
https://www.facebook.com/BFEfilm
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_2,_Busy_People_on_Set
On the movie set of BFE
https://www.facebook.com/BFEfilm
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 488
- author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 1, Film Break
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Idaho Film Set, Off Time...
See what I did with the 15 minutes a day I had to myself on a film set in Idaho.
http://wn.com/Indus'_Vlog_1,_Film_Break
Idaho Film Set, Off Time...
See what I did with the 15 minutes a day I had to myself on a film set in Idaho.
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 646
- author: indusalelia
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
![Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 1/4 [lektor PL]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/mWGLRSaJ3lA/default.jpg "Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 1/4 [lektor PL]")
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 1/4 [lektor PL]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:55
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
http://wn.com/Utracone_dziedzictwo_Lud_znad_rzeki_Indus_1_4_lektor_PL_
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 3185
- author: bartiPWZ
![Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 2/4 [lektor PL]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/j9Qf5grCV3U/default.jpg "Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 2/4 [lektor PL]")
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 2/4 [lektor PL]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:54
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
http://wn.com/Utracone_dziedzictwo_Lud_znad_rzeki_Indus_2_4_lektor_PL_
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 643
- author: bartiPWZ
![Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 3/4 [lektor PL]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/4uf6UBTdq88/default.jpg "Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 3/4 [lektor PL]")
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 3/4 [lektor PL]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:58
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
http://wn.com/Utracone_dziedzictwo_Lud_znad_rzeki_Indus_3_4_lektor_PL_
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 510
- author: bartiPWZ
![Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 4/4 [lektor PL]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130108051802im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/3PJXZPXEcHQ/default.jpg "Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 4/4 [lektor PL]")
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 4/4 [lektor PL]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:48
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
http://wn.com/Utracone_dziedzictwo_Lud_znad_rzeki_Indus_4_4_lektor_PL_
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 422
- author: bartiPWZ
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Minaret of Masoom Shah Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:12
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Minaret of Masoom Shah is the landmark of Sukkur (Sindh) Pakistan. It was built about 4 centuries ago by Mir Masoom Shah Bakhri, the historian and Nawab of Moughul emperor Akbar.
http://wn.com/Minaret_of_Masoom_Shah_Sukkur
Minaret of Masoom Shah is the landmark of Sukkur (Sindh) Pakistan. It was built about 4 centuries ago by Mir Masoom Shah Bakhri, the historian and Nawab of Moughul emperor Akbar.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1940
- author: TheBukhaari
Sateen Jo Astan Rohri
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:39
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Sateen Jo Astan, Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan is the small family graveyard of Mir Abul Qasim Namkeen, the ruler of Bakhar in the period of Moughul emperor Akbar, located on the bank of river Indus.
http://wn.com/Sateen_Jo_Astan_Rohri
Sateen Jo Astan, Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan is the small family graveyard of Mir Abul Qasim Namkeen, the ruler of Bakhar in the period of Moughul emperor Akbar, located on the bank of river Indus.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 871
- author: TheBukhaari
River Indus At Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:30
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Sukkur, the third largest city of Sindh (Pakistan) is located on the bank of river Indus
http://wn.com/River_Indus_At_Sukkur
Sukkur, the third largest city of Sindh (Pakistan) is located on the bank of river Indus
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 720
- author: TheBukhaari
Lakhiyen Jo Daro, Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:38
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Recently discovered Lakhiyen Jo Daro at SITE area Sukkur is said to have remnants of 5000 years civilization
http://wn.com/Lakhiyen_Jo_Daro,_Sukkur
Recently discovered Lakhiyen Jo Daro at SITE area Sukkur is said to have remnants of 5000 years civilization
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 385
- author: TheBukhaari
Adam Shah Ji Takri Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:53
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Adam Shah Ji Takri (The Hill of Adam Shah) Sukkur is well known for the tomb of Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro. The tomb was built by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, the ruler of Sindh in 1768 AD.
http://wn.com/Adam_Shah_Ji_Takri_Sukkur
Adam Shah Ji Takri (The Hill of Adam Shah) Sukkur is well known for the tomb of Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro. The tomb was built by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, the ruler of Sindh in 1768 AD.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1052
- author: TheBukhaari
Tomb of Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah) Old Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:10
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The Saint Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah Jeelani) was born in Baghdad in 911 AH and died in old Sukkur in 1017 AH.
http://wn.com/Tomb_of_Shah_Khairuddin_Jeay_Shah_Old_Sukkur
The Saint Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah Jeelani) was born in Baghdad in 911 AH and died in old Sukkur in 1017 AH.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1037
- author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Syed Ameer Muhammad Shah Makki Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:57
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The Saint Syed ameer Muhammad Shah Makki came to Sukkur in 1260 AD, his shrine is located near local board Sukkur.
http://wn.com/Shrine_of_Syed_Ameer_Muhammad_Shah_Makki_Sukkur
The Saint Syed ameer Muhammad Shah Makki came to Sukkur in 1260 AD, his shrine is located near local board Sukkur.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 476
- author: TheBukhaari
Rohri on the bank of river Indus
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://wn.com/Rohri_on_the_bank_of_river_Indus
Astan-e-Khwaja Khizar Rohri
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:11
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
http://wn.com/Astan-e-Khwaja_Khizar_Rohri
Bakhar Fort Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:26
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Centuries old Bakhar fort is located on the Bakhar island in river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
http://wn.com/Bakhar_Fort_Sukkur
Centuries old Bakhar fort is located on the Bakhar island in river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 904
- author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:53
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin is located at the Bakhar island on the river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
http://wn.com/Shrine_of_Shah_Sadaruddin_Sukkur
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin is located at the Bakhar island on the river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 760
- author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Hajna Shah Huzoori Rohri
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:08
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Shrine of Saint Hajna Shah Huzoori is located on the bank of river Indus Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan.
http://wn.com/Shrine_of_Hajna_Shah_Huzoori_Rohri
Shrine of Saint Hajna Shah Huzoori is located on the bank of river Indus Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1337
- author: TheBukhaari
Tomb of Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:06
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
The tomb of Sufi Saint Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri (died 635 AH) is located at the Bakhar island between Sukkur and Rohri
http://wn.com/Tomb_of_Makhdoom_Nooh_Bakhri_Sukkur
The tomb of Sufi Saint Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri (died 635 AH) is located at the Bakhar island between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 748
- author: TheBukhaari
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak Rohri
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:44
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak located near the shrine of Waar Mubarak on the bank of river Indus, was built by an officer of Moughul Emperor Akbar in 1584 AD.
http://wn.com/Jamia_Masjid_Waar_Mubarak_Rohri
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak located near the shrine of Waar Mubarak on the bank of river Indus, was built by an officer of Moughul Emperor Akbar in 1584 AD.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 510
- author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Waar Mubarak Rohri
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:51
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Shrine of Waar Mubarak holds Holy Hair of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). The shrine was built in 952 AH (1545 AD) by Mir Muhammad Kalhoro.
http://wn.com/Shrine_of_Waar_Mubarak_Rohri
Shrine of Waar Mubarak holds Holy Hair of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). The shrine was built in 952 AH (1545 AD) by Mir Muhammad Kalhoro.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 839
- author: TheBukhaari
AlFurqan Research Institute & Museum Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:53
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Al Furqan reearch intitute & museum is a small but unique private library on Holy Quran with large collection including rare handwritten Holy Quran, and translation in over 50 languages. It was established by Faqir Amanullah Mako and inagurated by Ghulam Muhammad Mako on 9th Oct 2007
http://wn.com/AlFurqan_Research_Institute_Museum_Sukkur
Al Furqan reearch intitute & museum is a small but unique private library on Holy Quran with large collection including rare handwritten Holy Quran, and translation in over 50 languages. It was established by Faqir Amanullah Mako and inagurated by Ghulam Muhammad Mako on 9th Oct 2007
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 251
- author: TheBukhaari
Labe Mehran, Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:31
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Lab-e-Mehran, Sukkur is a recreational park on the bank of river Indus, developed in 1962-63
http://wn.com/Labe_Mehran,_Sukkur
Lab-e-Mehran, Sukkur is a recreational park on the bank of river Indus, developed in 1962-63
- published: 13 Jul 2010
- views: 5971
- author: TheBukhaari
Jamia Masjid, Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Jamia Masjid Sukkur is located on the Bunder raod, Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Its foundation stone was laid on 8th July 1955 by Mufti-e-Azam Pakistan Maulana Muhammad Shafi and Syed Nusrat Hassan, Collector Sukkur. Jamia Masjid sukkur was constructed in 1961-74
http://wn.com/Jamia_Masjid,_Sukkur
Jamia Masjid Sukkur is located on the Bunder raod, Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Its foundation stone was laid on 8th July 1955 by Mufti-e-Azam Pakistan Maulana Muhammad Shafi and Syed Nusrat Hassan, Collector Sukkur. Jamia Masjid sukkur was constructed in 1961-74
- published: 13 Jul 2010
- views: 1560
- author: TheBukhaari
Clock Tower, Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:29
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Clock tower Sukkur was built in 1937 by Seth Wadhu Mal in memory of his brothers Seth Sundar Das and Seth Deeyo Mal. 90 feet high tower was inagurated Mr Mirchandani, Collector Sukkur.
http://wn.com/Clock_Tower,_Sukkur
Clock tower Sukkur was built in 1937 by Seth Wadhu Mal in memory of his brothers Seth Sundar Das and Seth Deeyo Mal. 90 feet high tower was inagurated Mr Mirchandani, Collector Sukkur.
- published: 13 Jul 2010
- views: 3332
- author: TheBukhaari
Flood water at Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:45
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Mighty Indus at Sukkur during super flood in 2010 that claimed many lives and caused heavy loss and devastation to country
http://wn.com/Flood_water_at_Sukkur
Mighty Indus at Sukkur during super flood in 2010 that claimed many lives and caused heavy loss and devastation to country
- published: 23 Aug 2010
- views: 242
- author: TheBukhaari
Super flood water flowing from Sukkur Bypass Bridge
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Outflow of river Indus water at Sukkur during super flood on August 17th 2010, when the water flow was 1025630 cu secs.
http://wn.com/Super_flood_water_flowing_from_Sukkur_Bypass_Bridge
Outflow of river Indus water at Sukkur during super flood on August 17th 2010, when the water flow was 1025630 cu secs.
- published: 23 Aug 2010
- views: 4450
- author: TheBukhaari
Pir Illahi Bakhsh Tower, Sukkur
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:35
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Pir Illahi Bakhsh tower (also known as Ilmi tower) is located on a hill near State bank of Pakistan, Sukkur. 110 feet high and 66 feet in width, the tower was founded by Pir illahi Bakhsh, minister for education in May 1939 and completed in 1940.
http://wn.com/Pir_Illahi_Bakhsh_Tower,_Sukkur
Pir Illahi Bakhsh tower (also known as Ilmi tower) is located on a hill near State bank of Pakistan, Sukkur. 110 feet high and 66 feet in width, the tower was founded by Pir illahi Bakhsh, minister for education in May 1939 and completed in 1940.
- published: 09 Oct 2010
- views: 311
- author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Faqeer Qadir Bakhsh Bedil, Rohri (On 142nd Urs Mubarak)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:40
- Updated: 01 Jan 1970
Faqeer Qadir Bakhsh 'Bedil'(1814-1872) was a Sufi saint and poet from Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan. He was son of Khalifo Muhammad Mohsin, named Abdul Qadir by birth and Qadir Bakhsh by his choice. He wrote poetry in Sindhi, Urdu, Persian, Seraiki and Hindi. He compiled 23 books on prose and poetry. The Urs of Faqeer Qadir Bakh Bedil is celebrated annually on 14-16 Ziqad at his shrine in Rohri. Muhammad Mohsin 'Bekas', son of Faqeer Qadir Bakhsh Bedil and first follower of his school of thought in poetry is also burried at the same place so the shrine is commonly known as shrine of Bedil and Bekas.
http://wn.com/Shrine_of_Faqeer_Qadir_Bakhsh_Bedil,_Rohri_On_142nd_Urs_Mubarak
Faqeer Qadir Bakhsh 'Bedil'(1814-1872) was a Sufi saint and poet from Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan. He was son of Khalifo Muhammad Mohsin, named Abdul Qadir by birth and Qadir Bakhsh by his choice. He wrote poetry in Sindhi, Urdu, Persian, Seraiki and Hindi. He compiled 23 books on prose and poetry. The Urs of Faqeer Qadir Bakh Bedil is celebrated annually on 14-16 Ziqad at his shrine in Rohri. Muhammad Mohsin 'Bekas', son of Faqeer Qadir Bakhsh Bedil and first follower of his school of thought in poetry is also burried at the same place so the shrine is commonly known as shrine of Bedil and Bekas.
- published: 24 Oct 2010
- views: 1044
- author: TheBukhaari
4:20
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization project - Nick, Nick, and Will...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization project - Nick, Nick, and Will
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 1676
- author: ebendovroton
3:40
CM Modi explains Rich heritage of dholavira-Indus Valley Civilization
Honorable CM Modi explains the rich heritage and civilization of Indus Valley addressing ...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
CM Modi explains Rich heritage of dholavira-Indus Valley Civilization
Honorable CM Modi explains the rich heritage and civilization of Indus Valley addressing gathering at International Sindhi Conferance, Ahemdabad.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 270
- author: ebendovroton
4:40
Indus valley civilization
Indus valley civilization most ancient advanced civilization...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization
Indus valley civilization most ancient advanced civilization
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 450
- author: ebendovroton
0:40
History Of Indus Valley Civilization
All about Indus Valley Civilization...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
History Of Indus Valley Civilization
All about Indus Valley Civilization
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 358
- author: ebendovroton
4:07
Indus Valley Civilization
The Great Indus Civilization informational Video...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization
The Great Indus Civilization informational Video
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 8193
- author: ebendovroton
9:35
Indus Valley Civilization EXTENDED
http://adf.ly/5FaDR
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, ...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization EXTENDED
http://adf.ly/5FaDR
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus -
Indus Valley on Wikipedia -
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - #John Green, Crashcourse, Documentary, Valley, Culture, History, vlogbrothers, India, Pakistan, Indus, agricultural, revolution, ancient history, AP, world history, civilization, world civ, civilizations extended
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 2949
- author: ebendovroton
6:49
world history indus valley civilization.wmv
World History Indus Valley Civilization Travelogue...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
world history indus valley civilization.wmv
World History Indus Valley Civilization Travelogue
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 2414
- author: ebendovroton
4:17
Mohen Jo Daro -Indus Valley Civilization -2600 BC- World Heritage Site By UNESCO- 1980- Pakistan
BEST TIME TO VISIT: November to March
Plan with Tourist Guide:
Mr Liqa Ansari, Cell: 00...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Mohen Jo Daro -Indus Valley Civilization -2600 BC- World Heritage Site By UNESCO- 1980- Pakistan
BEST TIME TO VISIT: November to March
Plan with Tourist Guide:
Mr Liqa Ansari, Cell: 00923227030450, E-mail: ansariguide2pakistan@gmail.com
MOHENJO DARO-SINDH-PAKISTAN:
Mound of the Dead.This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mohen Jo Daro was one of the large cities of Indus valley civilization situated in the province of Sindh of Pakistan.
It was built around 2600 BC.
This archeological site was re-designated by UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
Learn More: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moenjodaro
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 3733
- author: ebendovroton
2:34
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000--1500 BCE, Mature period 2600--1900 BCE), abbreviated I...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3000--1500 BCE, Mature period 2600--1900 BCE), abbreviated IVC, was an ancient civilization that flourished in the Indus river valleys primarily in Sindh and southern Punjab provinces of Pakistan, extending westward into Balochistan province, and in north western and western India. Other remains of the IVC can also be found in present-day Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Iran. The mature phase of this civilization is technically known as the Harappan Civilization, after the first of its cities to be excavated, Harappa. Excavation of IVC sites has been ongoing since the 1920s, and the recent big findings have been occurring as late as 1999 .
Pakistan is an ancient land: a cradle of civilizations, cross roads of empires, cultures, languages and peoples as well as religions.
It was in Pakistan that Arabs got their knowledge of the concept of Zero.
The first linguistic system of grammar came from a anicient grammarian named Panini in Northern Pakistan.
The acclaimed intriguing political treatise written by Kautilya "Artashastra" was written in Pakistan.
It was here that Alexander's army stopped
It was in Pakistan that the foundation of Vedic culture was seeded which later influenced land beyond its borders into modern day India, Indo China, East Indies and such. All word containing the epithat "Indo" or "Ind" originate from a territory and river in Pakistan the Indus.
From Islamic mysticism to the shrines of Sikh gurus, from the Muslim mughal archistecture and Greco-Bactrian arts to Persian influence and bedrock of Buddhism and various dharmic cults and now considered the fort of Islam, Pakistan and her diverse people are a nation to be reckoned with. Love and peace for the world and appreciation of each other's accomplishments as well as perpetual learning and interaction is virtue which resides in the hearts of Pakistanis.
Hopefully people will rediscover the treasures of the great nation of Pakistan and leave with fond memories.
Sumer together with Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley Civilization is considered the first settled society in the world to have manifested all the features needed to qualify fully as a "civilization".
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 7725
- author: ebendovroton
9:33
Dravidian Origin of Indus Valley Civilization.wmv
In this video we discuss the Dravidian foundation of the Indus Valley Civillization. Caref...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Dravidian Origin of Indus Valley Civilization.wmv
In this video we discuss the Dravidian foundation of the Indus Valley Civillization. Careful attention is given to the Dravidian character of the Harappan civilization and the expansion of this civilization into Central Asia and India.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 31137
- author: ebendovroton
1:39
Indus valley civilization
ancient Indian civilization...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization
ancient Indian civilization
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 16592
- author: ebendovroton
5:01
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (3500-1700 BC, aka Harappan Civilization) was mostly based in pr...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilization (3500-1700 BC, aka Harappan Civilization) was mostly based in present day region of Pakistan, with its periphery or colonies stretching as far as northwest India in the east, Turkmenistan in the north, and southeast Iran/Persian Gulf in the West.
As a cradle of civilization, its contributions include the world's first: largest planned cities, drainage systems, cotton clothing, dentistry, standardized weights, possibly the writing system, and much more.
Indus people had extensive trade and cultural links with the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia.
The linguistic identity of the Harappans is unknown because the Indus script is still undeciphered. There are many theories of them being Indo-Iranian, Dravidian, Semitic, Altaic, Mundic, or even an isolate.
Indus religion remains a mystery as it is distinct from any known religion. There seems to be some sort of a Bull Cult prevelant among Harappans. There is also similarity with Gilgemish/Enkidu and even the Cernunnos.
Harappans were a multi-racial people with closest genetic affiliation to present day people of Indus valley and surroundings.
Despite waves of invasions throughout the centuries, the Harappan legacy lives on with continuation of many aspects of the culture, traditions, arts, etc. in present day Indus Valley and surroundings.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 15848
- author: ebendovroton
5:23
Ancient Indian History - Indus Valley Civilization 3D
...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Ancient Indian History - Indus Valley Civilization 3D
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 38361
- author: ebendovroton
4:15
Achievements of the Indus River Valley Civilization
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization....
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Achievements of the Indus River Valley Civilization
This video is to educate people about the Indus Valley Civilization.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 40470
- author: ebendovroton
Vimeo results:
2:00
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were ...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: mt1278
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were done in the studio http://cinelex.ru
141:56
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: Siva Edupu
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington
Youtube results:
4:32
Indus valley civilization(mohenjo-daro)
©http://www.hexolabs.com
e-learning research on ancient Indian civilization produced at He...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus valley civilization(mohenjo-daro)
©http://www.hexolabs.com
e-learning research on ancient Indian civilization produced at Hexolabs,SIIC, IIT Kanpur for a better insight, visit
Kindly do not treat this video clipping as an exact archaeological reference. The idea is to make children aware/understand the whole Indus valley cultural system.
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 192886
- author: ebendovroton
9:35
Indus Valley Civilization: Crash Course World History #2
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of...
published: 23 Feb 2012
author: ebendovroton
Indus Valley Civilization: Crash Course World History #2
In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.
Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus - http://dft.ba/-1Kwn
Indus Valley on Wikipedia - http://dft.ba/-1Kwp
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - http://dft.ba/-1Kwq
Follow us!
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- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 476342
- author: ebendovroton
4:08
Soman - Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
Artist: Soman
Song: Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Soman - Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
Artist: Soman
Song: Noise Anthem ( Infacted Version )
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 40399
- author: Edvonstras
3:52
Valium Era - Fcuk Me
CD: Mutation (2009). Model: TwiggX. If you like, please suscribe.
Also, Twiggx is not rel...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Valium Era - Fcuk Me
CD: Mutation (2009). Model: TwiggX. If you like, please suscribe.
Also, Twiggx is not related in any way to the song name or lyrics, but we can dream. And yes, i asked her for permission.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1313948
- author: Edvonstras
5:33
T3RR0R 3RR0R - Domination
CD: Digital Infection. Check them out at http://www.MySpace.com/TerrorErrorSite
Buy their...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
T3RR0R 3RR0R - Domination
CD: Digital Infection. Check them out at http://www.MySpace.com/TerrorErrorSite
Buy their CD at: http://www.disconexus.com/index.php?route=product/product&manufacturer;_id=8&product;_id=226
-- Suscribe 4 More --
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 344544
- author: Edvonstras
5:03
Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Track: Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Support: ht...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Track: Frozen Plasma - Tanz Die Revolution (international DJ Mix by DJ Toffel)
Support: http://www.myspace.com/frozenplasma & http://www.myspace.com/djtoffel
More Mixxes and DJ-Sets avaible on my myspace account!
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1950
- author: Edvonstras
3:53
Korsakoff - My Empty Bottle
Geniet van het prachtige nummer van Korsakoff, 'My Empty Bottle'!
Hardcore en een knappe m...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Korsakoff - My Empty Bottle
Geniet van het prachtige nummer van Korsakoff, 'My Empty Bottle'!
Hardcore en een knappe meid. 't Kan niet beter!
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 495672
- author: Edvonstras
3:55
DJ Korsakoff - Still Wasted
Geil geil geil [!!]...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
DJ Korsakoff - Still Wasted
Geil geil geil [!!]
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 548002
- author: Edvonstras
4:51
Korsakoff - Birth
Kick ass track from Korsakoff's new album "Unrivalled"...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Korsakoff - Birth
Kick ass track from Korsakoff's new album "Unrivalled"
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 333453
- author: Edvonstras
4:28
Angerfist & Korsakoff
Let me hear you scream for.. DJ KORSAKOFF !...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Angerfist & Korsakoff
Let me hear you scream for.. DJ KORSAKOFF !
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1675
- author: Edvonstras
4:48
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST - RAISE CAIN 2007
RAISE CAIN 2007
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST - RAISE CAIN 2007
RAISE CAIN 2007
KORSAKOFF & ANGERFIST
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 1000812
- author: Edvonstras
4:11
Phosgore - Diagnosis
Brutal track by Phosgore. CD: Domination.
If you like, please suscribe....
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Phosgore - Diagnosis
Brutal track by Phosgore. CD: Domination.
If you like, please suscribe.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 36165
- author: Edvonstras
5:10
Paradoxie - Indoxication
Excellent track by Paradoxie.
If you like, please suscribe....
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Paradoxie - Indoxication
Excellent track by Paradoxie.
If you like, please suscribe.
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 429037
- author: Edvonstras
4:26
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard
Noisuf-X - Hit Me Hard
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 905651
- author: Edvonstras
4:25
Noisuf-X - Hit me Hard (As Hard as you can Mix)
Funny fact: The human brain has the capacity to store everything that you experience.
So...
published: 24 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Noisuf-X - Hit me Hard (As Hard as you can Mix)
Funny fact: The human brain has the capacity to store everything that you experience.
Song download: http://www.4shared.com/audio/FJjCu8C9/Noisuf-X_-_Hit_Me_Hard.htm?aff=7637829
Lyrics:
{{Repeating}}
Hit me hard and hit me fast.
(Hit me hard, Hit me fast)
Song: Hit Me Hard
Artist: Noisuf-X
Album: Voodoo Ritual
Year: 27 Feb 2009
Song on album: 15
Genre: Electronic [Rhythmic Noise, Electro, Industrial]
- published: 24 Oct 2011
- views: 7892
- author: Edvonstras
4:03
Agonoize - Glaubenskrieger
A Hellgate: London fan video with music by Agonoize.
Lyrics:
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
G...
published: 25 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Agonoize - Glaubenskrieger
A Hellgate: London fan video with music by Agonoize.
Lyrics:
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Oder wird der Krieg nur durch deinen Glauben entfacht?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Hast du jemals erlebt,
wie dein Gott zu dir spricht,
dir Befehle erteilt?
Ja das glaube ich wohl nicht!
Ist dein Glaube so stark,
dass du dich ständig fragst,
wie ein anderer Gott
ihm zu trotzen vermag.
Auf in den Kampf,
in die heilige Schlacht
hier geht's nicht um Religion
sondern nur blanke Macht.
Also zieh in den Kampf
doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn der Zorn den du säest
in Gewalt nieder bricht...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Die Gewalt ist doch nur noch das Mittel zum Ziel,
Unterbewusst wirst du Teil dieses Spiels.
Also zieh in den Krieg
Doch dann wunder dich nicht,
wenn die Welt die du kennst,
in Flammen erlischt...
Glaubst du an den Krieg?
Glaubst du wirklich an den Krieg?
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger...
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Wer löscht das Feuer in dir?
Glaubenskrieger... sterben nie!
Und deine Seele verbrennt...
Glaubenskrieger...
For an english translation have a look at
http://lyricwiki.org/Agonoize:Glaubenskrieger
Also, please visit Agonoize at
http://agonoize.de/ and
http://www.myspace.com/agonoize !
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 991180
- author: Edvonstras
Vimeo results:
2:00
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were ...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: mt1278
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were done in the studio http://cinelex.ru
141:56
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: Siva Edupu
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington
Youtube results:
4:39
Combichrist "Get Your Body Beat" Music Video
Get Your Body Beat, Combichrist's new single released in the summer of 6/6/06 following th...
published: 25 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Combichrist "Get Your Body Beat" Music Video
Get Your Body Beat, Combichrist's new single released in the summer of 6/6/06 following the music video containing clips from the movie "The Gene Generation"
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 3306000
- author: Edvonstras
4:55
PSYCLON NINE "parasitic" -official-
Directed by Richard Thomas {Mushroomhead, Ventana} {this is the official video}...
published: 25 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
PSYCLON NINE "parasitic" -official-
Directed by Richard Thomas {Mushroomhead, Ventana} {this is the official video}
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 2001525
- author: Edvonstras
5:34
Combichrist - Blut Royal
Combichrist Blut Royale
All copyrights go the CC label, no intentions in breaking any law...
published: 25 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Combichrist - Blut Royal
Combichrist Blut Royale
All copyrights go the CC label, no intentions in breaking any law at any form
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 16129
- author: Edvonstras
7:37
Dioxyde - Geist
Fan Vid....
published: 25 Oct 2011
author: Edvonstras
Dioxyde - Geist
Fan Vid.
- published: 25 Oct 2011
- views: 106496
- author: Edvonstras
0:15
Birthday Celebration
To be continued... (My birthday was on the 21st)...
published: 01 Jan 2013
author: indusalelia
Birthday Celebration
To be continued... (My birthday was on the 21st)
- published: 01 Jan 2013
- views: 15
- author: indusalelia
2:15
Indus' Vlog 9, Halloween
Tricky Treat. Watch in HD....
published: 01 Nov 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 9, Halloween
Tricky Treat. Watch in HD.
- published: 01 Nov 2012
- views: 269
- author: indusalelia
2:13
Indus' Vlog 8, Sexy Costumes
Halloween Party! This is what ladies do in the powder room.......
published: 25 Oct 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 8, Sexy Costumes
Halloween Party! This is what ladies do in the powder room....
- published: 25 Oct 2012
- views: 535
- author: indusalelia
0:56
Indus' Vlog 7, One Man's Trash
I stopped to take a photo but realized there was more to my picture. follow me on twitter ...
published: 16 Oct 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 7, One Man's Trash
I stopped to take a photo but realized there was more to my picture. follow me on twitter @indusalelia
- published: 16 Oct 2012
- views: 301
- author: indusalelia
0:36
Indus' Vlog 6, Rolling Joints at Church
Rolling "joints" at church...
published: 10 Oct 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 6, Rolling Joints at Church
Rolling "joints" at church
- published: 10 Oct 2012
- views: 347
- author: indusalelia
0:17
Indus' Vlog 5, Scab
Not sure what I did to my knee but the scab came off......
published: 08 Oct 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 5, Scab
Not sure what I did to my knee but the scab came off...
- published: 08 Oct 2012
- views: 301
- author: indusalelia
0:37
Indus' Vlog 4, Masturbation Station
Bus Stop or Masturbation Station?...
published: 06 Aug 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 4, Masturbation Station
Bus Stop or Masturbation Station?
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 323
- author: indusalelia
1:03
Indus' Vlog 3, Mollie not Jessica
Watch in HD. Mollie not Jessica....
published: 06 Aug 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 3, Mollie not Jessica
Watch in HD. Mollie not Jessica.
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 420
- author: indusalelia
0:33
Indus' Vlog 2, Busy People on Set
On the movie set of BFE
https://www.facebook.com/BFEfilm...
published: 06 Aug 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 2, Busy People on Set
On the movie set of BFE
https://www.facebook.com/BFEfilm
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 488
- author: indusalelia
1:23
Indus' Vlog 1, Film Break
Idaho Film Set, Off Time...
See what I did with the 15 minutes a day I had to myself on a...
published: 06 Aug 2012
author: indusalelia
Indus' Vlog 1, Film Break
Idaho Film Set, Off Time...
See what I did with the 15 minutes a day I had to myself on a film set in Idaho.
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 646
- author: indusalelia
Vimeo results:
2:00
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were ...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: mt1278
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were done in the studio http://cinelex.ru
141:56
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: Siva Edupu
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington
14:55
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 1/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, ...
published: 29 Sep 2011
author: bartiPWZ
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 1/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 3185
- author: bartiPWZ
14:54
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 2/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, ...
published: 29 Sep 2011
author: bartiPWZ
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 2/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 643
- author: bartiPWZ
14:58
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 3/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, ...
published: 29 Sep 2011
author: bartiPWZ
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 3/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 510
- author: bartiPWZ
7:48
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 4/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, ...
published: 29 Sep 2011
author: bartiPWZ
Utracone dziedzictwo: Lud znad rzeki Indus 4/4 [lektor PL]
Seria o ludach, z których istnienia mało kto zdaje sobie sprawę. Topniejące społeczności, których prastary styl życia wydaje się skazany na zniszczenie przez wzbierającą falę postępu. Oto opowieść o utraconym dziedzictwie.
Lud Mohana żyje w izolacji od świata zewnętrznego, pielęgnując przekazywaną z pokolenia na pokolenie tysiącletnią wiedzę. Dla tych nomadów z doliny rzeki Indus natura jest niczym książka, z której czerpie się niezbędne informacje. Ich przeznaczenie ściśle związane jest ze środowiskiem, w którym żyją, wiernymi towarzyszami są słodkowodne delfiny, a jedyne idee, jakie wyznają to wolność i godność.
kraj: Francja
reżyser: François-Xavier Pelletier
rok produkcji: 2007
język: polski lektor
Za AlterKino.org
- published: 29 Sep 2011
- views: 422
- author: bartiPWZ
Vimeo results:
2:00
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were ...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: mt1278
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were done in the studio http://cinelex.ru
141:56
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: Siva Edupu
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington
2:12
Minaret of Masoom Shah Sukkur
Minaret of Masoom Shah is the landmark of Sukkur (Sindh) Pakistan. It was built about 4 ce...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Minaret of Masoom Shah Sukkur
Minaret of Masoom Shah is the landmark of Sukkur (Sindh) Pakistan. It was built about 4 centuries ago by Mir Masoom Shah Bakhri, the historian and Nawab of Moughul emperor Akbar.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1940
- author: TheBukhaari
2:39
Sateen Jo Astan Rohri
Sateen Jo Astan, Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan is the small family graveyard of Mir Abul Qasim Na...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Sateen Jo Astan Rohri
Sateen Jo Astan, Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan is the small family graveyard of Mir Abul Qasim Namkeen, the ruler of Bakhar in the period of Moughul emperor Akbar, located on the bank of river Indus.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 871
- author: TheBukhaari
2:30
River Indus At Sukkur
Sukkur, the third largest city of Sindh (Pakistan) is located on the bank of river Indus...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
River Indus At Sukkur
Sukkur, the third largest city of Sindh (Pakistan) is located on the bank of river Indus
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 720
- author: TheBukhaari
1:38
Lakhiyen Jo Daro, Sukkur
Recently discovered Lakhiyen Jo Daro at SITE area Sukkur is said to have remnants of 5000 ...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Lakhiyen Jo Daro, Sukkur
Recently discovered Lakhiyen Jo Daro at SITE area Sukkur is said to have remnants of 5000 years civilization
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 385
- author: TheBukhaari
1:53
Adam Shah Ji Takri Sukkur
Adam Shah Ji Takri (The Hill of Adam Shah) Sukkur is well known for the tomb of Mian Adam ...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Adam Shah Ji Takri Sukkur
Adam Shah Ji Takri (The Hill of Adam Shah) Sukkur is well known for the tomb of Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro. The tomb was built by Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, the ruler of Sindh in 1768 AD.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1052
- author: TheBukhaari
1:10
Tomb of Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah) Old Sukkur
The Saint Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah Jeelani) was born in Baghdad in 911 AH and died in ol...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Tomb of Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah) Old Sukkur
The Saint Shah Khairuddin (Jeay Shah Jeelani) was born in Baghdad in 911 AH and died in old Sukkur in 1017 AH.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1037
- author: TheBukhaari
0:57
Shrine of Syed Ameer Muhammad Shah Makki Sukkur
The Saint Syed ameer Muhammad Shah Makki came to Sukkur in 1260 AD, his shrine is located ...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Syed Ameer Muhammad Shah Makki Sukkur
The Saint Syed ameer Muhammad Shah Makki came to Sukkur in 1260 AD, his shrine is located near local board Sukkur.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 476
- author: TheBukhaari
1:35
Rohri on the bank of river Indus
...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Rohri on the bank of river Indus
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 405
- author: TheBukhaari
2:11
Astan-e-Khwaja Khizar Rohri
...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Astan-e-Khwaja Khizar Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1876
- author: TheBukhaari
1:26
Bakhar Fort Sukkur
Centuries old Bakhar fort is located on the Bakhar island in river Indus between Sukkur an...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Bakhar Fort Sukkur
Centuries old Bakhar fort is located on the Bakhar island in river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 904
- author: TheBukhaari
1:53
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin Sukkur
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin is located at the Bakhar island on the river Indus between Sukku...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin Sukkur
Shrine of Shah Sadaruddin is located at the Bakhar island on the river Indus between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 760
- author: TheBukhaari
1:08
Shrine of Hajna Shah Huzoori Rohri
Shrine of Saint Hajna Shah Huzoori is located on the bank of river Indus Rohri (Sindh) Pak...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Hajna Shah Huzoori Rohri
Shrine of Saint Hajna Shah Huzoori is located on the bank of river Indus Rohri (Sindh) Pakistan.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 1337
- author: TheBukhaari
1:06
Tomb of Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri Sukkur
The tomb of Sufi Saint Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri (died 635 AH) is located at the Bakhar island...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Tomb of Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri Sukkur
The tomb of Sufi Saint Makhdoom Nooh Bakhri (died 635 AH) is located at the Bakhar island between Sukkur and Rohri
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 748
- author: TheBukhaari
0:44
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak Rohri
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak located near the shrine of Waar Mubarak on the bank of river Ind...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak Rohri
Jamia Masjid Waar Mubarak located near the shrine of Waar Mubarak on the bank of river Indus, was built by an officer of Moughul Emperor Akbar in 1584 AD.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 510
- author: TheBukhaari
Vimeo results:
2:00
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were ...
published: 29 Aug 2012
author: mt1278
Indus
Matte Paintings for film "Indus" - http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1750201/
These works were done in the studio http://cinelex.ru
141:56
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington...
published: 09 Jul 2011
author: Siva Edupu
Indus
Teaching Assistant, Arch 251 lecture , Non Western Architecture @University of Washington
Youtube results:
0:51
Shrine of Waar Mubarak Rohri
Shrine of Waar Mubarak holds Holy Hair of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). The shrine w...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Shrine of Waar Mubarak Rohri
Shrine of Waar Mubarak holds Holy Hair of Holy Prophet Hazrat Muhammad (SAW). The shrine was built in 952 AH (1545 AD) by Mir Muhammad Kalhoro.
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 839
- author: TheBukhaari
1:53
AlFurqan Research Institute & Museum Sukkur
Al Furqan reearch intitute & museum is a small but unique private library on Holy Quran wi...
published: 25 Apr 2010
author: TheBukhaari
AlFurqan Research Institute & Museum Sukkur
Al Furqan reearch intitute & museum is a small but unique private library on Holy Quran with large collection including rare handwritten Holy Quran, and translation in over 50 languages. It was established by Faqir Amanullah Mako and inagurated by Ghulam Muhammad Mako on 9th Oct 2007
- published: 25 Apr 2010
- views: 251
- author: TheBukhaari
2:31
Labe Mehran, Sukkur
Lab-e-Mehran, Sukkur is a recreational park on the bank of river Indus, developed in 1962-...
published: 13 Jul 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Labe Mehran, Sukkur
Lab-e-Mehran, Sukkur is a recreational park on the bank of river Indus, developed in 1962-63
- published: 13 Jul 2010
- views: 5971
- author: TheBukhaari
2:26
Jamia Masjid, Sukkur
Jamia Masjid Sukkur is located on the Bunder raod, Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Its foundation...
published: 13 Jul 2010
author: TheBukhaari
Jamia Masjid, Sukkur
Jamia Masjid Sukkur is located on the Bunder raod, Sukkur, Sindh, Pakistan. Its foundation stone was laid on 8th July 1955 by Mufti-e-Azam Pakistan Maulana Muhammad Shafi and Syed Nusrat Hassan, Collector Sukkur. Jamia Masjid sukkur was constructed in 1961-74
- published: 13 Jul 2010
- views: 1560
- author: TheBukhaari
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
06 Jan 2013
ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake
07 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When Congress granted President Lyndon B. Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity....(size: 5.2Kb)
photo: AP / Joerg Koch
07 Jan 2013
NEW YORK – In the shadow of the euro crisis and America’s fiscal cliff, it is easy to ignore the global economy’s long-term problems. But, while we focus on immediate concerns, they continue to fester, and we overlook them at our peril. The most serious is global warming. While the global economy’s weak performance has led to a corresponding slowdown in the increase in carbon emissions, it amounts to only a short respite ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
05 Jan 2013
Tweet. New Delhi, Jan 5 (ANI). The male friend of the 23-year-old medical student, who was gang-raped and left unclothed and bleeding in the street and later died in hospital two weeks after she was attacked on December 16 on a private bus in New Delhi, has said that things would have gone differently if someone had stopped to help ... "It would have been a very different scenario today, had even one person come to our help that day ... (ANI)....(size: 3.8Kb)
IIFL
07 Jan 2013
Meanwhile, the BSE Sensex was down 72.18 points, or 0.36%, to 19,711.90. On BSE, 4.52 lakh shares were traded in the counter. The stock hit a high of Rs 209.35 and a low of Rs 206.05 so far during the day. The stock had hit a record high of Rs 210 on 4 January 2013 ... Face value per share is Rs 10 ... The company has 34,220 own towers in 11 telecom circles and 42% equity interest in Indus, which has about 1,10,561 towers in 15 telecom circles....(size: 6.6Kb)
The New York Times
07 Jan 2013
As we noted here last week, over 600 million people lost power in India last summer, setting a modern record for the number of people affected by a blackout ... Dr ... Grumbine said ... Grumbine and Dr ... Grumbine said ... By 2050, scientists predict, the water supply from the Brahmaputra and Indus — two major rivers among the 28 that would receive dams — will decrease by about 20 percent and 8 percent, respectively ... Alternative options exist ... An Update....(size: 10.4Kb)
Khaleej Times
04 Jan 2013
“This is ridiculous. At the current price a woman can wear only 7 grammes of gold ... Lord Bhikhu Parekh, House of Lords, UK, Ashok Rao, Global Chairman of TiE (The Indus Entrepreneurs), a non-profit global network of entrepreneurs and professionals and renowned motivational speakers Paresh Rughani from London will be the key-note speakers ... GOPIO Global Community awards will also be given away at the convention....(size: 2.7Kb)
photo: AP / Channi Anand
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The study, Climate Data and Modeling Analysis of the Indus Ecoregion, has been written by Dr Ghulam Rasul of the Pakistan Meteorological Department as part of a project titled Building Capacity on Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal Areas of Pakistan ... The glaciers in these mountain ranges feed 1.7 billion people through seven large Asian river systems, including the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze....(size: 5.1Kb)
IIFL
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Newstrack India
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Tweet. Karachi, January 4 (ANI). The Siachen Glacier has reduced by 5.9 km in longitudinal extent between 1989 and 2009 because of rising temperatures, researchers say ... The glaciers in these mountain ranges feed 1.7 billion people through seven large Asian river systems, including the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Mekong and Yangtze ... Thinning of its ice mass is evaluated at 17 percent ... They are ... (ANI). Post comments.. ) .. ).. Comments.. HOME . ....(size: 4.5Kb)
noodls
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(Source. Export-Import Bank of the United States). FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASEJanuary 6, 2012. Media Contact. Jamie Radice or Phil Cogan. 202-565-3200. Ex-Im Bank Chairman Concludes Successful Mission to India ... Hyderabad, India - Fred P ... and Indian companies ... While in India, Hochberg met with leading business organizations, including members from the Indo-American Chamber of Commerce, the Confederation of Indian Industry, and Indus Entrepreneurs....(size: 4.1Kb)
The Times of India
04 Jan 2013
SIRPUR (Chhattisgarh). A nondescript town on the banks of river Mahanadi in Chhattisgarh, Sirpur, is all set to catapult to international limelight as the excavations and the rare archaeological findings, during the last one decade, prove that the region was educationally, culturally and economically much more developed than the famous Township of Harappa in the Indus Valley Civilization ... "The buildings were double-storied ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
Deccan Herald
03 Jan 2013
Another important contribution by Rao was the deciphering of Indus script, establishing that the Indus language was Indo Aryan and not Indo – European (of Central Asia) ... reading of the Indus script....(size: 1.0Kb)
The Hindu
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The Times of India
03 Jan 2013
BANGALORE. Rohit, 17, met Aparna on a social networking site a few months ago. Their friendship grew with time and they spent hours on the internet, chatting with each other. After a few months, they decided to meet and zeroed in on a location ... (Names have been changed to protect their identities) ... We tell them how these sites could prove more dangerous than pornography," says Sarojini Rao, principal, Indus International School ... PARENT ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
The Times of India
03 Jan 2013
BANGALORE. Rohit, 17, met Aparna on a social networking site a few months ago. Their friendship grew with time and they spent hours on the internet, chatting with each other. After a few months, they decided to meet and zeroed in on a location ... (Names have been changed to protect their identities) ... We tell them how these sites could prove more dangerous than pornography," says Sarojini Rao, principal, Indus International School ... PARENT ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
PhysOrg
03 Jan 2013
His team's project to combat the problem was one of two winners in the fall semester's mechanical and industrial engineering capstone course competition. Under the direction of associate professor Andrew Gouldstone, the group came up with two approaches to improving legibility and writing performance among people with tremors ... Credit ... Patient trials were not possible because of both time and feasibility constraints ... ....(size: 3.4Kb)
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The Industrial Revolution was a period from 1750 to 1850 where changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the social, economic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Western Europe, North America, Japan, and eventually the rest of the world.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over tenfold, while the world's population increased over sixfold.[2] In the words of Nobel Prize winner Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing remotely like this economic behavior has happened before".[3]
Great Britain provided the legal and cultural foundations that enabled entrepreneurs to pioneer the industrial revolution.[4] Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal–based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with the mechanisation of the textile industries, the development of iron-making techniques and the increased use of refined coal.[5] Trade expansion was enabled by the introduction of canals, improved roads and railways.[6] With the transition away from an agricultural-based economy and towards machine-based manufacturing came a great influx of population from the countryside and into the towns and cities, which swelled in population.[7]
The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity.[6] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries. The effects spread throughout Western Europe and North America during the 19th century, eventually affecting most of the world, a process that continues as industrialisation. The impact of this change on society was enormous.[8]
The First Industrial Revolution, which began in the 18th century, merged into the Second Industrial Revolution around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered ships, railways, and later in the 19th century with the internal combustion engine and electrical power generation. The period of time covered by the Industrial Revolution varies with different historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s,[9] while T. S. Ashton held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830.[10]
Some 20th century historians such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that the process of economic and social change took place gradually and the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among historians.[11][12] GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy.[13] The Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies.[14] Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.[15]
Etymology[link]
The earliest use of the term "Industrial Revolution" seems to be a letter of 6 July 1799 by French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, announcing that France had entered the race to industrialise.[16] In his 1976 book Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society, Raymond Williams states in the entry for "Industry": "The idea of a new social order based on major industrial change was clear in Southey and Owen, between 1811 and 1818, and was implicit as early as Blake in the early 1790s and Wordsworth at the turn of the century." The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Louis-Auguste Blanqui description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the whole of civil society". Credit for popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose lectures given in 1881 gave a detailed account of it.[17]
Innovations[link]
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution is closely linked to a small number of innovations,[18] made in the second half of the 18th century:
- Textiles – Cotton spinning using Richard Arkwright's water frame, James Hargreaves's Spinning Jenny, and Samuel Crompton's Spinning Mule (a combination of the Spinning Jenny and the Water Frame). This was patented in 1769 and so came out of patent in 1783. The end of the patent was rapidly followed by the erection of many cotton mills. Similar technology was subsequently applied to spinning worsted yarn for various textiles and flax for linen. The cotton revolution began in Derby, which has been known since this period as the "Powerhouse of the North".
- Steam power – The improved steam engine invented by James Watt and patented in 1775 was at first mainly used to power pumps for pumping water out of mines, but from the 1780s was applied to power other types of machines. This enabled rapid development of efficient semi-automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not available. For the first time in history people did not have to rely on human or animal muscle, wind or water for power. The steam engine was used to pump water from coal mines; to lift trucks of coal to the surface; to blow air into the furnaces for the making of iron; to grind clay for pottery; and to power new factories of all kinds. For over a hundred years the steam engine was the king of the industries.
- Iron making – In the Iron industry, coke was finally applied to all stages of iron smelting, replacing charcoal. This had been achieved much earlier for lead and copper as well as for producing pig iron in a blast furnace, but the second stage in the production of bar iron depended on the use of potting and stamping (for which a patent expired in 1786) or puddling (patented by Henry Cort in 1783 and 1784).
These represent three 'leading sectors', in which there were key innovations, which allowed the economic take off by which the Industrial Revolution is usually defined. This is not to belittle many other inventions, particularly in the textile industry. Without some earlier ones, such as the spinning jenny and flying shuttle in the textile industry and the smelting of pig iron with coke, these achievements might have been impossible. Later inventions such as the power loom and Richard Trevithick's high pressure steam engine were also important in the growing industrialisation of Britain. The application of steam engines to powering cotton mills and ironworks enabled these to be built in places that were most convenient because other resources were available, rather than where there was water to power a watermill.
In the textile sector, such mills became the model for the organisation of human labour in factories, epitomised by Cottonopolis, the name given to the vast collection of cotton mills, factories and administration offices based in Manchester. The assembly line system greatly improved efficiency, both in this and other industries. With a series of men trained to do a single task on a product, then having it moved along to the next worker, the number of finished goods also rose significantly.
Also important was the 1756 rediscovery of concrete (based on hydraulic lime mortar) by the British engineer John Smeaton, which had been lost for 1300 years.[19]
Transfer of knowledge[link]
Informal philosophical societies spread scientific advances
Knowledge of innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, even trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers eager to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as now, as was the keeping of travel diaries. Records made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.
Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies, like the Lunar Society of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss 'natural philosophy' (i.e. science) and often its application to manufacturing. The Lunar Society flourished from 1765 to 1809, and it has been said of them, "They were, if you like, the revolutionary committee of that most far reaching of all the eighteenth century revolutions, the Industrial Revolution".[20] Other such societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions. For example, the London-based Royal Society of Arts published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.
There were publications describing technology. Encyclopaedias such as Harris's Lexicon Technicum (1704) and Abraham Rees's Cyclopaedia (1802–1819) contain much of value. Cyclopaedia contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the Descriptions des Arts et Métiers and Diderot's Encyclopédie explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.
Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and many regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the Annales des Mines, published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.
Technological developments in Britain[link]
Textile manufacture[link]
Main article: Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution
In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which was processed by individual artisans, doing the spinning and weaving on their own premises. This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.
Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production capacity of the industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.
Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt in Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory was opened in Northampton with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines. This operated until about 1764. A similar mill was built by Daniel Bourn in Leominster, but this burnt down. Both Lewis Paul and Daniel Bourn patented carding machines in 1748. Using two sets of rollers that travelled at different speeds, it was later used in the first cotton spinning mill. Lewis's invention was later developed and improved by Richard Arkwright in his water frame and Samuel Crompton in his spinning mule.
Other inventors increased the efficiency of the individual steps of spinning (carding, twisting and spinning, and rolling) so that the supply of yarn increased greatly, which fed a weaving industry that was advancing with improvements to shuttles and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that the new machines were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions destroyed.
To capitalise upon these advances, it took a class of entrepreneurs, of which the most famous is Richard Arkwright. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as Thomas Highs and John Kay; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the cotton mill which brought the production processes together in a factory, and he developed the use of power—first horse power and then water power—which made cotton manufacture a mechanised industry. Before long steam power was applied to drive textile machinery.
Metallurgy[link]
Blast furnaces light the iron making town of Coalbrookdale
The major change in the metal industries during the era of the Industrial Revolution was the replacement of organic fuels based on wood with fossil fuel based on coal. Much of this happened somewhat before the Industrial Revolution, based on innovations by Sir Clement Clerke and others from 1678, using coal reverberatory furnaces known as cupolas. These were operated by the flames, which contained carbon monoxide, playing on the ore and reducing the oxide to metal. This has the advantage that impurities (such as sulphur) in the coal do not migrate into the metal. This technology was applied to lead from 1678 and to copper from 1687. It was also applied to iron foundry work in the 1690s, but in this case the reverberatory furnace was known as an air furnace. The foundry cupola is a different (and later) innovation.
This was followed by Abraham Darby, who made great strides using coke to fuel his blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale in 1709. However, the coke pig iron he made was used mostly for the production of cast iron goods such as pots and kettles. He had the advantage over his rivals in that his pots, cast by his patented process, were thinner and cheaper than theirs. Coke pig iron was hardly used to produce bar iron in forges until the mid 1750s, when his son Abraham Darby II built Horsehay and Ketley furnaces (not far from Coalbrookdale). By then, coke pig iron was cheaper than charcoal pig iron. Since cast iron was becoming cheaper and more plentiful, it also became a major structural material following the building of the innovative The Iron Bridge in 1778 by Abraham Darby III.
Matthew Boulton helped James Watt to get his business off the ground. he set up a massive factory called the Soho Factory, in the midlands.
Bar iron for smiths to forge into consumer goods was still made in finery forges, as it long had been. However, new processes were adopted in the ensuing years. The first is referred to today as potting and stamping, but this was superseded by Henry Cort's puddling process. From 1785, perhaps because the improved version of potting and stamping was about to come out of patent, a great expansion in the output of the British iron industry began. The new processes did not depend on the use of charcoal at all and were therefore not limited by charcoal sources.
Up to that time, British iron manufacturers had used considerable amounts of imported iron to supplement native supplies. This came principally from Sweden from the mid-17th century and later also from Russia from the end of the 1720s. However, from 1785, imports decreased because of the new iron making technology, and Britain became an exporter of bar iron as well as manufactured wrought iron consumer goods.
An improvement was made in the production of steel, which was an expensive commodity and used only where iron would not do, such as for the cutting edge of tools and for springs. Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel technique in the 1740s. The raw material for this was blister steel, made by the cementation process.
The supply of cheaper iron and steel aided the development of boilers and steam engines, and eventually railways. Improvements in machine tools allowed better working of iron and steel and further boosted the industrial growth of Britain.
Mining[link]
Coal mining in Britain, particularly in South Wales started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of James Watt's more efficient steam engine from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816 by Sir Humphry Davy and independently by George Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.
Steam power[link]
Main article: Steam power during the Industrial Revolution
The development of the stationary steam engine was an essential early element of the Industrial Revolution; however, for most of the period of the Industrial Revolution, the majority of industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse- and man-power for driving small machines.
The first real attempt at industrial use of steam power was due to Thomas Savery in 1698. He constructed and patented in London a low-lift combined vacuum and pressure water pump, that generated about one horsepower (hp) and was used in numerous water works and tried in a few mines (hence its "brand name", The Miner's Friend), but it was not a success since it was limited in pumping height and prone to boiler explosions.
The first safe and successful steam power plant was introduced by Thomas Newcomen before 1712. Newcomen apparently conceived the Newcomen steam engine quite independently of Savery, but as the latter had taken out a very wide-ranging patent, Newcomen and his associates were obliged to come to an arrangement with him, marketing the engine until 1733 under a joint patent.[21][22] Newcomen's engine appears to have been based on Papin's experiments carried out 30 years earlier, and employed a piston and cylinder, one end of which was open to the atmosphere above the piston. Steam just above atmospheric pressure (all that the boiler could stand) was introduced into the lower half of the cylinder beneath the piston during the gravity-induced upstroke; the steam was then condensed by a jet of cold water injected into the steam space to produce a partial vacuum; the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the vacuum on either side of the piston displaced it downwards into the cylinder, raising the opposite end of a rocking beam to which was attached a gang of gravity-actuated reciprocating force pumps housed in the mineshaft. The engine's downward power stroke raised the pump, priming it and preparing the pumping stroke. At first the phases were controlled by hand, but within ten years an escapement mechanism had been devised worked by a vertical plug tree suspended from the rocking beam which rendered the engine self-acting.
A number of Newcomen engines were successfully put to use in Britain for draining hitherto unworkable deep mines, with the engine on the surface; these were large machines, requiring a lot of capital to build, and produced about 5 hp (3.7 kW). They were extremely inefficient by modern standards, but when located where coal was cheap at pit heads, opened up a great expansion in coal mining by allowing mines to go deeper. Despite their disadvantages, Newcomen engines were reliable and easy to maintain and continued to be used in the coalfields until the early decades of the 19th century. By 1729, when Newcomen died, his engines had spread (first) to Hungary in 1722, Germany, Austria, and Sweden. A total of 110 are known to have been built by 1733 when the joint patent expired, of which 14 were abroad. In the 1770s, the engineer John Smeaton built some very large examples and introduced a number of improvements. A total of 1,454 engines had been built by 1800.[23]
A fundamental change in working principles was brought about by James Watt. In close collaboration with Matthew Boulton, he had succeeded by 1778 in perfecting his steam engine, which incorporated a series of radical improvements, notably the closing off of the upper part of the cylinder thereby making the low pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the atmosphere, use of a steam jacket and the celebrated separate steam condenser chamber. All this meant that a more constant temperature could be maintained in the cylinder and that engine efficiency no longer varied according to atmospheric conditions. These improvements increased engine efficiency by a factor of about five, saving 75% on coal costs. Bolton and Watt opened the Soho Foundry, for the manufacture of such engines, in 1795.
Nor could the atmospheric engine be easily adapted to drive a rotating wheel, although Wasborough and Pickard did succeed in doing so towards 1780. However by 1783 the more economical Watt steam engine had been fully developed into a double-acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to directly drive the rotary machinery of a factory or mill. Both of Watt's basic engine types were commercially very successful, and by 1800, the firm Boulton & Watt had constructed 496 engines, with 164 driving reciprocating pumps, 24 serving blast furnaces, and 308 powering mill machinery; most of the engines generated from 5 to 10 hp (7.5 kW).
The development of machine tools, such as the lathe, planing and shaping machines powered by these engines, enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut and in turn made it possible to build larger and more powerful engines.
Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of self-contained portative engines (readily removable, but not on wheels) were developed, such as the table engine. Towards the turn of the 19th century, the Cornish engineer Richard Trevithick, and the American, Oliver Evans began to construct higher pressure non-condensing steam engines, exhausting against the atmosphere. This allowed an engine and boiler to be combined into a single unit compact enough to be used on mobile road and rail locomotives and steam boats.
In the early 19th century after the expiration of Watt's patent, the steam engine underwent many improvements by a host of inventors and engineers.
Chemicals[link]
The large scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Englishman John Roebuck (James Watt's first partner) in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 100 pounds (50 kg) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.
The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulphuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulphate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulphate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulphide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulphide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash,[24] and also to potash (potassium carbonate) derived from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant in about 1800, based on the discoveries of French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet, revolutionised the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. Tennant's factory at St Rollox, North Glasgow, became the largest chemical plant in the world.
In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, a British bricklayer turned builder, patented a chemical process for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete. Portland cement was used by the famous English engineer Marc Isambard Brunel several years later when constructing the Thames Tunnel.[25] Cement was used on a large scale in the construction of the London sewerage system a generation later.
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.[26] Aspring chemists flocked to German universities in the 1860-1914 era to learn the latest techniques. British scientists by contrast, lacked research universities and did not train advanced students; instead the practice was to hire German-trained chemists.[27]
Machine tools[link]
Main article: Machine tools
The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without machine tools, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' because of the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry.
Machines were built by various craftsmen—carpenters made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. A good example of how machine tools changed manufacturing took place in Birmingham, England, in 1830. The invention of a new machine by Joseph Gillott, William Mitchell[disambiguation needed 
] and James Stephen Perry allowed mass manufacture of robust, cheap steel pen nibs; the process had been laborious and expensive. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but they required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, production was very laborious and costly.
Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large machine tool was the cylinder boring machine used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The planing machine, the slotting machine and the shaping machine were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.
Military production, as well, had a hand in the development of machine tools. Henry Maudslay, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the Verbruggans. He later worked for Joseph Bramah on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Portsmouth Block Mills. These were all metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as Richard Roberts, Joseph Clement and Joseph Whitworth.
James Fox of Derby had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew Murray of Leeds. Roberts was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
Gas lighting[link]
Main article: Gas lighting
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation elsewhere, the large scale introduction of this was the work of William Murdoch, an employee of Boulton and Watt, the Birmingham steam engine pioneers. The process consisted of the large scale gasification of coal in furnaces, the purification of the gas (removal of sulphur, ammonia, and heavy hydrocarbons), and its storage and distribution. The first gas lighting utilities were established in London between 1812-20. They soon became one of the major consumers of coal in the UK. Gas lighting had an impact on social and industrial organisation because it allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed night life to flourish in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on a larger scale than before.
Glass making[link]
Main article: Glass production
A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century. In 1832, this process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a new and innovative structure..
Paper machine[link]
Main article: Papermaking
A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint-Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Fourdrinier after the financiers, brothers Sealy and Henry Fourdrinier, who were stationers in London. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Fourdriner machine is the predominant means of paper production today.
Effects on agriculture[link]
The invention of machinery played a big part in driving forward the British Agricultural Revolution. Agricultural improvement began in the centuries before the Industrial revolution got going and it may have played a part in freeing up labour from the land to work in the new industrial mills of the 18th century. As the revolution in industry progressed a succession of machines became available which increased food production with ever fewer labourers.
Jethro Tull's seed drill invented in 1701 was a mechanical seeder which distributed seeds efficiently across a plot of land. Joseph Foljambe's Rotherham plough of 1730, was the first commercially successful iron plough.[28] Andrew Meikle's threshing machine of 1784 was the final straw for many farm labourers, and led to the 1830 agricultural rebellion of the Swing Riots.
Transport in Britain[link]
Main article: Transport during the British Industrial Revolution
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been constructed. Animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea.
The Industrial Revolution improved Britain's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
Canals[link]
Main article: History of the British canal system
Canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time itself the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across the country. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on.
Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.
Roads[link]
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of some turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and John Macadam. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stage coaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.
Railways[link]
Main article: History of rail transport in Great Britain
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825 and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830. Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution.
After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
Railways helped Britain's trade enormously, providing a quick and easy way of transport and an easy way to transport mail and news.
Social effects[link]
Main article: Life in Great Britain during the Industrial Revolution
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a landed class of nobility and gentry.
Ordinary working people found increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories, but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900, most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day (12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20 to 40 percent less than the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life.[29] However, harsh working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.[30]
Factories and urbanisation[link]
Industrialisation led to the creation of the factory. Arguably the first was John Lombe's water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. However, the rise of the factory came somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanised.
The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern city, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed "Cottonopolis", and arguably the world's first industrial city. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-powered and built to serve local needs. Later each factory would have its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its boiler.
The transition to industrialisation was not without difficulty. For example, a group of English workers known as Luddites formed to protest against industrialisation and sometimes sabotaged factories.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement.
By 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who employed the factory system.
Child labour[link]
A young "drawer" pulling a coal tub along a mine gallery.[31] In Britain laws passed in 1842 and 1844 improved working conditions in mines.
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase, but the chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial Revolution (although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly).[32][33] There was still limited opportunity for education, and children were expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial system was completely new there were no experienced adult labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and 19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.[34]
Child labour had existed before the Industrial Revolution, but with the increase in population and education it became more visible. Many children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower pay than their elders,[35] 10-20% of an adult male's wage.[36] Children as young as four were employed.[36] Beatings and long hours were common, with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4 am until 5 pm.[36] Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas explosions.[36] Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases and died before the age of 25.[36] Workhouses would sell orphans and abandoned children as "pauper apprentices", working without wages for board and lodging.[36] Those who ran away would be whipped and returned to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape.[36] Children employed as mule scavenger by cotton mills would crawl under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the machines, and some were decapitated.[36] Young girls worked at match factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop phossy jaw.[36] Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to poisonous clay dust.[36]
Reports were written detailing some of the abuses, particularly in the coal mines[37] and textile factories[38] and these helped to popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers' welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law, but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.[36] About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers; however, child labour remained in Europe and the United States up to the 20th century.[39]
Housing[link]
Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from the splendour of the homes of the owners to the squalor of the lives of the workers. Poor people lived in very small houses in cramped streets. These homes would share toilet facilities, have open sewers and would be at risk of developing pathologies associated with persistent dampness. Disease was spread through a contaminated water supply. Conditions did improve during the 19th century as public health acts were introduced covering things such as sewage, hygiene and making some boundaries upon the construction of homes. Not everybody lived in homes like these. The Industrial Revolution created a larger middle class of professionals such as lawyers and doctors. Health conditions for improved over the course of the 19th century because of better sanitation; the famines that troubled rural areas did not happen in industrial areas. However, urban people—especially small children—died due to diseases spreading through the cramped living conditions. Tuberculosis (spread in congested dwellings), lung diseases from the mines, cholera from polluted water and typhoid were also common.
A description of housing of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by Friedrich Engels, a co-founder of Marxism.[40] In the introduction of the 1892 edition of Engels (1844) he notes that most of the conditions he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved.
Luddites[link]
Main article: Luddite
The rapid industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government took drastic measures using the militia or army to protect industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or transported for life.
Unrest continued in other sectors as they industrialised, such as agricultural labourers in the 1830s, when large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and rick burning was a popular activity. However the riots led to the first formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.
Organisation of labour[link]
See also: Trade union#History
The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills, factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their conditions through this kind of bargaining.
The main method the unions used to effect change was strike action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. In England, the Combination Act forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from 1799 until its repeal in 1824. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted.
In 1832, the year of the Reform Act which extended the vote in England but did not grant universal suffrage, six men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week, although by this time wages had been reduced to seven shillings a week and were due to be further reduced to six shillings. In 1834 James Frampton, a local landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless, George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the Tolpuddle martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s the Chartist movement was the first large scale organised working class political movement which campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by Parliament without consideration.
Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship. Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these organisations to improve the conditions of the working class.
Unions slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a General Strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great Britain.[41]
Eventually effective political organisation for working people was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties that later merged to became the British Labour Party.
Standards of living[link]
The history of the change of living conditions during the industrial revolution has been very controversial, and was the topic that from the 1950s to the 1980s caused most heated debate among economic and social historians.[42] A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe reductions in their living standards.[42]
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including England and France, until the latter part of the 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years, and only slightly higher in England. The U.S. population of the time was adequately fed, were much taller and had life expectancies of 45–50 years.[43] A vivid description of living standards of the mill workers in England in 1844 was given by Friedrich Engels.[40]
During the period 1813-1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.[44][45][46]
Population increase[link]
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from 1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850 and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million.[47] As living conditions and health care improved during the 19th century,[citation needed] Britain's population doubled every 50 years.[48][49] Europe’s population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.[50]
Other effects[link]
The application of steam power to the industrial processes of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.[32]
The growth of modern industry from the late 18th century onward led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities,[51] a figure that has risen to nearly 50% at the beginning of the 21st century.[52] In 1717 Manchester was merely a market town of 10,000 people, but by 1911 it had a population of 2.3 million.[53]
The greatest killer in the cities was tuberculosis (TB).[54] According to the Harvard University Library, "By the late 19th century, 70 to 90% of the urban populations of Europe and North America were infected with the TB bacillus, and about 80% of those individuals who developed active tuberculosis died of it. About 40% of working-class deaths in cities were from tuberculosis."[55]
Continental Europe[link]
The Industrial Revolution on Continental Europe came a little later than in Great Britain. In many industries, this involved the application of technology developed in Britain in new places. Often the technology was purchased from Britain or British engineers and entrepreneurs moved abroad in search of new opportunities. By 1809 part of the Ruhr Valley in Westphalia was called 'Miniature England' because of its similarities to the industrial areas of England. The German, Russian and Belgian governments all provided state funding to the new industries. In some cases (such as iron), the different availability of resources locally meant that only some aspects of the British technology were adopted.
Belgium[link]
Renowned for its coal and steel, Belgium has experienced strong industrial growth since the Middle Ages. For many years, heavy industry was the driving force behind the region's economy. Belgium was the second country, after England, in which the industrial revolution took place and the first on continental Europe:
Before railway construction on the Continent demanded huge quantities of maleable iron mainly for rails, for which low quality iron sufficed, Wallonia was the only Continental region to follow the British model successfully. Since the middle of the 1820s, numerous works comprising coke blast furnaces as well as puddling and rolling mills were built in the coal mining areas around Liège and Charleroi. Excelling all others, John Cockerill's factories at Seraing integrated all stages of production, from engineering to the supply of raw materials, as early as 1825.[56]
Wallonia came to be regarded as an example of the radical evolution of industrial expansion. Thanks to coal (the French word "houille" was coined in Wallonia),[57] the region geared up to become the 2nd industrial power in the world after England. But it is also pointed out by many researchers, with its Sillon industriel, 'Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, (...) there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making...'.[58] Philippe Raxhon wrote about the period after 1830: "It was not propaganda but a reality the Walloon regions were becoming the second industrial power all over the world after England."[59] "The sole industrial centre outside the collieries and blast furnaces of Walloon was the old cloth making town of Ghent."[60] Michel De Coster, Professor at the Université de Liège wrote also: "The historians and the economists say that Belgium was the second industrial power of the world, in proportion to its population and its territory (...) But this rank is the one of Wallonia where the coal-mines, the blast furnaces, the iron and zinc factories, the wool industry, the glass industry, the weapons industry... were concentrated" [61]
Demographic effects[link]
Wallonia was also the birthplace of a strong Socialist party and strong trade-unions in a particular sociological landscape. At the left, the Sillon industriel, which runs from Mons in the west, to Verviers in the east (except part of North Flanders, in another period of the industrial revolution, after 1920). Even if Belgium is the second industrial country after England, the effect of the industrial revolution there was very different. In 'Breaking stereotypes', Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devious say:
The industrial revolution changed a mainly rural society into an urban one, but with a strong contrast between northern and southern Belgium. During the Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period, Flanders was characterised by the presence of large urban centres (...) at the beginning of the nineteenth century this region (Flanders), with an urbanisation degree of more than 30 per cent, remained one of the most urbanised in the world. By comparison, this proportion reached only 17 per cent in Wallonia, barely 10 per cent in most West European countries, 16 per cent in France and 25 per cent in England. Nineteenth century industrialisation did not affect the traditional urban infrastructure, except in Ghent (...) Also, in Wallonia the traditional urban network was largely unaffected by the industrialisation process, even though the proportion of city-dwellers rose from 17 to 45 per cent between 1831 and 1910. Especially in the Haine, Sambre and Meuse valleys, between the Borinage and Liège, where there was a huge industrial development based on coal-mining and iron-making, urbanisation was fast. During these eighty years the number of municipalities with more than 5,000 inhabitants increased from only 21 to more than one hundred, concentrating nearly half of the Walloon population in this region. Nevertheless, industrialisation remained quite traditional in the sense that it did not lead to the growth of modern and large urban centres, but to a conurbation of industrial villages and towns developed around a coal-mine or a factory. Communication routes between these small centres only became populated later and created a much less dense urban morphology than, for instance, the area around Liège where the old town was there to direct migratory flows.[62]
France[link]
The industrial revolution in France was a particular process for it did not correspond to the main model followed by other countries. Notably, most French historians argue that France did not go through a clear take-off.[63] Instead, France's economic growth and industrialisation process was slow and steady along the 18th and 19th centuries. However, some stages were identified by Maurice Lévy-Leboyer :
- French Revolution and Napoleonic wars (1789–1815),
- industrialisation, along with Britain (1815–1860),
- economic slowdown (1860–1905),
- renewal of the growth after 1905.
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Germany[link]
Main article: Economic history of Germany
Based on its leadership in chemical research in the universities and industrial laboratories, Germany became dominant in the world's chemical industry in the late 19th century. At first the production of dyes based on aniline was critical.[64] Germany
Germany's political disunity—with three dozen states—and a pervasive conservatism made it difficult to build railways in the 1830s. However, by the 1840s, trunk lines linked the major cities; each German state was responsible for the lines within its own borders. Lacking a technological base at first, the Germans imported their engineering and hardware from Britain, but quickly learned the skills needed to operate and expand the railways. In many cities, the new railway shops were the centres of technological awareness and training, so that by 1850, Germany was self-sufficient in meeting the demands of railroad construction, and the railways were a major impetus for the growth of the new steel industry. Observers found that even as late as 1890, their engineering was inferior to Britain’s. However, German unification in 1870 stimulated consolidation, nationalisation into state-owned companies, and further rapid growth. Unlike the situation in France, the goal was support of industrialisation, and so heavy lines crisscrossed the Ruhr and other industrial districts, and provided good connections to the major ports of Hamburg and Bremen. By 1880, Germany had 9,400 locomotives pulling 43,000 passengers and 30,000 tons of freight, and pulled ahead of France[65]
Sweden[link]
Main article: Economic history of Sweden
During the period 1790-1815 Sweden experienced two parallel economic movements: an agricultural revolution with larger agricultural estates, new crops and farming tools and a commercialisation of farming, and a protoindustrialisation, with small industries being established in the countryside and with workers switching between agricultural work in the summer season and industrial production in the winter season. This led to economic growth benefiting large sections of the population and leading up to a consumption revolution starting in the 1820s.
In the period 1815-1850 the protoindustries developed into more specialized and larger industries. This period witness increasing regional specialisation with mining in Bergslagen, textile mills in Sjuhäradsbygden and forestry in Norrland. Several important institutional changes took place in this period, such as free and mandatory schooling introduced 1842 (as first country in the world), the abolishment of a previous national monopoly on trade in handicrafts in 1846, and a stock company law in 1848.
During the period 1850-1890 Sweden witnessed a veritable explosion in its export sector, with agricultural crops, wood and steel being the three dominating categories. Sweden abolished most tariffs and other barriers to free trade in the 1850s and joined the gold standard in 1873.
During the period 1890-1930 the second industrial revolution took place in Sweden. During this period new industries developed with their focus on the domestic market: mechanical engineering, power utilities, papermaking and textile industries.
United States[link]
The United States originally used horse-powered machinery to power its earliest factories, but eventually switched to water power, with the consequence that industrialisation was essentially limited to New England and the rest of the Northeastern United States, where fast-moving rivers were located. Horse-drawn production proved to be economically challenging and a more difficult alternative to the newer water-powered production lines. However, the raw materials (cotton) came from the Southern United States. It was not until after the Civil War in the 1860s that steam-powered manufacturing overtook water-powered manufacturing, allowing the industry to fully spread across the nation.
Thomas Somers and the Cabot Brothers founded the Beverly Cotton Manufactory in 1787, the first cotton mill in America, the largest cotton mill of its era,[66] and a significant milestone in the research and development of cotton mills in the future. This cotton mill was designed to utilise horse-powered production, however the operators quickly learned that the economic stability of their horse-drawn platform was unstable, and had fiscal issues for years after it was built. Despite the losses, the Manufactory served as a playground of innovation, both in turning a large amount of cotton, but also developing the water-powered milling structure used in Slater's Mill.[67]
Samuel Slater (1768–1835) is the founder of the Slater Mill. As a boy apprentice in Derbyshire, England, he learned of the new techniques in the textile industry and defied laws against the emigration of skilled workers by leaving for New York in 1789, hoping to make money with his knowledge. Slater founded Slater's Mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, in 1793. He went on to own thirteen textile mills.[68] Daniel Day established a wool carding mill in the Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, Massachusetts in 1809, the third woollen mill established in the U.S. (The first was in Hartford, Connecticut, and the second at Watertown, Massachusetts.) The John H. Chafee Blackstone River Valley National Heritage Corridor retraces the history of "America's Hardest-Working River', the Blackstone. The Blackstone River and its tributaries, which cover more than 45 miles (72 km) from Worcester to Providence, was the birthplace of America's Industrial Revolution. At its peak over 1100 mills operated in this valley, including Slater's mill, and with it the earliest beginnings of America's Industrial and Technological Development.
While on a trip to England in 1810, Newburyport merchant Francis Cabot Lowell was allowed to tour the British textile factories, but not take notes. Realising the War of 1812 had ruined his import business but that a market for domestic finished cloth was emerging in America, he memorised the design of textile machines, and on his return to the United States, he set up the Boston Manufacturing Company. Lowell and his partners built America's second cotton-to-cloth textile mill at Waltham, Massachusetts, second to the Beverly Cotton Manufactory After his death in 1817, his associates built America's first planned factory town, which they named after him. This enterprise was capitalised in a public stock offering, one of the first uses of it in the United States. Lowell, Massachusetts, utilising 5.6 miles (9.0 km) of canals and ten thousand horsepower delivered by the Merrimack River, is considered by some to be a major contributor to the success of the American Industrial Revolution. The short-lived utopia-like Lowell System was formed, as a direct response to the poor working conditions in Britain. However, by 1850, especially following the Irish Potato Famine, the system had been replaced by poor immigrant labour.
The industrialisation of the watch industry started 1854 also in Waltham, Massachusetts, at the Waltham Watch Company, with the development of machine tools, tools, gauges and assembling methods adapted to the micro precision required for watches.
See also: History of Lowell, Massachusetts
Japan[link]
Main articles: Meiji Restoration and Economic history of Japan
The industrial revolution began about 1870 as Meiji period leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin).
In 1871 a group of Japanese politicians known as the Iwakura Mission toured Europe and the USA to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state led industrialisation policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The Bank of Japan, founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories. Education was expanded and Japanese students were sent to study in the west.
Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.[69]
Second Industrial Revolution[link]
Main article: Second Industrial Revolution
Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterise a "Second Industrial Revolution", beginning around 1850, although a method for mass manufacture of steel was not invented until the 1860s, when Sir Henry Bessemer invented a new furnace which could convert wrought iron into steel in large quantities. However, it only became widely available in the 1870s after the process was modified to produce more uniform quality.[70][71]
This second Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the chemical industries, petroleum refining and distribution, electrical industries, and, in the 20th century, the automotive industries, and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Britain to the United States and Germany.
The introduction of hydroelectric power generation in the Alps enabled the rapid industrialisation of coal-deprived northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economical petroleum products also reduced the importance of coal and further widened the potential for industrialisation.
By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with burgeoning global interests, as companies like U.S. Steel, General Electric, Standard Oil and Bayer AG joined the railroad companies on the world's stock markets.
Intellectual paradigms and criticism[link]
Capitalism[link]
Main article: Capitalism
The advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge—a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and sociological analyses, culminating in Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. One of the main arguments for capitalism, presented for example in the book The Improving State of the World, is that industrialisation increases wealth for all, as evidenced by raised life expectancy, reduced working hours, and no work for children and the elderly.
Socialism[link]
Main article: Socialism
Socialism emerged as a critique of capitalism. Marxism began essentially as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution.[72] According to Karl Marx, industrialisation polarised society into the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production, the factories and the land) and the much larger proletariat (the working class who actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). He saw the industrialisation process as the logical dialectical progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of capitalism, which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of socialism and eventually communism.
Romanticism[link]
Main article: Romanticism
During the Industrial Revolution an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation developed. This was known as the Romantic movement. Its major exponents in English included the artist and poet William Blake and poets William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, John Keats, Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. The movement stressed the importance of "nature" in art and language, in contrast to "monstrous" machines and factories; the "Dark satanic mills" of Blake's poem "And did those feet in ancient time". Mary Shelley's novel Frankenstein reflected concerns that scientific progress might be two-edged.
Causes[link]
The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complicated and remain a topic for debate, with some historians believing the Revolution was an outgrowth of social and institutional changes brought by the end of feudalism in Britain after the English Civil War in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, the spread of disease was lessened, thereby preventing the epidemics common in previous times.[73] The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly, leading to a larger workforce. The Enclosure movement and the British Agricultural Revolution made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in agriculture into cottage industry, for example weaving, and in the longer term into the cities and the newly developed factories.[74] The colonial expansion of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international trade, creation of financial markets and accumulation of capital are also cited as factors, as is the scientific revolution of the 17th century.[75]
Until the 1980s, it was universally believed by academic historians that technological innovation was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and the key enabling technology was the invention and improvement of the steam engine.[76] However, recent research into the Marketing Era has challenged the traditional, supply-oriented interpretation of the Industrial Revolution.[77]
Lewis Mumford has proposed that the Industrial Revolution had its origins in the Early Middle Ages, much earlier than most estimates.[78] He explains that the model for standardised mass production was the printing press and that "the archetypal model for the industrial era was the clock". He also cites the monastic emphasis on order and time-keeping, as well as the fact that medieval cities had at their centre a church with bell ringing at regular intervals as being necessary precursors to a greater synchronisation necessary for later, more physical, manifestations such as the steam engine.
The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important driver of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as France, markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and tariffs on goods traded amongst them.[79] Internal tariffs were abolished by Henry VIII of England, they survived in Russia till 1753, 1789 in France and 1839 in Spain.
Governments' grant of limited monopolies to inventors under a developing patent system (the Statute of Monopolies 1623) is considered an influential factor. The effects of patents, both good and ill, on the development of industrialisation are clearly illustrated in the history of the steam engine, the key enabling technology. In return for publicly revealing the workings of an invention the patent system rewarded inventors such as James Watt by allowing them to monopolise the production of the first steam engines, thereby rewarding inventors and increasing the pace of technological development. However monopolies bring with them their own inefficiencies which may counterbalance, or even overbalance, the beneficial effects of publicising ingenuity and rewarding inventors.[80] Watt's monopoly may have prevented other inventors, such as Richard Trevithick, William Murdoch or Jonathan Hornblower, from introducing improved steam engines, thereby retarding the industrial revolution by about 16 years.[81][82]
Causes for occurrence in Europe[link]
Main article: European miracle
European 17th century colonial expansion, international trade, and creation of financial markets produced a new legal and financial environment, one which supported and enabled 18th century industrial growth.
One question of active interest to historians is why the industrial revolution occurred in Europe and not in other parts of the world in the 18th century, particularly China, India, and the Middle East, or at other times like in Classical Antiquity[83] or the Middle Ages.[84] Numerous factors have been suggested, including education, technological changes[85] (see Scientific Revolution in Europe), "modern" government, "modern" work attitudes, ecology, and culture.[86] The Age of Enlightenment not only meant a larger educated population but also more modern views on work. However, most historians contest the assertion that Europe and China were roughly equal because modern estimates of per capita income on Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 dollars in purchasing power parity (and Britain had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars[87]) whereas China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars.
Some historians such as David Landes[88] and Max Weber credit the different belief systems in China and Europe with dictating where the revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of Judaeo-Christianity, and Greek thought. Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like Confucius, Mencius, Han Feizi (Legalism), Lao Tzu (Taoism), and Buddha (Buddhism). Whereas the Europeans believed that the universe was governed by rational and eternal laws, the East believed that the universe was in constant flux and, for Buddhists and Taoists, not capable of being rationally understood.[citation needed] Other factors include the considerable distance of China's coal deposits, though large, from its cities as well as the then unnavigable Yellow River that connects these deposits to the sea.[89]
Regarding India, the Marxist historian Rajani Palme Dutt said: "The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in England."[90] In contrast to China, India was split up into many competing kingdoms, with the three major ones being the Marathas, Sikhs and the Mughals. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors—agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and there appears to have been little technical innovation. It is believed that the vast amounts of wealth were largely stored away in palace treasuries by totalitarian monarchs prior to the British take over. Absolutist dynasties in China, India, and the Middle East failed to encourage manufacturing and exports, and expressed little interest in the well-being of their subjects.[91]
Causes for occurrence in Britain[link]
There were two main values that really drove the industrial revolution in Britain. These values were self interest and an entrepreneurial spirit. Because of these interests, many industrial advances were made that resulted in a huge increase in personal wealth. These advancements also greatly benefitted the British society as a whole. Countries around the world started to recognize the changes and advancements in Britain and use them as an example to begin their own industrial revolutions.[92]
The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the massive lead that Great Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that Britain received from its many overseas colonies or that profits from the British slave trade between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment. However, it has been pointed out that slave trade and West Indian plantations provided only 5% of the British national income during the years of the Industrial Revolution.[93] Even though slavery accounted for minimal economic profits in Britain during the Industrial Revolution, Caribbean-based demand accounted for 12% of England's industrial output.[94]
Instead, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to produce and use emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, particularly China and Russia. Britain emerged from the Napoleonic Wars as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and having the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets were destroyed during the war by the Royal Navy[95]). Britain's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The conflict resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position—an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe.
Another theory is that Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. Enclosure of common land and the related agricultural revolution made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the North of England, the English Midlands, South Wales and the Scottish Lowlands. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry. Also, the damp, mild weather conditions of the North West of England provided ideal conditions for the spinning of cotton, providing a natural starting point for the birth of the textiles industry.
The stable political situation in Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution. Peasant resistance to industrialisation was largely eliminated by the Enclosure movement, and the landed upper classes developed commercial interests that made them pioneers in removing obstacles to the growth of capitalism.[96] (This point is also made in Hilaire Belloc's The Servile State.)
Britain's population grew 280% 1550-1820, while the rest of Western Europe grew 50-80%. 70% of European urbanisation happened in Britain 1750-1800. By 1800, only the Netherlands was more urbanised than Britain. This was only possible because coal, coke, imported cotton, brick and slate had replaced wood, charcoal, flax, peat and thatch. The latter compete with land grown to feed people while mined materials do not. Yet more land would be freed when chemical fertilisers replaced manure and horse's work was mechanised. A workhorse needs 3 to 5 acres (1.21 to 2.02 ha) for fodder while even early steam engines produced 4 times more mechanical energy.
In 1700, 5/6 of coal mined worldwide was in Britain, while the Netherlands had none; so despite having Europe's best transport, most urbanised, well paid, literate people and lowest taxes, it failed to industrialise. In the 18th century, it was the only European country whose cities and population shrank. Without coal, Britain would have run out of suitable river sites for mills by the 1830s.[97]
Protestant work ethic[link]
Main article: Protestant work ethic
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.[98] The existence of this class is often linked to the Protestant work ethic (see Max Weber) and the particular status of the Baptists and the dissenting Protestant sects, such as the Quakers and Presbyterians that had flourished with the English Civil War. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Britain in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the national debt by the Bank of England, contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.
Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two universities at the time (although dissenters were still free to study at Scotland's four universities). When the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official Anglican Church became mandatory due to the Test Act, they thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education. The Unitarians, in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the universities of Oxford and Cambridge and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences—areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.
Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the middle class, such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the scientific revolution of the 17th century.
See also[link]
- General
- Capitalism in the nineteenth century
- Deindustrialisation
- Dialectics of progress
- Dual revolution
- Economic history of the United Kingdom
- Electrification
- Industrialisation
- Information revolution
- Paper
- Papermaking
- Pre-industrial society
- Protestant work ethic
- Scientific Revolution
- Other
References[link]
Bibliography[link]
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- Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders, New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, LCCN 16011753, http://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage . Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (LCCN 27-24075); and by Lindsay Publications, Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
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Historiography[link]
- Chambliss, William J. (editor), Problems of Industrial Society, Reading, Massachusetts : Addison-Wesley Publishing Co, December 1973. ISBN 978-0-201-00958-3
- Hawke, Gary. "Reinterpretations of the Industrial Revolution" in Patrick O'Brien and Roland Quinault, eds. The Industrial Revolution and British Society (1993) pp 54–78
- McCloskey, Deirdre (2004). "Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson)". Times Higher Education Supplement 15 (January). http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php.
Notes[link]
- ^ Watt steam engine image: located in the lobby of into the Superior Technical School of Industrial Engineers of a the UPM (Madrid)
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2003). The World Economy: Historical Statistics. Paris: Development Centre, OECD. pp. 256–62, Tables 8a and 8c..
- ^ Lucas, Robert E., Jr. (2002). Lectures on Economic Growth. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. pp. 109–10. ISBN 978-0-674-01601-9.
- ^ Julian Hoppit, "The Nation, the State, and the First Industrial Revolution," Journal of British Studies (April 2011) 50#2 pp p307-331
- ^ Beck B., Roger (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, Illinois: McDougal Littell.
- ^ a b Business and Economics. Leading Issues in Economic Development, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-511589-9 Read it
- ^ Redford, Arthur (1976), "Labour migration in England, 1800-1850", p. 6. Manchester University Press, Manchester.
- ^ Russell Brown, Lester. Eco-Economy, James & James / Earthscan. ISBN 1-85383-904-3 Read it
- ^ Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. ISBN 0-349-10484-0
- ^ Joseph E Inikori. Africans and the Industrial Revolution in England, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-01079-9 Read it
- ^ Berg, Maxine; Hudson, Pat (1992). "Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution". The Economic History Review (The Economic History Review, Vol. 45, No. 1) 45 (1): 24–50. DOI:10.2307/2598327. JSTOR 2598327.
- ^ Rehabilitating the Industrial Revolution by Julie Lorenzen, Central Michigan University. Retrieved November 2006.
- ^ Robert Lucas, Jr. (2003). "The Industrial Revolution". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm. Retrieved 2007-11-14. "it is fairly clear that up to 1800 or maybe 1750, no society had experienced sustained growth in per capita income. (Eighteenth century population growth also averaged one-third of 1 percent, the same as production growth.) That is, up to about two centuries ago, per capita incomes in all societies were stagnated at around $400 to $800 per year."
- ^ Lucas, Robert (2003). "The Industrial Revolution Past and Future". http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm. "[consider] annual growth rates of 2.4 percent for the first 60 years of the 20th century, of 1 percent for the entire 19th century, of one-third of 1 percent for the 18th century"
- ^ McCloskey, Deidre (2004). "Review of The Cambridge Economic History of Modern Britain (edited by Roderick Floud and Paul Johnson), Times Higher Education Supplement, 15 January 2004". http://deirdremccloskey.org/articles/floud.php.
- ^ Crouzet, François (1996). "France". In Teich, Mikuláš; Porter, Roy. The industrial revolution in national context: Europe and the USA. Cambridge University Press. p. 45. ISBN 978-0-521-40940-7. LCCN 95025377.
- ^ Hudson, Pat (1992). The Industrial Revolution. London: Edward Arnold. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7131-6531-9.
- ^ Eric Bond, Sheena Gingerich, Oliver Archer-Antonsen, Liam Purcell, Elizabeth Macklem (2003-02-17). "The Industrial Revolution – Innovations". Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/innovations.html. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) "Building construction: the reintroduction of modern concrete"
- ^ The Lunar Society at Moreabout, the website of the Birmingham Jewellery Quarter guide, Bob Miles.
- ^ Hulse, David H: The Early Development of the Steam Engine; TEE Publishing, Leamington Spa, UK, 1999 ISBN 1-85761-107-1
- ^ L.T.C. Rolt and J. S. Allen, The Steam engine of Thomas Newcomen (Landmark, Ashbourne, 1997), 44.
- ^ Rolt and Allen, 145
- ^ Clow, Archibald; Clow, Nan L. (June 1952). Chemical Revolution. Ayer Co. pp. 65–90. ISBN 0-8369-1909-2
- ^ Properties of Concrete Published lecture notes from University of Memphis Department of Civil Engineering. Retrieved 2007-10-17.
- ^ Lion Hirth, State, Cartels and Growth: The German Chemical Industry (2007) p 20
- ^ Johann P. Murmann, Knowledge and competitive advantage: the coevolution of firms, technology, and national institutions (2003) pp 53-54
- ^ Overton, Mark Agricultural revolution in England: the transformation of the agrarian economy, 1500-1850 Cambridge University Press, 1996
- ^ "United States History - The Struggles of Labor". Library of Congress Country Studies.
- ^ R.M. Hartwell, The Industrial Revolution and Economic Growth, Methuen and Co., 1971, page 339-341 ISBN 0-416-19500-8
- ^ Dunn, James (1905). From Coal Mine Upwards: or Seventy Years of an Eventful Life. ISBN 1-4344-6870-4<The autobiography of James Dunn> James Dunn started working in a mine at age 8 ca. 1843 and describes work conditions and living conditions at the time
- ^ a b Mabel C. Buer, Health, Wealth and Population in the Early Days of the Industrial Revolution, London: George Routledge & Sons, 1926, page 30 ISBN 0-415-38218-1
- ^ Bar, Michael; Leukhina, Oksana (2007). "Demographic Transition and Industrial Revolution: A Macroeconomic Investigation" (PDF). Archived from the original on 2007-11-27. http://web.archive.org/web/20071127160733/http://www.unc.edu/~oksana/Paper1.pdf. Retrieved 2007-11-05. "The decrease [in mortality] beginning in the second half of the 18th century was due mainly to declining adult mortality. Sustained decline of the mortality rates for the age groups 5-10, 10-15, and 15-25 began in the mid 19th century, while that for the age group 0-5 began three decades later" . Although the survival rates for infants and children were static over this period, the birth rate & overall life expectancy increased. Thus the population grew, but the average Briton was about as old in 1850 as in 1750 (see figures 5 & 6, page 28). Population size statistics from mortality.org put the mean age at about 26.
- ^ "Child Labor and the Division of Labor in the Early English Cotton Mills". Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.
- ^ The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England, Laura Del Col, West Virginia University.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Venning, Annabel (17 September 2010). "Britain's child slaves: They started at 4am, lived off acorns and had nails put through their ears for shoddy work. Yet, says a new book, their misery helped forge Britain". dailymail.co.uk (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1312764/Britains-child-slaves-New-book-says-misery-helped-forge-Britain.html. Retrieved 19 September 2010.
- ^ "Testimony Gathered by Ashley's Mines Commission". 2008. http://www.victorianweb.org/history/ashley.html. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
- ^ "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England". 2008. http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
- ^ "Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration.
- ^ a b Engels, Friedrich (1892). The Condition of the Working-Class in England in 1844. London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co. pp. 45, 48–53. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1844engels.html.
- ^ General Strike 1842 From chartists.net. Retrieved 13 November 2006.
- ^ a b Woodward, D. (1981) Wage rates and living standards in pre-industrial England Past & Present 1981 91(1):28-46
- ^ Fogel, Robert W. (2004). The Escape from Hunger and Premature Death, 1700-2100. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-80878-2.
- ^ Crafts, N; Mills, Terence C. (1994). "Trends in Real Wages in Britain, 1750-1913". Explorations in Economic History 31 (2): 176. DOI:10.1006/exeh.1994.1007.
- ^ Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living From www.econlib.org, downloaded 17 July 2006.
- ^ R.M. Hartwell, The Rising Standard of Living in England, 1800-1850, Economic History Review, 1963, page 398 ISBN 0-631-18071-0
- ^ "The UK population: past, present and future" (PDF). Statistics.gov.uk
- ^ "A portrait of Britain in 2031". The Independent. October 24, 2007.
- ^ BBC - History - Victorian Medicine - From Fluke to Theory. Published: 2002-02-01.
- ^ "Modernization - Population Change". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Human Population: Urbanization". Population Reference Bureau.
- ^ "Human Population: Population Growth: Question and Answer". Population Reference Bureau.
- ^ Manchester (England, United Kingdom). Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Diseases in industrial cities in the Industrial Revolution". Historylearningsite.co.uk.
- ^ "Tuberculosis in Europe and North America, 1800–1922". The Harvard University Library, Open Collections Program: Contagion.
- ^ Chris Evans, Göran Rydén, The Industrial Revolution in Iron; The impact of British Coal Technology in Ninenteenth-Century Europe Published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Farnham2005, pp. 37-38 ISBN 0-7546-3390-X.
- ^ a word from Walloon origin
- ^ Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, 'Breaking stereotypes', in M.Neven and I.Devos (editors), 'Recent work in Belgian Historical Demography', in Revue belge d'histoire contemporaine, XXXI, 2001, 3-4, pages 347-359 FLWI.ugent.be
- ^ Philippe Raxhon, Le siècle des forges ou la Wallonie dans le creuset belge (1794-1914), in B.Demoulin and JL Kupper (editors), Histoire de la Wallonie, Privat, Toulouse, 2004, pages 233-276, p. 246 ISBN 2-7089-4779-6
- ^ European Route of Industrial Heritage
- ^ Michel De Coster, Les enjeux des conflits linguistiques, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2007, ISBN 978-2-296-03394-8, pages 122-123
- ^ Muriel Neven and Isabelle Devos, Breaking stereotypes, art. cit., pages 315-316
- ^ Jean Marczewski, « Y a-t-il eu un "take-off" en France ? », 1961, dans les Cahiers de l'ISEA
- ^ Ludwig Fritz Haber, The chemical industry during the nineteenth century (1958)
- ^ Allan Mitchell, Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815-1914 (2000)
- ^ Bagnall, William R. The Textile Industries of the United States: Including Sketches and Notices of Cotton, Woolen, Silk, and Linen Manufacturers in the Colonial Period. Vol. I. The Riverside Press, 1893.
- ^ "Made In Beverly-A History of Beverly Industry", by Daniel J. Hoisington. A publication of the Beverly Historic District Commission. 1989.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica (1998): Samuel Slater
- ^ G.C. Allen, Short Economic History of Modern Japan (1972)
- ^ Morison, Elting E. (1966). Men, Machines and Modern Times. Cambridga, Ma and London, UK: The M.I.T Press.
- ^ McNeil, Ian (1990). An Encyclopedia of the History of Technology. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14792-1.
- ^ Karl Marx: Communist as Religious EschatologistPDF (3.68 MB)
- ^ "BBC – Plague in Tudor and Stuart Britain". bbc.co.uk. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/voices/voices_salisbury.shtml. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
- ^ Steven Kreis (2006-10-11). "The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England". Historyguide.org. http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ "Scientific Revolution[dead link]". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. Archived 2009-10-31.
- ^ Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-7131-6531-6
- ^ Fullerton, Ronald A. (January 1988). "How Modern Is Modern Marketing? Marketing's Evolution and the Myth of the "Production Era"". The Journal of Marketing (New York City, NY: American Marketing Association) 52 (1): 108–125. DOI:10.2307/1251689. JSTOR 1251689.
- ^ "Technics & Civilization". Lewis Mumford. http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/015688254X?p=S00Q&checkSum=udoW5CVmUdy3Y45ns0wtGk7Wesh6yWx220dcukbd7VE%3D. Retrieved 2009-01-08.
- ^ Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29609-9 Read it
- ^ Eric Schiff, Industrialisation without national patents: the Netherlands, 1869-1912; Switzerland, 1850-1907, Princeton University Press, 1971.
- ^ Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine, Against Intellectual Monopoly, Chapter 1, final online version January 2, 2008PDF (55 KB), page 15. Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-87928-6
- ^ Mott-Smith, Morton (1964) [Unabridged and revised version of the book first published by D. Appleton-Century Company in 1934 under the former title: The Story of Energy]. The Concept of Energy Simply Explained. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.. pp. 13-14. ISBN 0-486-21071-5. "In 1768 the firm of Boulton and Watt was formed, and by virtue of Watt's basic patents, the duration of which was extended by Act of Parliament, this firm enjoyed for thirty years a complete monopoly of the production of power. This proved in the end a hindrance to progress. The firm, as usually happens, became conservative, crushed all rivals and opposed all innovations that did not emanate from itself. High pressure had been proposed, but Boulton and Watt stuck to seven pounds. They even tried to have a law passed prohibiting the use of a higher pressure, on the ground that it was dangerous. Perhaps at the time it was. Compound expansion had been invented and patented by Hornblower in 1781, but since he could not build an engine without conflicting with Watt's patents, he was completely paralyzed. Yet high pressure and compounding were precisely the improvements next in order, and destined ultimately to improve the Watt engine, as much as he had improved the Newcomen. But they had to await the end of the monopoly of Boulton and Watt in 1802."
- ^ Why No Industrial Revolution in Ancient Greece? J. Bradford DeLong, Professor of Economics, University of California at Berkeley, 20 September 2002. Retrieved January 2007.
- ^ The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England |The History Guide, Steven Kreis, 11 October 2006 – Accessed January 2007
- ^ Jackson J. Spielvogel (2009). "Western Civilization: Since 1500". p.607.
- ^ Eric Bond, Sheena Gingerich, Oliver Archer-Antonsen, Liam Purcell, Elizabeth Macklem (2003-02-17). "The Industrial Revolution – Causes". Industrialrevolution.sea.ca. http://industrialrevolution.sea.ca/causes.html. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ Cobb-Douglas in pre-modern Europe1 – Simulating early modern growthPDF (254 KB) Jan Luiten van Zanden, International Institute of Social History/University of Utrecht. May 2005. Retrieved January 2007.
- ^ Landes, David (1999). The Wealth and Poverty of Nations. London: Abacus. pp. 38–9. ISBN 0-349-11166-9.
- ^ How Earth Made Us: Fire by Professor Iain Stewart
- ^ South Asian History -Pages from the history of the Indian subcontinent: British rule and the legacy of colonisation. Rajni-Palme Dutt India Today (Indian Edition published 1947). Retrieved January 2007.
- ^ Monarchies 1000–2000. By W. M. Spellman. London: Reaktion Books, 2001.. Journal of World History.
- ^ Kiely, Ray (Nov 2011). "Industrialization and Development: A Comparative Analysis". UGL Press Limited: 25-26.
- ^ Digital History, Steven Mintz. "Was slavery the engine of economic growth? Digital History". Digitalhistory.uh.edu. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/con_economic.cfm. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ The Industrial Revolution by Pat Hudson, pg. 198. Books.google.com. 1992. ISBN 978-0-7131-6531-9. http://books.google.com/?id=Bh7HVl92bVMC&pg=PA194&lpg=PA194&dq=Industrial+Revolution,+slavery#PPA198,M1. Retrieved 2011-01-30.
- ^ The Royal Navy itself may have contributed to Britain's industrial growth. Among the first complex industrial manufacturing processes to arise in Britain were those that produced material for British warships. For instance, the average warship of the period used roughly 1000 pulley fittings. With a fleet as large as the Royal Navy, and with these fittings needing to be replaced ever 4 to 5 years, this created a great demand which encouraged industrial expansion. The industrial manufacture of rope can also be see as a similar factor.
- ^ Barrington Moore, Jr., Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World, pp. 29-30, Boston, Beacon Press, 1966.
- ^ E A Wrigley, Continuity chance and change.
- ^ Foster, Charles (2004). Capital and Innovation: How Britain Became the First Industrial Nation. Northwich: Arley Hall Press. ISBN 0-9518382-4-5. Argues that capital accumulation and wealth concentration in an entrepreneurial culture following the commercial revolution made the industrial revolution possible, for example.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Industrial revolution |
- Industrial Revolution at the Open Directory Project
- Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution
- "The Day the World Took Off" Six part video series from the University of Cambridge tracing the question "Why did the Industrial Revolution begin when and where it did."
- BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution
- National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities
- Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living by Clark Nardinelli – the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell.
- Factory Workers in the Industrial Revolution
- Revolutionary Players website
- The Industrial Revolution --Articles, Video, Pictures, and Facts
- [1] The History of the Count House of Ding Dong Mine, Cornwall where Richard Trevithick carried out his first experiments with high pressure steam.
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"Indus" redirects here. For other uses, see Indus (disambiguation).
| Indus River | |
| Darya-e Sindh, Sindh, Sindhu, Abāsin, Hindu, Sengge Chu, Yìndù Hé | |
| River | |
 Satellite image of the Indus River basin in Southern Pakistan.
|
|
| Country | Pakistan (93%) India (5%) China (2%) |
|---|---|
| Tributaries | |
| - left | Zanskar, Chenab, Satluj |
| - right | Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul |
| Source | Confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers |
| - location | Tibetan Plateau, Tibet, China |
| Mouth | Sapta Sindhu |
| - location | Sindh, Pakistan |
| - elevation | 0 m (0 ft) |
| Length | 3,200 km (2,000 mi) approx. |
| Basin | 1,165,000 km2 (450,000 sq mi) approx. |
| Discharge | for Arabian Sea |
| - average | 6,600 m3/s (230,000 cu ft/s) approx. |
The Indus River (Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: دریائے سندھ Daryā-e Sindh; Hindi: सिन्धु नदी Sindhu; Sindhi: سنڌو Sindhu; Punjabi: سندھ Sindh; Gujarati: સિંધુ નદી Sindhu; Pashto: اباسين Abāsin "Father of Rivers"; Persian: رود سند Rūd-e Sind; Arabic: السند Al-Sind; Tibetan: སེང་གེ།་གཙང་པོ Sênggê Zangbo "Lion River"; Greek: Ινδός Indós; Turki: Nilab) is a major river which flows through Pakistan. It has courses through western Tibet (in China) and Northern India.
Originating in the Tibetan plateau in the vicinity of Lake Mansarovar, the river runs a course through the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir, Gilgit, Baltistan and flows through Pakistan in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan to merge into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. The total length of the river is 3,180 km (1,980 mi). It is Pakistan's longest river.
The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 km2 (450,000 sq mi). Its estimated annual flow stands at around 207 km3 (50 cu mi), making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in terms of annual flow. Zanskar is its left bank tributary in Ladakh. In the plains, its left bank tributary is Chenab which itself has four major tributaries, namely, Jhelum, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. Its principal right bank tributaries are Shyok, Gilgit, Kabul, Gomal and Kurram. Beginning at the heights of the world in a spring and fed with glaciers and rivers in the Himalayas, the river supports ecosystems of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
The Indus forms the delta of Pakistan mentioned in the Vedic Rig Veda as Sapta Sindhu and the Iranic Zend Avesta as Hapta Hindu (both sets of terms meaning Seven Rivers). The river has been a source of wonder during the Classical Period. King Darius of Persia sent Scylax of Caryanda to explore the river in 510 BCE.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
The Sanskrit word Sindhu means river, stream or ocean, probably from a root sidh meaning to keep off. Sindhu is still the local appellation for the Indus River.
In the Rigveda Sindhu is the name of the Indus river. Sindhu is attested 176 times in the Rigveda, 95 times in the plural, more often used in the generic meaning. In the Rigveda, notably in the later hymns, the meaning of the word is narrowed to refer to the Indus river in particular, for example in the list of rivers of the Nadistuti sukta. This resulted in the anomaly of a river with masculine gender: all other Rigvedic rivers are female, not just grammatically, being imagined as goddesses and compared to cows and mares yielding milk and butter.
The word Sindhu became Hindu in Old Persian. Ancient Greek: Ἰνδός Indós (borrowed in turn into Latin as Indus) is a borrowing of the Old Iranian word.[1] The name Indos is used in Megasthenes's book Indica for the mighty river crossed by Alexander based on Nearchus's contemporaneous account.
The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians (present-day India beyond the Indus River) as Indoi (Ινδοί), the people of the Indus.[1][2]
Description[link]
The Indus River provides key water resources for the economy of Pakistan - especially the Breadbasket of Punjab province, which accounts for most of the nation's agricultural production, and Sindh. The word Punjab means "water of five rivers" and the five rivers are Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all of which finally merge in Indus. Indus river also supports many heavy industries and provides the main supply of potable water in Pakistan.
The ultimate source of the Indus is in Tibet; it begins at the confluence of the Sengge and Gar rivers that drain the Nganglong Kangri and Gangdise Shan mountain ranges. The Indus then flows northwest through Ladakh and Baltistan into Gilgit, just south of the Karakoram range. The Shyok, Shigar and Gilgit rivers carry glacial waters into the main river. It gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between Peshawar and Rawalpindi. The Indus passes gigantic gorges 4,500-5,200 m (15,000-17,000 feet) deep near the Nanga Parbat massif. It flows swiftly across Hazara and is dammed at the Tarbela Reservoir. The Kabul river joins it near Attock. The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the Punjab and Sindh and the flow of the river becomes slow and highly braided. It is joined by Panjnad River at Mithankot. Beyond this confluence, the river, at one time, was named Satnad River (Sat = seven, Nadi = river), as the river was now carrying the waters of the Kabul River, the Indus River and the five Punjab rivers. Passing by Jamshoro, it ends in a large delta to the east of Thatta.
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a tidal bore. The Indus system is largely fed by the snows and glaciers of the Himalayas, Karakoram and the Hindu Kush ranges of Tibet, the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir and the Northern Areas of Pakistan respectively. The flow of the river is also determined by the seasons - it diminishes greatly in the winter, while flooding its banks in the monsoon months from July to September. There is also evidence of a steady shift in the course of the river since prehistoric times - it deviated westwards from flowing into the Rann of Kutch and adjoining Banni grasslands after the 1816 earthquake.[3][4]
The traditional source of the river is the Senge Khabab or 'Lion's Mouth', a perennial spring, not far from the sacred Mount Kailash, and is marked by a long low line of Tibetan chortens. There are several other tributaries nearby which may possibly form a longer stream than Senge Khabab, but unlike the Senger Khabab, are all dependent on snowmelt. The Zanskar River which flows into the Indus in Ladakh has a greater volume of water than the Indus itself before that point.[5]
- "That night in the tent [next to Senge Khabab] I ask Sonmatering which of the Indus tributaries which we crossed this morning is the longest. All of them, he says, start at least a day's walk away from here. The Bukhar begins near the village of Yagra. The Lamolasay's source is in a holy place: there is a monastery there. The Dorjungla is a very difficult and long walk, three days perhaps, and there are many sharp rocks; but it its water is clear and blue, hence the tributary's other name, Zom-chu, which Karma Lama translates as 'Blue Water'. The Rakmajang rises from a dark lake called the Black Sea.
- One of the longest tributaries — and thus a candidate for the river's technical source — is the Kla-chu, the river we crossed yesterday by bridge. Also known as the Lungdep Chu, it flows into the Indus from the south-east, and rises a day's walk from Darchen. But Sonamtering insists that the Dorjungla is the longest of the 'three types of water' that fall into the Seng Tsanplo ['Lion River' or Indus]."[5]
History[link]
File:Indus sites.png
Indus Valley archaeological sites
Paleolithic sites have been discovered in Pothohar near Pakistan's capital Islamabad, with the stone tools of the Soan Culture. In ancient Gandhara, near Islamabad, evidence of cave dwellers dated 15,000 years ago has been discovered at Mardan.[citation needed]
The major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world. The Indus Valley Civilization extended from across Pakistan and northwest India, with an upward reach from east of Jhelum River to Ropar on the upper Sutlej. The coastal settlements extended from Sutkagan Dor at the Pakistan, Iran border to kutch in easternmost Pakistan. There is an Indus site on the Amu Darya at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, and the Indus site Alamgirpur at the Hindon River is located only 28 km from Delhi. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra River and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Lothal, Dholavira, Ganeriwala, and Rakhigarhi. Only 90-96 of the over-800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. The Sutlej, now a tributary of the Indus, in Harappan times flowed into the Ghaggar-Hakra River, in the watershed of which were more Harappan sites than along the Indus.
Most scholars believe that settlements of Gandhara grave culture of the early Indo-Aryans flourished in Gandhara from 1700 BC to 600 BC, when Mohenjo-daro and Harappa had already been abandoned.
The word "India" is derived from the Indus River. In ancient times, "India" initially referred to the regions along the eastern banks of the Indus river but, by 300 BCE, Greek writers like Megasthenes applied the term to the subcontinent which extends further eastward.[6]
The Indus has formed a natural boundary between the Indian subcontinent and its frontier with the Iranian Plateau, a region which includes Pakistan's Balochistan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as well as Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Iran. It has been crossed by the armies of Alexander the Great - His Macedonian forces retreated along the southern course of the river at the end of the Asian campaign after conquering what is now Pakistan and joining it to the Hellenic Empire. The Indus plains have also been under the domination of the Persian empire and the Kushan empire. The Muslim armies of Muhammad bin Qasim, Mahmud of Ghazni, Mohammed Ghori, Tamerlane and Babur also crossed the river to strike into the inner regions of Punjab and further southeast.
Geography[link]
Tributaries[link]
- Nagar River
- Astor River
- Balram River
- Dras River
- Gar River
- Ghizar River
- Gilgit River
- Gumal River
- Kabul River
- Kurram River
- Panjnad River
- Shigar River
- Shyok River
- Sohan River
- Tanubal River
- Zanskar River
Geology[link]
The Indus river feeds the Indus submarine fan, which is the second largest sediment body on the Earth at around 5 million cubic kilometres of material eroded from the mountains. Studies of the sediment in the modern river indicate that the Karakoram Mountains in northern Pakistan and India are the single most important source of material, with the Himalayas providing the next largest contribution, mostly via the large rivers of the Punjab (Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas and Sutlej). Analysis of sediments from the Arabian Sea has demonstrated that prior to five million years ago the Indus was not connected to these Punjab rivers which instead flowed east into the Ganges and were captured after that time.[7] Earlier work showed that sand and silt from western Tibet was reaching the Arabian Sea by 45 million years ago, implying the existence of an ancient Indus River by that time.[8] The delta of this proto-Indus river has subsequently been found in the Katawaz Basin, on the Afghan-Pakistan border.
In the Nanga Parbat region, the massive amounts of erosion due to the Indus river following the capture and rerouting through that area is thought to bring middle and lower crustal rocks to the surface.[9]
Wildlife[link]
Accounts of the Indus valley from the times of Alexander's campaign indicate a healthy forest cover in the region, which has now considerably receded. The Mughal Emperor Babur writes of encountering rhinoceroses along its bank in his memoirs (the Baburnama). Extensive deforestation and human interference in the ecology of the Shivalik Hills has led to a marked deterioration in vegetation and growing conditions. The Indus valley regions are arid with poor vegetation. Agriculture is sustained largely due to irrigation works.
The blind Indus River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica minor) is a sub-species of dolphin found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. According to the World Wildlife Fund claims it is one of the most threatened cetaceans with only about 1000 still existing.[10]
Palla fish (Hilsa) of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river. The population of fishes in the river is moderately high, with Sukkur, Thatta and Kotri being the major fishing centres - all in the lower Sindh course. But damming and irrigation has made fish farming an important economic activity. Located southeast of Karachi, the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions. Here the river turns into many marshes, streams and creeks and meets the sea at shallow levels. Here marine fishes are found in abundance, including pomfret and prawns.
Economy[link]
The Indus is the most important supplier of water resources to the Punjab and Sindh plains - it forms the backbone of agriculture and food production in Pakistan. The river is especially critical as rainfall is meagre in the lower Indus valley. Irrigation canals were first built by the people of the Indus valley civilization, and later by the engineers of the Kushan Empire and the Mughal Empire. Modern irrigation was introduced by the British East India Company in 1850 - the construction of modern canals accompanied with the restoration of old canals. The British supervised the construction of one of the most complex irrigation networks in the world. The Guddu Barrage is 1,350 m (4,430 ft) long - irrigating Sukkur, Jacobabad, Larkana and Kalat. The Sukkur Barrage serves over 20,000 km2 (7,700 sq mi).
After Pakistan came into existence, a water control treaty signed between India and Pakistan in 1960 guaranteed that Pakistan would receive water from the Indus River and its two western tributaries, the Jhelum River & the Chenab River independent of upstream control by India.[11] The project, Indus Basin Project, consisted primarily of the construction of two main dams, the Mangala Dam built on the Jhelum River and the Tarbela Dam constructed on the Indus River, together with their subsidiary dams.[12] The Pakistan Water and Power Development Authority undertook the construction of the Chashma-Jhelum link canal - linking the waters of the Indus and Jhelum rivers - extending water supplies to the regions of Bahawalpur and Multan. Pakistan constructed the Tarbela Dam near Rawalpindi - standing 2743 metres (9,000 ft) long and 143 metres (470 ft) high, with an 80-kilometre (50 mi) long reservoir. The Kotri Barrage near Hyderabad is 915 metres (3,000 ft) long and provides additional supplies for Karachi. The Taunsa Barrage near Dera Ghazi Khan produces 100,000 kilowatts of electricity. The extensive linking of tributaries with the Indus has helped spread water resources to the valley of Peshawar, in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The extensive irrigation and dam projects provide the basis for Pakistan's large production of crops such as cotton, sugarcane and wheat. The dams also generate electricity for heavy industries and urban centres.
People[link]
The inhabitants of the regions through which the Indus river passes and forms a major natural feature and resource are diverse in ethnicity, religion, national and linguistic backgrounds. On the northern course of the river in the state of Jammu and Kashmir in India, live the Buddhist people of Ladakh, of Tibetan stock, and the Dards of Indo-Aryan or Dardic stock and practising Buddhism and Islam. Then it descends into Baltistan, northern Pakistan passing the main Balti city of Skardu. As it continues through Pakistan, the Indus river forms a distinctive boundary of ethnicity and cultures - upon the western banks the population is largely Pashtun, Baloch, and of other Iranic stock, with close cultural, economic and ethnic ties to eastern Afghanistan and parts of Iran. The eastern banks are largely populated by peoples of Indo-Aryan stock, such as the Punjabis and the Sindhis. In northern Punjab and the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, ethnic Pashtun tribes live alongside Dardic people in the hills (Khowar, Kalash, Shina, etc.), Burushos (in Hunza), and Punjabi people.In the province of Sindh, peoples of Sindhi backgrounds form the local populations. Upon the western banks of the river live the Baloch and Pashtun peoples of Balochistan.
Modern issues[link]
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This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability. |
The Indus is a strategically vital resource for Pakistan's economy and society. After India became independent in 1947 and Pakistan came into existence in 1947, the use of the waters of the Indus and its five eastern tributaries became a major dispute between India and Pakistan. The irrigation canals of the Sutlej valley and the Bari Doab were split - with the canals lying primarily in Pakistan and the headwork dams in India disrupting supply in some parts of Pakistan. The concern over India building large dams over various Punjab rivers that could undercut the supply flowing to Pakistan, as well as the possibility that India could divert rivers in the time of war, caused political consternation in Pakistan. Holding diplomatic talks brokered by the World Bank, India and Pakistan signed the Indus Waters Treaty in 1960. The treaty gave India control of the three easternmost rivers of the Punjab, the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi, while Pakistan gained control of the three western rivers, the Jhelum, the Chenab and the Indus. India retained the right to use of the western rivers for non-irrigation projects. (See discussion regarding a recent dispute about a hydroelectric project on the Chenab (not Indus) known as the Baglihar Project).
There are concerns that extensive deforestation, industrial pollution and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. There are also concerns that the Indus river may be shifting its course westwards - although the progression spans centuries. On numerous occasions, sediment clogging owing to poor maintenance of canals has affected agricultural production and vegetation. In addition, extreme heat has caused water to evaporate, leaving salt deposits that render lands useless for cultivation.
Recently, India's construction of dams on the river, which Pakistan claims is in violation of the Indus Waters Treaty reducing water flow into Pakistan, has caused Pakistan to take the issue to the international courts for arbitration.
Effects of climate change on the river[link]
The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of the China Meteorological Administration, said the recent fast pace of melting and warmer temperatures will be good for agriculture and tourism in the short term, but issued a strong warning:
"Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world... In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows.. In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines of the Indus River. Once they vanish, water supplies in Pakistan will be in peril."[13]
"There is [sic] insufficient data to say what will happen to the Indus," says David Grey, the World Bank's senior water advisor in South Asia. "But we all have very nasty fears that the flows of the Indus could be severely, severely affected by glacier melt as a consequence of climate change," and reduced by perhaps as much as 50 percent. "Now what does that mean to a population that lives in a desert [where], without the river, there would be no life? I don't know the answer to that question," he says. "But we need to be concerned about that. Deeply, deeply concerned."[14]
2010 floods[link]
Main article: 2010 Pakistan floods
In July 2010, following abnormally heavy monsoon rains, the Indus River rose above its banks and started flooding. The rain continued for the next two months, devastating large areas of Pakistan. In Sindh, the Indus burst its banks near Sukkur on 8 August, submerging the village of Mor Khan Jatoi.[15] In early August, the heaviest flooding moved southward along the Indus River from severely affected northern regions toward western Punjab, where at least 1,400,000 acres (570,000 ha) of cropland was destroyed, and the southern province of Sindh.[16] As of September 2010[update], over two thousand people have died[17] and over a million homes have been destroyed since the flooding began.[18]
See also[link]
- Sindhu Darshan Festival
- 1974 Hunza earthquake
- Chura Sharif
- HMS Indus, ships named after the Indus River
- Indus Valley Civilization
- Indus Waters Treaty
- Sindhology
Notes[link]
- ^ a b Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ 70% of cattle-breeders desert Banni; by Narandas Thacker, TNN, 14 February 2002; The Times of India
- ^ Lost and forgotten: grasslands and pastoralists of Gujarat; by Charul Bharwada and Vinay Mahajan; The forsaken drylands; a symposium on some of India's most invisible people; Seminar; New Delhi; 2006; NUMB 564, pages 35-39; ISSN 0037-1947, Listed at the British Library Online
- ^ a b Albinia (2008), p. 307.
- ^ Henry Yule: India, Indies. In Hobson-Jobson: A glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New ed. edited by William Crooke, B.A. London: J. Murray, 1903
- ^ Clift, Peter D.; Blusztajn, Jerzy (December 15, 2005). "Reorganization of the western Himalayan river system after five million years ago". Nature 438 (7070): 1001–1003. DOI:10.1038/nature04379. PMID 16355221.
- ^ Clift, Peter D.; Shimizu, N.; Layne, G.D.; Blusztajn, J.S.; Gaedicke, C.; Schlüter, H.-U.; Clark, M.K.; and Amjad, S. (August 2001). "Development of the Indus Fan and its significance for the erosional history of the Western Himalaya and Karakoram". GSA Bulletin 113 (8): 1039–1051. DOI:10.1130/0016-7606(2001)113<1039:DOTIFA>2.0.CO;2.
- ^ Zeitler, Peter K.; Koons, Peter O.; Bishop, Michael P.; Chamberlain, C. Page; Craw, David; Edwards, Michael A.; Hamidullah, Syed; Jam, Qasim M.; Kahn, M. Asif; Khattak, M. Umar Khan; Kidd, William S. F.; Mackie, Randall L.; Meltzer, Anne S.; Park, Stephen K.; Pecher, Arnaud; Poage, Michael A.; Sarker, Golam; Schneider, David A.; Seeber, Leonardo; and Shroder, John F. (October 2001). "Crustal reworking at Nanga Parbat, Pakistan: Metamorphic consequences of thermal-mechanical coupling facilitated by erosion". Tectonics 20 (5): 712–728. DOI:10.1029/2000TC001243.
- ^ [1]
- ^ "Tarabela Dam". www.structurae.the cat in the hat. http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0003769. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
- ^ "Indus Basin Project". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-286834/Indus-Basin-project. Retrieved 2007-07-09.
- ^ Global warming benefits to Tibet: Chinese official. Reported 18 August 2009.
- ^ Pulitzercenter.org
- ^ Bodeen, Christopher (8 August 2010). "Asia flooding plunges millions into misery". Associated Press. http://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jLQ5AssQ1MzPfWcFQRV8ZeJhjctQD9HFBA400. Retrieved 8 August 2010.
- ^ Guerin, Orla (7 August 2010). "Pakistan issues flooding 'red alert' for Sindh province". British Broadcasting Corporation. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10900947. Retrieved 7 August 2010.
- ^ "BBC News - Pakistan floods: World Bank to lend $900m for recovery". bbc.co.uk. 2010-08-17. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10994989. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
- ^ "BBC News - Millions of Pakistan children at risk of flood diseases". bbc.co.uk. 2010-08-16. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-10984477. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
References[link]
- Albinia, Alice. (2008) Empires of the Indus: The Story of a River. First American Edition (20101) W. W. Norton & Company, New York. ISBN 978-0-393-33860-7.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. - World Atlas, Millennium Edition, pg 265.
- Jean Fairley, "The Lion River", Karachi, 1978
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Indus River |
- Blankonthemap The Northern Kashmir WebSite
- Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library
- Northern Areas Development Gateway
- The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project
- Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)
- Indus Treaty
- Baglihar Dam issue
- Indus
- Indus Wildlife
- First raft and kayak descents of the Indus headwaters in Tibet
- Pulitzer Center on Crisis Reporting's project on water issues in South Asia
Coordinates: 24°18′43″N 67°45′49″E / 24.312059°N 67.763672°E / 24.312059; 67.763672 (Mouth of the Indus)
http://wn.com/Indus_River
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Indus
http://es.wn.com/Río Indo
http://ru.wn.com/Инд
http://cs.wn.com/Indus
http://pt.wn.com/Rio Indo
http://pl.wn.com/Indus
http://hi.wn.com/सिन्धु नदी
http://it.wn.com/Indo
http://id.wn.com/Sungai Indus
http://nl.wn.com/Indus (rivier)
http://fr.wn.com/Indus
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_River
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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This article relies on references to primary sources or sources affiliated with the subject, rather than references from independent authors and third-party publications. Please add citations from reliable sources. (May 2009) |
| Syed Zaid Zaman Hamid Urdu: سید زید الزمان حامد | |
|---|---|
| Born | (1964-03-14) March 14, 1964 (age 48) |
| Residence | Rawalpindi |
| Nationality | Pakistan |
| Other names | Syed Zaid Zaman Hamid |
| Occupation | Security Consultant & Political commentator |
| Known for | BrassTacks TV Series & Leader: Takmeel-e-Pakistan Movement |
| Religion | Islam |
| Website | |
| Official Site Profile Page |
|
Syed Zaiduzzaman Hamid, better known as Zaid Hamid, is a Pakistani security consultant and political commentator.[1][2] His byline in newspaper articles has been Zaid Zaman.[2]
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
Zaid was born in Karachi, in 1964. His father, Col. Zaman Hamid (Retd), served in the Pakistan Army. Zaid spent his early life in Karachi. He received a Bachelor of Engineering (BE) degree in Computer Systems Engineering from NED University, Karachi in 1980's.[3]
Political views[link]
Through his TV programmes, Hamid has claimed that a nexus between India's RAW, the CIA and is responsible for the destabilization of Pakistan. He also claims that the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, were part of a plan hatched by "Hindu Zionists"", and that it was an attempt by the Indians to stage an attack just like the Americans executed the September 11 attacks.[1][2][4][3]
Criticism[link]
A number of noted Pakistani journalists, writers and Islamic scholars[5] have criticized Hamid and have described his views on politics and security as conspiracy theories.[6][7][8][9]
References[link]
- ^ a b Pak TV channel says 26/11 hatched by Hindu Zionists, Times of India
- ^ a b Hate speech -- II: The Pakistan report card
- ^ NED Alumni page on WikiPakistan
- ^ "Educated and radical: Why Pakistan produces Faisal Shahzads". http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-Central/2010/0510/Educated-and-radical-Why-Pakistan-produces-Faisal-Shahzads. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
- ^ Zaid Hamid Ki Haqeeqat
- ^ Clear and present danger - Gul Bukhari
- ^ Smokers' Corner: Nauseous mumblings - Nadeem F. Paracha
- ^ [1]
- ^ Will the real Zaid Hamid please stand up - Express Tribune
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hamid, Zaid |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | March 14, 1964 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Zaid_Hamid
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaid_Hamid
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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