Luxembourg (
i/ˈlʌksəmbɜrɡ/ LUKS-əm-burg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland ("good country") in the south.[4] Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi).[5] A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a grand duke. It is now the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the world's highest GDP (nominal) per capita according to the IMF. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish Road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries.
Luxembourg is a member of the European Union, NATO, OECD, the United Nations, and Benelux, reflecting the political consensus in favour of economic, political, and military integration. The city of Luxembourg, the largest and capital city, is the seat of several institutions and agencies of the EU.
Luxembourg culture is a mix of Romance Europe and Germanic Europe, borrowing customs from each of the distinct traditions. Luxembourg is a trilingual country; German, French and Luxembourgish are official languages. Although a secular state, Luxembourg is predominantly Roman Catholic.
The recorded history of Luxembourg begins with the acquisition of Lucilinburhuc [7] (today Luxembourg Castle) situated on the Bock rock by Siegfried, Count of Ardennes in 963 through an exchange act with the abbey of St Maximin in Trier.[8] Around this fort, a town gradually developed, which became the centre of a small state of great strategic value. In the 14th and early 15th centuries three members of the House of Luxembourg reigned as Holy Roman Emperors. In 1437, the House of Luxembourg suffered a succession crisis, precipitated by the lack of a male heir to assume the throne, which led to the territory being sold by Duchess Elisabeth to Philip the Good of Burgundy.[9]
In the following centuries, Luxembourg's fortress was steadily enlarged and strengthened by its successive occupants, the Bourbons, Habsburgs, Hohenzollerns, and the French, among others. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Luxembourg was disputed between Prussia and the Netherlands. The Congress of Vienna formed Luxembourg as a Grand Duchy in personal union with the Netherlands. Luxembourg also became a member of the German Confederation, with a Confederate fortress manned by Prussian troops.[10]
The Belgian Revolution of 1830–1839 reduced Luxembourg's territory by more than half, as the predominantly francophone western part of the country was transferred to Belgium. Luxembourg's independence was reaffirmed by the 1839 First Treaty of London. In the same year, Luxembourg joined the Zollverein.[11] Luxembourg's independence and neutrality were again affirmed by the 1867 Second Treaty of London, after the Luxembourg Crisis nearly led to war between Prussia and France.[12] After the latter conflict, the Confederate fortress was dismantled.[13]
The King of the Netherlands remained Head of State as Grand Duke of Luxembourg, maintaining personal union between the two countries until 1890. At the death of William III, the Dutch throne passed to his daughter Wilhelmina, while Luxembourg (at that time restricted to male heirs by the Nassau Family Pact) passed to Adolph of Nassau-Weilburg.[14]
During World War I Luxembourg was invaded and occupied by Germany, but was allowed to maintain its independence and political mechanisms.
During World War II, Luxembourg was unable to maintain its policy of neutrality when in 1940 Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the country, due to its strategic location on the invasion route into France. In contrast to the First World War experience, Luxembourg was treated as a Germanic territory and informally annexed to an adjacent province of the Third Reich in 1940. A government in exile based in London fought alongside the Allies, sending a small group of volunteers who participated in the Normandy invasion. Luxembourg was liberated in September 1944. It became a founding member of the United Nations in 1946, and of NATO in 1949.
In 1957, Luxembourg became one of the six founding countries of the European Economic Community (later the European Union), and, in 1999, it joined the euro currency era. In 2005, a referendum on the EU treaty establishing a constitution for Europe was held in Luxembourg.[15]
Luxembourg is a parliamentary democracy headed by a constitutional monarch. Under the constitution of 1868, executive power is exercised by the Grand Duke and the cabinet, which consists of several other ministers.[16] The Grand Duke has the power to dissolve the legislature, in which case new elections must be held within three months. However, since 1919, sovereignty has resided with the Nation, exercised by the Grand Duke in accordance with the Constitution and the law.[17]
Legislative power is vested in the Chamber of Deputies, a unicameral legislature of sixty members, who are directly elected to five-year terms from four constituencies. A second body, the Council of State (Conseil d'État), composed of twenty-one ordinary citizens appointed by the Grand Duke, advises the Chamber of Deputies in the drafting of legislation.[18]
The Grand Duchy has three lower tribunals (justices de paix; in Esch-sur-Alzette, the city of Luxembourg, and Diekirch), two district tribunals (Luxembourg and Diekirch) and a Superior Court of Justice (Luxembourg), which includes the Court of Appeal and the Court of Cassation. There is also an Administrative Tribunal and an Administrative Court, as well as a Constitutional Court, all of which are located in the capital.
Luxembourg is divided into 3 districts, which are further divided into 12 cantons and then 116 communes. Twelve of the communes have city status, of which the city of Luxembourg is the largest.
The districts are Diekirch, Grevenmacher, and Luxembourg.
Luxembourg has long been a prominent supporter of European political and economic integration. In efforts foreshadowing European integration, Luxembourg and Belgium in 1921 formed the Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union (BLEU) to create an inter-exchangeable currency and a common customs regime. Luxembourg is a member of the Benelux Economic Union and was one of the founding members of the European Economic Community (now the European Union). It also participates in the Schengen Group (named after the Luxembourg village of Schengen where the agreements were signed), whose goal is the free movement of citizens among member states. At the same time, the majority of Luxembourgers have consistently believed that European unity makes sense only in the context of a dynamic transatlantic relationship, and thus have traditionally pursued a pro-NATO, pro-US foreign policy.
Luxembourg is the site of the European Court of Justice, the European Court of Auditors, the Statistical Office of the European Communities ("Eurostat") and other vital EU organs. The Secretariat of the European Parliament is located in Luxembourg, but the Parliament usually meets in nearby Strasbourg.
A NATO owned AWACS aircraft.
The contribution Luxembourg makes to its defense and to NATO consists of a small army (currently consisting of around 800 people). As a landlocked country, it has no navy.
Luxembourg also lacks an air force, though the seventeen NATO AWACS aeroplanes are for convenience registered as aircraft of Luxembourg.[19] In accordance with a joint agreement with Belgium, both countries have put forth funding for one A400M military cargo plane, currently on order.
Luxembourg is one of the smallest countries in Europe, and ranked 170th in size of all the 194 independent countries of the world; the country is about 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi) in size, and measures 82 km (51 mi) long and 57 km (35 mi) wide. It lies between latitudes 49° and 51° N, and longitudes 5° and 7° E.
To the east, Luxembourg borders the German Bundesländer of Rhineland-Palatinate and Saarland, and, to the south, it borders the French région of Lorraine. The Grand Duchy borders the Belgian Walloon Region, in particular the latter's provinces of Luxembourg and Liège, part of which comprises the German-speaking Community of Belgium, to the west and to the north respectively.
The northern third of the country is known as the 'Oesling', and forms part of the Ardennes. It is dominated by hills and low mountains, including the Kneiff near Wilwerdange,[20] which is the highest point, at 560 metres (1,837 ft). Other mountains are the 'Buurgplaaz' at 559 metres near Huldange and the 'Napoléonsgaard' at 548 metres near Rambrouch. The region is sparsely populated, with only one town (Wiltz) with a population of more than four thousand people.
The southern two-thirds of the country is called the "Gutland", and is more densely populated than the Oesling. It is also more diverse, and can be divided into five geographic sub-regions. The Luxembourg plateau, in south-central Luxembourg, is a large, flat, sandstone formation, and the site of the city of Luxembourg. Little Switzerland, in the east of Luxembourg, has craggy terrain and thick forests. The Moselle valley is the lowest-lying region, running along the southeastern border. The Red Lands, in the far south and southwest, are Luxembourg's industrial heartland and home to many of Luxembourg's largest towns.
The border between Luxembourg and Germany is formed by three rivers: the Moselle, the Sauer, and the Our. Other major rivers are the Alzette, the Attert, the Clerve, and the Wiltz. The valleys of the mid-Sauer and Attert form the border between the Gutland and the Oesling.
Luxembourg has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb), marked by high precipitation, particularly in late summer.[21]
Graphical depiction of Luxembourg's product exports in 28 color coded categories.
Luxembourg has been part of the
eurozone since 1999.
Luxembourg's stable, high-income economy features moderate growth, low inflation, and low unemployment. It is ranked second richest country in the world with a per capita GDP on a purchasing-power parity (PPP) basis of $81,466 (in a new list compiled by US-based Forbes magazine).[citation needed]
The industrial sector, which was dominated until the 1960s by steel, has diversified to include chemicals, rubber, and other products. During the past decades, growth in the financial sector has more than compensated for the decline in steel. Services, especially banking and other financial exports, account for the majority of economic output. Luxembourg is the world's second largest investment fund center (after the United States), the most important private banking center in the Eurozone and Europe's leading center for reinsurance companies. Moreover, the Luxembourgish government has tried to attract internet start-ups. Skype and Amazon are two of the many internet companies that have shifted their regional headquarters to Luxembourg.
Concern about Luxembourg's banking secrecy laws, and its reputation as a tax haven, led in April 2009 to it being added to a "grey list" of nations with questionable banking arrangements by the G20. Luxembourg adapted some months later the OECD standards on exchange of information and moved into the category of 'Jurisdictions that have substantially implemented the internationally agreed tax standard.'[22][23] In March 2010, the Sunday Telegraph reported that most of Kim Jong-Il's $4bn in secret accounts is in Luxembourg banks.[24]
Agriculture is based on small, family-owned farms.
Luxembourg has especially close trade and financial ties to Belgium and the Netherlands (see Benelux), and as a member of the EU it enjoys the advantages of the open European market.
Luxembourg possesses second highest GDP per capita in the world (US$80,119 as of 2011),[25] the 24th highest Human Development Index, and the 4th highest rated in the quality of life index.[26]
As of March 2006, unemployment is 4.8% of the labor force.[27]
In the fiscal year of 2005 and 2006, Luxembourg ran a budget deficit for the first time in many years, mostly because of slower international economic growth.[28]
With $138 billion (February 2012), the country ranks tenth in the world in holdings of U.S. Treasury securities.[29] The ranking is however imperfect as some foreign owners entrust the safekeeping of their securities to institutions that are neither in the United States nor in the owner's country of residence.[30]
The Economist forecasts negligible GDP growth for 2012.[31]
Luxembourg has efficient road, rail and air transport facilities and services. The road network has been significantly modernized in recent years with 147 km of motorways connecting the capital to adjacent countries. The advent of the high-speed TGV link to Paris has led to renovation of the city's railway station while a new passenger terminal at Luxembourg Airport has opened some years ago. There are plans to introduce trams in the capital and light-rail lines in adjacent areas within the next few years.
The number of cars per 1000 persons amount to 680.1 in Luxembourg — only British overseas territory Gibraltar and the Principality of Monaco scoring higher.[32]
The telecommunications industry in Luxembourg is liberalized and the electronic communications networks are significantly developed. Competition between the different operators is guaranteed by the legislative framework Paquet Telecom[33] of the Government of 2005 which transposes the European Telecom Directives into Luxembourgean law. This encourages the investment in networks and services. The regulator ILR – Institut Luxembourgeois de Régulation[34] ensures the compliance to these legal rules
Luxembourg has modern and widely deployed optical fibre and cable networks throughout the country. With its central position in Europe, stable economy and low taxes, Luxembourg is an ideal gateway to the European telecommunication markets.[35][36][37]
It ranks 2nd in the world in the development of the Information and Communication Technologies in the ITU ICT Development Index and 8th in the Global Broadband Quality Study 2009 by the University of Oxford and the University of Oviedo.[38][39][40][41]
Luxembourg is connected to all major European Internet Exchanges (AMS-IX Amsterdam, DE-CIX Frankfurt, LINX London), datacenters and POPs through redundant optical networks.[42][43][44][45][46] In addition, the country is connected to the virtual meetme room services (vmmr)[47] of the international data hub operator Ancotel.[48] This enables Luxembourg to interconnect with all major telecommunication operators[49] and data carriers worldwide. The interconnection points are in Frankfurt, London, New York and Hong Kong.[50]
Several providers interconnect Luxembourg to the major European data hubs
- Teralink[51] (P&TLuxembourg, also called EPT Luxembourg: incumbent operator)[52]
- LuxConnect[53] (shareholder : Government) LuxConnect tested the 100G coherent transmission of data signals between Luxembourg and Amsterdam in June 2011.[54]
- Artelis/Cegecom[55] (alternative telecommunications provider in Luxembourg and Saarland)
- Satellite connectivity – Teleports (SES),[56] Broadcasting Center Europe[57] and P&T Luxembourg Teleport.[58] [59] [60]
Luxembourg is connected through an optical DWDM network, called Teralink[61] to several Tier 1 upstream providers like Level3 and Global Crossing. Teralink offers connectivities up to 100 Gbit/s. P&TLuxembourg established a coherent 100Gbit/s IP connection between Frankfurt and Luxembourg with live traffic in 2011 .[62][63][64][65]
The Internet IPV6 protocol has been introduced to the country by Restena and P&T Luxembourg.[66]
Luxembourg has two Internet exchange points and one Carrier Ethernet Exchange points.
- LIX is a neutral Internet exchange operated by the RESTENA Foundation. Its aim is to easily interconnect the different Internet Service Providers (ISPs) within Luxembourg.[67]
- LUX-CIX is Luxembourg's neutral and commercial Internet Exchange Point which was founded in 2009 by Cegecom, Datacenter Luxembourg, Global Media Systems, INEXIO, LuxConnect, P&T Luxemboug and Root eSolutions. It offers a short, fast and efficient route to the major European Internet networks.[68][69]
- LEX is the Luxembourg Ethernet Exchange located in the Tier IV certified ebrc datacenter [70]
The online portal De Guichet[71] of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a single one-stop online shop for citizens and companies to realize different sorts of administrative steps (procedures, online forms, downloadable forms and advices) by Internet.[72]
PSA Peugeot Citroën, with P&T Luxembourg as its partner, has introduced an integrated mobile telecommunication solution for the development of its telematic services in Europe.[73][74]
More than 17 data centers[75][76][77] are operating in Luxembourg. The number is constantly growing. Two of the ebrc data centers are Tier IV classified & certificated.[78]
The people of Luxembourg are called Luxembourgers.[79] The immigrant population increased in the 20th century due to the arrival of immigrants from Belgium, France, Italy, Germany, and Portugal, with the majority coming from the last: in the 2001 census, there were 58,657 inhabitants with Portuguese nationality.[80]
Since the beginning of the Yugoslav wars, Luxembourg has seen many immigrants from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia. Annually, over 10,000 new immigrants arrive in Luxembourg, mostly from the EU states, as well and Eastern Europe. As of 2000, there were 162,000 immigrants in Luxembourg, accounting for 37% of the total population. There were an estimated 5,000 illegal immigrants, including asylum seekers, in Luxembourg as of 1999.[81]
Three languages are recognised as official in Luxembourg: French, German, and Luxembourgish, a Franconian language of the Moselle region that is also spoken in neighbouring parts of France and Germany. Though Luxembourgish is part of the West Central German group of High German languages, more than 5,000 words in the Luxembourgish have their origin in the French language.[82][83] The first printed sentences in Luxembourgish were released by the weekly journal the 'Luxemburger Wochenblatt' in the second edition of 14 April 1821.
Apart from being one of the three official languages, Luxembourgish is also considered the national language of the Grand Duchy; it is the mother tongue or "language of the heart" for nearly all Luxembourgers.[84]
Each of the three languages is used as the primary language in certain spheres. Luxembourgish is the language that Luxembourgers generally use to speak to each other, but it is not often used as the written language. Since the 1980s, an increasing number of novels have however been written in Luxembourgish. Most official (written) business is carried out in French. German is usually the first language taught in school and is the language of much of the media and of the church.[85]
Luxembourg's education system is trilingual: the first years of primary school are in Luxembourgish, before changing to German, while in secondary school, the language of instruction changes to French.[86] Proficiency in all three languages is required for graduation from secondary school, but half the students leave school without a certified qualification, with the children of immigrants being particularly disadvantaged.[87]
In addition to the three official languages, English is taught in the compulsory schooling and much of the population of Luxembourg can speak English, at any rate in Luxembourg City. Portuguese, the language of the largest immigrant community, is also spoken by large parts of the population, but by relatively few from outside their community.[88]
Luxembourg is a secular state, but the state recognises certain religions as officially mandated religions. This gives the state a hand in religious administration and appointment of clergy, in exchange for which the state pays certain running costs and wages. Currently, religions covered by such arrangements are Roman Catholicism, Judaism, Greek Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Russian Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Mennonitism and Islam.[89]
Since 1980 it has been illegal for the government to collect statistics on religious beliefs or practices.[90] An estimation by the CIA Factbook for the year 2000 is that 87% of Luxembourgers are Catholics, including the royal family, the remaining 13% being made up of Muslims, Protestants, Orthodox Christians, Jews, and those of other or no religion.[25]
According to a 2005 Eurobarometer poll,[91] 44% of Luxembourg citizens responded that "they believe there is a God", whereas 28% answered that "they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force" and 22% that "they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, god, or life force".
The University of Luxembourg is the only university in Luxembourg.
Luxembourg sells the most alcohol in Europe per capita.[92] However, the large proportion of alcohol purchased by customers from neighbouring countries contributes to the statistically high level of alcohol sales per capita; this level of alcohol sales is thus not representative of the actual alcohol consumption of the Luxembourg population.[93]
Luxembourg has been overshadowed by the culture of its neighbours, although, having been for much of its history a profoundly rural country, it retains a number of folk traditions. There are several notable museums, mostly located in the capital; these include the National Museum of History and Art (MNHA), the Luxembourg City History Museum, and the new Grand Duke Jean Museum of Modern Art (Mudam). The National Museum of Military History (MNHM) in Diekirch is especially known for its representations of the Battle of the Bulge. The city of Luxembourg itself is on the UNESCO World Heritage List, on account of the historical importance of its fortifications.[94]
The country has produced some internationally known artists, including the painters Théo Kerg, Joseph Kutter and Michel Majerus, as well as the photographer Edward Steichen. Steichen's The Family of Man exhibition is now permanently housed in Clervaux, and it has been placed on UNESCO's Memory of the World register. Movie star Loretta Young was of Luxembourgish descent.
Luxembourg was the first city to be named European Capital of Culture twice. The first time was in 1995. In 2007, the European Capital of Culture[95] was to be a cross-border area consisting of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, the Rheinland-Pfalz and Saarland in Germany, the Walloon Region and the German-speaking part of Belgium, and the Lorraine area in France. The event was an attempt to promote mobility and the exchange of ideas, crossing borders in all areas, physical, psychological, artistic and emotional.
Luxembourg was represented at the World Expo 2010 in Shanghai, China from 1 May to 31 October 2010 with its own pavilion.[96][97] The pavilion was based on the transliteration of the word Luxembourg into Chinese, "Lu Sen Bao", which means "Forest and Fortress". It represented Luxembourg as the "Green Heart in Europe".[98]
Unlike in most countries in Europe, sport in Luxembourg is not concentrated upon a particular national sport, but encompasses a number of sports, both team and individual. Despite the lack of a central sporting focus, over 100,000 people in Luxembourg, which has a total population of only 460,000, are licensed members of one sports federation or another.[99] The largest sports venue in the country is d'Coque, an indoor arena and Olympic swimming pool in Kirchberg, north-eastern Luxembourg City, which has a capacity of 8,300. The arena is used for basketball, handball, gymnastics, and volleyball, including the final of the 2007 Women's European Volleyball Championship. The largest, and national, stadium is the Stade Josy Barthel, in western Luxembourg City; named after the country's only official Olympic gold medallist, the stadium has a capacity of 8,054.
Andy Schleck and Frank Schleck are two famous professional cyclists for RadioShack-Nissan-Trek. They are best known as climbers who excel in the mountain stages of Grand Tours like the Tour de France.
Gilles Müller is a professional tennis player, Ranked No. 42 as of (3 October 2011), competing in the fourth round of the 2011 US Open.
Mandy Minella is a professional tennis player.
Luxembourg cuisine reflects Luxembourg's position on the border between the Latin and Germanic worlds, being heavily influenced by the cuisines of neighbouring France and Germany. More recently, it has had influence from its many Italian and Portuguese immigrants.
Most particularly native Luxembourgish dishes, consumed as the traditional daily fare, share roots in the Luxembourgish peasantry, similarly to German cuisine and in marked contrast to more sophisticated French.
Luxembourg is known in Europe for its radio and television stations (Radio Luxembourg, RTL Group). It is also the uplink home of SES, carrier of major European satellite services for Germany and Britain. An English language news service is also available from the Luxemburger Wort on the website: wort.lu
Due to the audiovisual law of 1988, which established a special tax regime for audiovisual investment, the film and co-production in Luxembourg has grown steadily.[100] There exists approximately 30 by agreed production companies in Luxembourg.[101]
|
Articles related to Luxembourg
|
|
|
|
|
| Institutions |
|
|
|
| Members |
|
|
1 Provisionally referred to by the Council of Europe as "the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia"; see Macedonia naming dispute.
|
|
|
|
|
| History |
|
|
| Guidelines |
|
|
| Members |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| By continent |
|
|
| By country |
|
|
| By type |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Empires |
|
|
|
| Kingdoms |
|
|
| Electorates |
|
|
| Grand Duchies |
|
|
| Duchies |
|
|
| Principalities |
|
|
| City-states |
|
|
Other territories
outside of the
confederacy |
|
|
- 1 w/o areas listed under other territories
- 2 Merged with Anhalt from 1863
- 3 until 1847
- 4 from 1839
- 5 from 1826
- 6 until 1826
- 7 until 1850
- 8 1849–60
- 9 as of 1849
- 10 until 1837
- 11 until 1829
- 12 until 1848/57
- 13 until 1848
- 14 as of 1848
- 15 as of 1829
- 16 as of 1864
|
|
|
|
- ^ Luxembourg- CIA World Factbook. 12 April 2012. Retrieved 9 May 2012
- ^ a b c d "Luxembourg". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=47&pr.y=10&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=137&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 19 April 2012.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2011". United Nations. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Everything you need to know about the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg". http://www.gouvernement.lu/publications/luxembourg/tout_savoir/Tout_savoir_EN_2010.pdf.
- ^ "Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table". Epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&language=en&pcode=tps00001&tableSelection=1&footnotes=yes&labeling=labels&plugin=1. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
- ^ "Emperor Charles IV elected Greatest Czech of all time". Radio Prague. 13 June 2005. http://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/emperor-charles-iv-elected-greatest-czech-of-all-time. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 20
- ^ "History of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg" (PDF). http://www.gouvernement.lu/publications/luxembourg/apropos_histoire/ap_histoire_2008_EN.pdf.
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 39
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 70
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 76
- ^ Kreins (2003), pp. 80–81
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 81
- ^ Kreins (2003), p. 84
- ^ Timeline: Luxembourg – A chronology of key events BBC News Online, 9 September 2006. Retrieved 8 October 2006.
- ^ "The Luxembourgish government since 1848 (in French)". http://www.gouvernement.lu/publications/gouvernement/gouvernements_depuis_1848/Les_gouvernements_depuis_1848.pdf.
- ^ "Constitution of Luxembourg" (PDF). Service central de législation. 2005. http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/textescoordonnes/recueils/constitution_droits_de_lhomme/CONST1.pdf. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ "Structure of the Conseil d'Etat". Conseil d'Etat. Archived from the original on 19 June 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060619171336/http://www.ce.etat.lu/structure.htm. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ "Luxembourg". Aeroflight.co.uk. 8 September 2005. http://www.aeroflight.co.uk/waf/lux/luxaf1.htm. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ Mountains in Luxembourg, recueil de statistiques par commune. statistiques.public.lu (2003) p. 20
- ^ "Luxembourg". Stadtklima (Urban Climate). Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070928000326/http://www.stadtklima.de/webklima/CITIES/Europe/Lx/luxembourg/luxembourg.htm. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
- ^ "Luxembourg makes progress in OECD standards on tax information exchange". OECD. 8 July 2009. http://www.oecd.org/document/51/0,3746,en_2649_33767_43281075_1_1_1_1,00.html.
- ^ "A progress report on the jurisdictions surveyed by the OECD Global Forum" (PDF). OECD. July 2009. http://www.fidomes.com/newsletter/Report-OECD.pdf.
- ^ Arlow, Oliver, "Kim Jong-il keeps $4bn 'emergency fund' in European banks", Sunday Telegraph, 14 March 2010.
- ^ a b "World Factbook – Luxembourg". Central Intelligence Agency. 19 December 2006. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/lu.html. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
- ^ "World Life Quality Index 2005" (PDF). Economist Intelligence Unit. 2005. http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ "Euro-zone unemployment down to 8.1%". Eurostat. 3 May 2006. http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=STAT/06/55&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ "Economic Survey of Luxembourg 2006". OECD. 2006. http://www.oecd.org/document/49/0,2340,en_2649_201185_37022129_1_1_1_1,00.html. Retrieved 23 July 2006.
- ^ "Major foreign holders of treasury securities". U.S.Department of the Treasury. http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/data-chart-center/tic/Documents/mfh.txt.
- ^ "What are the problems of geographic attribution for securities holdings and transactions in the TIC system?". U.S.Treasury International Capital (TIC) reporting system. http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/faqs/Treasury-International-Capital/Pages/tic-faqs.aspx.
- ^ "Growth in 2012", Which economies will grow and shrink the fastest in 2012?. The Economist online Jan 4th 2012.
- ^ Top Ten: Die Länder mit der höchsten Pkw-Dichte (german) manager magazin, 2 April 2010.
- ^ Loi du 30 mai 2005 sur les réseaux et les services de communications électroniques. Legilux.public.lu. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ Communications électroniques. Institut luxembourgeois de régulation (2011-04-28). Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ Eurohub Luxembourg – putting Europe at your fingertips. Ministry of Economy and Foreign Trade of Luxembourg. August 2008
- ^ "American Chamber of Commerce Luxembourg – Why Luxembourg?". http://www.amcham.lu/publications/why-luxembourg/.
- ^ "Financial express special issue on Luxembourg" (PDF). 23 June 2009. http://newdelhi.mae.lu/en/content/download/23985/164837/file/Financial%20Express%20special%20issue%20on%20Luxembourg.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ pressinfo (23 February 2010). "Press Release: New ITU report shows global uptake of ICTs increasing, prices falling". Itu.int. http://www.itu.int/newsroom/press_releases/2010/08.html. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
- ^ "Luxembourg ranks on the top in the ITU ICT survey". http://www.bed.public.lu/key_sectors/ecommerce_and_media/itu_ict_survey/index.html. [dead link]
- ^ "Global Broadband Quality Study". http://www.socsci.ox.ac.uk/news_archive/archived/global_broadband_quality_improves_but_uk_is_lagging.
- ^ "Global Broadband Quality Study Shows Progress, Highlights Broadband Quality Gap" (PDF). Said Business School, University of Oxford. http://www.sbs.ox.ac.uk/newsandevents/Documents/BQS%202009%20final.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "ICT Business Environment in Luxembourg". Luxembourgforict.lu. http://www.luxembourgforict.lu/en/it-business-environment/infrastructure/index.html. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ Tom Kettels (15 May 2009). "ICT And E-Business – Be Global from Luxembourg" (PDF). http://web.archive.org/web/20110721163039/http://www.nasscom.in/upload/GTD/Luxembourg_for_ICT.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "PricewaterhouseCoopers Invest in Luxembourg". Pwc.com. http://www.pwc.com/lu/en/invest-in-luxembourg/publications.jhtml. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "Why Luxembourg? A highly strategic position in the heart of Europe". teralink.lu. http://www.teralink.lu/Why-Luxembourg. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "ITU-T ICT Statistics : Luxembourg". Itu.int. http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/icteye/DisplayCountry.aspx?code=LUX. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "Telx Partners with German Hub Provider ancotel to Provide Virtual Connections between U.S. and Europe" (PDF). http://www.telx.com/enewsletter/content1/telx_ancotel.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ Ancotel.de. Ancotel.de. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "Ancotel – Telecommunication Operator References". Ancotel.de. http://www.ancotel.de/cms/front_content.php?idcat=16. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "Networks Accessible in Frankfurt via the VMMR Solution offered by Telx/ancotel" (PDF). http://www.telx.com/enewsletter/content6/ancote_carriers_609.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ Teralink
- ^ "Teralink P&T Luxembourg". http://www.teralink.lu/.
- ^ Luxconnect.lu. Luxconnect.lu. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "LuxConnect hosted the first coherent 100G service testing". http://www.paperjam.lu/communique_de_presse/fr/luxconnect-hosted-first-coherent-100g-service-testing.
- ^ Artelis.lu. Artelis.lu. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ SES-astra.com. SES-astra.com. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ EUROPEAN TELECOM NETWORK. broadcasting center europe. BCE.lu
- ^ Teralink.lu. Teralink.lu. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "The World Teleport Directory". http://www.worldteleport.org/page/MKT_EUR_3.
- ^ "Uplink Stations". http://www.uplinkstation.com/or/P&T-Luxembourg.html.
- ^ Teralink.lu. Teralink.lu (2011-12-16). Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "International Solutions TERALINK and Cloud services" (PDF). http://www.ictspring.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/p_and_t_luxembourg_micael_weber.pdf.
- ^ "Luxembourg, Your European Hub for Online Business and E-Commerce" (PDF). http://www.worldhostingdays.com/downloads/2011/hS1b6.pdf.
- ^ "P&TLuxembourg employs Alcatel-Lucent for 100G optical, Ethernet network". http://www.fiercetelecom.com/story/ptluxembourg-employs-alcatel-lucent-100g-optical-ethernet-network/2011-09-19?utm_medium=rss&utm_source=rss.
- ^ "P&T Luxembourg Does 100G With AlcaLu". http://www.heavyreading.com/document.asp?doc_id=212377.
- ^ "IPv6 Council Luxembourg" (PDF). http://ipv6council.lu/docs/IPv6+Council+Luxembourg+roadmap.pdf. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "LIX". Lix.lu. http://www.lix.lu/. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "Why LU-CIX". http://www.lu-cix.lu/why-lu-cix.html.
- ^ "Lu-CIX in P&T Solutions". http://www.pt.lu/webdav/site/portailEPT/groups/DT_redacteurs/public/downloads/ptsolutions/P&TSolutions%2019.pdf.
- ^ "Luxembourg Ethernet Exchange (LEX)". http://www.ebrc.lu/datacenter-resilient-services/interconnection-services/lex-luxembourg-ethernet-exchange.html.
- ^ Guichet.public.lu. Guichet.public.lu. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "A future for all in the information society.". http://www.eluxembourg.public.lu/index.html.
- ^ "PSA – Integrated mobile telecommunication solution.". http://www.psa-peugeot-citroen.com/document/presse_communique/CP%20PSA%20Signature%20P_TLuxembourgTelematique_2009%20 GB1242377645.pdf.
- ^ "PSA – Integrated mobile telecommunication solution.". http://www.psa-peugeot-citroen.com/en/psa_espace/press_releases_details_d1.php?id=942.
- ^ "European Datacentres: Luxembourg". http://www.investinluxembourg.lu/ict/sites/ict.local/files/Luxembourg_CBRE.pdf.
- ^ "Where state-of-the-art data centers meet green standards". http://www.investinluxembourg.lu/ict/where-state-art-data-centers-meet-green-standards-0.
- ^ "Luxembourg as a Center for Online and ICT Business (pdf).". http://www.mediacom.public.lu/institutions/Institutions_nationales/smc/20100309_ngn/IDC_20White_20Paper_20-_20Luxembourg_20as_20a_20center_20for_20online_20and_20ICT_20business.pdf.
- ^ "ebrc Datacenter Facilities". http://www.ebrc.lu/about-ebrc/datacenter-luxembourg-facilities.html.
- ^ "Luxembourg Presidency – Being a Luxembourger". Eu2005.lu. 29 December 2004. http://www.eu2005.lu/en/savoir_lux/societe_tradition/lux_type/index.php. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ (French) "Population totale par nationalité 1875–2001". Statec. http://www.statistiques.public.lu/stat/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=1075. Retrieved 1 July 2007.
- ^ Amanda Levinson. "The Regularisation of Unauthorised Migrants: Literature Survey and Country Case Studies – Regularisation programmes in Luxembourg" (PDF). Centre on Migration, Policy and Society, University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 2 September 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060902031630/http://www.compas.ox.ac.uk/publications/papers/Country+Case+Luxembourg.pdf. Retrieved 2 September 2006.
- ^ "Origins of Luxembourgish (in French)". Migration Information Source. http://www.sprooch.com/sproochbe/conferences/conference1/Les%20origines%20et%20l%27histoire%20de%20la%20langue%20luxembourgeoise.doc.
- ^ Lëtzebuergesch léieren (in French) Migration Information Source
- ^ "Europeans and Their Languages" (pdf). European Commission. 2006. p. 7. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved November 5, 2009.
- ^ (French) "À propos des langues" (PDF). Service Information et Presse. pp. 3–4. http://www.eu2005.lu/fr/savoir_lux/lux_publications/a_propos_langues/a_propos_langues.pdf. Retrieved 1 August 2006.
- ^ "The Trilingual Education system in Luxembourg". Tel2l – Teacher Education by Learning through two languages, University of Navarra. http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/luxembourg.htm. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
- ^ "Immigration in Luxembourg: New Challenges for an Old Country". Migration Information Source. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Profiles/display.cfm?ID=587. Retrieved 9 June 2007.
- ^ "Parlement européen – Lëtzebuergesch léieren (FR)". Europarl.europa.eu. 14 December 2000. http://www.europarl.europa.eu/language/apprendrelu_fr.htm. Retrieved 9 May 2010.
- ^ (French) "D'Wort article (German)". www.wort.lu. Archived from the original on 22 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080522103349/http://www.wort.lu/articles/5957651.html. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
- ^ (French) "Mémorial A, 1979, No. 29" (PDF). Service central de législation. http://www.legilux.public.lu/leg/a/archives/1979/0291104/0291104.pdf#page=2. Retrieved 1 August 2006.
- ^ Eurobarometer on Social Values, Science and technology 2005 – page 11
- ^ "World/Global Alcohol/Drink Consumption 2009". http://www.finfacts.ie/Private/bestprice/alcoholdrinkconsumptionpriceseurope.htm.
- ^ "Consommation annuelle moyenne d’alcool par habitant, Catholic Ministry of Health". sante.gouv.fr. 2007. http://www.sante.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/esp2007-obj-01.pdf.
- ^ "Culture". Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Luxembourg. http://web.archive.org/web/20110722155017/http://shanghai.mae.lu/en/The-Grandy-Duchy-of-Luxembourg/Culture.
- ^ "Luxembourg and Greater Region, European Capital of Culture 2007". June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20110503184358/http://www.mcesr.public.lu/presse/annee_culturelle_2007/portail_luxembourg_2007/Rapport_final_anglais.pdf.
- ^ "Environmental Report for Expo 2010 Shanghai China". June 2009. p. 85. http://web.archive.org/web/20110721012004/http://www.sepb.gov.cn/english/downloads/Expo2010.pdf.
- ^ "Luxembourg pavilion at the World Expo 2010 Shanghai". http://www.luxembourgforbusiness.lu/sites/default/files/file/Programme%20Luxembourg%20Commercial%20Week%20at%20Expo%202010.pdf.
- ^ Luxembourg pavilion displays ‘green heart of Europe’. (PDF) . Shanghai Daily. 12 November 2007. Retrieved on 2011-12-24.
- ^ "Luxembourg". Council of Europe. 2003. http://web.archive.org/web/20040623101906/http://www.coe.int/T/E/cultural_co-operation/Sport/Monitoring_fulfillment/Anti-Doping_Convention/4.Luxembourg.asp. Retrieved 2006-11-25.
- ^ "Luxembourg, a film country". Eu2005.lu. 29 December 2004. http://www.eu2005.lu/en/savoir_lux/culture/pays_cine/index.php. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
- ^ The Film Fund of the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg "Luxembourgish Film Production Companies". http://www.cna.public.lu/film/infos-pratiques/index-professionnels/societes-production-studios/index.html.
lez:Люксембургvep:Lüksemburg
![Location of Luxembourg (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) — [Legend]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121225085837/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EU-Luxembourg.svg)
0.867.jpg)
.svg)
.svg)
