Ghana Empire Wagadou
← before c. 830–c. 1235   →
Ghana Empire at its Greatest Extent
Capital	Koumbi Saleh
Language(s)	Soninke, Mande
Religion	African Traditional Religion, Islam
Government	Monarchy
Ghana
- 790s	Majan Dyabe Cisse
- 1040-1062	Ghana Bassi
- 1203-1235	Soumaba Cisse
History
- Established	circa 350 A.D before c. 830
- Conquered by the Sosso / Submitted to Mali Empire	c. 1235
Area
- 1067 est.	1,600 km2 (618 sq mi)
Today part of	Mali  Mauritania

The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire^[1] (existed before c. 830 until c. 1235) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, and Western Mali. Complex societies had existed in the region since about 1500 BCE, and around Ghana's core region since about 300 CE. When Ghana's ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it is first mentioned in documentary sources around 830 CE by Al-Kwarizmi.^[2] The domestication of the camel, which preceded Muslims and Islam by several centuries, brought about a gradual change in trade, and for the first time, the extensive gold, ivory trade, and salt resources of the region could be sent north and east to population centers in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe in exchange for manufactured goods.

The Empire grew rich from the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. This trade produced an increasing surplus, allowing for larger urban centres. It also encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the lucrative trade routes.

The first written mention of the kingdom comes from Arabic-language sources some time after the conquest of North Africa by Muslims, when geographers began compiling comprehensive accounts of the world known to Islam around 800. The sources for the earlier periods are very strange as to its society, government or culture, though they do describe its location and note its commercial relations. The Cordoban scholar Abu Ubayd al-Bakri collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom in 1067/1068 (460 AH). He claimed that the Ghana could "put 200,000 men into the field, more than 40,000 of them archers" and noted they had cavalry forces as well.^[3]

Origin[link]

Trade routes of the Western Sahara c. 1000-1500. Goldfields are indicated by light brown shading.

Written records: foreign state founders[link]

The origins of Ghana have often been marred by contradictions between ethno-historic interpretations as well as ethno historic accounts and archaeology. The earliest discussions of their origins are found in the Sudanese chronicles of Mahumd Kati and Abd al-Rahman as-Sadi. According to Kati's Tarikh al-Fettash in a section probably composed by the author around 1580, but citing the authority of the chief judge of Massina, Ida al-Massini who lived somewhat earlier, twenty kings ruled Ghana before the advent of the Prophet, and the empire extended until the century after the prophet (i.e. c. 822 CE).^[4] In addressing the rulers origin, the Tarikh al-Fettash, provides three different opinions, one that they were Wa'kuri (i.e. Soninke), another that they were Wangara (i.e. Mande), and a third that they were Sanhaja, a desert tribe of Amazinghy (Berbers), an interpretation which al-Kati favored in view of the fact that their genealogies linked them to this group, and adds "What is certain is that they were not blacks" (min al-sawadin).^[5] While the sixteenth century versions of genealogies might have linked Ghana to the Sanhaja, earlier versions, for example as reported by the eleventh century writer al-Idrisi and the thirteenth century writer ibn Said, noted that rulers of Ghana in those days traced their descent from the clan of the Prophet Muhammad either through his protector abi Talib, or through his son in law Ali.^[6] Al-Sadi (who wrote in the 1660s), for his part, only notes that they were "white" (bidan, which referred to the culture rather than the skin-colour) and did not know their exact origin. He says that 22 kings ruled before the Hijra and 22 after.^[7] While these early views lead to many exotic interpretations of a foreign origin of Wagadu, these views are generally disregarded by scholars. Levtzion and Spaulding for example, argue that al-Idrisi's testimony should be looked at very critically due to demonstrably gross miscalculations in geography and historical chronology, while themselves associating Ghana with the local Soninke.^[8] In addition, the archaeologist and historian Raymond Mauny argues that al-Kati's and al-Sadi's view of a foreign origin cannot be regarded as reliable. He argues that the interpretations were based on the later presence (after Ghana's demise) of nomadic interlopers in the assumption that they were the historic ruling caste, and that the writers did not address contemporary accounts such as those of al-Yakqubi (872 A.D.) al-Masudi (c. 944 A.D.), Ibn Hawqal (c. 977 A.D.), al-Biruni (c. 1036 A.D.), as well as al-Bakri all describing the population and rulers of Ghana as "negroes".^[9]

Oral traditions: local foundation by foreign immigrants[link]

See also History of the Soninke people

In the late nineteenth century, as French forces occupied the region in which ancient Ghana lay, colonial officials began collecting traditional accounts, including some manuscripts written in Arabic somewhat earlier in the century. Several such traditions were recorded and published. While there are variants, these traditions called the most ancient polity they knew of Wagadu, or the "place of the Wago" the term current in the nineteenth century for the local nobility. The traditions described the kingdom as having been founded by a man named Dinga, who came "from the east", after which he migrated to a variety of locations in the Western Sudan, in each place leaving children by different wives. In order to achieve power in his final location he had to kill a goblin, and then marry his daughters, who became the ancestors of the clans that were dominant in the region at the time of the recording of the tradition. Upon Dinga's death, his two sons Khine and Dyabe contested the kingship, and Dyabe was victorious, founding the kingdom.^[10]

Theories concerning the foundation of Ghana[link]

French colonial officials, notably Maurice Delafosse, concluded that Ghana had been founded by some sort of nomadic group from northern Africa, and linked them to North African and Middle Eastern origins. While Delafosse produced a convoluted theory of an invasion by "Judeo-Syrians", which he linked to the Fulbe, others took the tradition at face value and accepted simply that nomads had ruled first.^[11] Raymond Mauny, synthesizing early archaeology, various traditions, and the Arabic materials in 1961 concluded that foreign trade was vital to the empire's foundation.^[12] More recent work, for example by Nehemiah Levtzion, in his classic work published in 1973, sought to harmonize archaeology, descriptive geographical sources written between 830 and 1400, the older traditions of the Tarikhs, from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and finally the traditions collected by French administrators. Levtzion concluded that local developments, stimulated by trade from North Africa were crucial in the development of the state, and tended to favor the more recently collected traditions over the other traditions in compiling his work.^[13] While there has not been much further study of either traditions or documents, archaeologists have added considerable nuance to the ultimate play of forces.

Contribution of archaeological research[link]

Archaeological research was slow to enter the picture. While French archaeologists believed they had located the capital, Koumbi-Saleh in the 1920s, when they located extensive stone ruins in the general area given in most sources for the capital, and others argued that elaborate burials in the Niger Bend area may have been linked to the empire, it was not until 1969, when Patrick Munson excavated at Dhar Tichitt in modern day Mauretania that the probability of an entirely local origin was raised.^[14] The Dar Tichitt site had clearly become a complex civilization by 1600 BCE and had architectural and material culture elements that seemed to match the site at Koumbi-Saleh. In more recent work in Dar Tichitt, and then in Dhar Nema and Dhar Walata, it has become more and more clear that as the desert advanced, the Dhar Tichitt culture (which had abandoned its earliest site around 300 BCE, possibly because of pressure from desert nomads, but also because of increasing aridity) and moved southward into the still well watered areas of northern Mali.^[15] This now seems the likely history of the complex society that can be documented at Koumbi-Saleh.

Koumbi Saleh[link]

The empire's capital is believed to have been at Koumbi Saleh on the rim of the Sahara desert.^[16] According to the description of the town left by al-Bakri in 1067/1068, the capital was actually two cities six miles apart but "between these two towns are continuous habitations", so that they might be said to have merged into one.^[17]

El Ghaba Section[link]

According to al-Bakri, the major part of the city was called El-Ghaba and was the residence of the king. It was protected by a stone wall and functioned as the royal and spiritual capital of the Empire. It contained a sacred grove of trees used for Soninke religious rites in which priests lived. It also contained the king's palace, the grandest structure in the city, surrounded by other "domed buildings". There was also one mosque for visiting Muslim officials.^[17] (El-Ghaba, coincidentally or not, means "The Forest" in Arabic.)

Muslim Section[link]

The name of the other section of the city is not recorded. It was surrounded by wells with fresh water, where vegetables were grown. It was inhabited almost entirely by Arab and Amazighy Muslims along with twelve mosques, one of which was designated for Friday prayers, and had a full group of scholars, scribes and Islamic jurists. Because the majority of these Muslims were merchants, this part of the city was probably its primary business district.^[18]

Archaeology[link]

The Western Nile according to al-Bakri (1068)

The Western Nile according to Muhammad al-Idrisi (1154)

A 17th century chronicle written in Timbuktu, the Tarikh al-fattash, gives the name of the capital as "Koumbi".^[19] Beginning in the 1920s, French archaeologists began excavating the site of Koumbi-Saleh, although there have always been controversies about the location of Ghana's capital and whether Koumbi-Saleh is the same town as the one described by al-Bakri. The site was excavated in 1949-50 by Thomassey and Mauny^[20] and by another French team in 1975-1981.^[21] However, the remains of Koumbi Saleh are impressive, even if the remains of the royal town, with its large palace and burial mounds has not been located. Another problem for archaeology is that al-Idrisi, a twelfth century writer, described Ghana's royal city as lying on a riverbank, a river he called the "Nile" following the geographic custom of his day of confusing the Niger and Senegal, which do not meet, as forming a single river often called the "Nile of the Blacks". Whether al-Idrisi was referring to a new and later capital located elsewhere, or whether there was confusion or corruption in his text is unclear, however he does state that the royal palace he knew of was built in 510 AH (1116-1117 CE), suggesting that it was a newer town, rebuilt closer to the Niger than Koumbi Saleh.^[22]

Economy[link]

Most of our information about the economy of Ghana comes from merchants, and therefore we know more about the commercial aspects of its economy, and less about the way in which the rulers and nobles may have obtained agricultural products through tribute or taxation. The empire became wealthy because of their trading. They had an abundant amount of gold and salt. Al-Bakri noted that merchants had to pay a one gold dinar tax on imports of salt, and two on exports of salt. Other products paid fixed dues, al-Bakri mentioned both copper and "other goods." Imports probably included products such as textiles, ornaments and other materials. Many of the hand-crafted leather goods found in old Morocco may also had their origins in the empire.^[23] The main centre of trade was Koumbi Saleh. The king claimed as his own all nuggets of gold, and allowed other people to have only gold dust.^[24] In addition to the exerted influence of the king onto local regions, tribute was also received from various tributary states and chiefdoms to the empire's periphery.^[25] The introduction of the camel played a key role in Soninke success as well, allowing products and goods to be transported much more efficiently across the Sahara. These contributing factors all helped the empire remain powerful for some time, providing a rich and stable economy that was to last over several centuries.

Government[link]

Much testimony on ancient Ghana depended on how well disposed the king was to foreign travellers, from which the majority of information on the empire comes. Islamic writers often commented on the social-political stability of the empire based on the seemingly just actions and grandeur of the king. A Moorish nobleman who lived in Spain by the name of Al-Bakri questioned merchants who visited the empire in the 11th century and wrote that the king:

He sits in audience or to hear grievances against officials in a domed pavilion around which stand ten horses covered with gold-embroidered materials. Behind the king stand ten pages holding shields and swords decorated with gold, and on his right are the sons of the kings of his country wearing splendid garments and their hair plaited with gold. The governor of the city sits on the ground before the king and around him are ministers seated likewise. At the door of the pavilion are dogs of excellent pedigree that hardly ever leave the place where the king is, guarding him. Around their necks they wear collars of gold and silver studded with a number of balls of the same metals.^[26]

Ghana appears to have had a central core region and was surrounded by vassal states. One of the earliest sources to describe Ghana, al-Ya'qubi, writing in 889/90 (276 AH) says that "under his authority are a number of kings" which included Sama and 'Am (?) and so extended at least to the Niger valley.^[27] These "kings" were presumably the rulers of the territorial units often called kafu in Mandinka.

The Arabic sources, the only ones to give us any information are sufficiently vague as to how the country was governed, that we can say very little. Al-Bakri, far and away the most detailed on, does mention that the king had officials (mazalim) who surrounded his throne when he gave justice, and these included the sons of the "kings of his country" which we must assume are the same kings that al-Ya'qubi mentioned in his account of nearly two hundred years earlier. Al-Bakri's detailed geography of the region shows that in his day, or 1067/1068, Ghana was surrounded by independent kingdoms, and Sila, one of them located on the Senegal River was "almost a match for the king of Ghana." Sama is the only such entity mentioned as a province, as it was in al-Ya'qubi's day.^[28]

In al-Bakri's time, the rulers of Ghana had begun to incorporate more Muslims into government, including the treasurer, his interpreter and "the majority of his officials."^[29]

Decline[link]

Given the scattered nature of the Arabic sources and the ambiguity of the existing archaeological record, it is difficult to determine when and how Ghana declined and fell. The earliest descriptions of the Empire are vague as to its maximum extent, though according to al-Bakri, Ghana had forced Awdaghast in the desert to accept its rule sometime between 970 and 1054.^[30] By al-Bakri's own time, however, it was surrounded by powerful kingdoms, such as Sila.

A tradition in historiography maintains that Ghana fell when it was sacked by the Almoravid movement in 1076-1077, although Ghanaians resisted attack for a decade.^[31] but this interpretation has been questioned. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources.^[32] Dierke Lange agrees but argues that this doesn't preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter.^[33] Furthermore, the archaeology of ancient Ghana simply does not show the signs of rapid change and destruction that would be associated with any Almoravid-era military conquests.^[34]

While there is no clear cut account of a sack of Ghana in the contemporary sources, the country certainly did convert to Islam, for al-Idrisi, whose account was written in 1154, has the country fully Muslim by that date. Ibn Khaldun, a fourteenth century North African historian who read and cited both al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, does report an ambiguous account of the country's history as related to him by 'Uthman, a faqih of Ghana who took a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1394, that the power of Ghana waned as that of the "veiled people" grew, through the Almoravid movement.^[35] Al-Idrisi's report does not give any reason in particular to cause us to believe that the Empire was any smaller or weaker than it had been in the days of al-Bakri, seventy five years earlier, and in fact he describes its capital as "the greatest of all towns of the Sudan with respect to area, the most populous, and with the most extensive trade."^[36] It is clear, however, that Ghana was incorporated into the Empire of Mali, according to a detailed account of al-'Umari, written around 1340, but based on testimony given to him by the "truthful and trustworthy shaykh Abu Uthman Sa'id al-Dukkali, a long term resident. In al'Umari/al-Dukkali's version, Ghana still retained its functions as a sort of kingdom within the empire, its ruler being the only one allowed to bear the title malik and "who is like a deputy unto him."^[37]

Aftermath and Sosso Occupation[link]

According to Ibn Khaldun, following Ghana's conversion, "the authority of the rulers of Ghana dwindled away and they were overcome by the Sosso...who subjugated and subdued them."^[35] Some modern traditions identify the Susu as the Sosso, inhabitants of Kaniaga. According to much later traditions, from the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Diara Kante took control of Koumbi Saleh and established the Diarisso Dynasty. His son, Soumaoro Kante, succeeded him and forced the people to pay him tribute. The Sosso also managed to annex the neighboring Mandinka state of Kangaba to the south, where the important goldfield of Bure were located.

Malinke Rule[link]

In his brief overview of Sudanese history, ibn Khaldun related that "the people of Mali outnumber the peoples of the Sudan in their neighborhood and dominated the whole region." He went on to relate that they "vanquished the Susu and acquired all their possessions, both their ancient kingdom and that of Ghana."^[38] According to a modern tradition, this resurgence of Mali was led by Sundiata Keita, the founder of Mali and ruler of its core area of Kangaba. Delafosse assigned an arbitrary but widely accepted date of 1230 to the event.^[39] This tradition states that Ghana Soumaba Cisse, at the time a vassal of the Sosso, rebelled with Kangaba and became part of a loose federation of Mande speaking states. After Soumaoro's defeat at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 (a date again assigned arbitrarily by Delafosse), the new rulers of Koumbi Saleh became permanent allies of the Mali Empire. As Mali became more powerful, Koumbi Saleh's role as an ally declined to that of a submissive state, and it became the client described in al'Umari/al-Dukkali's account of 1340.

Influence[link]

The modern country of Ghana is named after the ancient empire, though there is no territory shared between the two states. Traditional stories show linkages between the two, with the northern Mande groups of Ghana: namely the Soninke, Dyula, Ligby and Bissa, known collectively by neighboring Gur and Akan groups as Wangara sharing histories of migration to the area around the time of the empire's descent.

Rulers[link]

• King Kaya Magha (or : Kaya Magan) : circa 350 AD^[40]
• 21 Kings, names unknown: circa 350 AD- 622 AD
• 21 Kings, names unknown: circa 622 AD- 790 AD
• King Reidja Akba : 1400-1415 (in Awkar)

Soninke Rulers "Ghanas" of the Cisse dynasty[link]

• Mayan Dyabe Cisse: circa 790s
• Bassi: 1040- 1062

Rulers during Kaniaga Occupation[link]

• Soumaba Cisse as vassal of Soumaoro: 1203-1235

Ghanas of Wagadou Tributary[link]

• Soumaba Cisse as ally of Sundjata Keita: 1235-1240

See also[link]

History of the Soninke people

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Berthier, Sophie (1997), Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l'empire de Ghana: Etude d'un secteur, d'habitat à Koumbi Saleh, Mauritanie: Campagnes II-III-IV-V (1975–1976)-(1980–1981), British Archaeological Reports 680, Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 41, Oxford: Archaeopress, ISBN 0-86054-868-6 .
• Delafosse, Maurice (1912) (in French), Haut-Sénégal-Niger: Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; l'Histoire; les Civilizations. 3 Vols, Paris: Émile Larose . Gallica: Volume 1, Le Pays, les Peuples, les Langues; Volume 2, L'Histoire; Volume 3, Les Civilisations.
• Houdas, Octave; Delafosse, Maurice, eds. (1913), Tarikh el-fettach par Mahmoūd Kāti et l'un de ses petit fils (2 Vols.), Paris: Ernest Leroux, http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5439466q . Volume 1 is the Arabic text, Volume 2 is a translation into French. Reprinted by Maisonneuve in 1964 and 1981. The French text is also available from Aluka but requires a subscription.
• Hunwick, John O. (2003), Timbuktu and the Songhay Empire: Al-Sadi's Tarikh al-Sudan down to 1613 and other contemporary documents, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-12560-4 . Reprint of the 1999 edition with corrections.
• Insoll, Timothy (2003), Archaeology of Islam in Sub-saharan Africa, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65702-4 .
• Lange, Dierk (1996), "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana", Der Islam 73 (2): 313–351, DOI:10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313 . Reprinted in Lange 2004, pp. 455–493.
• Lange, Dierk (2004), Ancient Kingdoms of West Africa, Dettelbach, Germany: J.H. Röll, ISBN 3-89754-115-7 .
• Levtzion, Nehemia (1973), Ancient Ghana and Mali, London: Methuen, ISBN 0-8419-0431-6 . Reprinted with additions 1980.
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Hopkins, John F.P. eds. and trans. (2000), Corpus of Early Arabic Sources for West Africa, New York, NY: Marcus Weiner, ISBN 1-55876-241-8 . First published in 1981 by Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-22422-5.
• Levtzion, Nehemia; Spaulding, Jay (2003), Medieval West Africa: views from Arab scholars and merchants, Princeton NJ: Markus Wiener, ISBN 1-55876-305-8 . Excerpts from Levtzion & Hopkins 1981. Includes an extended introduction.
• Mauny, Raymond A. (1954), "The question of Ghana", Journal of the International African Institute 24 (3): 200–213, JSTOR 1156424 .
• Mauny, Raymond (1961), Tableau géographique de l'ouest africain au moyen age, d’après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie, Dakar: Institut français d'Afrique Noire .
• Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996), "Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa", History in Africa 23: 197–232, DOI:10.2307/3171941, JSTOR 3171941, http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~amcdouga/Hist446/readings/conquest_in_west_african_historiography.pdf .
• Munson, Patrick J. (1980), Archaeology and the prehistoric origins of the Ghana Empire, 21, pp. 457–466, JSTOR 182004 .
• Thomassey, Paul; Mauny, Raymond (1951), "Campagne de fouilles à Koumbi Saleh" (in French), Bulletin de I'lnstitut Français de I'Afrique Noire (B) 13: 438–462, http://www.mr.refer.org/numweb/spip.php?article20 . Includes a plan of the site.

Further reading[link]

• Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1982), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. I. The external Arabic sources", History in Africa 9: 21–59, JSTOR 3171598 .
• Conrad, David C.; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1983), "The conquest that never was: Ghana and the Almoravids, 1076. II. The local oral sources", History in Africa 10: 53–78, JSTOR 3171690 .
• Cornevin, Robert (1965), "Ghana", Encyclopaedia of Islam Volume 2 (2nd ed.), Leiden: Brill, pp. 1001–2, ISBN 90-04-07026-5, http://www.archive.org/stream/EncyclopediaofIslam2/Vol.2c-g#page/n1042/mode/1up .
• Cuoq, Joseph M., translator and editor (1975) (in French), Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIe au XVIe siècle (Bilād al-Sūdān), Paris: Éditions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique . Reprinted in 1985 with corrections and additional texts, ISBN 2-222-01718-1. Similar to Levtzion and Hopkins, 1981 & 2000.
• Masonen, Pekka (2000), The Negroland revisited: Discovery and invention of the Sudanese middle ages, Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters, pp. 519–523, ISBN 951-41-0886-8 .
• Mauny, Raymond (1971), "The Western Sudan", in Shinnie, P.L., The African Iron age, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 66–87, ISBN 0-19-813158-5 .
• Monteil, Charles (1954), "La légende du Ouagadou et l’origine des Soninke", Mélanges Ethnologiques, Dakar: Mémoire de l'Institute Français d'Afrique Noire 23, pp. 359–408 .

External links[link]

• African Kingdoms | Ghana
• Empires of west Sudan
• Empire of Ghana, Wagadou, Soninke
• Kingdom of Ghana, Primary Source Documents
• Ancient Ghana — BBC World Service

Coordinates: 15°40′N 8°00′W / 15.667°N 8°W / 15.667; -8

Republic of Ghana
Coat of arms of Ghana Flag Coat of arms
Motto: "Freedom and Justice"
Anthem:  File:God Bless Our Homeland Ghana.ogg "God Bless Our Homeland Ghana"[1]
Capital (and largest city)		Accra 5°33′N 0°15′W / 5.55°N 0.25°W / 5.55; -0.25
Official language(s)		English
Government-sponsored languages		Akan, Ewe, Dagomba (Dagbani), Dangme, Dagaare, Ga, Nzema, Gonja, Kasem[citation needed]
Demonym		Ghanaian
Government		Unitary presidential constitutional republic
-	President	John Atta Mills
-	Vice-President	John Dramani Mahama[2]
-	Speaker of Parliament	Joyce Bamford-Addo
-	Chief Justice	Georgina Theodora Wood
Legislature		Parliament
Independence		from the United Kingdom
-	Declared	6 March 1957
-	Republic	1 July 1960
-	Current Constitution	28 April 1992
Area
-	Total	238,535 km2 (81st) 92,098 sq mi
-	Water (%)	3.5
Population
-	2010 estimate	24,233,431[3]
-	Density	101.5/km2 (103rd) 258.8/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$82.571 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$3,312.706[4]
GDP (nominal)		2012 estimate
-	Total	$42.090 billion[4]
-	Per capita	$1,688.619[4]
HDI (2010)		0.541[5] (medium) (135th)
Currency		Ghana cedi (GH₵) (GHS)
Time zone		GMT (UTC0)
Drives on the		right
ISO 3166 code		GH
Internet TLD		.gh
Calling code		+233

Ghana ⁱ/ˈɡɑːnə/ is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word Ghana means "Warrior King"^[6] and is derived from the ancient Ghana Empire.

Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient predominantly Akan kingdoms, including the inland Ashanti Empire, the Akwamu, the Akyem, the Bonoman, the Denkyira, and the Fante among others. Non-Akan states created by the Ga also existed as did states by the Dagomba. Prior to contact with Europeans trade between the Akan and various African states flourished due to Akan's gold wealth. Trade with European states began after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established the Gold Coast Crown colony in 1874 over parts but not all of the country.^[7]

The Gold Coast achieved independence from the United Kingdom in 1957,^[8] becoming the First sub-Saharan African nation to do so from European Colonialism.^[9][10] The name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana, which once extended throughout much of west Africa.

Ghana is a member of the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone, the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the African Union, the Economic Community of West African States, and an associate member of La Francophonie. Ghana is one of the largest cocoa producers in the world,^[11] and is also home to Lake Volta, the largest artificial lake in the world by surface area.^[12]

Etymology[link]

Map of Ghana

The word Ghana means Warrior King and was the title accorded to the kings of the medieval West African Ghana Empire.^[13]

Geographically, the Ghana Empire was approximately 500 miles (800 km) north and west of modern Ghana, and it ruled territories in the area of the Sénégal River and east towards the Niger River, in modern Senegal, Mauritania and Mali.

Ghana was adopted as the legal name for the Gold Coast combined with British Togoland upon gaining autonomy on 6 March 1957.^[14]

History[link]

16th – 17th Century Akan Terracotta, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

18th – 19th Century Empire of Ashanti soul washer badge or Akrafokonmu

There is archaeological evidence showing that humans have lived in present-day Ghana since the Bronze Age.^[15] However, until the 11th century, the majority of modern Ghana's area was largely unoccupied.^[16] Although the area of present-day Ghana has experienced many population movements, the major ethnic groups in Ghana today were firmly settled by the 16th century.^[17] By the early 11th century, the Akan were firmly established in a state called Bonoman, for which the Brong-Ahafo Region region is named.^[18] The Ga and Dagomba states were established by the 16th century.^[17]

From the 13th century, numerous groups emerged from what is believed to have been the Bonoman area, to create several Akan States, mainly based on gold trading. These states included Denkyira, Akwamu, and Akyem. By the 19th century, most of modern Ghanaian territory was included in the Empire of Ashanti, one of the most influential states in sub-Saharan Africa prior to colonial rule. The Ashanti government operated first as a loose network, and eventually as a centralized kingdom with an advanced, highly specialized bureaucracy centred in Kumasi. It is said that at its peak, the Asantehene could field 500,000 troops, and it had some degree of military influence over all of its neighbours.^[19]

Early European contact by the Portuguese, who came to Ghana in the 15th century, focused on the extensive availability of gold. The Portuguese first landed at a coastal city inhabited by the Fante nation-state, and named the place Elmina.^[20] In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed in 3 years.

By 1598, the Dutch had joined them, building forts at Komeda and Kormantsi.^[21] In 1617, they captured the Olnini Castle from the Portuguese, and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders had joined in by the mid-17th century, largely English, Danes and Swedes. English merchants, impressed with the gold resources in the area, named it the Gold Coast, while French merchants, impressed with the trinkets worn by the coastal people, named the area to the west "Côte d'Ivoire", or Ivory Coast.^[22]

Left: 1817, Picture of an Empire of Ashanti yam ceremony, by Thomas E. Bowdich; Right: 1817, Picture of traditional Empire of Ashanti architecture with two men playing Oware, a mancala game that is still popular in Ghana, by Thomas E. Bowdich

More than thirty forts and castles were built by the Portuguese, Dutch, British and Spanish merchants. The Gold Coast was known for centuries as 'The White Man's Grave', because many of the Europeans who went there died of malaria and other tropical diseases.^[23] After the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate. Following conquest by the British in 1896 until independence in March 1957, the territory of modern Ghana, excluding the Volta Region (British Togoland), was known as the Gold Coast.^[22]

Left: c. 1840 – 17 October 1921, Yaa Asantewaa the queen mother of Ejisu of the Empire of Ashanti and leader of the 1900 "Empire of Ashanti rebellion" known as the War of the Golden Stool against British colonialism; Center: c. 1870 – 12 May 1931, Prempeh I the Asantehene and ruler of the Oyoko Abohyen Dynasty and the Akan people of the Empire of Ashanti from 26 March 1888 until his death in 1931;^[24] Right: The Empire of Ashanti Royal stool on a chair with its immediate caretaker on 31 January 1935

Many wars occurred between the colonial powers and the various nation-states in the area, including the 1806 Ashanti–Fante War, and the continuous struggle by the Ashanti against the British in many wars. The Ashanti defeated the British a few times, but eventually lost with the Ashanti-British War in the early 1900s.^[25][26][27],^[28] Even under colonial rule, the chiefs and people often resisted the policies of the British; however, moves toward decolonization intensified after World War II. In 1947, the newly formed United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) called for "self-government within the shortest possible time."^[29] After rioting increased in 1948, the members of the United Gold Coast Convention were arrested, including future prime minister and president Kwame Nkrumah. Later, Nkrumah formed his own party, the Convention People's Party (CPP) with the motto "self government now." He began a 'Positive Action' campaign and gained the support of rural and working class people. He was again imprisoned for being the leader of a party that caused boycotts, strikes and other forms of civil disobedience. After winning a majority in the Legislative Assembly in 1952, Nkrumah was released and appointed leader of government business. After further negotiations with Britain, on 6 March 1957 at 12 a.m. Nkrumah declared Ghana "free forever".

Cape Coast Castle

Independence Arch, Ghana

The Flag of Ghana, consisting of the colours red, gold, green, and the black star, became the new flag in 1957. Designed by, Theodosia Salome Okoh, the red represents the blood that was shed towards independence, the gold represents the mineral wealth of Ghana, the green symbolises the rich agriculture, and the black star is the symbol of African emancipation.^[30] Formed from the merger of the Gold Coast and British (formerly German) Togoland by a United Nations sponsored plebiscite in 1956, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence in 1957, although Liberia became a Self-governing colony over a century before on 26 July 1847.

Kwame Nkrumah, first prime minister, and then president of the modern Ghanaian state, as an anti-colonial leader, sought a united Africa that would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to promote Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement." He merged the teachings of Garvey and the African-American scholar W. E. B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana. Ghana's principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Nkrumah's implementation of Pan-Africanism.^[22]

1989: The Soviet Union's postage stamp marking the 80th anniversary of the birth of Dr.h.c. Kwame Nkrumah (1909–1972). Nkrumah leader of Ghana and its predecessor state, the Gold Coast, from 1952 to 1966 and overseeing the nation's independence from British colonial rule in 1957, Nkrumah was the first President of Ghana and the first Prime Minister of Ghana as well as founding and leading the Convention People's Party (CPP) in 1949.

Although his goal of African unity was never realised, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, as he is now known, played an instrumental part in the founding of the Organisation of African Unity, which was succeeded in 2002 by the African Union. His achievements were recognised by Ghanaians during his centenary birthday celebrations, and the day was instituted as a public holiday. Dr. Nkrumah's government was subsequently overthrown by the military while he was abroad in February 1966. Former Central Intelligence Agency employee John Stockwell alleges that the CIA had an effective hand in forcing the coup.^[31]

A series of subsequent coups from 1966 to 1981 ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry John Rawlings in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981, and the banning of political parties. The economy suffered a severe decline soon after, and many Ghanaians migrated to other countries.^[32]

Kwame Darko negotiated a structural adjustment plan with the International Monetary Fund, changing many old economic policies, and the economy began to recover. A new constitution restoring multi-party politics was promulgated in 1992; Rawlings was elected as president then, and again in 1996. The Constitution of 1992 prohibited him from running for a third term, so his party, the National Democratic Congress, chose his Vice President, John Atta Mills, to run against the opposition parties. Winning the 2000 elections, John Agyekum Kufuor of the New Patriotic Party was sworn into office as president in January 2001, and beat Mills again in 2004, thus also serving two terms as president.

In 2009, John Atta Mills took office as President of Ghana with a difference of about 40,000 votes (0.46%) ^[33] between his party, the National Democratic Congress and the New Patriotic Party, marking the second time that power had been transferred from one legitimately elected leader to another, and securing Ghana's status as a stable democracy.^[34]

In 2011, John Atta Mills won the NDC congress when he ran against Nana Konadu Agyeman Rawlings for the National Democratic Congress flagbearership. He won by 2,771 votes, representing 96.9% of the total votes cast.

Regions and districts[link]

Ghana is divided into 10 administrative regions, subdivided into a total of 170 districts. The regions are:

Government and politics[link]

The celebration of the 50th independence anniversary

According to the 2009 Failed States Index, Ghana is ranked the 53rd least failed state in the world and the second least failed state in Africa after Mauritius. Ghana ranked 124th out of 177 countries on the index.^[35] Ghana also was placed 7th out of 48 sub-Saharan African countries in the 2008 Ibrahim Index of African Governance which was based on data from 2006. The Ibrahim Index is a comprehensive measure of African government, based on a number of different variables which reflect the success with which governments deliver essential political goods to its citizens.^[36]

Political corruption in Ghana is on the rise, jumping from 50 in 2002 to 70 in 2003^[37] and 63 to 69 in the 2011 Transparency International Corruption Perception Index.^[38]

Government[link]

The seat of government in Ghana, Osu Castle today (left image) A contemporary drawing of the Danish colonial fort, Fort Christiansborg, now Osu Castle. The outpost to the right is Fort Prøvestenen (right image).

Ghana was created as a parliamentary democracy at independence in 1957, followed by alternating military and civilian governments. In January 1993, military government gave way to the Fourth Republic after presidential and parliamentary elections in late 1992. The 1992 constitution divides powers among a president, parliament, cabinet, council of state, and an independent judiciary. The government is elected by universal suffrage; however, the legislature is not proportionate, with low-population districts receiving more representatives per person than those with high populations.^[39]

Administrative divisions[link]

There are ten administrative regions which are divided into 138 districts, each with its own district assembly. Below districts are various types of councils, including 58 town or area councils, 108 zonal councils, and 626 area councils. Sixteen thousand unit committees exist on the lowest level.^[39]

The Supreme Court Building, Accra

Judicial system[link]

The legal system is based on British common law, customary (traditional) law, and the 1992 constitution. Court hierarchy consists of Supreme Court of Ghana (highest court), courts of appeal, and high courts of justice. Beneath these bodies are circuit, magisterial, and traditional courts. Extra-judicial institutions include public tribunals.^[39]

Since independence, courts are relatively independent; this independence continues under the Republic. Lower courts are being redefined and reorganized under the Republic.^[39]

Politics[link]

Relations between the People's Republic of China and Ghana date back to 1960 when the countries first established diplomatic relations. Since then Ghana has provided substantial diplomatic support to the PRC. In the 1960s President Kwame Nkrumah lobbied for the PRC's reinstatement in the United Nations. Nkrumah also supported the PRC during the Sino-Indian War in 1962. In the early 1990s Ghana once again provided substantial diplomatic support to China during the Tiananmen Square protests in 1989.[40]:4–5

Political parties became legal in mid-1992 after a ten-year hiatus. There are many political parties under the Fourth Republic; the major ones are the National Democratic Congress which won presidential and parliamentary elections in 1992, 1996 and 2008; the New Patriotic Party, the major opposition party which won elections in 2000 and 2004; the People's National Convention, and the Convention People's Party, successor to Kwame Nkrumah's original party of the same name.^[39]

Foreign relations and military[link]

Kofi Annan

Since independence, Ghana has been devoted to ideals of nonalignment and Pan-Africanism, both closely identified with Nkrumah. Ghana favours international and regional political and economic co-operation, and is an active member of the United Nations and the African Union.^[41]

Many Ghanaian diplomats and politicians hold positions in international organisations. These include Ghanaian diplomat and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, International Criminal Court Judge Akua Kuenyehia, former President Jerry John Rawlings and former President John Agyekum Kuffour who have both been elected chairmen of the Economic Community of West African States.^[39]

In September 2010, Ghana's President John Atta Mills visited China on an official visit. Ghanaian President John Atta Mills and China's President Hu Jintao, marked the 50th anniversary of diplomatic ties between the two nations, at the Great Hall of the People on 20 September 2010.^[42] China reciprocated with a visit in November 2011, by the Vice Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China, Zhou Tienong who visited Ghana and met with Ghana's Vice President John Dramani Mahama.^[43]

1918: RSM Alhaji Grunshi (DCM MM) of the Gold Coast Regiment, the first soldier in British service to fire a shot in the First World War

Ghanaian soldiers run to their positions while engaged in amphibious operations in southwest coast of Ghana, 15 October 2005

GNS Anzone (P 30) and the GNS Achimota (in the background) conduct division tactics off the coast of Ghana, 20 October 2005

World War I

After establishing supremacy in the Gold Coast, the British created the Gold Coast Regiment as a component of the West African Frontier Force (WAFF), which kept peace throughout the territories of the Gold Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and the Gambia.^[44]

In 1928, the WAFF became the Royal West African Frontier Force (RWAFF). British officers and non-commissioned officers organized, trained, and equipped the Gold Coast Regiment. On July 31, 1914, four days before the British declaration of war on Germany, Accra mobilized its military forces. The Gold Coast Regiment included thirty-eight British officers, eleven British warrant or non-commissioned officers, 1,584 Africans, (including 124 carriers for guns and machine guns), and about 300 reservists. Additionally, the four Volunteer Corps (Gold Coast Volunteers, Gold Coast Railway Volunteers, Gold Coast Mines Volunteers, and Ashanti Mines Volunteers) fielded about 900 men. The forces participated in the campaigns in Togo, Cameroon, and East Africa.^[44]

World War II

The Gold Coast also played a significant role in the Allied war effort during World War II. On June 27, 1942, the United States Army activated the Air Transport Command in Cairo under Brigadier General Shepler W. Fitzgerald. Ten days later, Fitzgerald moved his headquarters to Accra and organized the Africa-Middle East Wing.^[44]

In late 1942, the United States Army expanded its presence in Accra by activating the Twelfth Ferrying Group Headquarters, the Forty-first Ferrying Squadron, and the Forty second Ferrying Squadron. The Twelfth Ferrying Group, which was part of a transportation network reaching from the United States, via Africa, to the China-Burma-India theatre of operations, ensured the movement of men and materiel through Senegal, Ghana, and Chad. Approximately 65,000 Ghanaian soldiers (Gold Coast Regiments) fought on the side of the Allies during the Second World War.^[44]

Ghana Armed Forces

In 1957, the Ghana Army consisted of its headquarters, support services, three battalions of infantry and a reconnaissance squadron with armoured cars. Total strength was approximately 5,700 men.^[45] Ghanaian Prime Minister Kwame Nkrumah wished to rapidly expand and Africanise the army in order to support his Pan-African and anti-colonial ambitions. Thus in 1961, 4th and 5th Battalions were established, and in 1964 6th Battalion was established, from a parachute unit originally raised in 1963.^[46]

Today the Ghana Armed Forces are in military alliance with the People's Republic of China's People's Liberation Army.^[47] Ghana has in the past contributed forces to numerous UN and ECOWAS operations, including in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lebanon, and Liberia (ECOMOG and UNMIL).

Ghana also contributed UN peacekeepers in UNAMIR during the Rwandan Genocide. In his book Shake Hands with the Devil, Canadian Forces commander Roméo Dallaire gave the Ghanaian soldiers high credit for their work and effort in the conflict.^[45]

Economy[link]

Sunyani Cocoa House, August 2003

Ghana is a Middle Income Economy and is ranked as a Lower–Middle Income Economy by the World Bank.^[48][49][50] 27% of Ghana's population are living on less than $1.25 per day,^[51][48] and a rate of 25% youth unemployment.^[52]

Ghana has more than twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in West Africa.^[53] Known for its gold in colonial times, Ghana remains one of the world's top gold producers.^[54] Other exports such as cocoa, crude oil, natural gas, timber, electricity, diamond, bauxite,^[55] and manganese are major sources of foreign exchange, even though Ghana continues to experience electricity and gas shortages, and remains a developing nation after 55 years of independence from the declining British rule.^[56]

1^st President of the Republic of Ghana, Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah with the 35^th President of the United States, John F. Kennedy in The Pentagon on 8 March 1961

1^st President of the 4^th Republic of Ghana, Jerry John Rawlings speaking at the Faculty of Law, University of Oxford on 18 May 2009

2^nd President of the 4^th Republic of Ghana, John Agyekum Kufuor with then-President of Brazil, Lula da Silva in Osu Castle on 12 April 2005

3^rd President of the 4^th Republic of Ghana, John Atta Mills on a meeting with the Minister of Development of Brazil, Miguel Jorge in Osu Castle on 8 June 2009

The Akosombo Dam, which was built on the Volta River in 1965 by Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah provides hydro-electricity for Ghana and its neighbouring countries.

The Ghana Stock Exchange (GSE) is the third largest Stock exchange in Africa after the Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE) and the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE).^[57]

At the end of December 2011, Ghana's – Total External debt has escalated to an all time high of $18 billion (GH¢ 23.4 billion) up from $8 billion (GH¢ 8.8 billion) at the end of December 2008. Ghana's debt totaled US$1 billion in 1966 by an Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah led government and Ghana was among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, which in the 1960s Ghana had a per capita income comparable to South Korea’s,^[58] then the debt significantly increased from US$1 billion to $7.5 billion during Jerry John Rawlings 20 years rule of Ghana, which ended in 2001.^[59] The escalation of borrowing from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and creditors by successive governments have put a burden of debt on future generations of Ghanaians.^[59] Typical among these is the borrowing of $3 billion in December 2011 by John Atta Mills from China Development Bank in exchange of oil from Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) to the China crude oil Off-Takers for an undisclosed fee to offset the loan, despite objections from an overwhelmingly majority of the Parliament of Ghana and the IMF, as the loan would cause a net drain of Ghana's oil wealth to China and put Ghana at risk of default.^[60]

Ghana receives foreign aid from the United States and European nations. In January 2012, the European Commission donated €52 million (GH¢ 110 million) to reduce maternal mortality and achieve the MDG 5 targets.^[61]

Ghana’s labour force in 2008 totalled 11.5 million people.^[62][62] The economy continues to rely heavily on agriculture which accounts for 37.3% of GDP and provides employment for 56% of the work force,^[62] mainly small landholders. Manufacturing is only a small part of the Ghanaian economy totalling 7.9% of Gross Domestic Product in 2007.^[63] Ghana hires foreign companies for infrastructure projects, including basic needs such as housebuilding, such as a $1.5 billion housing contract to STX Corporation of South Korea.^[64] These firms in turn sub-contract local firms.

Ineffective economic policies of past military governments and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the cedi, and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures. In July 2007, the Bank of Ghana embarked on a currency re-denomination exercise, from the cedi (₵) to a new currency, the Ghana Cedi (GH₵). The transfer rate was 1 Ghana Cedi for every 10,000 cedis. The Bank of Ghana employed aggressive media campaigns to educate the public about the re-denomination. The new Ghana Cedi is relatively stable and in 2009 generally exchanged at a rate of US$1 = GH₵1.4 ^[62]

The value added tax is a consumption tax administered in Ghana. The tax regime which started in 1998 had a single rate but since September 2007 entered into a multiple rate regime. In 1998, the rate of tax was 10% and amended in 2000 to 12.5%. However with the passage of Act 734 of 2007, a 3% VAT Flat Rate Scheme (VFRS) began to operate for the retail distribution sector. This allows retailers of taxable goods under Act 546 to charge a marginal 3% on their sales and account on same to the VAT Service. It is aimed at simplifying the tax system and increasing compliance.^[65]

The Portuguese-built Elmina Castle was purchased by Britain in 1873. Also known as St. George Castle, it was the first trading post built on the Gulf of Guinea, so is the oldest European building in existence below the Sahara. The castle is now recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site

Tourism is a rapidly growing sector particularly among Europeans, Americans, and other internationals connected to the Ghanaian Diaspora abroad. Ghana's political and economic stability, low crime rate, and wide use of English make the country an attractive entrypoint to West Africa for foreigners. UNESCO World Heritage Sites including Cape Coast Castle and Elmina Castle, national parks such as Kakum National Park and Mole National Park, as well as cultural celebrations such as Panafest are major centers of tourist activity.^[66]

Oil reserves in Ghana[link]

Commercial quantities of offshore oil reserves in Ghana were discovered in the 1970s. In 1983 the government established the Ghana National Petroleum Corporation (GNPC) to promote exploration and production, and the company reached agreements with a number of foreign firms. The most important of these permitted US-based Amoco to prospect in ten offshore blocks between Ada and the western border with Togo. Petro-Canada International had prospected in the Tano River Basin, and Diamond Shamrock in the Keta Basin. In 1989 three companies, two American and one Dutch, spent US$30 million drilling wells in the Tano basin. On 21 June 1992, an offshore Tano basin well produced about 6,900 barrels (1,100 m³) of crude oil daily.^[67]

In the early 1990s, GNPC reviewed all earlier crude oil and natural gas discoveries to determine whether a predominantly local operation might make exploitation more commercially viable. GNPC wanted to set up a floating system for production, storage, off-loading, processing, and gas-turbine electricity generation, hoping to produce 22 billion cubic feet (620,000,000 m³) per day, from which 135 megawatts of power could be generated and fed into the national and regional grid. GNPC also signed a contract in 1992 with Angola's state oil company, Sonangol Group, that provides for drilling and, ultimately, production at two of Sonangol's offshore oilfields. GNPC was paid with a share of the crude oil.^[67]

The country's Tema Oil Refinery underwent the first phase of a major rehabilitation in 1989. The second phase began in April 1990 at an estimated cost of US$36 million. Once rehabilitation was completed, distribution of liquified petroleum gas was to be improved, and the quantity supplied was to rise from 28,000 to 34,000 barrels per day. Construction on the new Tema-Akosombo oil products pipeline, designed to improve the distribution system further, began in January 1992. The pipeline was to carry refined products from Tema to Akosombo Port, where they will be transported across Lake Volta to northern regions. Distribution continued to be uneven, however. Other measures to improve the situation included a US$28 million project to set up a national network of storage depots in all regions.^[67]

The Tema Lube Oil Company commissioned its new oil blending plant, designed to produce 25,000 tons of oil per year, in 1992. The plant was to satisfy all of Ghana's requirements for motor and gear lubricants and 60 percent of the country's need for industrial lubricants, or, in all, 90 percent of Ghana's demand for lubricant products. Shareholders included Mobil, Shell, and British Petroleum (together accounting for 48 percent of equity), Ghana National Petroleum Corporation, and the Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT).^[67]

An oilfield which is reported to contain up to 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of light oil was discovered in 2007.^[68] Oil and Gas exploration is ongoing, and the amount of both oil and gas continues to increase.^[69] There is expected to be a tremendous inflow of capital into the economy beginning from the first quarter of 2011 when the country starts producing oil in commercial quantities. The oil is expected to account for 6% of the revenue for 2011.^[70]

Ghana is believed to have up to 5 billion barrels (790,000,000 m³) of oil in reserves,^[71] which is the 6th largest in Africa and the 25th largest proven reserves in the world.

Seaport[link]

The US Navy ship Fort McHenry being unloaded at Tema Port, November 2007.

Tema Port, officially opened in 1962, is the biggest of the two seaports in Ghana, and is Africa's largest manmade harbour. It has a water-enclosed area of 1.7 square kilometres (0.66 sq mi) and a total land area of 3.9 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi). Apart from handling goods for Ghana, it is also a traffic junction, where goods are transhipped, and transit cargo destined for the landlocked countries of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger.^[72]

The port of Tema handles 80% of the nation’s import and export cargo. Most of the country’s chief export, cacao, is shipped from Tema.

Container terminal at Tema Port, June 2008.

The port has 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) of breakwaters, 12 deepwater berths, an outsize oil tanker berth, a dockyard, warehouses, and transit sheds. The port has open and covered areas for the storage of cargo, including a 77,200-m² (7.72-hectare) paved area for the storage of containers, steel products and other conventional cargo. The port's container yard is capable of holding over 8,000 TEUs at any given time. The closed storage area, which is about 25,049 m² (2.51 hectares) in area, consists of six sheds with a total storage capacity of 50,000 tonnes of cargo. The port also includes a 100,000 dwt dry dock and slipway facility.^[73] The Tema and Takoradi harbours are operated by the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority.

Geography[link]

Beach in Ghana

Kakum National Park

Elephants at Mole National Park