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Behistun Inscription
Coordinates: 34°23′18″N 47°26′12″E / 34.38833°N 47.43667°E / 34.38833; 47.43667
The Behistun Inscription (also Bistun or Bisutun, Modern Persian: بیستون < Old Persian: Bagastana, meaning "the place of god") is a multi-lingual inscription located on Mount Behistun in the Kermanshah Province of Iran, near the city of Kermanshah in western Iran.
Authored by Darius the Great sometime between his coronation as king of the Persian Empire in the summer of 522 BC and his death in autumn of 486 BC, the inscription begins with a brief autobiography of Darius, including his ancestry and lineage. Later in the inscription, Darius provides a lengthy sequence of events following the deaths of Cyrus the Great and Cambyses II in which he fought nineteen battles in a period of one year (ending in December of 521 BC) to put down multiple rebellions throughout the Persian Empire. The inscription states in detail that the rebellions, which had resulted from the deaths of Cyrus the Great and his son Cambyses II, were orchestrated by several impostors and their co-conspirators in various cities throughout the empire, each of whom falsely proclaimed kinghood during the upheaval following Cyrus's death.
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Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
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Brazil
Brazil
i/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, 
listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Budapest
Budapest ( /ˈbuːdəpɛst/, /ˈbuːdəpɛʃt/ or /ˈbʊdəpɛst/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈbudɒpɛʃt] (
listen); names in other languages) is the capital and the largest city of Hungary, the largest in East-Central Europe and the seventh largest in the European Union. It is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre, sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. According to 2011 Census, Budapest had 1.74 million inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2.1 million due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter Area is home to 3.3 million people. The city covers an area of 525 square kilometres (202.7 sq mi) within the city limits. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river Danube with a unification on 17 November 1873 of west-bank Buda and Óbuda with east-bank Pest.
The history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia.Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century. Their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241-42. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture in the 15th century. Following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, development of the region entered a new age of prosperity in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Budapest became a global city after the 1873 unification. It also became the second capital of Austria-Hungary, a great power that dissolved in 1918. After the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, when Hungary lost 72% of its former territory, culturally and economically the country became wholly Budapest-dominated. The capital dominates the country both by the size of its population—which dwarfs those of Hungary's other cities Budapest was the focal point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919, Operation Panzerfaust in 1944, the Battle of Budapest of 1945, and the Revolution of 1956.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Busovača
Busovača is a small town and municipality in the heart of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is 60 km (37 mi) from Sarajevo, 21 km (13 mi) from Zenica, and 30 km (19 mi) from Travnik.
During the Bosnian War, the city saw heavy fighting between the Bosnian Army and the Croatian Defence Council. Today, Busovača is recovering from the war and with its small economy and infrastructure it is becoming an important crossroad between bigger cities.
14.428 total
By census of 1991 municipality had the Croat majority, as town itself.
In 2005, population of the municipality of Busovača included 59% Croats and 40% Bosniaks.
• Bare • Bukovci • Buselji • Busovača • Carica • Dobraljevo • Dolac • Donja Rovna • Gornja Rovna • Grablje • Granice • Gusti Grab • Hozanovići • Hrasno • Javor • Jazvine • Jelinak • Kaćuni • Kaonik • Katići • Kovačevac • Krčevine • Krvavičići • Kula • Kupres • Lončari • Mehurići • Merdani • Mihaljevići • Milavice • Nezirovići • Očehnići • Oselište • Podbare • Podjele • Podstijena • Polje • Prosje • Putiš • Ravan • Skradno • Solakovići • Strane • Stubica • Šudine • Turići i Zarače.
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Cuba
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, (i/ˈkjuːbə/; Spanish: República de Cuba, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa] ( listen)) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. To the north of Cuba lies the United States (140 km or 90 mi away) and the Bahamas, Mexico is to the west, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica are to the south, and Haiti and the Dominican Republic are to the southeast.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on and claimed the island now occupied by Cuba, for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba remained a territory of Spain until the Spanish–American War ended in 1898, and gained formal independence from the U.S. in 1902. A fragile democracy, increasingly dominated by radical politics eventually evolved, solidified by the Cuban Constitution of 1940, but was definitely quashed in 1952 by former president Fulgencio Batista, and an authoritarian regime was set up, intensifying and catalyzing already rampant corruption, political repression and crippling economic regulations.Batista was ousted in January 1959 by the July 26 movement, and a new administration under Fidel Castro established, which had by 1965 evolved into a single-party state under the revived Communist Party of Cuba, which holds power to date.
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Dubai
Dubai (/duːˈbaɪ/ doo-BY; Arabic: دبيّ Dubeii; IPA: [du'beii]) is an emirate within the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A city within the emirate is also named Dubai. The emirate is located south east of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature. Dubai City is located on the emirate's northern coastline.
The earliest mention of Dubai is in 1095, and the earliest settlement known as Dubai town dates from 1799. Dubai was formally established in 1833 by Sheikh Maktoum bin Buti al Maktoum when he persuaded 800 members of the Bani Yas tribe, living in what is now part of Saudi Arabia, to follow him to the Dubai Creek by the Al Abu Falasa clan of Bani Yas. It remained under clan control when the United Kingdom assumed the protection of Dubai in 1892. Its geographical location made it an important trading hub and by the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
wn.com/Iran -
Iraq
Iraq (/ɪˈræk/ or
i/ɪˈrɑːk/; Arabic: العراق al-‘Irāq); officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: 
جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūriyyat al-‘Irāq), is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.
Iraq borders Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, Iran to the east, Jordan to the southwest and Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south. Iraq has a narrow section of coastline measuring 58 km (36 mi) on the northern Persian Gulf. The capital city, Baghdad is in the center-east of the country.
Two major rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, run through the center of Iraq, flowing from northwest to southeast. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the steppe and desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.
Historically, Iraq was the center of the Abbasid Arabic Islamic Empire. Iraq has been known to the west by the Greek toponym 'Mesopotamia' (Land between the rivers) and has been home to continuous successive civilizations since the 6th millennium BC. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is often referred to as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing, law and the wheel. At different periods in its history, Iraq was the center of the indigenous Akkadian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and Abbasid empires. It was also part of the Achaemenid, Hellenistic, Parthian, Sassanid, Roman, Rashidun, Umayyad, Mongol, Safavid, Afsharid, and Ottoman empires, and under British control as a League of Nations mandate.
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Kiseljak
Kiseljak is a small town and municipality in central Bosnia and Herzegovina, located northwest of Sarajevo and south of Zenica. Kiseljak lies in the valley of the Fojnica River, the Lepenica and the Kreševka River, which are a tributary of the Bosna, and it is on the intersection of roads from Visoko, Fojnica, Kreševo and Rakovica. It is administratively part of the Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Azapovići • Badnje • Behrići • Bilalovac • Bliznice • Boljkovići • Borina • Brizje • Brnjaci • Bukovica • Buzuci • Čalikovac • Čizma • Čubren • Datići • Demići • Devetaci • Doci • Donji Palež • Draževići • Dubrave • Dugo Polje • Duhri • Duke • Gaj • Gojakovac • Gomionica • Gornji Palež • Gradac • Grahovci • Gromiljak • Gunjače • Hadrovci • Han Ploča • Hercezi • Homolj • Hrastovi • Ivica • Jehovac • Katunište • Kazagići • Kiseljak • Kotačala • Kovači • Krčevine • Križići • Kuliješ • Lug • Ljetovik • Mahala Gomionica • Mahala Višnjica • Male Sotnice • Markovići • Maslinovići • Medovci • Medovići • Miroševići • Mrakovi • Odrače • Paretak • Pariževići • Pobrđe Milodraž • Pobrđe Orahovo • Podastinje • Podastinjsko Brdo • Polje Višnjica • Potkraj • Radanovići • Radeljevići • Rauševac • Rotilj • Solakovići • Stojkovići • Svinjarevo • Šahinovići • Toplica • Tulica • Velike Sotnice • Višnjica • Zabrđe • Završje • Žeželovo
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Lebanon
Lebanon (i/ˈlɛbənɒn/ or /ˈlɛbənən/; Arabic: لبنان Libnān or Lubnān, Lebanese Arabic: [lɪbˈneːn]), officially the Lebanese Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية al-Jumhūrīyah al-Libnānīyah, Lebanese Arabic: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje l.ˈlɪbneːnɪjje]), is a country in the East Mediterranean. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland has dictated its rich history, and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.
The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than 7,000 years—predating recorded history. Lebanon was the home of the Phoenicians, a maritime culture that flourished for nearly 2,500 years (3000–539 BC). Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, the five provinces that comprise modern Lebanon were mandated to France. The French expanded the borders of Mount Lebanon, which was mostly populated by Maronite Catholics and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, and established a unique political system, known as confessionalism, a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities – Bechara El Khoury who became independent Lebanon's first President and Riad El-Solh, who became Lebanon's first prime minister, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. French troops withdrew from Lebanon in 1946.
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Mostar
Mostar is a city and municipality in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the largest and one of the most important cities in the Herzegovina region and the center of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation. Mostar is situated on the Neretva river and is the fifth-largest city in the country. Mostar was named after the bridge keepers (natively: mostari) who in the medieval times guarded the Stari Most (Old Bridge) over Neretva river. The Old Bridge, built by the Ottomans in the 16th century, is one of the city's most recognizable landmarks.
Human settlements on the river Neretva, between the Hum Hill and the Velež Mountain, have existed since prehistory, as witnessed by discoveries of fortified enceintes and cemeteries. Evidence of Roman occupation was discovered beneath the present town.
As far as the medieval Mostar goes, although the Christian basilicas of late antiquity remained in use, few historical sources were preserved and not much is known about this period. The name of Mostar was first mentioned in a document dating from 1474, taking its name from the bridge-keepers (mostari); this refers to the existence of a wooden bridge from the market on the left bank of the river which was used by traders, soldiers, and other travelers. During this time it was also the seat of a kadiluk (district with a regional judge). Since Mostar was on the trade route between the Adriatic and the mineral-rich regions of central Bosnia, the settlement began to spread to the right bank of the river.
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Nicaragua
Nicaragua (i/ˌnɪkəˈrɑːɡwə/ nik-ə-RAH-gwə), officially the Republic of Nicaragua (Spanish: República de Nicaragua [reˈpuβlika ðe nikaˈɾaɣwa] ( listen)), is the largest country in the Central American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean lies to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east. The country's physical geography divides it into three major zones: Pacific lowlands; wet, cooler central highlands; and the Caribbean lowlands. On the Pacific side of the country are the two largest fresh water lakes in Central America—Lake Managua and Lake Nicaragua. Surrounding these lakes and extending to their northwest along the rift valley of the Gulf of Fonseca are fertile lowland plains, with soil highly enriched by ash from nearby volcanoes of the central highlands. Nicaragua's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contribute to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot.
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Prague
Prague ( /ˈprɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha pronounced [ˈpraɦa] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and fourteenth largest city in European Union. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of nearly 2.0 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100 year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic and Renaissance eras, Prague was the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus then also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in modern history generally as the principal conurbation in Bohemia and Moravia whose second city is Brno.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia (i/ˌsaʊdi əˈreɪbi.ə/ or i/ˌsɔːdiː əˈreɪbi.ə/; Arabic: السعودية as-Su‘ūdīyah[citation needed] or incorrectly as-Sa‘ūdīyah, officially known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arabic: المملكة العربية السعودية al-Mamlakah al-‘Arabīyah as-Su‘ūdīyah Arabic pronunciation (help·info)), is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab world, after Algeria. It is bordered by Jordan, and Iraq on the north and northeast, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates on the east, Oman on the southeast, and Yemen on the south. The Red Sea lies to its west, and the Persian Gulf lies to the east. Saudi Arabia has an area of approximately 2,250,000 km2 (870,000 sq mi), and it has an estimated population of 27 million, of which 9 million are registered foreign expatriates and an estimated 2 million are illegal immigrants. Saudi nationals comprise an estimated 16 million people.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded by Abdul-Aziz bin Saud (known for most of his career as Ibn Saud) in 1932, although the conquests which eventually led to the creation of the Kingdom began in 1902 when he captured Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the House of Saud, referred to in Arabic as the Al Saud. The Saudi Arabian government, which has been an absolute monarchy since its inception, refers to its system of government as being Islamic, though this is contested by many due to its strong basis in Salafism, a minority school of thought in Islam. The kingdom is sometimes called "The Land of the Two Holy Mosques" in reference to Al-Masjid al-Haram (in Mecca), and Al-Masjid al-Nabawi (in Medina), the two holiest places in Islam.
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Singapore
Singapore (i/ˈsɪŋəpɔər/ SI-ngə-pohr), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. Singapore is highly urbanised but almost half of the country is covered by greenery. More land is being created for development through land reclamation.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Taiwan
Taiwan (i/ˌtaɪˈwɑːn/ TY-WAHN; Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣; pinyin: Táiwān; see below), officially the Republic of China (ROC; Chinese: 中華民國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó), is a state in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China now governs the island of Taiwan (formerly known as Formosa), which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu, and other minor islands. Neighboring states include the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east and northeast, and the Philippines to the south. Taipei is the capital city and economic and cultural centre of the country, and New Taipei is the most populous city.
The earliest evidence of inhabitation of Taiwan dates back to the late Paleolithic era. The island of Taiwan was mainly inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines before being colonized in the 17th century by the Dutch and the Spanish Empire. The first Han Chinese polity on Taiwan began when Koxinga's troops defeated Dutch forces and established the Kingdom of Tungning. The island was subsequently ruled by the Qing Dynasty after the kingdom's defeat in the Battle of Penghu in 1683, a period that lasted for over 200 years. Following Japan's victory over the Qing Dynasty in the first Sino-Japanese war, Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki in 1895.
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Tehran
Tehran ( pronunciation (help·info)) (Persian: تهران Tehrān; pronounced [tehˈɾɒːn]), sometimes spelled Teheran, is the capital of Iran and Tehran Province. With an estimated population of 8,429,807; it is also Iran's largest urban area and city, the largest city in Western Asia, one of the largest in Southern Asia, and the 19th-largest city globally.
In the 20th century, Tehran was subject to mass-migration of people from all around Iran. The city is home to many historic mosques, churches, synagogues and Zoroastrian fire temples. Contemporary Tehran is a modern city featuring many structures, of which the Azadi (Freedom) Tower and the Milad Tower have come to be symbols of Tehran itself. In 2008 Tehran was the least expensive capital in the world and the second-least expensive city globally based on the cost-of-living index presenting the best value for money in the world. Globally it stands 19th by city population, 56th by the size of its GDP and 29th by the population of its metropolitan area. Throughout Iran's history, the capital city has been relocated many times, with Tehran being the 32nd national capital of Iran. Persian is the city's native tongue, with roughly 98% of the population able to speak and understand it. The majority of people in Tehran identify themselves as Persians. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, Tehran was called Ray (which in the Avesta occurs in the form of Ragha)[citation needed].
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
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Alan Ross Anderson
Alan Ross Anderson (1925 – 1973) was an American logician and professor of philosophy at Yale University and the University of Pittsburgh.
A frequent collaborator with Nuel Belnap, Anderson was instrumental in the development of relevance logic and deontic logic.
Anderson died of cancer in 1973.
Anderson believed that the conclusion of a valid inference ought to have something to do with (i.e. be relevant to) the premises. Formally, he captured this "relevance condition" with the principle that
As simple as this idea appears, implementing it in a formal system requires a radical departure from the semantics of classical logic. Anderson and Belnap (with contributions from J. Michael Dunn, Kit Fine, Alasdair Urquhart, Robert K. Meyer, Anil Gupta (logician), and others) explored the formal consequences of the relevance condition in great detail in their influential Entailment books (see references below), which are the most frequently cited works in the field of relevance logic.
Anderson and Belnap were quick to observe that the concept of relevance had been central to logic since Aristotle, but had been unduly neglected since Gottlob Frege and George Boole laid the foundations for what would come to be known, somewhat ironically, as "classical" logic. (For an example of classical logic's failure to satisfy the relevance condition, see the article on the principle of explosion.)
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Alan Turing
Alan Mathison Turing, OBE, FRS ( /ˈtjʊərɪŋ/ TEWR-ing; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954), was an English mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, and computer scientist. He was highly influential in the development of computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of "algorithm" and "computation" with the Turing machine, which played a significant role in the creation of the modern computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of computer science and artificial intelligence.
During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GCCS) at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre. For a time he was head of Hut 8, the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the bombe, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine.
After the war he worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he created one of the first designs for a stored-program computer, the ACE. In 1948 Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Laboratory at Manchester University, where he assisted in the development of the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. He wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis, and he predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, which were first observed in the 1960s.
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Albanians
Albanians (Albanian: Shqiptarët) are an ethnic group native to Albania and neighbouring countries. In the context of an ethnicity, they are commonly referred to as ethnic Albanians to distinguish the group from the use of the term Albanians as referring to citizens of Albania. They speak the Albanian language. More than half of all Albanians live in Albania and Kosovo. The Albanian diaspora also exists in a number of other countries.
While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does hark back to Classical Antiquity, the name was lost within the Albanian language, the Albanian endonym being shqiptar, from the term for the Albanian language, shqip, a derivation of the verb shqiptoj "to utilize a correct Albanian pronunciation ". This theory pertains to Hahn and it holds that perhaps the word is ultimately a loan from Latin excipio. Thus, the Albanian endonym, like Slav and others, is in origin a term for "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]". However another plausible theory has been advanced by Maximilian Lambertz to explain the endonym as derived from the Albanian noun shqype or shqiponjë (eagle), which, according to Albanian folk etymology, denoted a bird totem dating from the times of Skanderbeg, as displayed on the Albanian flag.
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Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta, Canada) is a psychologist, the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. Over almost six decades, he has been responsible for contributions to many fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy and personality psychology, and was also influential in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory and the theory of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment.
A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time, behind B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget, and as the most cited living one. Bandura is widely described as the greatest living psychologist, and as one of the most influential psychologists of all time.
In 2008 Bandura won the Grawemeyer Award in psychology.
Bandura was born in Mundare, in Alberta, a small town of roughly four hundred inhabitants, as the youngest child, and only son, in a family of eight. The limitations of education in a remote town such as this caused Bandura to become independent and self-motivated in terms of learning, and these primarily developed traits proved very helpful in his lengthy career. Bandura is of Ukrainian and Polish descent.
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Aldous Huxley
Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. Best known for his novels including Brave New World and a wide-ranging output of essays, Huxley also edited the magazine Oxford Poetry, and published short stories, poetry, travel writing, film stories and scripts. Huxley spent the later part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death.
Aldous Huxley was a humanist, pacifist, and satirist, and he was latterly interested in spiritual subjects such as parapsychology and philosophical mysticism. He is also well known for advocating and taking psychedelics.
By the end of his life Huxley was widely recognized to be one of the pre-eminent intellectuals of his time and respected as an important researcher into visual communication and sight-related theories as well.
Aldous Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, UK, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphrey Ward. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan (1891–1914), who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression.
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Alexander Bain
Alexander Bain (11 June 1818 – 18 September 1903) was a Scottish philosopher and educationalist in the British school of empiricism who was a prominent and innovative figure in the fields of psychology, linguistics, logic, moral philosophy and education reform. He founded Mind, the first ever journal of psychology and analytical philosophy, and was the leading figure in establishing and applying applying the scientific method to psychology. Bain was the inaugural Regius Chair in Logic and Professor of Logic at the University of Aberdeen, where he also held Professorships in Moral Philosophy and English Literature and was twice elected Lord Rector of the University of Aberdeen.
Alexander Bain was born in Aberdeen, Scotland to George Bain, a weaver and veteran soldier, and Margaret Paul. At age eleven he left school to work as a weaver hence the description of him as Weevir, rex philosophorum. He also took to lectures at the Mechanics' Institutes of Aberdeen and the Aberdeen Public Library.
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Alfred McClung Lee
Alfred McClung Lee (August 23, 1906 – May 19, 1992) was an American sociologist whose research included studies of American journalism, propaganda, and race relations.
Lee was born in Oakmont, Pennsylvania in 1906. He obtained an undergraduate (1927) and masters degree (1931) at the University of Pittsburgh and a Ph.D. from Yale University (1933).
Lee's first book was The Daily Newspaper in America, The Evolution of a Social Instrument in 1937, which examined the development and influence of American newspapers.The Fine Art of Propaganda (1939) (co-authored with his wife Elizabeth Briant Lee) examined the speeches of Father Coughlin.
Among his academic appointments, Lee served as chair of the Sociology and Anthropology departments at Wayne University from 1942-47, and as chair of the Sociology and Anthropology department at Brooklyn College from 1951-1957. He also served as president of the American Sociological Association (1976-77).
Lee died of congestive heart failure at his home in Madison, New Jersey, on May 19, 1992.
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Alfred Tarski
Alfred Tarski (January 14, 1901 – October 26, 1983) was a Polish logician and mathematician. Educated at the University of Warsaw and a member of the Lwow-Warsaw School of Logic and the Warsaw School of Mathematics and philosophy, he emigrated to the USA in 1939, and taught and carried out research in mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley, from 1942 until his death.
A prolific author best known for his work on model theory, metamathematics, and algebraic logic, he also contributed to abstract algebra, topology, geometry, measure theory, mathematical logic, set theory, and analytic philosophy.
His biographers Anita and Solomon Feferman state that, "Along with his contemporary, Kurt Gödel, he changed the face of logic in the twentieth century, especially through his work on the concept of truth and the theory of models."
Alfred Tarski was born Alfred Teitelbaum (Polish spelling: "Tajtelbaum"), to parents who were Polish Jews in comfortable circumstances. He first manifested his mathematical abilities while in secondary school, at Warsaw's Szkoła Mazowiecka. Nevertheless, he entered the University of Warsaw in 1918 intending to study biology.
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Alonzo Church
Alonzo Church (June 14, 1903 – August 11, 1995) was an American mathematician and logician who made major contributions to mathematical logic and the foundations of theoretical computer science. He is best known for the lambda calculus, Church–Turing thesis, solving the Entscheidungsproblem, Frege–Church ontology, and the Church–Rosser theorem.
Alonzo Church was born on June 14, 1903 in Washington, D.C. where his father, Samuel Robbins Church, was the judge of the Municipal Court for the District of Columbia. The family later moved to Virginia after his father lost this position because of failing eyesight. With help from his uncle, also named Alonzo Church, he was able to attend the Ridgefield School for Boys in Ridgefield, Connecticut. After graduating from Ridgefield in 1920, Church attended Princeton University where he was an exceptional student, publishing his first paper, on Lorentz transformations, and graduating in 1924 with a degree in mathematics. He stayed at Princeton, earning a Ph.D. in mathematics in three years under Oswald Veblen.
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Aristotle
Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Ἀριστοτέλης, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality, aesthetics, logic, science, politics, and metaphysics.
Aristotle's views on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the zoological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the 19th century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism had a profound influence on philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions in the Middle Ages, and it continues to influence Christian theology, especially the scholastic tradition of the Catholic Church. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.
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Augustus De Morgan
Augustus De Morgan (27 June 1806 – 18 March 1871) was a British mathematician and logician. He formulated De Morgan's laws and introduced the term mathematical induction, making its idea rigorous. The crater De Morgan on the Moon is named after him.
Augustus De Morgan was born in 1806. His father was Col. Augustus De Morgan, who held various appointments in the service of the East India Company. His mother descended from James Dodson, who computed a table of anti-logarithms, that is, the numbers corresponding to exact logarithms. Augustus De Morgan became blind in one eye a month or two after he was born. The family moved to England when Augustus was seven months old. As his father and grandfather had both been born in India, De Morgan used to say that he was neither English, nor Scottish, nor Irish, but a Briton "unattached", using the technical term applied to an undergraduate of Oxford or Cambridge who is not a member of any one of the Colleges.
When De Morgan was ten years old, his father died. Mrs. De Morgan resided at various places in the southwest of England, and her son received his elementary education at various schools of no great account. His mathematical talents went unnoticed until he was fourteen, when a family-friend discovered him making an elaborate drawing of a figure in Euclid with ruler and compasses. She explained the aim of Euclid to Augustus, and gave him an initiation into demonstration.
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Averroes
ʾAbū l-Walīd Muḥammad bin ʾAḥmad bin Rušd (Arabic: أبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد), better known just as Ibn Rushd (Arabic: ابن رشد), and in European literature as Averroes ( /əˈvɛroʊ.iːz/; April 14, 1126 – December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian Muslim polymath; a master of Aristotelian philosophy, Islamic philosophy, Islamic theology, Maliki law and jurisprudence, logic, psychology, politics, Arabic music theory, and the sciences of medicine, astronomy, geography, mathematics, physics and celestial mechanics. He was born in Córdoba, Al Andalus, modern-day Spain, and died in Marrakesh, Morocco. His school of philosophy is known as Averroism.
Ibn Rushd was a defender of Aristotelian philosophy against claims from the influential Islamic theologian Ghazali who attacked philosophy so it would not become an affront to the teachings of Islam.
Averroes' name is also seen as Averroës, Averroès or Averrhoës, indicating that the "o" and the "e" form separate syllables. Averroes is a Latinisation of a Hebrew transcription of the Arab name Ibn Rushd.
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Avicenna
Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Sīnā (Persian پورسينا Pur Sina [ˈpuːr ˈsiːnɑː] "son of Sina"; c. 980, Afshana near Bukhara– 1037, Hamadan, Iran), commonly known as Ibn Sīnā or by his Latinized name Avicenna, was a Persianpolymath, who wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.
His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine, which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities. The Canon of Medicine was used as a text-book in the universities of Montpellier and Leuven as late as 1650. Ibn Sīnā's Canon of Medicine provides a complete system of medicine according to the principles of Galen (and Hippocrates).
His corpus also includes writing on philosophy, astronomy, alchemy, geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, as well as poetry. He is regarded as the most famous and influential polymath of the Islamic Golden Age.
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Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these in any profound sense. He was born in Monmouthshire, into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in Britain.
Russell led the British "revolt against idealism" in the early 20th century. He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege and his friend Ludwig Wittgenstein, and is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. He co-authored, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." His work has had a considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics, computer science (see type theory and type system), and philosophy, especially philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
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Bosniaks
The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bosnian: Bošnjak, pl: Bošnjaci, pronounced [bɔːˈʃɲaːtsi]) are a South Slavic ethnic group, living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a smaller minority also present in other lands of the Balkan Peninsula especially in Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. Bosniaks are typically characterized by their historic tie to the Bosnian historical region, traditional adherence to Islam since the 15th and 16th centuries, common culture and language. In the English-speaking world, Bosniaks are also referred to as Bosnian Muslims or simply Bosnians. Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an official ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam. The term Bosnian is used to denote all inhabitants of Bosnia regardless of ethnic origin.
Bosniaks are a South Slavic people. Nonetheless, it has been proposed, based on genetic signatures, that their roots also date back to pre-Slavic inhabitants of the Dinaric region, effectively predating many modern European homogenous ethnic groups. There are well over two million Bosniaks living in the Balkans today, with an estimated additional million settled and living around the world.[citation needed] Several instances of ethnic cleansing and genocide have had a tremendous effect on the territorial distribution of the population. Partially due to this,[citation needed] a notable Bosniak diaspora exists in a number of countries, including Austria, Germany, Australia, Sweden, Turkey, Canada and the United States. Both within the region and throughout the world, Bosniaks are often noted for their unique culture, which has been influenced by both eastern and western civilizations and schools of thought over the course of their history.
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Branford Clarke
Branford Clarke (March 18, 1885 – July 7, 1947) was an Evangelical preacher, poet and artist who promoted the Ku Klux Klan through his art which was drawn for the Pillar of Fire Church and their publications.
He was born on March 18, 1885 in London, England. His brother was a Member of Parliament. In the 1920s he converted a Model T into a mobile chapel. He was pastor of the Pillar of Fire Church in Brooklyn, New York for at least several years. From about 1925 to 1928 he illustrated numerous religious and political publications for the Pillar of Fire Church in partnership with Bishop Alma White, the church's founder and leader. Many of his illustrations supported Bishop White's writings by attacking various minorities including Catholics, Jews, and US immigrants and by promoting the Ku Klux Klan.
He died on July 7, 1947 and was buried in the Pillar of Fire cemetery in Zarephath, New Jersey. His epitaph reads "The Cross he bore, through years of service bound, on yonder shore in recompense is found, The Crown."
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Chanakya
Chānakya (Sanskrit: चाणक्य Cāṇakya) (c. 370–283 BCE) was a teacher to the first Maurya Emperor Chandragupta (c. 340–293 BCE) - the first emperor in the archaeologically recorded history to rule the complete Indian Subcontinent. Chanakya is generally considered to be the architect of Chandragupta's rise to power at a young age. Traditionally, he is also identified by the names Kautilya and Vishnu Gupta, who authored the ancient Indian political treatise called Arthaśāstra. Chanakya is considered as the pioneer of the field of economics and political science and his work is thought of as an important precursor to Classical Economics. Chanakya's works predate Machiavelli's by about 1,800 years. Chanakya was a teacher in Takṣhaśhila, now in Pakistan, an ancient centre of learning, and was responsible for the creation of Mauryan empire, the first of its kind on the Indian subcontinent. His works were lost near the end of the Gupta dynasty and not rediscovered until 1915.
Chanakya's birthplace is a matter of controversy, and there are multiple theories about his origin. According to some scholars he was born in a family of Brahmin as the son of Acharya Chanak in Patliputra (near present-day Patna), the capital of Magadh.[citation needed] According to Jaina accounts, Chānakya was born in the village of Patliputra, a (maithil) Brahmin couple. According to the Buddhist text Mahavamsa Tika, his birthplace was Patliputra. The Jain scriptures like Adbidhana Chintamani mention his birth place as South India possibly present-day Kerala.
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Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान Hindi: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान), (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320 BCE, – 298 BCE) was the founder of the Maurya Empire. He succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent and is considered the first unifier of India as well as its first genuine emperor. In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokyptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or Androcottus.
Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated the northwestern subcontinent, while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the middle and lower basin of the Ganges. After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and Assam in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan,some part of the easten and south-east Iran in the west, to Kashmir and Nepal in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. Tradition holds that Chandragupta abdicated his throne to become a monk and led such an ascetic life that he starved himself to death. Whether or not this is factually accurate, he was succeeded by his son in 298 BC.
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Chrysippus
Chrysippus of Soli (Ancient Greek: Χρύσιππος ὁ Σολεύς, Chrysippos ho Soleus; c. 279 BC – c. 206 BC) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was a native of Soli, Cilicia, but moved to Athens as a young man, where he became a pupil of Cleanthes in the Stoic school. When Cleanthes died, around 230 BC, Chrysippus became the third head of the school. A prolific writer, Chrysippus expanded the fundamental doctrines of Zeno of Citium, the founder of the school, which earned him the title of Second Founder of Stoicism.
Chrysippus excelled in logic, the theory of knowledge, ethics and physics. He created an original system of propositional logic in order to better understand the workings of the universe and role of humanity within it. He adhered to a deterministic view of fate, but nevertheless sought a role for personal freedom in thought and action. Ethics, he taught, depended on understanding the nature of the universe, and he taught a therapy of extirpating the unruly passions which depress and crush the soul. He initiated the success of Stoicism as one of the most influential philosophical movements for centuries in the Greek and Roman world.
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Cordwainer Smith
Cordwainer Smith – pronounced CORDwainer – was the pseudonym used by American author Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger (July 11, 1913–August 6, 1966) for his science fiction works. Linebarger was a noted East Asia scholar and expert in psychological warfare. ("Cordwainer" is an archaic word for "A worker in cordwain or cordovan leather; a shoemaker", and a "smith" is "One who works in iron or other metals; esp. a blacksmith or farrier": two kinds of skilled workers with traditional materials.)
Linebarger also employed the literary pseudonyms "Carmichael Smith" (for his political thriller Atomsk), "Anthony Bearden" (for his poetry) and "Felix C. Forrest" (for the novels Ria and Carola).
Linebarger was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. His father was Paul M. W. Linebarger, a lawyer and political activist with close ties to the leaders of the Chinese revolution of 1911. As a result of those connections, Linebarger's godfather was Sun Yat-sen, considered the father of Chinese nationalism.
As a child, Linebarger was blinded in his right eye; the vision in his remaining eye was impaired by infection. His father moved his family to France and then Germany while Sun Yat-sen was struggling against contentious warlords in China. As a result, Linebarger was familiar with six languages by adulthood.
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Croats
Croats (Croatian: Hrvati) are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have migrated throughout the world, and established a notable Croatian diaspora. Large Croat communities exists in The United States, Chile, Argentina, Germany, Austria, Australia, Peru, Canada, Serbia, New Zealand and South Africa. Croats are noted for their culture, which has been influenced by a number of other neighbouring cultures through the ages. The strongest influences came from Central Europe and the Mediterranean where, at the same time, Croats have made their own contribution. The Croats are predominantly Catholic with minor groups of Protestants, Muslims, Orthodox, Jews and secular non religious atheists and agnostics. Their language is Croatian.
Croatia is the nation state of the Croats, while in the adjacent Bosnia and Herzegovina they are one of the three constituent peoples alongside Bosniaks and Serbs.
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David Hilbert
David Hilbert, FRS (German pronunciation: [ˈdaːvɪt ˈhɪlbɐt]; January 23, 1862 – February 14, 1943) was a German mathematician. He is recognized as one of the most influential and universal mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. Hilbert discovered and developed a broad range of fundamental ideas in many areas, including invariant theory and the axiomatization of geometry. He also formulated the theory of Hilbert spaces, one of the foundations of functional analysis.
Hilbert adopted and warmly defended Georg Cantor's set theory and transfinite numbers. A famous example of his leadership in mathematics is his 1900 presentation of a collection of problems that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century.
Hilbert and his students contributed significantly to establishing rigor and developed important tools used in modern mathematical physics. Hilbert is known as one of the founders of proof theory and mathematical logic, as well as for being among the first to distinguish between mathematics and metamathematics.
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Diego Rivera
Diego María de la Concepción Juan Nepomuceno Estanislao de la Rivera y Barrientos Acosta y Rodríguez (December 8, 1886 – November 24, 1957) better known simply as Diego Rivera was a prominent Mexican painter born in Guanajuato, Guanajuato, and husband of Frida Kahlo (1929–1939 and 1940–1954). His large wall works in fresco helped establish the Mexican Mural Movement in Mexican art. Between 1922 and 1953, Rivera painted murals among others in Mexico City, Chapingo, Cuernavaca, San Francisco, Detroit, and New York City. In 1931, a retrospective exhibition of his works was held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.
Diego Rivera was born in Guanajuato, Guanajuato, to a well-to-do family. Rivera was descended from Spanish nobility on his father's side. Diego had a twin brother named Carlos, who died two years after they were born. From the age of ten, Rivera studied art at the Academy of San Carlos in Mexico City. He was sponsored to continue study in Europe by Teodoro A. Dehesa Méndez, the governor of the State of Veracruz. His mother was a Converso, a Jew whose ancestors had been forced to convert to Catholicism. Speaking about himself, Rivera wrote in 1935 "My Jewishness is the dominant element in my life.
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Dijana Čuljak
Dijana Čuljak is a Croatian television host. She began to work as a reporter for Croatian Radiotelevision during the Croat-Bosniak war. Later, she started to host Motrišta Show characterized by its unreserved support for Franjo Tuđman's regime. She was also an editor of Otvoreno talk show. Today she is a news editor on Croatian Radiotelevision. Her role in 1993 Vranica case is by many Bosniaks and Croats considered controversial. Vranica case was a massacre committed by Croatian forces during the HVO attack on Bosniak population in Mostar in May 1993.
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Duns Scotus
John (Johannes, Ioannes) Duns Scotus, O.F.M. (c. 1256 – November 18, 1308) was one of the more important theologians and philosophers of the High Middle Ages. He was given the medieval accolade Doctor Subtilis (Subtle Doctor) for his penetrating and subtle manner of thought.
Scotus has had considerable influence on Roman Catholic thought. The doctrines for which he is best known are the "univocity of being," that existence is the most abstract concept we have, applicable to everything that exists; the formal distinction, a way of distinguishing between different aspects of the same thing; and the idea of haecceity, the property supposed to be in each individual thing that makes it an individual. Scotus also developed a complex argument for the existence of God, and argued for the Immaculate conception of Mary.
Little is known of Scotus' life. He was probably born in 1265, probably at Duns, in Berwickshire, Scotland. In 1291 he was ordained as a priest in Northampton, England. A note in Codex 66 of Merton College, Oxford, records that Scotus "flourished at Cambridge, Oxford and Paris. He began lecturing on Peter Lombard's Sentences at the prestigious University of Paris in the Autumn of 1302. Later in that academic year, however, he was expelled from the University of Paris for siding with then Pope Boniface VIII in his feud with Philip the Fair of France, over the taxation of church property.
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Edith Cavell
Edith Louisa Cavell ( /ˈkævəl/; 4 December 1865 – 12 October 1915) was a British nurse and patriot. She is celebrated for saving the lives of soldiers from all sides without distinction and in helping some 200 Allied soldiers escape from German-occupied Belgium during World War I, for which she was arrested. She was subsequently court-martialled, found guilty of treason and sentenced to death. Despite international pressure for mercy, she was shot by a German firing squad. Her execution received worldwide condemnation and extensive press coverage.
She is well known for her statement that "patriotism is not enough." Her strong Anglican beliefs propelled her to help all those who needed it, both German and Allied soldiers. She was quoted as saying, "I can’t stop while there are lives to be saved". Cavell was also an influential pioneer of modern nursing in Belgium.
Edith Cavell was born on 4 December 1865 in Swardeston, a village near Norwich, where her father, the Reverend Frederick Cavell, was vicar for 45 years. She was the eldest of four children and was taught to always share with the less fortunate, despite her family’s meagre earnings. After a period as a governess, including for a family in Brussels 1900 -1905, she trained as a nurse at the London Hospital under Matron Eva Luckes. In 1907, Cavell was recruited by Dr. Antoine Depage to be matron of a newly established nursing school by the name of L'École Belge d’Infirmières Diplômées on the Rue de la Culture in Brussels. By 1910, "Miss Cavell 'felt that the profession of nursing had gained sufficient foothold in Belgium to warrant the publishing of a professional journal,' and therefore launched the nursing journal, L'infirmière. A year later, she was a training nurse for three hospitals, 24 schools, and 13 kindergartens in Belgium.
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Edward Bernays
Edward Louis Bernays (November 22, 1891 – March 9, 1995), was an Austrian-American pioneer in the field of public relations and propaganda, referred to in his obituary as "the father of public relations". He combined the ideas of Gustave Le Bon and Wilfred Trotter on crowd psychology with the psychoanalytical ideas of his uncle, Sigmund Freud.
He felt this manipulation was necessary in society, which he regarded as irrational and dangerous as a result of the 'herd instinct' that Trotter had described.[citation needed]Adam Curtis's award-winning 2002 documentary for the BBC, The Century of the Self, pinpoints Bernays as the originator of modern public relations, and Bernays was named one of the 100 most influential Americans of the 20th century by Life magazine.
Born 1891 in Vienna to Jewish parents, Bernays was a double nephew of psychoanalysis pioneer Sigmund Freud. His father was Ely Bernays, brother of Freud's wife Martha Bernays. His mother was Freud's sister, Anna. In 1892 his family moved to New York City, where he attended DeWitt Clinton High School. In 1912 he graduated from Cornell University with a degree in agriculture, but chose journalism as his first career. He married Doris E. Fleischman in 1922.[citation needed]
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Ernst Schröder
Ernst Schröder (25 November 1841, Mannheim, Baden, Germany – 16 June 1902, Karlsruhe, Germany) was a German mathematician mainly known for his work on algebraic logic. He is a major figure in the history of mathematical logic (a term he may have invented), by virtue of summarizing and extending the work of George Boole, Augustus De Morgan, Hugh MacColl, and especially Charles Peirce. He is best known for his monumental Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik (Lectures on the algebra of logic), in 3 volumes, which prepared the way for the emergence of mathematical logic as a separate discipline in the twentieth century by systematizing the various systems of formal logic of the day.
Schröder learned mathematics at Heidelberg, Königsberg, and Zürich, under Hesse, Kirchhoff, and Franz Neumann. After teaching school for a few years, he moved to the Technische Hochschule Darmstadt in 1874. Two years later, he took up a chair in mathematics at the Polytechnische Schule in Karlsruhe, where he spent the remainder of his life. He never married.
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Ernst Zermelo
Ernst Friedrich Ferdinand Zermelo (German: [ʦɛrˈmeːlo]; 1871–1953) was a German mathematician, whose work has major implications for the foundations of mathematics and hence on philosophy.[citation needed] He is known for his role in developing Zermelo–Fraenkel axiomatic set theory and his proof of the well-ordering theorem.
He graduated from Berlin's Luisenstädtisches Gymnasium in 1889. He then studied mathematics, physics and philosophy at the universities of Berlin, Halle and Freiburg. He finished his doctorate in 1894 at the University of Berlin, awarded for a dissertation on the calculus of variations (Untersuchungen zur Variationsrechnung). Zermelo remained at the University of Berlin, where he was appointed assistant to Planck, under whose guidance he began to study hydrodynamics. In 1897, Zermelo went to Göttingen, at that time the leading centre for mathematical research in the world, where he completed his habilitation thesis in 1899.
In 1910, Zermelo left Göttingen upon being appointed to the chair of mathematics at Zurich University, which he resigned in 1916. He was appointed to an honorary chair at Freiburg im Breisgau in 1926, which he resigned in 1935 because he disapproved of Hitler's regime. At the end of World War II and at his request, Zermelo was reinstated to his honorary position in Freiburg.
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Gabriel Tarde
Jean-Gabriel De Tarde or Gabriel Tarde in short (12 March 1843, Sarlat-la-Canéda, Dordogne – 13 May 1904, Paris) French sociologist, criminologist and social psychologist who conceived sociology as based on small psychological interactions among individuals (much as if it were chemistry), the fundamental forces being imitation and innovation.
Among the concepts that Tarde initiated were the group mind (taken up and developed by Gustave Le Bon, and sometimes advanced to explain so-called herd behaviour or crowd psychology), and economic psychology, where he anticipated a number of modern developments. However, Émile Durkheim's sociology overshadowed Tarde's insights, and it wasn't until U.S. scholars, such as the Chicago school, took up his theories that they became famous.
Tarde took interest in criminology and the psychological basis of criminal behavior while working as a magistrate in public service. He was critical of the concept of the atavistic criminal as developed by Cesare Lombroso. Tarde's criminological studies served as the underpinning of his later sociology.
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Georg Cantor
Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( /ˈkæntɔr/ KAN-tor; German: [ɡeˈɔʁk ˈfɛʁdinant ˈluːtvɪç ˈfiːlɪp ˈkantɔʁ]; March 3 [O.S. February 19] 1845 – January 6, 1918) was a German mathematician, best known as the inventor of set theory, which has become a fundamental theory in mathematics. Cantor established the importance of one-to-one correspondence between the members of two sets, defined infinite and well-ordered sets, and proved that the real numbers are "more numerous" than the natural numbers. In fact, Cantor's method of proof of this theorem implies the existence of an "infinity of infinities". He defined the cardinal and ordinal numbers and their arithmetic. Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact of which he was well aware.
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George Boole
George Boole ( /ˈbuːl/; 2 November 1815 – 8 December 1864) was an English-born mathematician and logician. His work was in the fields of differential equations and algebraic logic, and he is now best known as the author of The Laws of Thought. As the inventor of the prototype of what is now called Boolean logic, which became the basis of the modern digital computer, Boole is regarded in hindsight as a founder of the field of computer science. Boole said,
... no general method for the solution of questions in the theory of probabilities can be established which does not explicitly recognise ... those universal laws of thought which are the basis of all reasoning ...
George Boole's father, John Boole (1779–1848), was a tradesman in Lincoln and gave him lessons. He had an elementary school education, but little further formal and academic teaching. William Brooke, a bookseller in Lincoln, may have helped him with Latin; which he may also have learned at the school of Thomas Bainbridge. He was self-taught in modern languages. At age 16 Boole took up a junior teaching position in Doncaster, at Heigham's School, being at this point the breadwinner for his parents and three younger siblings. He taught also in Liverpool, briefly.
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George Boolos
George Stephen Boolos (September 4, 1940, New York City – May 27, 1996) was a philosopher and a mathematical logician who taught at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Boolos graduated from Princeton University in 1961 with an A.B. in mathematics. Oxford University awarded him the B.Phil in 1963. In 1966, he obtained the first Ph.D. in philosophy ever awarded by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, under the direction of Hilary Putnam. After teaching three years at Columbia University, he returned to MIT in 1969, where he spent the rest of his career until his death from cancer.
A charismatic speaker well known for his clarity and wit, he once delivered a lecture (1994b) giving an account of Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, employing only words of one syllable. At the end of his viva, Hilary Putnam asked him, "And tell us, Mr. Boolos, what does the analytical hierarchy have to do with the real world?" Without hesitating Boolos replied, "It's part of it".
An expert on puzzles of all kinds, in 1993 Boolos reached the London Regional Final of The Times crossword competition. His score was one of the highest ever recorded by an American. He wrote a paper on "the hardest logic puzzle ever"—one of many puzzles created by Raymond Smullyan.
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George Orwell
Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist and journalist. His work is marked by keen intelligence and wit, a profound awareness of social injustice, an intense opposition to totalitarianism, a passion for clarity in language and a belief in democratic socialism.
Considered perhaps the 20th century's best chronicler of English culture, Orwell wrote literary criticism, poetry, fiction and polemical journalism. He is best known for the dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) and the allegorical novella Animal Farm (1945), which together have sold more copies than any two books by any other 20th-century author. His book Homage to Catalonia (1938), an account of his experiences in the Spanish Civil War, is widely acclaimed, as are his numerous essays on politics, literature, language and culture. In 2008, The Times ranked him second on a list of "The 50 greatest British writers since 1945".
Orwell's influence on popular and political culture endures, and several of his neologisms, along with the term Orwellian—a byword for totalitarian or manipulative social practices—have entered the vernacular.
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Gerhard Gentzen
Gerhard Karl Erich Gentzen (November 24, 1909, Greifswald, Germany – August 4, 1945, Prague, Czechoslovakia) was a German mathematician and logician. He had his major contributions in the foundations of mathematics, proof theory, especially on natural deduction and sequent calculus. He died in 1945 after the Second World War, because he was deprived of food after being arrested in Prague.
Gentzen was a student of Paul Bernays at the University of Göttingen. Bernays was fired as "non-Aryan" in April 1933 and therefore Hermann Weyl formally acted as his supervisor. At great risk to his career Gentzen kept in contact with Bernays until the beginning of the Second World War. In November 1933, he joined the Sturmabteilung to pass the state exam for teachers.[citation needed] In 1935, he corresponded with Abraham Fraenkel from Jerusalem and was implicated by the Nazi teachers' union as one who "keeps contacts to the Chosen People." In 1935 and 1936, Hermann Weyl, head of the Göttingen mathematics department in 1933 until his resignation under Nazi pressure, made strong efforts to bring him to the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton.
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Giuseppe Peano
Giuseppe Peano (Italian pronunciation: [dʒuˈzɛppe peˈaːno]; 27 August 1858 – 20 April 1932) was an Italian mathematician, whose work was of philosophical value. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of mathematical logic and set theory, to which he contributed much notation. The standard axiomatization of the natural numbers is named the Peano axioms in his honor. As part of this effort, he made key contributions to the modern rigorous and systematic treatment of the method of mathematical induction. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the University of Turin.
Peano was born and raised on a farm at Spinetta, a hamlet now belonging to Cuneo, Piedmont, Italy. He attended the Liceo classico Cavour in Turin, and enrolled at the University of Turin in 1876, graduating in 1880 with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first Enrico D'Ovidio, and then Angelo Genocchi, the Chair of Infinitesimal calculus. Due to Genocchi's poor health, Peano took over the teaching of the infinitesimal calculus course within 2 years. His first major work, a textbook on calculus, was published in 1884 and was credited to Genocchi. A few years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic. Here the modern symbols for the union and intersection of sets appeared for the first time.
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Glenn Greenwald
Glenn Greenwald (born March 6, 1967) is an American lawyer, columnist, blogger, and author. Greenwald worked as a constitutional and civil rights litigator before becoming a contributor (columnist and blogger) to Salon.com, where he focuses on political and legal topics. He has also contributed to other newspapers and political news magazines, including The New York Times,The Los Angeles Times,The Guardian,The American Conservative,The National Interest, and In These Times.
Greenwald has written four books, three of which have been New York Times bestsellers: How Would a Patriot Act? (2006); A Tragic Legacy (2007), and With Liberty and Justice for Some: How the Law Is Used to Destroy Equality and Protect the Powerful, released in October 2011. He also wrote Great American Hypocrites (2008).
In March 2009, he was selected, along with Amy Goodman of Democracy Now!, as the recipient of the first annual Izzy Award by the Park Center for Independent Media, an award named after independent journalist I.F. "Izzy" Stone and devoted to rewarding excellence in independent journalism. The selection panel cited Greenwald's "pathbreaking journalistic courage and persistence in confronting conventional wisdom, official deception and controversial issues."
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Gottlob Frege
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (8 November 1848 – 26 July 1925, pronounced [ˈɡɔtloːp ˈfreːɡə ]) was a German mathematician, logician and philosopher. He is considered to be one of the founders of modern logic and made major contributions to the foundations of mathematics. He is generally considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, for his writings on the philosophy of language and mathematics. While he was mainly ignored by the intellectual world when he published his writings, Giuseppe Peano (1858–1932) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) introduced his work to later generations of logicians and philosophers.
Frege was born in 1848 in Wismar, in the state of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (the modern German federal state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). His father Carl (Karl) Alexander Frege (3 August 1809 – 30 November 1866) was the co-founder and headmaster of a girls' high school until his death. After Carl's death, the school was led by Frege's mother Auguste Wilhelmine Sophie Frege (née Bialloblotzky, 12 January 1815 – 14 October 1898).
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Gustave Le Bon
Gustave Le Bon (7 May 1841, Nogent-le-Rotrou, Eure-et-Loir – 13 December 1931) was a French social psychologist, sociologist, and amateur physicist. He was the author of several works in which he expounded theories of national traits, racial superiority, herd behavior and crowd psychology.
His work on crowd psychology became important during the first half of the twentieth century when it was used by media researchers such as Hadley Cantril and Herbert Blumer to describe the reactions of subordinate groups to media.
He also contributed to controversy about the nature of matter and energy. His book The Evolution of Matter was very popular in France (having twelve editions), and though some of its ideas—notably that all matter was inherently unstable and was constantly and slowly transforming into luminiferous ether—were used by some physicists of the time (including Henri Poincaré), his specific formulations were not given much consideration. In 1896 he reported observing a new kind of radiation, which he termed "black light" (not the same as what modern people call black light today), though it was later discovered not to exist.
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Haskell Curry
Haskell Brooks Curry (September 12, 1900 – September 1, 1982) was an American mathematician and logician. Curry is best known for his work in combinatory logic; while the initial concept of combinatory logic was based on a single paper by Moses Schönfinkel, much of the development was done by Curry. Curry is also known for Curry's paradox and the Curry–Howard correspondence. There are three programming languages named after him, Haskell, Brooks and Curry, as well as the concept of currying, a technique used for transforming functions in mathematics and computer science.
Curry was born on September 12, 1900, in Millis, Massachusetts, to Samuel Silas Curry and Anna Baright Curry, who ran a school for elocution. He entered Harvard University in 1916 to study medicine but switched to mathematics before graduating in 1920. After two years of graduate work in electrical engineering at MIT, he returned to Harvard to study physics, earning a MA in 1924. Curry's interest in mathematical logic started during this period when he was introduced to the Principia Mathematica, the attempt by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell to ground mathematics in symbolic logic. Remaining at Harvard, Curry pursued a Ph.D. in mathematics. While he was directed by George Birkhoff to work on differential equations, his interests continued to shift to logic. In 1927, while an instructor at Princeton University, he discovered the work of Moses Schönfinkel in combinatory logic. Schönfinkel's work had anticipated much of Curry's own research, and as a consequence, he moved to Göttingen where he could work with Heinrich Behmann and Paul Bernays, who were familiar with Schönfinkel's work. Curry was supervised by David Hilbert and worked closely with Bernays, receiving a Ph.D. in 1930 with a dissertation on combinatory logic.
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Hilary Putnam
Hilary Whitehall Putnam (born July 31, 1926) is an American philosopher, mathematician and computer scientist, who has been a central figure in analytic philosophy since the 1960s, especially in philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, and philosophy of science. He is known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others, subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposes its flaws. As a result, he has acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position. Putnam is currently Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University.
In philosophy of mind, Putnam is known for his argument against the type-identity of mental and physical states based on his hypothesis of the multiple realizability of the mental, and for the concept of functionalism, an influential theory regarding the mind-body problem. In philosophy of language, along with Saul Kripke and others, he developed the causal theory of reference, and formulated an original theory of meaning, inventing the notion of semantic externalism based on a famous thought experiment called Twin Earth.
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Imre Nagy
Imre Nagy (7 June 1896 – 16 June 1958) was a Hungarian communist politician who was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary on two occasions. Nagy's second term ended when his non-Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956, resulting in Nagy's execution on charges of treason two years later.
Nagy (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈnɒɟ]) was born in Kaposvár, to a peasant family and was apprenticed to a locksmith. He enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I and served on the Eastern Front. He was taken prisoner in 1915. He became a member of the Russian Communist Party, and joined the Red Army.
Nagy returned to Hungary in 1921. In 1930 he travelled to the Soviet Union and joined the communist party. He was engaged in agricultural research, and also worked in the Hungarian section of the Comintern. He was expelled from the party in 1936 and later worked for the Soviet Statistical Service. Rumours that he was an agent of the Soviet secret service surfaced later, begun by Hungarian party-leader Károly Grósz in 1989 in an attempt to discredit Nagy. There is evidence, however, that Nagy did serve as an informant for the NKVD during his time in Moscow and provided names to the secret police as a way to prove his loyalty (not an uncommon tactic for foreign communists in the Soviet Union at the time).
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Ivica Mlivončić
Ivica Mlivončić is a controversial Croatian author and columnist in Slobodna Dalmacija from Split. He became unpopular among liberal and left wing circles while working for BH Danas, a weekly newspaper based in Bosnia and Herzegovina, due to the fact he publicly attacked his colleagues who were investigating large scope war crimes and ethnic cleansing committed by the Croats on Bosniaks in the light of Karađorđevo meeting during the Bosnian war. On the other hand his popularity grew among Croatian nationalists. In his books he defends Croatia and instead attacks Bosniaks, British intelligence structures, KOS - the counter-intelligence service of the Yugoslav People's Army, Iran, Al Qaeda and sometimes other Western nations for alleged initiation and/or stimulation of the Croat-Bosniak war.
During the ICTY trials against Croat war leaders, many Croatian journalists participated as the defence witnesses trying to relativise war crimes committed by Croatian troops. During the trial against general Tihomir Blaškić (later convicted of war crimes on Bosnian Muslims), Ivica Mlivončić, tried to defend general Blaškić presenting number of false claims about alleged "genocide against Croats committed by Bosnian Muslims" in the book "Zločin s pečatom" he wrote, which Trial Chambers described as irrelevant for the case. One of the most obvious examples of war propaganda presented in the book was justification and explanation of the Stupni Do massacre committed by the Croats on Bosnian Muslim civilians. Ivica Mlivončić described the village of Stupni Do as a stronghold used by elite Bosnian Army troops with significant amount of artillery against Croatian Defence Council. However, in the verdict against Dario Kordić, ICTY found that Stupni Do was a loosely organised village; with no sign of a military build up, fortification or any sign of artillery. It was loosely protected by six Bosnian soldiers.
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Jacques Ellul
Jacques Ellul (January 6, 1912–May 19, 1994) was a French philosopher, law professor, sociologist, lay theologian, and Christian anarchist. He wrote several books about the technological society and the interaction between Christianity and politics.
A philosopher who approached technology from a dialectical viewpoint, Ellul, professor at the University of Bordeaux, authored 58 books and more than a thousand articles over his lifetime, the dominant theme of which has been the threat to human freedom and Christian faith created by modern technology. His constant concern has been the emergence of a technological tyranny over humanity. As a philosopher and lay theologian, he further explored the religiosity of the technological society.
Ellul was born in Bordeaux, France on 6 January 1912 to Marthe Mendes (Protestant; French-Portuguese) and Joseph Ellul (initially Greek Orthodox, but then Voltarian by conviction; born in Malta of an Italo-Maltese father and Serb mother). As a teenager he wanted to be a naval officer but his father made him read law. He was married to Yvette Lensvelt in 1937.
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Jon Barwise
Kenneth Jon Barwise (June 29, 1942 – March 5, 2000) was an American mathematician, philosopher and logician who proposed some fundamental revisions to the way that logic is understood and used.
Born in Independence, Missouri to Kenneth T. and Evelyn, he was a precocious child.
A pupil of Solomon Feferman at Stanford University, Barwise started his research in infinitary logic. After positions as assistant professor at the Universities of Yale and Wisconsin, during which time his interests turned to natural language, he returned to Stanford in 1983 to direct the Center for the Study of Language and Information. He began teaching at Indiana University in 1990. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1999.
Barwise contended that, by being explicit about the context in which a proposition is made, the situation, many problems in the application of logic can be eliminated. He sought ... to understand meaning and inference within a general theory of information, one that takes us outside the realm of sentences and relations between sentences of any language, natural or formal. In particular, he claimed that such an approach resolved the liar paradox. He made use of Peter Aczel's non-well-founded set theory in understanding "vicious circles" of reasoning.
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Joseph Goebbels
Dr. Paul Joseph Goebbels (help·info) (German: [ˈɡœbəls]; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. As one of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers, he was known for his zealous oratory and anti-Semitism.
Goebbels earned a Ph.D. from Heidelberg University in 1921, writing his doctoral thesis on 19th century romantic drama; he then went on to work as a journalist and later a bank clerk and caller on the stock exchange. He also wrote novels and plays, but they were rejected by publishers. Goebbels came into contact with the National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) or Nazi Party in 1923 during the French occupation of the Ruhr and became a member in 1924. He was appointed Gauleiter (regional party leader) of Berlin. In this position, he put his propaganda skills to full use, combating the local socialist and communist parties with the help of Nazi papers and the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (Brownshirts). By 1928, he had risen in the party ranks to become one of its most prominent members.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Judith Rich Harris
Judith Rich Harris (born February 10, 1938) is a psychology researcher and the author of The Nurture Assumption, a book criticizing the belief that parents are the most important factor in child development, and presenting evidence which contradicts that belief.
Harris has been a resident of Middletown Township, New Jersey.
Harris spent her early childhood moving around the USA until her parents eventually settled in Tucson, Arizona. The dry climate suited her father, who suffered from ankylosing spondylitis, an autoimmune disease.
Harris graduated from Tucson High School and attended the University of Arizona and Brandeis University, from where she graduated magna cum laude in 1959. In 1961 she received a master's degree in psychology from Harvard University.
She married Charles S. Harris in 1961; they have two daughters (one adopted) and four grandchildren.
Since 1977, Harris has suffered from a chronic autoimmune disorder, diagnosed as a combination of lupus and systemic sclerosis.
In the late 1970s, Harris developed a mathematical model of visual information processing which formed the basis for two articles in the journal Perception and Psychophysics (1979, 1984).
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Konstantin Makovsky
Konstantin Yegorovich Makovsky (Russian: Константин Егорович Маковский; June 20 [O.S. July 2] 1839 —September 17 [O.S. September 30] 1915) was an influential Russian painter, affiliated with the "Peredvizhniki (Wanderers)". Many of his historical paintings, such as The Russian Bride's Attire (1889), showed an idealized view of Russian life of prior centuries. He is often considered a representative of a Salon art.
Konstantin was born in Moscow as the older son of a Russian art figure and amateur painter, Yegor Ivanovich Makovsky. His mother was a music composer, and hoped his son would one day follow up.
In 1851 Konstantin entered the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture where he became the top student, easily getting all the available awards. His teachers were МM.I. Skotty, pupils of Karl Brullov. Makovsky's inclinations to Romanticism and decorative effects can be explained by the influence of Briullov.
As though art was his passion, he also considered what his mother had wanted him to do. He set off to look for composers he could refer to, and first went to France. Before, he had always been a classical music lover, and listened to many pieces. Some times he often wished he could change the tune, or style of some of them to make them more enjoyable. Later in his life, it came true.
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Korean War
The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.
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Kurt Gödel
Kurt Friedrich Gödel (/ˈkɜrt ɡɜrdəl/; German pronunciation: [ˈkʊʁt ˈɡøːdəl] ( listen); April 28, 1906 – January 14, 1978) was an Austrian/American logician, mathematician, and philosopher. Later in his life he emigrated to the United States to escape the effects of World War II. One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel made an immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when many, such as Bertrand Russell, A. N. Whitehead and David Hilbert, were pioneering the use of logic and set theory to understand the foundations of mathematics.
Gödel is best known for his two incompleteness theorems, published in 1931 when he was 25 years old, one year after finishing his doctorate at the University of Vienna. The more famous incompleteness theorem states that for any self-consistent recursive axiomatic system powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the natural numbers (for example Peano arithmetic), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. To prove this theorem, Gödel developed a technique now known as Gödel numbering, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.
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Leni Riefenstahl
Helene Bertha Amalie "Leni" Riefenstahl (German pronunciation: [ˈʁiːfənʃtaːl]; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003) was a German film director, actress and dancer widely noted for her aesthetics and innovations as a filmmaker. Her most famous film was Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will), a propaganda film made at the 1934 Nuremberg congress of the Nazi Party. Riefenstahl's prominence in the Third Reich, along with her personal friendship with Adolf Hitler, destroyed her film career following Germany's defeat in World War II, after which she was arrested but released without any charges.
Triumph of the Will gave Riefenstahl instant and lasting international fame, as well as infamy. Although she directed only eight films, just two of which received significant coverage outside of Germany, Riefenstahl was widely known all her life. The propaganda value of her films made during the 1930s repels most modern commentators, but many film histories cite the aesthetics as outstanding.The Economist wrote that Triumph of the Will "sealed her reputation as the greatest female filmmaker of the 20th century".
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Leopold Löwenheim
Leopold Löwenheim (26 June 1878 in Krefeld, Germany (also the birthplace of Max Zorn) – 5 May 1957 in Berlin) was a German mathematician, known for his work in mathematical logic. The Nazi regime forced him to retire because under the Nuremberg Laws he was considered only three quarters Aryan. In 1943 much of his work was destroyed during a bombing raid on Berlin. Nevertheless, he survived the Second World War, after which he resumed teaching mathematics.
Löwenheim (1915) gave the first proof of what is now known as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, often considered the starting point for model theory.
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Livy
Titus Livius Patavinus (59 BC – AD 17) — known as Livy in English — was a Roman historian who wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people. Ab Urbe Condita Libri, "Books from the Foundation of the City," covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome well before the traditional foundation in 753 BC through the reign of Augustus in Livy's own time. He was on familiar terms with the Julio-Claudian family, advising Augustus's grandnephew, the future emperor Claudius, as a young man not long before 14 AD in a letter to take up the writing of history. Livy and Augustus's wife, Livia, were from the same clan in different locations, although not related by blood.
Livy was born as Titus Livius in Patavium in northern Italy, now modern Padua. There is a debate about the year of Titus Livius' birth, 64 BC or more likely 59 BC. At the time of Livy’s birth, his home city of Patavium was the second wealthiest city in the Italian peninsula. Patavium was a part of the province of Cisalpine Gaul at the time. In his works, Livy often expressed his deep affection and pride for Patavium, and the city was well known for its conservative values in morality and politics.
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Ludwig Wittgenstein
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (26 April 1889 – 29 April 1951) was an Austrian-British philosopher who worked primarily in logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of mind, and the philosophy of language. He was professor in philosophy at the University of Cambridge from 1939 until 1947. In his lifetime, he published just one book review, one article, a children's dictionary, and the 75-page Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921). In 1999, his posthumously published Philosophical Investigations (1953) was ranked as the most important book of 20th-century philosophy, standing out as "...the one crossover masterpiece in twentieth-century philosophy, appealing across diverse specializations and philosophical orientations".Bertrand Russell described him as "the most perfect example I have ever known of genius as traditionally conceived, passionate, profound, intense, and dominating".
Born in Vienna into one of Europe's wealthiest families, he gave away his entire inheritance. Three of his brothers committed suicide, with Ludwig contemplating it too. He left academia several times: serving as an officer on the frontline during World War I, where he was decorated a number of times for his courage; teaching in schools in remote Austrian villages, where he encountered controversy for hitting children when they made mistakes in mathematics; and working during World War II as a hospital porter in London, where he told patients not to take the drugs they were prescribed, and where no-one knew he was one of the world's most famous philosophers. He described philosophy, however, as "the only work that gives me real satisfaction."
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Martin Luther
Martin Luther (help·info) (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans.
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Maxim Gorky
Alexei Maximovich Peshkov (Russian: Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в; 28 March [O.S. 16 March] 1868 – 18 June 1936), primarily known as Maxim Gorky (Russian: Макси́м Го́рький), was a Russian and Soviet author, a founder of the Socialist Realism literary method and a political activist.
Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod and became an orphan at the age of nine. In 1880, at the age of twelve, he ran away from home in an effort to find his grandmother. Gorky was brought up by his grandmother. Her death deeply affected him, and after an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs and accumulating impressions used later in his writing.
As a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида (Jehudiel Khlamida). The name is suggestive of "cloak-and-dagger" by the similarity to the Greek chlamys, "cloak"). He began using the pseudonym Gorky (literally "bitter") in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ (The Caucasus). The name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorky's first book Очерки и рассказы (Essays and Stories) in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success and his career as a writer began. Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice (though he worked hard on style and form) than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalization, but also their inward spark of humanity.
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Mohammed Omar
Mullah Mohammed Omar (Pashto: ملا محمد عمر; born c. 1959), often simply called Mullah Omar, is the spiritual leader of the Taliban. He was Afghanistan's de facto head of state from 1996 to late 2001, under the official title "Head of the Supreme Council". He held the title Commander of the Faithful of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, which was recognized by only three nations: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
Mullah Omar has been wanted by the U.S. State Department's Rewards for Justice program since October 2001, for sheltering Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda militants in the years prior to the September 11 attacks. Those who were close to him say that he requested evidence from the United States regarding Osama and his alleged hand in the 9/11 attacks but did not receive any. He is believed to be directing the Taliban insurgency against the U.S.-led NATO forces and the Government of Afghanistan.
Despite his political rank and his high status on the Rewards for Justice most wanted list, not much is publicly known about him. Few photos exist of him, none of them official, and a picture used in 2002 by many media outlets has since been established to be someone other than him. The authenticity of the existing images is debated. Apart from the fact that he is missing one eye, accounts of his physical appearance are contradictory: Omar is described as very tall (some say 2 m). Mullah Omar has been described as shy and non-talkative with foreigners.
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Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years. Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics" and a major figure of analytic philosophy. His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.
Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy and contemporary capitalism, and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure. His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.
According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall. Chomsky is the author of over 100 books. He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, the universal grammar theory, and the Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem.
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Osama Bin Laden
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden ( /oʊˈsɑːmə bɪn moʊˈhɑːmɨd bɪn əˈwɑːd bɪn ˈlɑːdən/; Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن, ʾUsāmah bin Muḥammad bin ʿAwaḍ bin Lādin; March 10, 1957 – May 2, 2011), was the founder of Al-Qaeda, the jihadist organization responsible for the September 11 attacks on the United States and numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets. He was a member of the wealthy Saudi bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, with a US$25 million bounty by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs and CIA operatives in a covert operation ordered by United States President Barack Obama.
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Osama bin Laden
Osama bin Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden ( /oʊˈsɑːmə bɪn moʊˈhɑːmɨd bɪn əˈwɑːd bɪn ˈlɑːdən/; Arabic: أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن, ʾUsāmah bin Muḥammad bin ʿAwaḍ bin Lādin; March 10, 1957 – May 2, 2011), was the founder of Al-Qaeda, the jihadist organization responsible for the September 11 attacks on the United States and numerous other mass-casualty attacks against civilian and military targets. He was a member of the wealthy Saudi bin Laden family, and an ethnic Yemeni Kindite.
Bin Laden was on the American Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) lists of Ten Most Wanted Fugitives and Most Wanted Terrorists for his involvement in the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings. From 2001 to 2011, bin Laden was a major target of the War on Terror, with a US$25 million bounty by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. On May 2, 2011, bin Laden was shot and killed inside a private residential compound in Abbottabad, Pakistan, by U.S. Navy SEALs and CIA operatives in a covert operation ordered by United States President Barack Obama.
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Palestinian people
The Palestinian people, (Arabic: الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha‘b al-Filasṭīnī) also referred to as Palestinians (Arabic: الفلسطينيون, al-Filasṭīniyyūn), are descendants of the peoples who have lived in Palestine over the centuries. Today, Palestinians are largely culturally and linguistically Arab. Despite various wars and exoduses, roughly one half of the world's Palestinian population continues to reside in the area encompassing the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and Israel. In this combined area, as of 2004, Palestinians constituted 49% of all inhabitants, encompassing the entire population of the Gaza Strip (1.6 million), the majority of the population of the West Bank (approximately 2.3 million versus close to 500,000 Jewish Israeli citizens which includes about 200,000 in East Jerusalem), and 16.5% of the population of Israel proper as Arab citizens of Israel.
Throughout the aforementioned combined area, many are Palestinian refugees or internally displaced Palestinians, including more than a million in the Gaza Strip, three-quarters of a million in the West Bank,, and about a quarter of a million in Israel proper. Of the Palestinian population who live abroad, making up what is known as the Palestinian diaspora, more than half of these are stateless refugees lacking citizenship in any country. About 2.6 million of the diaspora population live in neighboring Jordan where they make up approximately half the population, 1.5 million live between Syria and Lebanon, a quarter of a million in Saudi Arabia, with Chile's half a million representing the largest concentration outside the Arab world.
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Paul Bernays
Paul Isaac Bernays (17 October 1888, London – 18 September 1977, Zurich) was a Swiss mathematician, who made significant contributions to mathematical logic, axiomatic set theory, and the philosophy of mathematics. He was an assistant to, and close collaborator with, David Hilbert.
Bernays spent his childhood in Berlin. Bernays attended the Köllner Gymnasium, 1895-1907. At the University of Berlin, he studied mathematics under Issai Schur, Edmund Landau, Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, and Friedrich Schottky; philosophy under Alois Riehl, Carl Stumpf and Ernst Cassirer; and physics under Max Planck. At the University of Göttingen, he studied mathematics under David Hilbert, Edmund Landau, Hermann Weyl, and Felix Klein; physics under Voigt and Max Born; and philosophy under Leonard Nelson.
In 1912, the University of Berlin awarded him a Ph.D. in mathematics, for a thesis, supervised by Landau, on the analytic number theory of binary quadratic forms. That same year, the University of Zurich awarded him the Habilitation for a thesis on function theory and Picard's theorem. The examiner was Ernst Zermelo. Bernays was Privatdozent at the University of Zurich, 1912-17, where he came to know George Pólya.
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Peter Geach
Peter Thomas Geach, MA, FBA ( /ˈɡiːtʃ/; born 29 March 1916) is a British philosopher. His areas of interest are the history of philosophy, philosophical logic, and the theory of identity.
Geach was educated at Balliol College, Oxford. He taught at Birmingham University (1951–1966) and from 1966 at the University of Leeds where he was Professor of Logic in the Department of Philosophy. Geach was given the title of Emeritus Professor of Logic on his retirement in 1981.
Geach was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA) in 1965.
He has been awarded the papal cross "Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice" by the Holy See for his philosophical work.
His early work includes the classic texts Mental Acts and Reference and Generality, the latter defending an essentially modern conception of reference against medieval theories of supposition.
His Catholic perspective is integral to his philosophy. He is perhaps the founder of Analytical Thomism (though the current of thought running through his and Elizabeth Anscombe's work to the present day was only ostensibly so named forty years later by John Haldane), the aim of which is to synthesise Thomistic and Analytic approaches. He defends the Thomistic position that human beings are essentially rational animals, each one miraculously created. He dismisses Darwinistic attempts to regard reason as inessential to humanity, as "mere sophistry, laughable, or pitiable." He repudiates any capacity for language in animals as mere "association of manual signs with things or performances."
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Pope Paul III
Pope Paul III (29 February 1468 – 10 November 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1534 to his death in 1549. He came to the papal throne in an era following the sack of Rome in 1527 and rife with uncertainties in the Catholic Church following the Protestant Reformation. During his reign, and in the spirit of the Counter-Reformation, new Catholic religious orders and societies, such as the Jesuits, the Theatines, the Barnabites and the Congregation of the Oratory, attracted a popular following and he convened the Council of Trent in 1545. He was a significant patron of the arts and employed nepotism to advance the power and fortunes of his family. It is to Pope Paul III that Nicolaus Copernicus dedicated De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres).
Born in 1468 at Canino, Latium (then part of the Papal States), Alessandro Farnese was the oldest son of Pier Luigi I Farnese, Signore di Montalto (1435–1487) and his wife Giovanna Caetani, a member of the Caetani family which had also produced Pope Boniface VIII. The Farnese family had prospered over the centuries but it was Alessandro’s ascendency to the papacy and his dedication to furthering family interests which saw the vastly significant increase in the family’s wealth and power.
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Randal Marlin
Randal Marlin, (born 1938 in Washington D.C.), is a Canadian philosophy professor at Carleton University in Ottawa who specializes in the study of propaganda. He was educated at Princeton University, McGill University, the University of Oxford, and the University of Toronto. After receiving a Department of National Defence fellowship to study under propaganda scholar Jacques Ellul at Bordeaux in 1979-1980, he started a philosophy and mass communications class at Carleton called Truth and Propaganda, which has run annually ever since.
One of the texts for this class is his 2002 book, Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion, which examines historical, ethical, and legal issues relating to propaganda. Marlin acknowledges that there are many definitions of propaganda, including favourable ones. However, his book reflects Ellul's view that propaganda suppresses individual freedom and autonomy.
In 1998, Marlin published a book examining the public uproar following the appointment of a former separatist Quebec political candidate to the top administrator's post at the new Ottawa Hospital. The David Levine Affair: Separatist Betrayal or McCarthyism North?, criticizes the Ottawa news media for fanning the flames of intolerance in their quest for higher circulations and audience ratings. The book also documents how the media kept the controversy going with a barrage of stories, columns, letters, editorials and radio phone-in shows.The David Levine Affair draws on Marlin's knowledge of propaganda techniques that play on stereotypes as well as pre-existing fears, suspicions and resentments to incite intense emotional reactions.
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Raymond Smullyan
Raymond Merrill Smullyan (born May 25, 1919) is an American mathematician, concert pianist, logician, Taoist philosopher, and magician.
Born in Far Rockaway, New York, his first career (like Persi Diaconis a generation later) was stage magic. He then earned a BSc from the University of Chicago in 1955 and his Ph.D. from Princeton University in 1959. He is one of many logicians to have studied under Alonzo Church.
Born in Far Rockaway, New York, he showed musical talent, winning a gold medal in a piano competition when he was aged 12. The following year, his family moved to Manhattan and he attended Theodore Roosevelt High School in The Bronx as this school offered courses suited to his musical talents, but he left to study on his own as the school did not offer similar courses in mathematics.
He attended several colleges, studying mathematics and music.
While a Ph.D. student, Smullyan published a paper in the 1957 Journal of Symbolic Logic showing that Gödelian incompleteness held for formal systems considerably more elementary than that of Gödel's 1931 landmark paper. The contemporary understanding of Gödel's theorem dates from this paper. Smullyan later made a compelling case that much of the fascination with Gödel's theorem should be directed at Tarski's theorem, which is much easier to prove and equally disturbing philosophically. The culmination of Smullyan's lifelong reflection on the classic limitative theorems of mathematical logic is quite readable:
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Richard Crossman
Richard Howard Stafford (Dick) Crossman OBE (15 December 1907 – 5 April 1974) was a British author and Labour Party politician who was a Cabinet Minister under Harold Wilson, and was the editor of the New Statesman. A prominent socialist intellectual, he became one of the Labour Party's leading Zionists and anti-communists. Crossman is noted for his colourful if highly subjective three-volume Diaries of a Cabinet Minister.
The son of a judge, Crossman was born in either Cropredy, Oxfordshire, or Bayswater, London, and grew up in Buckhurst Hill, Essex. He was educated at Twyford School, and at Winchester College, where he became head boy. He excelled academically and on the football field. He studied Classics at New College, Oxford, receiving a double first and becoming a Fellow in 1931. He taught philosophy at the university before becoming a lecturer for the Workers' Educational Association. He was a councillor on Oxford City Council, and became head of the Labour group in 1935.
At the outbreak of World War II Crossman joined the Political Warfare Executive under Robert Bruce Lockhart, where he headed the German Section. He produced anti-Nazi propaganda broadcasts for Radio of the European Revolution, set up by the Special Operations Executive. He eventually became Assistant Chief of the Psychological Warfare Division of SHAEF and was awarded an OBE for his wartime service. In the spring of 1945 he was one of the first British officers to enter the Dachau concentration camp.
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Rudolf Carnap
Rudolf Carnap (May 18, 1891 – September 14, 1970) was an influential German-born philosopher who was active in Europe before 1935 and in the United States thereafter. He was a major member of the Vienna Circle and an advocate of logical positivism.
Carnap was born to a west German family that had been humble until his parents' generation. He began his formal education at the Barmen Gymnasium. From 1910 to 1914, he attended the University of Jena, intending to write a thesis in physics. But he also studied carefully Kant's Critique of Pure Reason during a course taught by Bruno Bauch, and was one of very few students to attend Gottlob Frege's courses in mathematical logic. After serving in the German army during World War I for three years, he was given permission to study physics at the University of Berlin, 1917–18, where Albert Einstein was a newly appointed professor. Carnap then attended the University of Jena, where he wrote a thesis defining an axiomatic theory of space and time. The physics department said it was too philosophical, and Bruno Bauch of the philosophy department said it was pure physics. Carnap then wrote another thesis, with Bauch's supervision, on the theory of space in a more orthodox Kantian style, and published as Der Raum (Space) in a supplemental issue of Kant-Studien (1922). In it he makes the clear distinction between formal, physical and perceptual (e.g., visual) spaces.
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Saddam Hussein
Saddam Hussein Abd al-Majid al-Tikriti (Arabic: صدام حسين عبد المجيد التكريتي Ṣaddām Ḥusayn ʿAbd al-Maǧīd al-Tikrītī; 28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was the fifth President of Iraq, serving in this capacity from 16 July 1979 until 9 April 2003. A leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, and later, the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organisation Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region, which espoused ba'athism, a mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism, Saddam played a key role in the 1968 coup, later referred to as the 17 July Revolution, that brought the party to long-term power of Iraq.
As vice president under the ailing General Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, and at a time when many groups were considered capable of overthrowing the government, Saddam created security forces through which he tightly controlled conflict between the government and the armed forces. In the early 1970s, Saddam nationalized oil and other industries. The state-owned banks were put under his control, leaving the system eventually insolvent mostly due to the Iran–Iraq War, the Gulf War, and UN sanctions. Through the 1970s, Saddam cemented his authority over the apparatuses of government as oil money helped Iraq's economy to grow at a rapid pace. Positions of power in the country were filled with Sunnis, a minority that made up only a fifth of the population.
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Saul Kripke
Saul Aaron Kripke (born November 13, 1940) is an American philosopher and logician. He is a professor emeritus at Princeton and teaches as a Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at the CUNY Graduate Center. Since the 1960s Kripke has been a central figure in a number of fields related to mathematical logic, philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, metaphysics, epistemology, and set theory. Much of his work remains unpublished or exists only as tape-recordings and privately circulated manuscripts. Kripke was the recipient of the 2001 Schock Prize in Logic and Philosophy. A recent poll conducted among philosophers ranked Kripke among the top ten most important philosophers of the past 200 years.
Kripke has made influential and original contributions to logic, especially modal logic, since he was a teenager. Unusual for a professional philosopher, his only degree is an undergraduate degree from Harvard, in mathematics. His work has profoundly influenced analytic philosophy, with his principal contribution being a semantics for modal logic, involving possible worlds as described in a system now called Kripke semantics. Another of his most important contributions is his argument that necessity is a 'metaphysical' notion, which should be separated from the epistemic notion of a priori, and that there are necessary a posteriori truths, such as "Water is H2O." He has also contributed an original reading of Wittgenstein, referred to as "Kripkenstein." His most famous work is Naming and Necessity (1980).
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Scapegoating
Scapegoating (from the verb "to scapegoat") is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals (e.g., "Jimmy did it, not me!"), individuals against groups (e.g., "I failed because our school favors boys"), groups against individuals (e.g., "Jane was the reason our team didn't win"), and groups against groups (e.g., "Immigrants are taking all of the jobs").
A scapegoat may be an adult, sibling, child, employee, peer, ethnic or religious group, or country. A whipping boy or "fall guy" is a form of scapegoat.
A medical definition of scapegoating is:
Scapegoating is a tactic often employed to characterize an entire group of individuals according to the unethical or immoral conduct of a small number of individuals belonging to that group, also known as guilt by association. (Stereotyping)
Scapegoated groups throughout history have included almost every imaginable group of people: genders, religions, people of different races or nations, people with different political beliefs, or people differing in behaviour from the majority. However, scapegoating may also be applied to organizations, such as governments, corporations, or various political groups.
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Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfʁɔʏt]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud's family and ancestry were Jewish. Freud always considered himself a Jew even though he rejected Judaism and had a critical view of religion. Freud's parents were poor, but ensured his education. Freud was an outstanding pupil in high school, and graduated the Matura with honors in 1873. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, Aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy.
Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach. Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the interpretation and critique of culture.
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Stephen Cole Kleene
Stephen Cole Kleene (January 5, 1909, Hartford, Connecticut, United States – January 25, 1994, Madison, Wisconsin) was an American mathematician who helped lay the foundations for theoretical computer science. One of many distinguished students of Alonzo Church, Kleene, along with Alan Turing, Emil Post, and others, is best known as a founder of the branch of mathematical logic known as recursion theory. Kleene's work grounds the study of which functions are computable. A number of mathematical concepts are named after him: Kleene hierarchy, Kleene algebra, the Kleene star (Kleene closure), Kleene's recursion theorem and the Kleene fixpoint theorem. He also invented regular expressions, and was a leading American advocate of mathematical intuitionism.
Kleene pronounced his last name /ˈkleɪniː/ KLAY-nee. Commonplace mispronunciations include /ˈkliːniː/ and /ˈkliːn/. (His son, Ken Kleene, wrote: "As far as I am aware this pronunciation is incorrect in all known languages. I believe that this novel pronunciation was invented by my father.")[citation needed]
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Straw man
A straw man is a type of argument and is an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "attack a straw man" is to create the illusion of having refuted a proposition by replacing it with a superficially similar yet unequivalent proposition (the "straw man"), and refuting it, without ever having actually refuted the original position.
The origins of the term are unclear. The usage of the term in rhetoric suggests a human figure made of straw which is easily knocked down or destroyed, such as a military training dummy, scarecrow, or effigy. The rhetorical technique is sometimes called an Aunt Sally in the UK, with reference to a traditional fairground game in which objects are thrown at a fixed target. One common (folk) etymology is that it refers to men who stood outside courthouses with a straw in their shoe in order to indicate their willingness to be a false witness.
The straw man fallacy occurs in the following pattern of argument:
This sort of "reasoning" is fallacious, because attacking a distorted version of a position fails to constitute an attack on the actual position.
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Thoralf Skolem
Thoralf Albert Skolem (23 May 1887 – 23 March 1963) (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈtuːɾɑlf ˈskuːləm]) was a Norwegian mathematician known mainly for his work on mathematical logic and set theory.
Although Skolem's father was a primary school teacher, most of his extended family were farmers. Skolem attended secondary school in Kristiania (later renamed Oslo), passing the university entrance examinations in 1905. He then entered Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet to study mathematics, also taking courses in physics, chemistry, zoology and botany.
In 1909, he began working as an assistant to the physicist Kristian Birkeland, known for bombarding magnetized spheres with electrons and obtaining aurora-like effects; thus Skolem's first publications were physics papers written jointly with Birkeland. In 1913, Skolem passed the state examinations with distinction, and completed a dissertation titled Investigations on the Algebra of Logic. He also traveled with Birkeland to the Sudan to observe the zodiacal light. He spent the winter semester of 1915 at the University of Göttingen, at the time the leading research center in mathematical logic, metamathematics, and abstract algebra, fields in which Skolem eventually excelled. In 1916 he was appointed a research fellow at Det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet. In 1918, he became a Docent in Mathematics and was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.
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Tihomir Blaškić
Tihomir Blaškić (born November 2, 1960) is a Bosnian Croat army officer who was sentenced in 2000 to 45 years imprisonment at the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for war crimes as part of the Lašva valley ethnic cleansing. In 2004, his command responsibility for most of the charges was found non-existent on appeal, and his sentence was commuted to 9 years imprisonment.
Tihomir Blaškić was born on 2 November 1960 in the village of Brestovsko in the Kiseljak municipality of SR Bosnia and Herzegovina, SFR Yugoslavia. Blaskic was a career military officer and graduated from the Belgrade Military Academy in 1983, having been beforehand a Captain in the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA).
During the period referred to in the indictment, he held the rank of Colonel in the HVO (Croatian Defence Council) and, from 27 June 1992, he was appointed Commander of the Regional Headquarters of the Armed Forces in central Bosnia. Subsequently, in August 1994, he was promoted to the rank of General and appointed Commander of the HVO, which had its headquarters in Mostar.
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Walter Lippmann
Walter Lippmann (23 September 1889 – 14 December 1974) was an American public intellectual, writer, reporter, and political commentator famous for being among the first to introduce the concept of Cold War. Lippmann was twice awarded (1958 and 1962) a Pulitzer Prize for his syndicated newspaper column, "Today and Tomorrow".
Walter Lippmann was born on 23 September 1889, in New York City, to Jacob and Daisy Baum Lippmann; his upper-middle class German Jewish family took annual holidays in Europe. At age 17, he entered Harvard University where he studied under George Santayana, William James, and Graham Wallas, concentrating upon philosophy and languages (he spoke German and French), and earned his degree in three years, graduating as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa society.
Lippmann was a journalist, a media critic and a philosopher who tried to reconcile the tensions between liberty and democracy in a complex and modern world, as in his 1920 book Liberty and the News.
In 1913, Lippmann, Herbert Croly, and Walter Weyl became the founding editors of The New Republic magazine. During World War I, Lippmann became an adviser to President Woodrow Wilson and assisted in the drafting of Wilson's Fourteen Points speech. He sharply criticized George Creel, whom the President appointed to head wartime propaganda efforts at the committee on Public Information. While he was prepared to curb his liberal instincts because of the war saying he had "no doctrinaire belief in free speech", he nonetheless advised Wilson that censorship should "never be entrusted to anyone who is not himself tolerant, nor to anyone who is unacquainted with the long record of folly which is the history of suppression."
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William of Ockham
William of Ockham ( /ˈɒkəm/; also Occam, Hockham, or several other spellings; c. 1288 – c. 1348) was an English Franciscan friar and scholastic philosopher, who is believed to have been born in Ockham, a small village in Surrey. He is considered to be one of the major figures of medieval thought and was at the centre of the major intellectual and political controversies of the fourteenth century. Although he is commonly known for Ockham's razor, the methodological principle that bears his name, William of Ockham also produced significant works on logic, physics, and theology. In the Church of England, his day of commemoration is 10 April.
William of Ockham joined the Franciscan order at an early age. It is believed that he studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but never completed his master's degree (the usual undergraduate degree in those times). Because of this, he acquired the byname Venerabilis Inceptor, or "Worthy Beginner" (an inceptor was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities). He was also known as the Doctor Invincibilis or "Unconquerable Teacher."
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Winsor McCay
Winsor McCay (September 26, 1869 – July 26, 1934) was an American cartoonist and animator.
A prolific artist, McCay's pioneering early animated films far outshone the work of his contemporaries, and set a standard followed by Walt Disney and others in later decades. His two best-known creations are the newspaper comic strip Little Nemo in Slumberland, which ran from 1905–1914 and 1924–1927, and the animated cartoon Gertie the Dinosaur, which he created in 1914.
His comic strip work has influenced generations of artists, including creators such as William Joyce, André LeBlanc, Moebius, Maurice Sendak, Chris Ware and Bill Watterson.
McCay was the son of Robert McKay (later changed to McCay) and Janet Murray McKay; Robert at various times worked as a teamster, a grocer, and a real estate agent. Winsor's exact place and year of birth are uncertain — he claimed to have been born in Spring Lake, Michigan in 1871, but his gravestone says 1869, and census reports state that he was born in Canada in 1867. He was originally named Zenas Winsor McKay, in honor of his father's employer, Zenas G. Winsor. He later dropped the name Zenas.
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Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th President of the United States, from 1913 to 1921. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he served as President of Princeton University from 1902 to 1910, and then as the Governor of New Jersey from 1911 to 1913. Running against Progressive ("Bull Moose") Party candidate Theodore Roosevelt and Republican candidate William Howard Taft, Wilson was elected President as a Democrat in 1912.
In his first term as President, Wilson persuaded a Democratic Congress to pass major progressive reforms. Historian John M. Cooper argues that, in his first term, Wilson successfully pushed a legislative agenda that few presidents have equaled, and remained unmatched up until the New Deal. This agenda included the Federal Reserve Act, Federal Trade Commission Act, the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Farm Loan Act and an income tax. Child labor was curtailed by the Keating–Owen Act of 1916, but the U.S. Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional in 1918. He also had Congress pass the Adamson Act, which imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads. Wilson, after first sidestepping the issue, became a major advocate for the women's suffrage.
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
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- Acid Drinkers
- Sepultura
- Eve 6
- Falco
- Vice Squad
- Stuck Mojo
- God Forbid
- Coven
- Dead Prez
- Midnite
- One Be Lo
- Blitz
- Sex Gang Children
- Mayan Factor
- Pegz
- Avenues & Silhouettes
- Briskeby
karaoke
Show me more blood
Show me more bones
Let me hear more screams
Help me rot to the core
Show me more fear
Give me more pain in my ass
I am ordering horror
I am ordering a frightful shock
My fists are going to drown in blood!!!
Show me more blood!!!
Show me more bones!!!
Much more than ever!!!
Give me the menu
With the best recipes
For a perfect murder
For a brilliant attack
Show me more coke
More and more happy addicts
I want to see more bodies
Secret rotting flesh
My fists are going to drown in blood!!!
They are giving me more blood
From morning to night non stop
Bulldozers ride over the bones
Ears are filled with the sound of screams
They are giving me more fear
My fists are going to drown in blood
And so much pain in my ass
And I take it all like a starving man
My fists are going to drown in blood
Horror is the bargain of the day
Show me more blood!!!
Show me more bones!!!
Much more than ever!!!
More blood!! More and more
and more!!
More blood!! More and more
Why don't you get a life and grow up
Why don't you realize that you're fucked up
Why criticize what you don't understand
Why change my words, you're so afraid
You think you have the right to
Put me down
Propaganda hides your scum
Face to face you don't have a word to say
You got in my way, now you'll have to pay
Don't, don't believe what you
See
Don't, don't believe what you read
No!!!I know my ways, i'm here to stay
I didn't start all this yesterday
I'll prove you wrong all the way
Life teaches me you're always alone
Don't, don't believe what you
See
Don't, don't believe what you read
No!!!
I passed by some familiar
faces,
But they flipped me off &
cursed my name,
I watched the hippies raise
their signs
and I saved my tears for
another time
I just wish that they could
understand
that I had no choice whether
or not
to put a gun in my hand
I just wish that they could
understand
I don't give a shit about being
Hey Conchita lady with the blood-shot eyes
Der Kubaner - so flink
Der CIA - so link
Der weiße Mann entbehrlich
Denn der Stamm der Roten mittlerweile ungefährlich
Im weißen Hause Turbulenz
Die Völker ignorieren a jede Grenz'
So hat's Havanna wieder wirklich schwer
Vorm Palazzo zeigt der Ami sein Gewehr her-Yeah!
Oh Generalissimo
What're you gonna do with your one-man-show?
Was n¨¹tzt die allerbeste
Propaganda
Was n¨¹tzt die beste Propaganda?
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Und kane Indianer
Trotz Propaganda
Der neue Sheriff so integer
Im Haus der Damen da kennt ihn jeder,
Den Männer des Westens wollen das eine:
H¨¹ften, Lippen schlankste Gebeine.
Auch Conchita kommt ins Reine
Geht's um harte Dollars nimmt sie seine.
Die Stunde spielt ihr ins Budget
Denn was den Indianer mordet
Tut dem Häuptling net amal weh.
Oh Generalissimo
What're you gonna do with your one-man-show?
Was n¨¹tzt die allerbeste
Propaganda
Was n¨¹tzt die beste Propaganda?
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Und kane Indianer
Trotz Propaganda
Insulana bin I kana
Amerikana werd' ich a mehr kana werd'n
Was n¨¹tzt die allerbeste
Propaganda
Was n¨¹tzt die beste Propaganda?
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Zu viele Häuptlinge
Und kane Indianer
Trotz Propaganda
Across your face that shattered look
Of memories that flood the mind
Served up on TV, film and book
Bitter testament of mankind
They can keep their propaganda
And their glorious farce of war
My life isn't their's to squander
Like that of those who died before
You wear your medals oh so proud
For you did serve your country well
Told to proclaim your bravery loud
There was no glory, only hell
Lest we forget who gave their lives
Those who fought so we'd be free
Those who were conned by ancient lies
You'll make no murderer of me
I'll bear no arms for your rat race
See through the army boys pretence
I won't betray the human race
Ten minutes of death, murder, destruction.
Preceeded by some simple instructions.
Channel 2, channel5, 36, 46, click click, yo ain't that a bitch?
Don't snooze on the news 'cause you're gonna lose.
Hell, is what you sell on a large scale.
Profit for misery, you know it's sick.
The people that you sell, a mindless clientele.
The poison schools, the prison pools is where you send your youth to break the rules.
Education's been non-void, that's why I'm so paranoid.
One time, and one time only if it's detrimental to your ass home,
but let it be something making no sense, they pump a lot of hype and make a strong defense.
To spread the ideas and burn the ones...
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. What lies do you read?
Propaganda. Tell me, what do you believe?
Propaganda. Is white really good?
Propaganda. Is black really bad?
Propaganda. We're talking about propaganda.
Hid a secret from a nigga put it in a book.
Ohh shit, my race got took.
Ever heard of Maat?
I think not, Black man's religion that got faded out.
Nigga lovers, I treat them like my brothers.
Civil rights, they killed plenty whites, but they'll have you to believe
that no white died for black.
Do you reall beleive?
The poison schools, the prison pools is where you send your youth to break the rules.
Education's been non-void, that's why I'm so paranoid.
One time, and one time only if it's detrimental to your ass home,
but let it be something making no sense, they pump a lot of hype and make a strong defense.
To spread the ideas and burn the ones...
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. What lies do you read?
Propaganda. Tell me, what do you believe?
Propaganda. Is white really good?
Propaganda. Is black really bad?
Propaganda. We're talking about propaganda.
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. Don't believe the hype.
Propaganda. What lies do you read?
Propaganda. Tell me, what do you believe?
Propaganda. Is white really good?
Propaganda. Is black really bad?
Propaganda. We're talking about propaganda.
Why Don't You Get A Life And Grow Up
Why Don't You Realize That You're Fucked Up
Why Criticize What You Don't Understand
Why Change My Words, You're So Afraid
You Think You Have The Right To
Put Me Down
Propaganda Hides Your Scum
Face To Face You Don't Have A Word To Say
You Got In My Way, Now You'll Have To Pay
Don't, Don't Believe What You
See
Don't, Don't Believe What You Read
No!!!
I Know My Ways, I'm Here To Stay
I Didn't Start All This Yesterday
I'll Prove You Wrong All The Way
Life Teaches Me You're Always Alone
Don't, Don't Believe What You
See
Don't, Don't Believe What You Read
No!!!
pledge allegiance to the flag of the mighty USA
I've closed my mind to any other way
Without choice I'll fight your wars
Give my life to save your shores
So little do we ask of you
A chance to live, can you come through
[Chorus:]
Paint with propaganda for eyes that cannot see
A picture so self-righteous it's obscene
America is number one, but what a nasty web we've spun
How will we ever get our fingers clean
Cold & ancient arctic winds give way to winds of change
Perhaps a final chance to ease some of the strain
If you'd forget about tradition
And that stupid flag you wave
You might just save the world
While there's still a world to save
[Chorus]
Corruption!
[Bridge:]
Without choice I'll fight your wars
Give my life to save your shores
So little do we ask of you
Intro: (news snippets)
"Let me now turn, to our program for the future..."
"The economy right now, is extremely supportive of the president and his
policies"
"FBI scientists have found chemical traces, consistent with a bomb or a
missle, on a piece of wreckage..."
"Police using clubs and tear gas against demonstrators..."
"They called me a mother -(bleeped out)-ing so-and-so...and a white
facist...like they said, 'you're getting some of your own medicine'..."
Singing:
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our babies
Only truth, can take us...
Verse 1:
You can't fool all the people all of the time
But if you fool the right ones, then the rest will fall behind
Tell me who's got control of your mind? your world view?
Is it the news or the movie you're taking your girl to? (uh)
Know what i'm sayin cause Uncle Sam got a plan
If you examine what they tellin us then you will understand
What they plantin in the seeds of the next generation
Feeding our children miseducation
No one knows if there's UFO's or any life on mars
Or what they do when they up in the stars
Because i don't believe a word of what the president said
He filling our head with lies got us hypnotised
When he be speaking in cold words about crime and poverty
Drugs, welfare, prisons, guns and robbery
It really means us, there's no excuse for the slander
But what's good for the goose, is still good for the gander
See...
Chorus:
I don't believe Bob Marley died from cancer
31 years ago i woulda been a panther
They killed Huey cause they knew he had the answer
The views that you see in the news is propaganda
Singing:
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our babies
Only truth, can take us...
Verse 2:
I don't want no computer chip in my arm
I don't wanna die by a nuclear bomb
I say we all rush the pentagon, pull out guns
And grab the intercom, my first word's will be I believe
Man made God, outta ignorance and fear
If God made man, then why the hell would he put us here?
I thought he's supposed to be the all loving
The same God who let Hitler put the Jews in the oven
We don't fall for the regular shit, they try to feed us
All this half-ass leadership, flippin position
They turn politcian and shut the hell up and follow tradition
For your TV screen, is telling lies to your vision
Every channel got some brainwashed cop shit to watch
Running up in niggas cribs claiming that they heard shots
It's a plot, but busta can you tell me who's greedier?
Big corporations, the pigs or the media?
Sign of the times, terrorism on the rise
Commercial airplanes, falling out the sky like flies
Make me wonder what secrets went down with Bob Brown (?)
Who burnt churches to the ground with no evidence found?
It's not coincidence, it's been too many studied incidents
It coulda been the Klan who put that bomb at the Olympics
But it probably was the FBI, deep at the call
Cuz if they make us all panic then they can start martial law
Chorus:
I don't believe Bob Marley died from cancer
31 years ago i woulda been a panther
They killed Huey cause they knew he had the answer
The views that you see in the news is propaganda
I don't believe Bob Marley died from cancer
31 years ago i woulda been a panther
They killed Huey cause they knew he had the answer
The views that you see in the news is muthafuckin propaganda
Singing:
Police is telling lies fooling millions
What are they teaching our kids in these school buildings?
Televised, enterprised in all the killing
Controlling our lives, this ain't living
No this ain't living
Chant:
FBI, CIA
ATF, KKK
IRS, TNT
CBS, NBC
FBI, CIA
ATF, KKK
IRS, TNT
CBS, NBC
Singing:
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our children
Telling lies, to our babies
Only truth, can take us...
News snippet:
"uh, we view each other uh, with uh, a great love and a great understanding
and that we
try to expand this to the general, uh, black population and also people,
oppressed people all over the world, and, i think that uh, we differ from
uhmm... uh, some other groups simply because we understand the system better
than uh, most uh, groups understand the system, and uh, with this
realisation, uh, we attempt to form a strong political base based in the
community with the only strength that we have and that's the strength of uh,
Hear me now Lord
Hear me now Lord
Hear me now Lord
Tell them call pan Fari
The whole of the youth and them
Fe say Rasta Fari
Hear me now Lord
Tell them call pan Fari
The whole of the youth and them
Fe say Rasta Fari
Fari the whole a the youth
An them fe say Rasta Fari
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propoganda news media
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Whole heap a Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda news media
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Oh gash original man
He was black
He was black
He was an African carbon
Science will show that
And prove that over and over ra again
Jah see and know
We tell them
Honor your fathers that your days may be long
Original black man
We were here from foundation of time
We will remain until the end
Jah see and know
Don’t listen the propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda news media
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Hear hear wha
Back is absolution of all light and color
So hear me little systa
In the earth and in the sky are
The cycles of your womb
See your self precious once again
We are hurt for the hurt of
The daughters of our people
She and her tears could find no comforter
Our hands are again strong
We will be there for our daughters
We will be there
Jah see and know
Don’t listen their propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda news media
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Oh gash
Black is the color of our Solar System
Out of blackness was born the light
Black is the color of the whole universe
Your morning starts with darkness
Did not your morning start with darkness
Did not your morning start with darkness
Did not this morning start with darkness
Well so does tonight
Alpha alpha and omega I
The beginning and the end
Don’t listen the propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
Propaganda
All aboard
I’m not leaving without my
contributions accounted for
All aboard
I’m not leaving your vineyard without
The groundwork accounted for
Man will learn to humble to his knees
Many live and die unnecessarily
Man will learn to pray with long suffering
Many live and die
Still pretending
Hear wha
Every knee shall bow
And every tongue confess
Rasta Fari Selassie I live
Every knee shall bow
And every tongue confess
Rasta Fari Selassie I live
Go down do down a Ithiopia
Come come out of Fari Makonen Emperor
Come come go down
Go down a Ithiopia
The ancient ancestors
Call from our blood lines they remember
Word sound and power will over
Word sound and power
Hear rasta
Word sound and power
In this ya Armageddon
[Chorus]
Who got the props? Who got the props?
Magazines and Hollywood backdrops
Who got the props? Who got the props?
Radio and TV crews, it don't stop
Who got the props? Who got the props?
The internet, the newspaper snapshots
Who go the props? Who got the props?
Even in your schools and church, it don't stop
[OneBeLo]
Aiyyo we deaf, dumb and blind in this world we live cause
we don't understand how they robbin and killin us
They got us watchin backs and lockin our front doors
'Specially time got 'em workin on your soul they come for
Disguise entertainment, psychological fund war
So many different channels and they usin to hunt yours
So turn off the box, watch the program stop
See how the X marks the block
[Sample]
Aiyyo, this is for inquirin minds that wanna know (know)
Now OneBeLo got you double-checkin your info
You used to be the person gettin caught in the hype
Like if I read it in the paper then it gotta be news, right?
Or maybe CNN had you glued to the tube tight
Thinkin you was watchin the government's every move, right?
Stay tuned for props the helicopter crew's flight
Reported we saw it now the way to teach you new heights
So many programs you watch on the sofa
But the real programs sit on top of your shoulders (you)
Remote control your brain with all of this entertainment
Cable channels basic, you plug you in the Matrix
Face it, even cartoons and PlayStations
X-Box, target your tots with "X" ratings
Worse than Hollywood with that +Hidden Agenda+
No propaganda inserts didn't get censored
Same reason magazines show the homicide view
to desensitize you, so nothin surprise you
Portray the victim as those who victimize you
Despise you, religious extremes to terrorize you
Everywhere you go is the same old news, right?
And everything I mentioned get controlled by the Jews, right?
Freedom of press but if you try to confess
That's like a hungry fat man throwin steak in a food fight
[Chorus]
Defending this corruption on which you are sat
You tell me what to think, you tell me this and that
`Freedom is O.K. you scum` but make sure it`s never used
In your defence of liberty I always stand accused
And your shadow in the sun always give a shock
While the hate mail rises like some kind of moral rock
Propaganda, you scare me to death
Propaganda, you scare me to death
I know you want to lock me up and see justice done
You say get the army in, you hope that day will come
You will give me something to think about Right between my eyes
Then you`ll see your freedom the day that freedom dies
I can`t see many reds underneath my bed
But the fascists in the letter-box are messing up my head
You tell me I`ve got rights, the same for rich and poor
In the Fatherland! In Disneyland! Or all England?
They say religion, the wounded pigeon, is back in
fashion
I said you're joking, you must be smoking 'some kind of
thing'
Take Las Vegas in a cab take a stab all or nothing
With ice cold hands your solitude stays with me
Give me concrete and steel, wake up and make believe
Mickey Mouse on the bed, all in my head
Give me Jesus in the arena going down nice and dirty
Where Man is mortal, God is always clean. I fell from
the sky
I was born in a bed, is it right to ask why, all in my
head?
Honesty and poverty are strangers to me
Humanity is what I used to be
The mediocre have taken over
Propaganda!
I am a cow, I am a horse, where truth is a stranger
Where neighbours on the payroll shoot me down nice and
dirty
Infra red on the wall which one of us will fall?
So free me from the Preachies, save me from myself
Eat a Fuck-Mac stew my brain, Soylent Green once again!
Mea culpa! Mea ultima culpa!
Psycho siege urban whine, at the end of the line
Do you hate or do you feel?
Feed your head. Strangelove in Jakarta, or is it the
Metric Martyr?
Praise the women who kill, feed your head
I kiss the Saints that are dead,
I kiss the Witches in their bed
Taste the blood if it's real, feed your head
Bless the bed I lay upon, bless the Angels around my
head
And as the season changes
And I am rearranging
No reason to interrogate
The prophet of a broken limb
You lit a fire up under
All the places I lived in
I watched 'em burning the flesh
Across the moon stricken waters
Did I fight?
Reminiscent
I'll go reminiscent
Till the dark sheds its light
And as the feelings are changing
My heart is really racing
I see no reason to check
The pulse of a lion broken mountain ???
I lit a fire up under
All the places you lived in
I watched 'em burning the flesh
Across the moon stricken waters
Did I fight?
Go reminiscent
I'll go reminiscent
[Verse 1:]
I'm not too concerned with rappers dissing me
I burnt bridges and turkey slapped the industry
I told critics, learn to act with dignity
My whole crew struggled to earn rap validity
I'm from a city of trials and tribulations
A lot of good friends deprived of liberation
Underworld killings, violent intimidation
Only the strong survive the situation
It's hard enough trying to hold your own
Without the weight of the world trying to overload
I go toe to toe with most of you blokes
And comatose ya homophobic bogan flows
Don't you know, not to grab the mic
With the same old punch line battle rhymes
Appetite for destruction like the anti-christ
Looking like choir boys running from paradise
[Hook:]
Propaganda, Propaganda
I can't believe I forgot to thank ya
The whole wide world's like what a wanker
And they keep on, keep on, keep on dumbing it down
Propaganda, Propaganda
I ain't heard shit bout what you stand for
Everyone knows that your not a gangster
And you keep on, keep on, keep on dumbing it down
[Verse 2:]
I don't carry a knife, I cook rappers alive
My hooks damage ya mind, like Suge Marion Knight
The bangers I write, I look fans in the eye
And ask em why this bullshit happens in life
Take away the cameras and lights, managers hype
All you gots the people who'll stand by your side
Put your hands in the sky like a shantaram
Tomorrow we're coming down like an avalanche, what?
My live shows like a fat-a-gram
On a tight rope, in some hammer pants (biatch)
You couldn't rock a rent-a-crowd on new year's
With free liquor, cheap strippers with huge *tits*
The truth is you need to start saving your shoe money
Paying ya dues instead of chasing the punani
Fucking with Pegz, I'm a take ya to school sonny
Ya out of ya depths in an inflatable pool party
[Hook:]
Propaganda, Propaganda
I can't believe I forgot to thank ya
The whole wide world's like what a wanker
And they keep on, keep on, keep on dumbing it down
Propaganda, Propaganda
I ain't heard shit bout what you stand for
Everyone knows that your not a gangster
And you keep on, keep on, keep on dumbing it down
[Verse 3:]
I got brother's fecious, blood on my sneakers
You don't wanna see Obese jump through the speakers
Suffa's a genius, your just another defeatist
Writings on the wall like puzzler pieces
We love graffiti like junkies and street kids
Don't know what I'm saying better fucking read it
I'm a crew member since Menzie's Ave youth centre
Never give into the politics and group pressure
I got more loose screws than Hugh Heffner
With a gold Rolex from a bootlegger
Keep ahead of the pack like dole bludgers
Bone crushing lyricist, hit em like Joe Bugner
Grip the microphone, clip em like toe cutter
Treat them like hoes, don't give em my phone number
[x4:]
We were two kids divided by the city.
We loved to get lost in our labyrinths.
Now I’m dragging both our bodies to the
Attic where we kept all our secrets,
‘Cause then came the night.
I can’t remember our
First argument
But I do remember
Our first kiss.
I have nothing left to steal
From your unstitched life,
My connection to perfection
Is weaker now.
Life will forever remember…
Your beaten hands, now hold nothing but those windblown words
that we used to shout but they've already fallen on deaf ears.
Your kiss was a burning stake straight to my chest,
again faded away like a drop in the rain. But I got wet anyway
And after all, our love was judged by Solomon
And soon, my dear, you’ll become his empress.
I have nothing left to steal
From your unstitched life,
My connection to perfection
Is weaker now.
Life will forever remember
That I broke it up
Jesus Christ, what have I done
I find it hard to justify
each time I try to solve just one
my problems seem to multiply
now it’s just too late to wrap a smile around my face
(2x)
this is propaganda
you know, you know
I tried to make it go away
and I have tried the best I can
it’s been around for nights and days
they say it’s only in my head
now it’s just too late to wrap a smile around my face
(2x)
this is propaganda
you know, you know
now it’s just too late to wrap a smile around my face
(7x)
this is propaganda
you know, you know
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Vicious Circle
- Heaven Give Me Words
- Your Wildlife
- Only One Word
- How Much Love
- Vicious (Reprise)
- Ministry of Fear
- Wound in My Heart
- La carne, la morte e il diavolo
- Das Testament Des Dr. Mabuse (13th Life mix)
- Lied (Remix of the Chase)
- P: Machinery (Beta mix)
- Duel (Bitter Sweet)
- The Lesson (Remix of Dr. Mabuse)
- Frozen Faces (12" version)
- Jewel (Vocal Edited version)
- P-Machinery (Connected)
- Das Testament Des Dr. Mabuse (DJ Promo version)
- Femme Fatale (The Woman With the Orchid)
- Echo of Frozen Faces
- Dream Within A Dream
- The Murder Of Love
- Jewel
- Duel
- Frozen Faces
- P-Machinery
- Sorry For Laughing
- Dr. Mabuse (first life)
- The Chase
- The Last Word/Strength To Dream
- Femme Fatale (The Woman With the Orchid)
- Dr. Mabuse (13th life)
- Duel (bitter-sweet)
- (the beta wraparound of) p:Machinery
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Propaganda - Duel (HQ)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:51
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Propaganda Duel. Mertens/Dorper. © + ℗ 1985 ZTT
http://wn.com/Propaganda_Duel_HQ
Propaganda Duel. Mertens/Dorper. © + ℗ 1985 ZTT
PROPAGANDA | FULL ENGLISH VERSION (2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 95:52
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine I have translated this film, laid in the English voice over and subtitles, and on legal advice have blurred the ...
http://wn.com/PROPAGANDA_|_FULL_ENGLISH_VERSION_2012
Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine I have translated this film, laid in the English voice over and subtitles, and on legal advice have blurred the ...
- published: 14 Jul 2012
- views: 417728
- author: sabineprogram
Propaganda P-Machinery
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:48
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
video from 80's german group Propaganda.
http://wn.com/Propaganda_P-Machinery
Propaganda - Dr. Mabuse (version 2) (HQ)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:29
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
CLICK ON WATCH IN HIGH QUALITY LINK...Dr. Mabuse 1985
http://wn.com/Propaganda_Dr_Mabuse_version_2_HQ
CLICK ON WATCH IN HIGH QUALITY LINK...Dr. Mabuse 1985
- published: 24 Nov 2008
- views: 251254
- author: lepurestyle
North Korean film exposes Western propaganda - Part 1 of 10
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:05
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
'Propaganda' (95min) - Part 1 Full film now available: www.youtube.com Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine I have translated this film, laid in the ...
http://wn.com/North_Korean_film_exposes_Western_propaganda_Part_1_of_10
'Propaganda' (95min) - Part 1 Full film now available: www.youtube.com Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine I have translated this film, laid in the ...
- published: 18 May 2012
- views: 204622
- author: sabineprogram
Education For Death - Disney WWII Propaganda Cartoon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:09
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
Education For Death - Disney WWII Propaganda Cartoon
http://wn.com/Education_For_Death_Disney_WWII_Propaganda_Cartoon
Education For Death - Disney WWII Propaganda Cartoon
- published: 24 Dec 2009
- views: 2161963
- author: one8seventheater
GOSPEL - Propaganda (Full Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:14
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Presented by our good friends at Dare2Share.org. You can purchase/download at dare2share.org/store/content/life-6-words-gospel-0 Download Propaganda's New Album "Art Ambidextrous" for FREE! Go check out breatheliferadio.com This vid was not produced by GL Media Company... it is merely being shared thru Breathe Life Radio to expand the reach of the vid, the artist, and their message
http://wn.com/GOSPEL_Propaganda_Full_Video
Presented by our good friends at Dare2Share.org. You can purchase/download at dare2share.org/store/content/life-6-words-gospel-0 Download Propaganda's New Album "Art Ambidextrous" for FREE! Go check out breatheliferadio.com This vid was not produced by GL Media Company... it is merely being shared thru Breathe Life Radio to expand the reach of the vid, the artist, and their message
- published: 19 Mar 2011
- views: 694799
- author: IamKINDRED
Amber Lyon reveals CNN lies and war propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:42
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad both delivered two of the most controversial speeches at the latest session of the United Nations General Assembly. And while the Israeli's speech was aired in full on CNN, the Iranian's address has been ruthlessly cut and the viewers have missed some very important points. What are the ramifications of this kind of selective reporting? RT's Liz Wahl is joined by Amber Lyon, a three-time Emmy award winning journalist who suggests that sensationalism, hype and downright propaganda is being used to push America into a war with Iran. Like us and/or follow us: twitter.com www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Amber_Lyon_reveals_CNN_lies_and_war_propaganda
Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad both delivered two of the most controversial speeches at the latest session of the United Nations General Assembly. And while the Israeli's speech was aired in full on CNN, the Iranian's address has been ruthlessly cut and the viewers have missed some very important points. What are the ramifications of this kind of selective reporting? RT's Liz Wahl is joined by Amber Lyon, a three-time Emmy award winning journalist who suggests that sensationalism, hype and downright propaganda is being used to push America into a war with Iran. Like us and/or follow us: twitter.com www.facebook.com
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 162314
- author: RTAmerica
Propaganda - p.Machinery (HQ)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Propaganda p.Machinery. Mertens/Dorper. © + ℗ 1985 ZTT
http://wn.com/Propaganda_pMachinery_HQ
Propaganda p.Machinery. Mertens/Dorper. © + ℗ 1985 ZTT
- published: 21 Nov 2008
- views: 366144
- author: lepurestyle
What is Propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:33
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
This podcast takes a look at three of the most common propaganda techniques as they are used by advertising and in the media. Examples from popular culture are used to help explain the tactics. Video created by Ian Greer while a student at Mansfield University. Note: If you use this video in your classroom could you, if possible, leave a comment telling how you used it and how well it worked for you. Thanks and enjoy.
http://wn.com/What_is_Propaganda
This podcast takes a look at three of the most common propaganda techniques as they are used by advertising and in the media. Examples from popular culture are used to help explain the tactics. Video created by Ian Greer while a student at Mansfield University. Note: If you use this video in your classroom could you, if possible, leave a comment telling how you used it and how well it worked for you. Thanks and enjoy.
- published: 07 Apr 2009
- views: 70349
- author: igreer23
Midnite - Propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:14
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
Midnite - Propaganda
http://wn.com/Midnite_Propaganda
PROPAGANDA | ORIGINAL KOREAN VERSION (2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 95:52
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine On legal advice I have blurred the identity of the presenter and/or blacked out certain elements in order to avoid ...
http://wn.com/PROPAGANDA_|_ORIGINAL_KOREAN_VERSION_2012
Here is the formal statement I gave to Federal Police on 16 June 2012: On a trip to visit family in Seoul in April, I was approached by a man and a woman who claimed to be North Korean defectors. They presented me with a DVD that recently came into their possession and asked me to translate it. They also asked me to post the completed film on the Internet so that it could reach a worldwide audience. I believed what I was told and an agreement was made to protect their identities (and mine). Despite my concerns about what I was viewing when I returned home, I proceeded to translate and post the film on You Tube because of the film's extraordinary content. I have now made public my belief that this film was never intended for a domestic audience in the DPRK. Instead, I believe that these people, who presented themselves as 'defectors' specifically targeted me because of my reputation as a translator and interpreter. Furthermore, I now believe these people work for the DPRK. The fact that I have continued to translate and post the film in spite of this belief does not make me complicit in their intention to spread their ideology. I chose to keep posting this film because - regardless of who made it - I believe people should see it because of the issues it raises and I stand by my right to post it for people to share and discuss freely with each other. Sabine On legal advice I have blurred the identity of the presenter and/or blacked out certain elements in order to avoid ...
- published: 04 Aug 2012
- views: 9846
- author: sabineprogram
Peace, Propaganda & The Promised Land {Part 1}
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 30:25
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land provides a striking comparison of US and international media coverage of the crisis in the Middle ... all » East, zeroing in on how structural distortions in US coverage have reinforced false perceptions of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This pivotal documentary exposes how the foreign policy interests of American political elites--oil, and a need to have a secure military base in the region, among others--work in combination with Israeli public relations strategies to exercise a powerful influence over how news from the region is reported. Through the voices of scholars, media critics, peace activists, religious figures, and Middle East experts, Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land carefully analyzes and explains how--through the use of language, framing and context--the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza remains hidden in the news media, and Israeli colonization of the occupied terrorities appears to be a defensive move rather than an offensive one. The documentary also explores the ways that US journalists, for reasons ranging from intimidation to a lack of thorough investigation, have become complicit in carrying out Israel's PR campaign. At its core, the documentary raises questions about the ethics and role of journalism, and the relationship between media and politics.
http://wn.com/Peace,_Propaganda_The_Promised_Land_Part_1_
Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land provides a striking comparison of US and international media coverage of the crisis in the Middle ... all » East, zeroing in on how structural distortions in US coverage have reinforced false perceptions of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. This pivotal documentary exposes how the foreign policy interests of American political elites--oil, and a need to have a secure military base in the region, among others--work in combination with Israeli public relations strategies to exercise a powerful influence over how news from the region is reported. Through the voices of scholars, media critics, peace activists, religious figures, and Middle East experts, Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land carefully analyzes and explains how--through the use of language, framing and context--the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza remains hidden in the news media, and Israeli colonization of the occupied terrorities appears to be a defensive move rather than an offensive one. The documentary also explores the ways that US journalists, for reasons ranging from intimidation to a lack of thorough investigation, have become complicit in carrying out Israel's PR campaign. At its core, the documentary raises questions about the ethics and role of journalism, and the relationship between media and politics.
- published: 08 Aug 2006
- views: 179561
- author: Gor3x
Ron Paul - War Propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:40
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
From: www.untouchablesunderground.com Music by Kevin MacLeod Spanish translation by @tribalwayz
http://wn.com/Ron_Paul_War_Propaganda
From: www.untouchablesunderground.com Music by Kevin MacLeod Spanish translation by @tribalwayz
- published: 06 Jan 2012
- views: 94329
- author: untouchablesvideo
Empowerment by Propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:21
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Propaganda, in collaboration with Krochet Kids intl., performs an original piece on the idea of empowerment. A beautifully spoken piece on the very thing that makes up our organization. Collaborators: humblebeast.com humblebeast.com Learn more about Krochet Kids intl: krochetkids.org
http://wn.com/Empowerment_by_Propaganda
Propaganda, in collaboration with Krochet Kids intl., performs an original piece on the idea of empowerment. A beautifully spoken piece on the very thing that makes up our organization. Collaborators: humblebeast.com humblebeast.com Learn more about Krochet Kids intl: krochetkids.org
- published: 24 May 2011
- views: 97433
- author: krochetkids
Wartime Disney Propaganda
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:26
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Gov't film convincing people to pay their income taxes and blaming the high rates on Hitler!
http://wn.com/Wartime_Disney_Propaganda
Gov't film convincing people to pay their income taxes and blaming the high rates on Hitler!
- published: 14 Dec 2007
- views: 75352
- author: gimmiepowder
Noam Chomsky - Propaganda & Control of the Public Mind
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 104:16
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
What the hell is gang stalking? www.scribd.com Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself. As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda is often biased, with facts selectively presented (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political, or other type of agenda. Propaganda can be used as a form of political warfare. "There's no doubt that one of the major issues of twentieth century history, surely in the US, is corporate propaganda.... Its goal from the beginning, perfectly openly and consciously, was to 'control the public mind,' as they put it. The reason was that the public mind was seen as the greatest threat to the corporations."—Noam Chomsky "The man who is possessed of wealth, who lolls on his sofa or rolls in his carriage, cannot judge the wants or feelings of the day-laborer. The government we mean to erect is intended to last for ages. The landed interest, at present, is prevalent; but in process of time, when we approximate to the states and kingdoms of Europe, when the number of landholders shall be ...
http://wn.com/Noam_Chomsky_Propaganda_Control_of_the_Public_Mind
What the hell is gang stalking? www.scribd.com Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position so as to benefit oneself. As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda is often biased, with facts selectively presented (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political, or other type of agenda. Propaganda can be used as a form of political warfare. "There's no doubt that one of the major issues of twentieth century history, surely in the US, is corporate propaganda.... Its goal from the beginning, perfectly openly and consciously, was to 'control the public mind,' as they put it. The reason was that the public mind was seen as the greatest threat to the corporations."—Noam Chomsky "The man who is possessed of wealth, who lolls on his sofa or rolls in his carriage, cannot judge the wants or feelings of the day-laborer. The government we mean to erect is intended to last for ages. The landed interest, at present, is prevalent; but in process of time, when we approximate to the states and kingdoms of Europe, when the number of landholders shall be ...
- published: 11 Aug 2011
- views: 19476
- author: phrygian20
Suvereno - Propaganda HD (official videoclip)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:18
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
footage is just from youtube...we had some idea how to put it together and this is how its done! tell me what you think? tnx
http://wn.com/Suvereno_Propaganda_HD_official_videoclip
footage is just from youtube...we had some idea how to put it together and this is how its done! tell me what you think? tnx
- published: 21 Feb 2010
- views: 310890
- author: Branko Jass
The propaganda behind Obama's drone war
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 25:06
- Updated: 13 Dec 2012
On Listening Post this week: The propaganda push behind Obama's drone war. And Somalia - where being a journalist can cost you your life. It has been one of the worst-kept secrets of the Obama administration - the aggressive campaign of drone strikes against suspected militants hiding out in the tribal areas of Pakistan, Yemen and Somalia. According to the London-based Bureau of Investigative Journalism, under President Barack Obama there have been a total of 280 drone strikes on Pakistan alone and the civilian death toll has been anywhere from 482 to 832. The Obama administration puts this figure at just 60. In our News Divide this week we analyse what is behind the difference in the casualty figures the US government reports and what investigative journalists have found on the ground.
http://wn.com/The_propaganda_behind_Obama's_drone_war
On Listening Post this week: The propaganda push behind Obama's drone war. And Somalia - where being a journalist can cost you your life. It has been one of the worst-kept secrets of the Obama administration - the aggressive campaign of drone strikes against suspected militants hiding out in the tribal areas of Pakistan, Yemen and Somalia. According to the London-based Bureau of Investigative Journalism, under President Barack Obama there have been a total of 280 drone strikes on Pakistan alone and the civilian death toll has been anywhere from 482 to 832. The Obama administration puts this figure at just 60. In our News Divide this week we analyse what is behind the difference in the casualty figures the US government reports and what investigative journalists have found on the ground.
- published: 23 Jun 2012
- views: 2787
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
Propaganda - Dream Within A Dream (Live 1985)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Updated: 30 Dec 2012
From Edgar Allen Poe- Dream Within A Dream Take this kiss upon the brow! And, in parting from you now, Thus much let me avow You are not wrong, who deem That my days have been a dream; Yet if hope has flown away In a night, or in a day, In a vision, or in none, Is it therefore the less gone? All that we see or seem Is but a dream within a dream. I stand amid the roar Of a surf-tormented shore, And I hold within my hand Grains of the golden sand How few! yet how they creep Through my fingers to the deep, While I weep - while I weep! O God! can I not grasp Them with a tighter clasp? O God! can I not save One from the pitiless wave? Is all that we see or seem But a dream within a dream?
http://wn.com/Propaganda_Dream_Within_A_Dream_Live_1985
From Edgar Allen Poe- Dream Within A Dream Take this kiss upon the brow! And, in parting from you now, Thus much let me avow You are not wrong, who deem That my days have been a dream; Yet if hope has flown away In a night, or in a day, In a vision, or in none, Is it therefore the less gone? All that we see or seem Is but a dream within a dream. I stand amid the roar Of a surf-tormented shore, And I hold within my hand Grains of the golden sand How few! yet how they creep Through my fingers to the deep, While I weep - while I weep! O God! can I not grasp Them with a tighter clasp? O God! can I not save One from the pitiless wave? Is all that we see or seem But a dream within a dream?
- published: 22 Jun 2010
- views: 75659
- author: atmosfearic1
PROPAGANDA | North Korea Documentary Film, Presented By The Coming Crisis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 97:38
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
PROPAGANDA (2012) is a documentary film purportedly smuggled out of North Korea and focused upon analyzing and attacking the use of propaganda in the West to control its citizens. The Coming Crisis presents it here in its entirety. Viewer discretion is definitely advised.
http://wn.com/PROPAGANDA_|_North_Korea_Documentary_Film,_Presented_By_The_Coming_Crisis
PROPAGANDA (2012) is a documentary film purportedly smuggled out of North Korea and focused upon analyzing and attacking the use of propaganda in the West to control its citizens. The Coming Crisis presents it here in its entirety. Viewer discretion is definitely advised.
- published: 15 Jul 2012
- views: 30507
- author: comingcrisisvideos
North Korean film exposes Western propaganda - Part 5 of 10
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:25
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
'Propaganda' (95 min) Full film now available: www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/North_Korean_film_exposes_Western_propaganda_Part_5_of_10
'Propaganda' (95 min) Full film now available: www.youtube.com
- published: 22 Jun 2012
- views: 28648
- author: sabineprogram
Poster art propaganda in Lebanon
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:26
- Updated: 12 Dec 2012
Arstworld asks if the ubiquitous political posters in Lebanon are art or propaganda. Plus we hear some magical sounds coming out of the forests of Finland.
http://wn.com/Poster_art_propaganda_in_Lebanon
Arstworld asks if the ubiquitous political posters in Lebanon are art or propaganda. Plus we hear some magical sounds coming out of the forests of Finland.
- published: 19 Sep 2008
- views: 6634
- author: AlJazeeraEnglish
photo: AP / New York City Police Department
30 Dec 2012
A woman who told police she shoved a man to his death off a subway platform because she has hated Muslims since the Sept. 11, 2001, attacks on the US and thought he was one was charged on Saturday with murder as a hate crime, prosecutors said ... Menendez, 31, was awaiting arraignment on the charge on Saturday evening, Queens District Attorney Richard Brown said. She faces 25 years to life in prison if convicted ... On Dec ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
30 Dec 2012
Comet Ison is likely to light up the skies in 2013. David Shukman, science editor, BBC News Continue reading the main story Related Stories. A science news preview of 2012. As the Philippines, New Jersey and Britain count the cost of ferocious flooding, expect another year in which extreme weather exacts a human toll. Partly this is because more and more of us live in harm's way on coasts and flood plains ... ....(size: 9.2Kb)
photo: AP / Felicia Fonseca
01 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. For good reason Mark Charles, a member of the Navajo Nation, is deeply offended that buried on page 45 of the 2010 Defense Appropriation Act (after pages on the maintenance and operation of the United States Military) is an "official" apology to Native American People ... political leaders and officials find it extremely difficult in expressing remorse for past mistakes ... Escorted by the U.S....(size: 5.6Kb)
photo: AP / John MacDougall
31 Dec 2012
Chancellor Angela Merkel has warned that the German economic climate in 2013 will be "even more difficult". In her new year message, she also cautioned that the eurozone debt crisis was far from over. However, she did say that reforms designed to address the roots of the problem were beginning to bear fruit ... In a taped interview to be broadcast later on Monday, Mrs Merkel urged Germans to be more patient ... Voters 'wary' ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
photo: AP / Shaam News Network
30 Dec 2012
London. UN-Arab League envoy to Damascus, Lakhdar Brahimi, has said that a diplomatic solution to the conflict in Syria seemed far away, adding that the country risked being slithering into ‘hell’ ... (ANI). For Zee News’s Updates, follow us on Twitter , Facebook, Google+, Pinterest. First Published ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Foreign Policy
02 Jan 2013
Xinhua
02 Jan 2013
ANKARA, Jan. 1 (Xinhua) -- Turkey's intelligence services have launched fresh talks with jailed Kurdish leader Abdullah Ocalan in order to disarm the outlawed Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK) and end nearly three-decade insurgency, according to a top political adviser of prime minister ... The government has banned the imprisoned Kurdish leader to meet his lawyers since 2011, citing that Ocalan had been using them for propaganda ... Editor. Liu ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Foreign Policy
02 Jan 2013
For decades, the Soviet Union hid its horrors behind the Iron Curtain. The worst of them was Joseph Stalin's man-made famine in Ukraine and southern Russia, the result of his program of forced rural collectivization that claimed the lives of 7 to 10 million people in 1932 and 1933 ... Those who resisted or tried to hide food were deported to the Gulag or executed ... COMMENTS (0) SHARE. ... More... Propaganda posters from China's Great Famine ... 1 ... 1....(size: 4.3Kb)
The Examiner
02 Jan 2013
The following paragraph was written by a young liberal FB "friend", and is reflective of the new collective Progressive mindset ... He wrote this... . to you or me ... From deep inside of the Progressive dominated beltway, to the crux and catalyst of media propaganda, our children are being taught both despondency and hopelessness, selfish gratification and lackluster fulfillment, and it is encompassing a growing faction of this generation ... ....(size: 6.4Kb)
The Times of India
01 Jan 2013
PANAJI. The BJP has slammed the Congress "propaganda" of labeling the BJP government as a government of U-turns and reiterated that while the government has been addressing all issues in its pre-election manifesto, it will resolve the issues in the remainder of its term ... Who is supposed to give this justice? Parrikar or the courts?" Mesquita asked ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Scoop
01 Jan 2013
Wednesday, 2 January 2013, 12.45 pm. Press Release. Asian Human Rights Commission. OR PUBLICATION. AHRC-ART-001-2013 ... SRI LANKA ... Instead, the government is engaging in massive propaganda, day in and day out, to show that it is acting in good faith and that the Chief Justice in the wrong. No amount of propaganda is a substitute for genuine proof ... The level of the government’s propaganda suggests that it is facing a massive threat ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
The Examiner
01 Jan 2013
A pathogen refers to the first stage of infection, and anything that can morph into a disease ... Suggested by the author.. The solution to obesity. Stopping the “hunger hormone”Propaganda, not Maya prophecy ... ....(size: 1.1Kb)
Bloomberg
01 Jan 2013
22 to serve a six-month sentence for “spreading propaganda against the Islamic system,” was being punished for breaking prison regulations, the paper said today, citing a press briefing by Prosecutor-General Gholamhossein ......(size: 1.3Kb)
DNA India
01 Jan 2013
India recorded their best-ever performance at the Olympics last year. Great! For me, though, the number of medals we won did not matter as much as the women champions, who come from a different socio-economic strata ... But ‘Magnificent Mary’ proved her critics wrong ... This is no feminist propaganda, but as a woman I’m proud of these two ladies ... ....(size: 1.9Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
01 Jan 2013
Chennai. The ruling AIADMK’s state executive committee lashed out at the “minority” Congress government at the Centre for humiliating party supremo and chief minister J ... Recalling her days in the AIADMK as propaganda secretary, she said at the time the fixed deposit of the party was less than `1 lakh, but now it had increased to over `118 crore ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Newsvine
01 Jan 2013
It is one of the most horrifying videos of the war in Syria. It shows two men being beheaded by Syrian rebels, one of them by a child.... The video underlines a startling contradiction in the policy of the US and its allies ... Videos posted on YouTube play such a central role in the propaganda war in Syria that questions always have to be asked about their authenticity and origin ... The victims have not been identified ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
The Guardian
01 Jan 2013
Thirty years ago this month, the groundbreaking ZTT was born ... Kings of the ring … Frankie Goes to Hollywood. Photograph. Kevin Cummins/Getty Images ... The boundaries between music, money and propaganda are neatly observed ... Right now the full promotional propaganda is about to go into action for Frankie ... Y'know, the Propaganda 12-inch was meant to be a 12-inch that was orchestrated, instead of being a bunch of random mixes of things ... ....(size: 15.3Kb)
The Hindu
01 Jan 2013
Union Minister of State for Toursim K .Chiranjeevi said here on Tuesday that despite his personal view to the contrary, he would abide by any decision on the Telangana statehood issue taken by AICC president Sonia Gandhi ... Satyanarayana and Balram Naik, he called for early decision by the Centre ... Mr ... He described as ‘false propaganda’ criticism that the State is not taking up welfare programmes for the benefit of the poor ... Mr....(size: 2.3Kb)
This article is about the form of communication. For other uses, see Propaganda (disambiguation).
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position. Propaganda is usually repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media in order to create the desired result in audience attitudes.
As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda often presents facts selectively (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political agenda. Propaganda can be used as a form of political warfare.
While the term propaganda has justifiably acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and jingoistic examples (e.g. Nazi Propaganda used to justify the Holocaust) , propaganda in its original sense was neutral, and could refer to uses that were generally benign or innocuous, such as public health recommendations, signs encouraging citizens to participate in a census or election, or messages encouraging persons to report crimes to the police, among others.
Etymology[link]
The term was not originally pejorative and its political sense dates back to World War I.[1]
Types[link]
Defining propaganda has always been a problem. The main difficulties have involved differentiating propaganda from other types of persuasion, and avoiding an "if they do it then that's propaganda, while if we do it then that's information and education" biased approach. Garth Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell have provided a concise, workable definition of the term: "Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist."[2] More comprehensive is the description by Richard Alan Nelson: "Propaganda is neutrally defined as a systematic form of purposeful persuasion that attempts to influence the emotions, attitudes, opinions, and actions of specified target audiences for ideological, political or commercial purposes through the controlled transmission of one-sided messages (which may or may not be factual) via mass and direct media channels. A propaganda organization employs propagandists who engage in propagandism—the applied creation and distribution of such forms of persuasion."[3]
Both definitions focus on the communicative process involved — or more precisely, on the purpose of the process, and allow "propaganda" to be considered objectively and then interpreted as positive or negative behavior depending on the perspective of the viewer or listener.
Propaganda is generally an appeal to emotion, not intellect.[citation needed] It shares techniques with advertising and public relations, each of which can be thought of as propaganda that promotes a commercial product or shapes the perception of an organization, person, or brand. In post–World War II usage the word "propaganda" more typically refers to political or nationalist uses of these techniques or to the promotion of a set of ideas, since the term had gained a pejorative meaning. The refusal phenomenon was eventually to be seen in politics itself by the substitution of "political marketing" and other designations for "political propaganda".
Propaganda was often used to influence opinions and beliefs on religious issues, particularly during the split between the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant churches. Propaganda has become more common in political contexts, in particular to refer to certain efforts sponsored by governments, political groups, but also often covert interests. In the early 20th century, propaganda was exemplified in the form of party slogans. Also in the early 20th century the term propaganda was used by the founders of the nascent public relations industry to describe their activities. This usage died out around the time of World War II, as the industry started to avoid the word, given the pejorative connotation it had acquired.
Literally translated from the Latin gerundive as "things that must be disseminated", in some cultures the term is neutral or even positive, while in others the term has acquired a strong negative connotation. The connotations of the term "propaganda" can also vary over time. For example, in Portuguese and some Spanish language speaking countries, particularly in the Southern Cone, the word "propaganda" usually refers to the most common manipulative media — "advertising".
In English, "propaganda" was originally a neutral term used to describe the dissemination of information in favor of any given cause. During the 20th century, however, the term acquired a thoroughly negative meaning in western countries, representing the intentional dissemination of often false, but certainly "compelling" claims to support or justify political actions or ideologies. This redefinition arose because both the Soviet Union and Germany's government under Hitler admitted explicitly to using propaganda favoring, respectively, communism and Nazism, in all forms of public expression. As these ideologies were repugnant to liberal western societies, the negative feelings toward them came to be projected into the word "propaganda" itself.
Roderick Hindery argues[4] that propaganda exists on the political left, and right, and in mainstream centrist parties. Hindery further argues that debates about most social issues can be productively revisited in the context of asking "what is or is not propaganda?" Not to be overlooked is the link between propaganda, indoctrination, and terrorism/counterterrorism. He argues that threats to destroy are often as socially disruptive as physical devastation itself.
Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering and so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium. In the case of the United States, there is also an important legal (imposed by law) distinction between advertising (a type of overt propaganda) and what the Government Accountability Office (GAO), an arm of the United States Congress, refers to as "covert propaganda".
Journalistic theory generally holds that news items should be objective, giving the reader an accurate background and analysis of the subject at hand. On the other hand, advertisements evolved from the traditional commercial advertisements to include also a new type in the form of paid articles or broadcasts disguised as news. These generally present an issue in a very subjective and often misleading light, primarily meant to persuade rather than inform. Normally they use only subtle propaganda techniques and not the more obvious ones used in traditional commercial advertisements. If the reader believes that a paid advertisement is in fact a news item, the message the advertiser is trying to communicate will be more easily "believed" or "internalized".
Such advertisements are considered obvious examples of "covert" propaganda because they take on the appearance of objective information rather than the appearance of propaganda, which is misleading. Federal law specifically mandates that any advertisement appearing in the format of a news item must state that the item is in fact a paid advertisement.
The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or situation for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are desirable to the interest group. Propaganda, in this sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the rank and file members who help to disseminate the propaganda.
More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons.[5][6]
Propaganda is a powerful weapon in war; it is used to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external, by creating a false image in the mind. This can be done by using derogatory or racist terms, avoiding some words or by making allegations of enemy atrocities. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just.
Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare, which may also involve false flag operations. The term propaganda may also refer to false information meant to reinforce the mindsets of people who already believe as the propagandist wishes. The assumption is that, if people believe something false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts. Since these doubts are unpleasant (see cognitive dissonance), people will be eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the reassurances of those in power. For this reason propaganda is often addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda. This process of reinforcement uses an individual's predisposition to self-select "agreeable" information sources as a mechanism for maintaining control.
Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. Black propaganda is identified as being from one source, but is in fact from another. This is most commonly to disguise the true origins of the propaganda, be it from an enemy country or from an organization with a negative public image. Grey propaganda is propaganda without any identifiable source or author. A major application of grey propaganda is making enemies believe falsehoods using straw arguments: As phase one, to make someone believe "A", one releases as grey propaganda "B", the opposite of "A". In phase two, "B" is discredited using some strawman. The enemy will then assume "A" to be true.
In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to grey propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported.
Propaganda may be administered in insidious ways. For instance, disparaging disinformation about the history of certain groups or foreign countries may be encouraged or tolerated in the educational system. Since few people actually double-check what they learn at school, such disinformation will be repeated by journalists as well as parents, thus reinforcing the idea that the disinformation item is really a "well-known fact", even though no one repeating the myth is able to point to an authoritative source. The disinformation is then recycled in the media and in the educational system, without the need for direct governmental intervention on the media. Such permeating propaganda may be used for political goals: by giving citizens a false impression of the quality or policies of their country, they may be incited to reject certain proposals or certain remarks or ignore the experience of others. See also: black propaganda, marketing, advertising.
Techniques[link]
Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets, movies, radio, television, and posters. Less common nowadays are letterpost envelopes examples of which of survive from the time of the American Civil War. (Connecticut Historical Society; Civil War Collections; Covers.) In principle any thing that appears on a poster can be produced on a reduced scale on a pocket-style envelope with corresponding proportions to the poster. The case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials. Propaganda campaigns often follow a strategic transmission pattern to indoctrinate the target group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hot line, radio program, et cetera (as it is seen also for selling purposes among other goals). The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to opinion leader through indoctrination.
A number of techniques based in social psychological research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid.
Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which the propaganda messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that information dissemination strategies become propaganda strategies only when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those messages are spread. Below are a number of techniques for generating propaganda:
- Ad hominem
- A Latin phrase that has come to mean attacking one's opponent, as opposed to attacking their arguments.
- Ad nauseam
- This argument approach uses tireless repetition of an idea. An idea, especially a simple slogan, that is repeated enough times, may begin to be taken as the truth. This approach works best when media sources are limited or controlled by the propagator.
- Appeal to authority
- Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position, idea, argument, or course of action.
- Appeal to fear
- Appeals to fear and seeks to build support by instilling anxieties and panic in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people.
- Appeal to prejudice
- Using loaded or emotive terms to attach value or moral goodness to believing the proposition. Used in biased or misleading ways.
- Bandwagon
- Bandwagon and "inevitable-victory" appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to join in and take the course of action that "everyone else is taking".
- Inevitable victory
- Invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is their best course of action.
- Join the crowd
- This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best interest to join.
File:Mexicospankingkkk.jpg
Getting What He Deserves. Heroes of the Fiery Cross 1928.
- Beautiful people
- The type of propaganda that deals with famous people or depicts attractive, happy people. This makes other people think that if they buy a product or follow a certain ideology, they too will be happy or successful.
- Big Lie
- The repeated articulation of a complex of events that justify subsequent action. The descriptions of these events have elements of truth, and the "big lie" generalizations merge and eventually supplant the public's accurate perception of the underlying events. After World War I the German Stab in the back explanation of the cause of their defeat became a justification for Nazi re-militarization and revanchist aggression.
- Black-and-white fallacy
- Presenting only two choices, with the product or idea being propagated as the better choice. For example: "You're either with us, or against us...."
- Classical conditioning
- All vertebrates, including humans, respond to classical conditioning. That is, if object A is always present when object B is present and object B causes a negative physical reaction (e.g., disgust, pleasure) then we will when presented with object A when object B is not present, we will experience the same feelings.
- Cognitive dissonance
- People desire to be consistent. Suppose a pollster finds that a certain group of people hates his candidate for senator but love actor A. They use actor A's endorsement of their candidate to change people's minds because people cannot tolerate inconsistency. They are forced to either to dislike the actor or like the candidate.
- Common man
- The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person. For example, a propaganda leaflet may make an argument on a macroeconomic issue, such as unemployment insurance benefits, using everyday terms: "Given that the country has little money during this recession, we should stop paying unemployment benefits to those who do not work, because that is like maxing out all your credit cards during a tight period, when you should be tightening your belt."
- Cult of personality
- A cult of personality arises when an individual uses mass media to create an idealized and heroic public image, often through unquestioning flattery and praise. The hero personality then advocates the positions that the propagandist desires to promote. For example, modern propagandists hire popular personalities to promote their ideas and/or products.
- Demonizing the enemy
- Making individuals from the opposing nation, from a different ethnic group, or those who support the opposing viewpoint appear to be subhuman (e.g., the Vietnam War-era term "gooks" for National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam aka Vietcong, or "VC", soldiers), worthless, or immoral, through suggestion or false accusations. Dehumanizing is also a termed used synonymously with demonizing, the latter usually serves as an aspect of the former.
- Dictat
- This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process by using images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique.
- Disinformation
- The creation or deletion of information from public records, in the purpose of making a false record of an event or the actions of a person or organization, including outright forgery of photographs, motion pictures, broadcasts, and sound recordings as well as printed documents.
- Door-in-the-face technique
- Is used to increase a person's latitude of acceptance. For example, if a salesperson wants to sell an item for $100 but the public is only willing to pay $50, the salesperson first offers the item at a higher price (e.g., $200) and subsequently reduces the price to $100 to make it seem like a good deal.
- Euphoria
- The use of an event that generates euphoria or happiness, or using an appealing event to boost morale. Euphoria can be created by declaring a holiday, making luxury items available, or mounting a military parade with marching bands and patriotic messages.
- Fear, uncertainty and doubt
- An attempt to influence public perception by disseminating negative and dubious/false information designed to undermine the credibility of their beliefs.
- Flag-waving
- An attempt to justify an action on the grounds that doing so will make one more patriotic, or in some way benefit a country, group or idea the targeted audience supports.
- Foot-in-the-door technique
- Often used by recruiters and salesmen. For example, a member of the opposite sex walks up to the victim and pins a flower or gives a small gift to the victim. The victim says thanks and now they have incurred a psychological debt to the perpetrator. The person eventually asks for a larger favor (e.g., a donation or to buy something far more expensive). The unwritten social contract between the victim and perpetrator causes the victim to feel obligated to reciprocate by agreeing to do the larger favor or buy the more expensive gift.
- Glittering generalities
- Glittering generalities are emotionally appealing words that are applied to a product or idea, but present no concrete argument or analysis. This technique has also been referred to as the PT Barnum effect.
- Half-truth
- A half-truth is a deceptive statement, which may come in several forms and includes some element of truth. The statement might be partly true, the statement may be totally true but only part of the whole truth, or it may utilize some deceptive element, such as improper punctuation, or double meaning, especially if the intent is to deceive, evade, blame or misrepresent the truth.
- Labeling
- A euphemism is used when the propagandist attempts to increase the perceived quality, credibility, or credence of a particular ideal. A Dysphemism is used when the intent of the propagandist is to discredit, diminish the perceived quality, or hurt the perceived righteousness of the Mark. By creating a "label" or "category" or "faction" of a population, it is much easier to make an example of these larger bodies, because they can uplift or defame the Mark without actually incurring legal-defamation. Example: "Liberal" is a dysphemism intended to diminish the perceived credibility of a particular Mark. By taking a displeasing argument presented by a Mark, the propagandist can quote that person, and then attack "liberals" in an attempt to both (1) create a political battle-ax of unaccountable aggression and (2) diminish the quality of the Mark. If the propagandist uses the label on too-many perceivably credible individuals, muddying up the word can be done by broadcasting bad-examples of "liberals" into the media. Labeling can be thought of as a sub-set of Guilt by association, another logical fallacy.
- Latitudes of acceptance
- If a person's message is outside the bounds of acceptance for an individual and group, most techniques will engender psychological reactance (simply hearing the argument will make the message even less acceptable). There are two techniques for increasing the bounds of acceptance. First, one can take a more even extreme position that will make more moderate positions seem more acceptable. This is similar to the Door-in-the-Face technique. Alternatively, one can moderate one's own position to the edge of the latitude of acceptance and then over time slowly move to the position that was previously.[7]
- Love bombing
- Used to recruit members to a cult or ideology by having a group of individuals cut off a person from their existing social support and replace it entirely with members of the group who deliberately bombard the person with affection in an attempt to isolate the person from their prior beliefs and value system—see Milieu control.
- Lying and deception
- Lying and deception can be the basis of many propaganda techniques including Ad Homimen arguments, Big-Lie, Defamation, Door-in-the-Face, Half-truth, Name-calling or any other technique that is based on dishonesty or deception. For example, many politicians have been found to frequently stretch or break the truth.
- Managing the news
- According to Adolf Hitler "The most brilliant propagandist technique will yield no success unless one fundamental principle is borne in mind constantly - it must confine itself to a few points and repeat them over and over."[8][9] This idea is consistent with the principle of classical conditioning as well as the idea of "Staying on Message."
- Milieu control
- An attempt to control the social environment and ideas through the use of social pressure
- Name-calling
- Propagandists use the name-calling technique to incite fears and arouse prejudices in their hearers in the intent that the bad names will cause hearers to construct a negative opinion about a group or set of beliefs or ideas that the propagandist wants hearers to denounce. The method is intended to provoke conclusions about a matter apart from impartial examinations of facts. Name-calling is thus a substitute for rational, fact-based arguments against the an idea or belief on its own merits.[10]
- Obfuscation, intentional vagueness, confusion
- Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience forgoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application may still be considered.
- Obtain disapproval or Reductio ad Hitlerum
- This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group that supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change their original position. This is a form of bad logic, where a is said to include X, and b is said to include X, therefore, a = b.
- Operant conditioning
- Operant conditioning involves learning through imitation. For example, watching an appealing person buy products or endorse positions teaches a person to buy the product or endorse the position. Operant conditioning is the underlying principle behind the Ad Nauseam, Slogan and other repetition public relations campaigns.
- Oversimplification
- Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.
- Pensée unique
- Enforced reduction of discussion by use of overly simplistic phrases or arguments (e.g., "There is no alternative to war.")
- Quotes out of context
- Selectively editing quotes to change meanings—political documentaries designed to discredit an opponent or an opposing political viewpoint often make use of this technique.
- Rationalization (making excuses)
- Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
- Red herring
- Presenting data or issues that, while compelling, are irrelevant to the argument at hand, and then claiming that it validates the argument.
- Repetition
- This is the repeating of a certain symbol or slogan so that the audience remembers it. This could be in the form of a jingle or an image placed on nearly everything in the picture/scene.
- Scapegoating
- Assigning blame to an individual or group, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is being assigned.
- Slogans
- A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. Although slogans may be enlisted to support reasoned ideas, in practice they tend to act only as emotional appeals. Opponents of the US's invasion and occupation of Iraq use the slogan "blood for oil" to suggest that the invasion and its human losses was done to access Iraq's oil riches. On the other hand, supporters who argue that the US should continue to fight in Iraq use the slogan "cut and run" to suggest withdrawal is cowardly or weak.
- Stereotyping
- This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal. In graphic propaganda, including war posters, this might include portraying enemies with stereotyped racial features.
- Straw man
- A straw man argument is an informal fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "attack a straw man" is to create the illusion of having refuted a proposition by substituting a superficially similar proposition (the "straw man"), and refuting it, without ever having actually refuted the original position.
- Testimonial
- Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own.
- Third party technique
- Works on the principle that people are more willing to accept an argument from a seemingly independent source of information than from someone with a stake in the outcome. It is a marketing strategy commonly employed by Public Relations (PR) firms, that involves placing a premeditated message in the "mouth of the media." Third party technique can take many forms, ranging from the hiring of journalists to report the organization in a favorable light, to using scientists within the organization to present their perhaps prejudicial findings to the public. Frequently astroturf groups or front groups are used to deliver the message.
- Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. See: Soft Power
- Thought-terminating cliché
- A commonly used phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to quell cognitive dissonance.
- Transfer
- Also known as association, this is a technique that involves projecting the positive or negative qualities of one person, entity, object, or value onto another to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (e.g. swastikas) superimposed over other visual images (e.g. logos). These symbols may be used in place of words.
- Selective truth
- Richard Crossman, the British Deputy Director of Psychological Warfare Division (PWD) for the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF) during the Second World War said "In propaganda truth pays... It is a complete delusion to think of the brilliant propagandist as being a professional liar. The brilliant propagandist is the man who tells the truth, or that selection of the truth which is requisite for his purpose, and tells it in such a way that the recipient does not think he is receiving any propaganda... [...] The art of propaganda is not telling lies, but rather selecting the truth you require and giving it mixed up with some truths the audience wants to hear."[11]
- Unstated assumption
- This technique is used when the idea the propagandist wants to plant would seem less credible if explicitly stated. The concept is instead repeatedly assumed or implied.
- Virtue words
- These are words in the value system of the target audience that produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, "The Truth", etc. are virtue words. Many see religiosity as a virtue, making associations to this quality affectively beneficial. Their use is considered of the Transfer propaganda technique.
Models[link]
Social Psychology[link]
The field of Social Psychology includes the study of persuasion. Social psychologists can be sociologists or psychologists. The field includes many theories and approaches to understanding persuasion. For example, communication theory points out that people can be persuaded by the communicator's credibility, expertise, trustworthiness, and attractiveness. The elaboration likelihood model as well as heuristic models of persuasion suggest that a number of factors (e.g., the degree of interest of the recipient of the communication), influence the degree to which people allow superficial factors to persuade them. Nobel Prize winning psychologist Herbert A. Simon won the Nobel prize for his theory that people are cognitive misers. That is, in a society of mass information people are forced to make decisions quickly and often superficially, as opposed to logically.
Social cognitive theories suggest that people have inherent biases in the way they perceive the world and these biases can be used to manipulate them. For example, people tend to believe that people's misfortune (e.g., poverty) is a result of the person and downplay external factors (e.g., being born into poverty). This bias is referred to as the Fundamental Attribution Error. The self-fulfilling prophecy relates to people's tendencies to stick with their original theories even when evidence proves their theories are incorrect. This tendency is sometimes referred to as confirmation bias (see list of cognitive biases). Propaganda frequently plays upon people's existing biases to achieve its end. For example, the illusion of control, refers to people's seemingly innate desire to believe they can and should control their lives. Propagandists frequently argue their point by claiming that the other side is attempting to take away your control. For example, Republicans frequently claim that Democrats are attempting to control you by imposing big government on your private life and take away your spending power by imposing higher taxes while Democrats frequently argue that they are reigning in big corporations that are attempting to influence elections with money, power and take away your job, health etc. ... According to bipartisan analysis, these claims are frequently untrue.[12][not specific enough to verify]
Role theory is frequently used to identify an idea as appropriate because it is associated with a role. For example, the public relations firm Leo Burnett Worldwide used the Marlboro Man to persuade males that Marlboro cigarettes were a part of being a cool, risk-taking, cowboy rebel who was fearless in the face of threats of cancer. The campaign quadrupled sales of their cigarettes. Of course, smoking has nothing to do with being a cowboy or a rebel. This is a fantasy but the campaign's success is consistent with the tenets of role theory. In fact, the three actors who played the Marlboro man died of lung cancer.
Herman and Chomsky's propaganda model[link]
The propaganda model is a theory advanced by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky that alleges systemic biases in the mass media and seeks to explain them in terms of structural economic causes.
The 20th century has been characterized by three developments of great political importance: the growth of democracy, the growth of corporate power, and the growth of corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against democracy.
First presented in their 1988 book Manufacturing Consent: the Political Economy of the Mass Media, the propaganda model views the private media as businesses selling a product — readers and audiences (rather than news) — to other businesses (advertisers) and relying primarily on government and corporate information and propaganda. The theory postulates five general classes of "filters" that determine the type of news that is presented in news media: Ownership of the medium, the medium's Funding, Sourcing of the news, Flak, and Anti-communist ideology.
The first three (ownership, funding, and sourcing) are generally regarded by the authors as being the most important. Although the model was based mainly on the characterization of United States media, Chomsky and Herman believe the theory is equally applicable to any country that shares the basic economic structure and organizing principles the model postulates as the cause of media biases. After the Soviet Union disintegrated, Chomsky said terrorism and Islam would be the new filter replacing communism.[citation needed]
Ross' epistemic merit model[link]
The epistemic merit model is a method for understanding propaganda conceived by Sheryl Tuttle Ross and detailed in her 2002 article for the Journal of Aesthetic Education entitled "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its Application to Art".[15] Ross developed the Epistemic merit model due to concern about narrow, misleading definitions of propaganda. She contrasted her model with the ideas of Pope Gregory XV, the Institute for Propaganda Analysis, Alfred Lee, F.C. Bartlett, and Hans Speier. Insisting that each of their respective discussions of propaganda are too narrow, Ross proposed her own definition.
To appropriately discuss propaganda, Ross argues that one must consider a threefold communication model: that of Sender-Message-Receiver. "That is... propaganda involve[s]... the one who is persuading (Sender) [who is] doing so intentionally, [the] target for such persuasion (Receiver) and [the] means of reaching that target (Message)." There are four conditions for a message to be considered propaganda. Propaganda involves the intention to persuade. As well, propaganda is sent on behalf of a sociopolitical institution, organization, or cause. Next, the recipient of propaganda is a socially significant group of people. Finally, propaganda is an epistemic struggle to challenge others' thoughts.
Ross claims that it is misleading to say that propaganda is simply false, or that it is conditional to a lie, since often the propagandist believes in what he/she is propagandizing. In other words, it is not necessarily a lie if the person who creates the propaganda is trying to persuade you of a view that they actually hold. "The aim of the propagandist is to create the semblance of credibility." This means that they appeal to an epistemology that is weak or defective.
| “ | False statements, bad arguments, immoral commands as well as inapt metaphors (and other literary tropes) are the sorts of things that are epistemically defective... Not only does epistemic defectiveness more accurately describe how propaganda endeavors to function... since many messages are in forms such as commands that do not admit to truth-values, [but it] also accounts for the role context plays in the workings of propaganda. | ” |
Throughout history those who have wished to persuade have used art to get their message out. This can be accomplished by hiring artists for the express aim of propagandizing or by investing new meanings to a previously non-political work. Therefore, Ross states, it is important to consider "the conditions of its making [and] the conditions of its use."
History[link]
Ancient propaganda[link]
Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The Behistun Inscription (c. 515 BC) detailing the rise of Darius I to the Persian throne is viewed by most historians as an early example of propaganda.[16] The Arthashastra written by Chanakya (c. 350 - 283 BC), a professor of political science at Takshashila University and a prime minister of the Maurya Empire in ancient India, discusses propaganda in detail, such as how to spread propaganda and how to apply it in warfare. His student Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340 - 293 BC), founder of the Maurya Empire, employed these methods during his rise to power.[17] The writings of Romans such as Livy (c. 59 BC - 17 AD) are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman propaganda.[citation needed] Another example of early propaganda is the 12th century work, The War of the Irish with the Foreigners, written by the Dál gCais to portray themselves as legitimate rulers of Ireland.
Propaganda during the Reformation[link]
Main article: Propaganda during the Reformation
Propaganda during the Reformation, helped by the spread of the printing press throughout Europe, and in particular within Germany, caused new ideas, thoughts, and doctrine to be made available to the public in ways that had never been seen before the sixteenth century. The printing press was invented in approximately 1450 and quickly spread to other major cities around Europe; by the time the Reformation was underway in 1517 there were printing centers in over 200 of the major European cities.[21] These centers became the primary producers of both Reformation works by the Protestant Reformers and anti-Reformation works put forth by the Roman Catholics.
19th and 20th centuries[link]
Gabriel Tarde's Laws of Imitation (1890) and Gustave Le Bon's The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (1897) were two of the first codifications of propaganda techniques, which influenced many writers afterward, including Sigmund Freud. Hitler's Mein Kampf is heavily influenced by Le Bon's theories. Journalist Walter Lippmann, in Public Opinion (1922) also worked on the subject, as well as the American advertising pioneer and founder of the field of public relations Edward Bernays, a nephew of Freud, who wrote the book Propaganda early in the 20th century.[22]
During World War I, President Woodrow Wilson hired Lippmann and Bernays to participate in the Creel Commission, which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering the war on the side of the United Kingdom. The Creel Committee provided themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the American press. Starting after World War I, propaganda had a growing negative connotation. This was due in part to the 1920 book “How We Advertised America: the First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information that Carried the Gospel of Americanism to Every Corner of the Globe”[23] in which the impact of the Creel Committee, and the power of propaganda, was overemphasized. The Committee was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its papers.
The war propaganda campaign of Lippmann and Bernays produced within six months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion. Bernays coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work. The file Century of the Self by Adam Curtis documents the immense influence of these ideas on public relations and politics throughout the last century.
The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of Lippmann's and Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United States government. For the first half of the 20th century Bernays and Lippmann themselves ran a very successful public relations firm. World War II saw continued use of propaganda as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the British Political Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War Information.
Edward Bernays had major influence in the propaganda world. He created many campaigns that integrated the use of propaganda. Bernays wrote a book stating how he truly felt about the use of propaganda. He wrote:[24]
The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.
We are governed, our minds are molded, our tastes formed, our ideas suggested, largely by men we have never heard of. This is a logical result of the way in which our democratic society is organized. Vast numbers of human beings must cooperate in this manner if they are to live together as a smoothly functioning society.
In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention of the game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army.
Russian revolution[link]
Russian revolutionaries of the 19th and 20th centuries distinguished two different aspects covered by the English term propaganda. Their terminology included two terms: Russian: агитация (agitatsiya), or agitation, and Russian: пропаганда, or propaganda, see agitprop (agitprop is not, however, limited to the Soviet Union, as it was considered, before the October Revolution, to be one of the fundamental activities of any Marxist activist; this importance of agit-prop in Marxist theory may also be observed today in Trotskyist circles, who insist on the importance of leaflet distribution).
Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings of Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxist economics, while agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and stirring up political unrest. These activities did not carry negative connotations (as they usually do in English) and were encouraged. Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, the Bolsheviks actively used transportation such as trains, aircraft and other means.
Joseph Stalin's regime built the largest fixed-wing aircraft of the 1930s, Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the famous Soviet writer Maxim Gorky who had recently returned from fascist Italy, it was equipped with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the sky", printing and leaflet-dropping machinery, radio stations, photographic laboratory, film projector with sound for showing movies in flight, library, etc. The aircraft could be disassembled and transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft set a number of world records.
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"Long Live World October (revolution)!"
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Bolshevik propaganda train, 1923.
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ANT-20 "Maxim Gorky" propaganda aircraft in the Moscow sky.
Nazi Germany[link]
Main article: Nazi propaganda
Most propaganda in Germany was produced by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda. Joseph Goebbels was placed in charge of this ministry shortly after Hitler took power in 1933. All journalists, writers, and artists were required to register with one of the Ministry's subordinate chambers for the press, fine arts, music, theatre, film, literature, or radio.
The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their goals. Adolf Hitler, Germany's Führer, was impressed by the power of Allied propaganda during World War I and believed that it had been a primary cause of the collapse of morale and revolts in the German home front and Navy in 1918 (see also: Dolchstoßlegende). Hitler met nearly every day with Goebbels to discuss the news, and Goebbels would obtain Hitler's thoughts on the subject. Goebbels then met with senior Ministry officials to pass down the official Party line on world events. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval before their works were disseminated. Along with posters, the Nazis produced a number of films and books to spread their beliefs.
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Liberators-Kultur-Terror-Anti-Americanism-1944-Nazi-Propaganda-Poster.jpg
Nazi Poster depicting American "liberators" as monster.
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EwigerJudeFilm.jpg
Poster for the anti-semitic film "The Eternal Jew"
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Poster promoting eugenics and euthanasia of disabled people.
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Lappland-Kurier soldiers newspaper
Empire of Japan[link]
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Main article: Japanese propaganda during World War II
* Hakkō ichiu * An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus * Shinmin no Michi * Statism in Shōwa Japan
America in World War II[link]
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Main article: American propaganda during World War II
Britain in World War II[link]
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Main article: British propaganda during WWII
Soviet Union in World War II[link]
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Main article: Soviet propaganda during World War II
Cold War propaganda[link]
The United States and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations. The United States Information Agency operated the Voice of America as an official government station. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, which were, in part, supported by the Central Intelligence Agency, provided grey propaganda in news and entertainment programs to Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union respectively. The Soviet Union's official government station, Radio Moscow, broadcast white propaganda, while Radio Peace and Freedom broadcast grey propaganda. Both sides also broadcast black propaganda programs in periods of special crises.
In 1948, the United Kingdom's Foreign Office created the IRD (Information Research Department), which took over from wartime and slightly post-war departments such as the Ministry of Information and dispensed propaganda via various media such as the BBC and publishing.[25][26]
The ideological and border dispute between the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China resulted in a number of cross-border operations. One technique developed during this period was the "backwards transmission," in which the radio program was recorded and played backwards over the air. (This was done so that messages meant to be received by the other government could be heard, while the average listener could not understand the content of the program.)
When describing life in capitalist countries, in the US in particular, propaganda focused on social issues such as poverty and anti-union action by the government. Workers in capitalist countries were portrayed as "ideologically close". Propaganda claimed rich people from the US derived their income from weapons manufacturing, and claimed that there was substantial racism or neo-fascism in the US.
When describing life in Communist countries, western propaganda sought to depict an image of a citizenry held captive by governments that brainwash them. The West also created a fear of the East, by depicting an aggressive Soviet Union. In the Americas, Cuba served as a major source and a target of propaganda from both black and white stations operated by the CIA and Cuban exile groups. Radio Habana Cuba, in turn, broadcast original programming, relayed Radio Moscow, and broadcast The Voice of Vietnam as well as alleged confessions from the crew of the USS Pueblo.
George Orwell's novels Animal Farm and Nineteen Eighty-Four are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. Though not set in the Soviet Union, these books are about totalitarian regimes that constantly corrupt language for political purposes. These novels were, ironically, used for explicit propaganda. The CIA, for example, secretly commissioned an animated film adaptation of Animal Farm in the 1950s with small changes to the original story to suit its own needs.[27]
Revolution in Central and Eastern Europe[link]
During the democratic revolutions of 1989 in Central and Eastern Europe the propaganda poster was an important weapon in the hand of the opposition. Printed and hand-made political posters appeared on the Berlin Wall, on the statue of St. Wenceslas in Prague and around the unmarked grave of Imre Nagy in Budapest and the role of them was important for the democratic change.
Yugoslav wars[link]
During the Yugoslav wars propaganda was used as a military strategy by governments of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Croatia.
Propaganda was used to create fear and hatred and particularly incite the Serb population against the other ethnicities (Bosniaks, Croats, Albanians and other non-Serbs). Serb media made a great effort in justifying, revising or denying mass war crimes committed by Serb forces during the Yugoslav wars on Bosniaks and other non-Serbs.[28]
According to the ICTY verdicts against Serb political and military leaders, during the Bosnian war, the propaganda was a part of the Strategic Plan by Serb leadership, aimed at linking Serb-populated areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina together, gaining control over these areas and creating a sovereign Serb nation state, from which most non-Serbs would be permanently removed. The Serb leadership was aware that the Strategic Plan could only be implemented by the use of force and fear, thus by the commission of war crimes.[29][30]
Croats also used propaganda against Serbs throughout[citation needed] and against Bosniaks during the 1992–1994 Croat-Bosniak war, which was part of the larger Bosnian War. During Lašva Valley ethnic cleansing Croat forces seized the television broadcasting stations (for example at Skradno) and created its own local radio and television to carry propaganda, seized the public institutions, raised the Croatian flag over public institution buildings, and imposed the Croatian Dinar as the unit of currency. During this time, Busovača's Bosniaks were forced to sign an act of allegiance to the Croat authorities, fell victim to numerous attacks on shops and businesses and, gradually, left the area out of fear that they would be the victims of mass crimes.[31] According to ICTY Trial Chambers in Blaškić case Croat authorities created a radio station in Kiseljak to broadcast nationalist propaganda.[32] A similar pattern was applied in Mostar and Gornji Vakuf (where Croats created a radio station called Radio Uskoplje).[33] Local propaganda efforts in parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina controlled by the Croats, were supported by Croatian daily newspapers such as Večernji list and Croatian Radiotelevision, especially by controversial reporters Dijana Čuljak and Smiljko Šagolj who are still blamed by the families of Bosniak victims in Vranica case for inciting massacre of Bosnian POWs in Mostar, when broadcasting a report about alleged terrorists arrested by Croats who victimized Croat civilians. The bodies of Bosnian POWs were later found in Goranci mass grave. Croatian Radiotelevision presented Croat attack on Mostar, as a Bosnian Muslim attack on Croats in alliance with the Serbs. According to ICTY, in the early hours of May 9, 1993, the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) attacked Mostar using artillery, mortars, heavy weapons and small arms. The HVO controlled all roads leading into Mostar and international organisations were denied access. Radio Mostar announced that all Bosniaks should hang out a white flag from their windows. The HVO attack had been well prepared and planned.[34]
During the ICTY trials against Croat war leaders, many Croatian journalists participated as the defence witnesses trying to relativise war crimes committed by Croatian troops against non-Croat civilians (Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbs in Croatia). During the trial against general Tihomir Blaškić (later convicted of war crimes), Ivica Mlivončić, Croatian columnist in Slobodna Dalmacija, tried to defend general Blaškić presenting number of claims in his book Zločin s pečatom about alleged genocide against Croats (most of it unproven or false), which was considered by the Trial Chambers as irrelevant for the case. After the conviction, he continued to write in Slobodna Dalmacija against the ICTY presenting it as the court against Croats, with chauvinistic claims that the ICTY cannot be unbiased because it is financed by Saudi Arabia (Muslims).[35][36]
Afghan War[link]
In the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, psychological operations tactics were employed to demoralize the Taliban and to win the sympathies of the Afghan population. At least six EC-130E Commando Solo aircraft were used to jam local radio transmissions and transmit replacement propaganda messages. Leaflets were also dropped throughout Afghanistan, offering rewards for Osama bin Laden and other individuals, portraying Americans as friends of Afghanistan and emphasizing various negative aspects of the Taliban. Another shows a picture of Mohammed Omar in a set of crosshairs with the words "We are watching." This technique has been shown to be rather ineffective in terms of long term opinions change given current political and social conditions in Afghanistan.[citation needed]
Iraq War[link]
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This section is written like a personal reflection or essay rather than an encyclopedic description of the subject. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (September 2010) |
The United States and Iraq both employed propaganda during the Iraq War. The United States established campaigns towards the American people on the justifications of the war while using similar tactics to bring down Saddam Hussein’s government in Iraq.[37]
Iraqi Propaganda[link]
The Iraqi insurgency's plan was to gain as much support as possible by using violence as their propaganda tool.[38] Inspired by the Vietcong's tactics,[39] insurgents were using rapid movement to keep the coalition off-balance.[38] By using low-technology strategies to convey their messages, they were able to gain support.[40] Graffiti slogans were used on walls and houses praising the virtues of many group leaders while condemning the Iraqi government. Others used flyers, leaflets, articles and self published newspapers and magazines to get the point across.[40]
Insurgents also produced CDs and DVDs and distributed them in communities that the Iraq and the U.S. Government were trying to influence.[41] The insurgents designed advertisements that cost a fraction of what the U.S. was spending on their ads aimed at the same people in Iraq with much more success.[41] In addition, the Iraqis also created and established an Arabic language television station to transmit information to the people of Iraq about the rumors and lies that the Americans were spreading about the war.[39]
American Propaganda in Iraq[link]
To achieve their aim of a moderate, pro-western Iraq, U.S. authorities were careful to avoid conflicts with Islamic culture that would produce passionate reactions from Iraqis, but differentiating between "good" and "bad" Islams has proved challenging for the U.S.[39]
The U.S. implemented something called “Black Propaganda” by creating false radio personalities that would disseminate pro-American information but supposedly run by the supporters of Saddam Hussein. One radio station used was Radio Tikrit.[39] Another example of America’s attempt with Black Propaganda is that the U.S. paid Iraqis to publish articles written by American troops in their newspapers under the idea that they are unbiased and real accounts; this was brought forth by the New York Times in 2005.[42] The article stated that it was the Lincoln Group who had been hired by the U.S. government to create the propaganda, however their names were later cleared from any wrong doing.[42]
The U.S. was more successful with the “Voice of America” campaign, which is an old Cold War tactic that exploited people’s desire for information.[39] While the information they gave out to the Iraqis was truthful, they were in a high degree of competition with the opposing forces after the censorship of the Iraqi media was lifted with the removal of Saddam from power.[43]
In November 2005, the Chicago Tribune and the Los Angeles Times, alleged that the United States military had manipulated news reported in Iraqi media in an effort to cast a favorable light on its actions while demoralizing the insurgency. Lt. Col. Barry Johnson, a military spokesman in Iraq, said the program is "an important part of countering misinformation in the news by insurgents", while a spokesman for former Defense Secretary Donald H. Rumsfeld said the allegations of manipulation were troubling if true. The Department of Defense confirmed the existence of the program.[44][45]
Propaganda aimed at Americans[link]
The extent to which the US government was guilty of propaganda aimed at its own people is a matter of discussion. The book Selling Intervention & War by Jon Western argued that president Bush was "selling the war" to the public.[46]
President George W. Bush gave a talk at the Athena Performing Arts Center at Greece Athena Middle and High School Tuesday, May 24, 2005 in Rochester, NY. About half way through the event Bush said, "See in my line of work you got to keep repeating things over and over and over again for the truth to sink in, to kind of catapult the propaganda."
People had their initial reactions to the War on Terror, but with more biased and persuading information, Iraq as a whole has been negatively targeted.[47] America’s goal was to remove Saddam Hussein’s power in Iraq with allegations of possible weapons of mass destruction related to Osama Bin Laden.[48] Video and picture coverage in the news has shown shocking and disturbing images of torture and other evils being done under the Iraqi Government.[48]
People's Republic of China[link]
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Main article: Propaganda in the People's Republic of China
Republic of China (Taiwan)[link]
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Main article: Propaganda in the Republic of China
North Korea[link]
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Main article: Propaganda in North Korea
Every year, a state-owned publishing house releases several cartoons (called geurim-chaek in North Korea), many of which are smuggled across the Chinese border and, sometimes, end up in university libraries in the United States. The books are designed to instill the Juche philosophy of Kim Il-sung (the ‘father’ of North Korea)—radical self-reliance of the state. The plots mostly feature scheming capitalists from the United States and Japan who create dilemmas for naïve North Korean characters.
War in Somalia[link]
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Main article: Propaganda in the War in Somalia
Mexican drug cartels[link]
Drug cartels have been engaged in propaganda and psychological campaigns to influence their rivals and those within their area of influence. They use banners and "narcomantras" to threaten their rivals. Some cartels hand out pamphlets and leaflets to conduct public relation campaigns. They have been able to control the information environment by threatening journalists, bloggers, and others who speak out against them. They have elaborate recruitment strategies targeting young adults to join their cartel groups. They have successfully branded the word "narco", and the word has become part of Mexican culture. There is music, television shows, literature, beverages, food, and architecture that all have been branded "narco".[49][50]
Children[link]
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This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2009) |
Of all the potential targets for propaganda, children are the most vulnerable because they are the most unprepared for the critical reasoning and contextual comprehension required to determine whether a message is propaganda or not. Children's vulnerability to propaganda is rooted in developmental psychology. The attention children give their environment during development, due to the process of developing their understanding of the world, will cause them to absorb propaganda indiscriminately. Also, children are highly imitative: studies by Albert Bandura, Dorothea Ross and Sheila A. Ross in the 1960s indicated that children are susceptible to filmed representations of behaviour. Therefore television is of particular interest in regard to children's vulnerability to propaganda.[citation needed]
Another vulnerability of children is the theoretical influence that their peers have over their behaviour. According to Judith Rich Harris's group-socialization theory, children learn the majority of what they do not receive paternally, through genes, from their peer groups. The implication then is that if peer-groups can be indoctrinated through propaganda at a young age to hold certain beliefs, the group will self-regulate the indoctrination, since new members to the group will adapt their beliefs to fit the group's.[citation needed]
To a degree, socialization, formal education, and standardized television programming can be seen as using propaganda for the purpose of indoctrination. The use of propaganda in schools was highly prevalent during the 1930s and 1940s in Germany, as well as in Stalinist Russia.[citation needed]
Anti-Semitic propaganda for children[link]
In Nazi Germany, the education system was thoroughly co-opted to indoctrinate the German youth with anti-Semitic ideology. This was accomplished through the National Socialist Teachers League, of which 97% of all German teachers were members in 1937. It encouraged the teaching of “racial theory.” Picture books for children such as Don’t Trust A Fox in A Green Meadow Or the Word of A Jew, The Poisonous Mushroom, and The Poodle-Pug-Dachshund-Pincher were widely circulated (over 100,000 copies of Don’t Trust A Fox... were circulated during the late 1930s) and contained depictions of Jews as devils, child molesters, and other morally charged figures. Slogans such as “Judas the Jew betrayed Jesus the German to the Jews” were recited in class.[51] The following is an example of a propagandistic math problem recommended by the National Socialist Essence of Education:
| “ | The Jews are aliens in Germany—in 1933 there were 66,606,000 inhabitants in the German Reich, of whom 499,682 (.75%) were Jews.[52] | ” |
Tomorrow's Pioneers (Arabic: رواد الغد; also The Pioneers of Tomorrow) is a children's program, broadcast since April 13, 2007 on the official Palestinian Hamas television station, Al-Aqsa TV (Arabic: مرئية الأقصى قناة الأقصى). The program deals with many life aspects Palestinian children face. Assoud (Arabic: اسود; also rendered as Assud), a Bugs Bunny-like rabbit character whose name means lion was introduced after his brother Nahoul, the previous co-host, died of illness.[53]
In explaining why he is called Assoud (lion), when Arnoub (rabbit) would be more appropriate, Assoud explains that "A rabbit is a term for a bad person and coward. And I, Assoud, will finish off the Jews and eat them."[53][54] Before Nahoul's death, Assoud lived in Lebanon; he returned "in order to return to the homeland and liberate it."[54] Assoud has hinted in episode 113 that he will be replaced by a tiger when he is martyred.
See also[link]
- Astroturfing
- Agenda-setting theory
- Cartographic propaganda
- Crowd manipulation
- Disinformation
- Edith Cavell#Role in World War I propaganda
- Framing (social sciences)
- Index of public relations-related articles
- Infoganda
- Martyrdom video
- Media bias
- Misinformation
- Political warfare
- Psychological manipulation
- Psychological warfare
- Sleeper effect
- Music and political warfare
Notes[link]
- ^ http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=propaganda
- ^ Garth Jowett and Victoria O'Donnell, Propaganda and Persuasion, 4th ed. Sage Publications, p. 7
- ^ Richard Alan Nelson, A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States (1996) pp. 232-233
- ^ Hindery, Roderick R., Indoctrination and Self-deception or Free and Critical Thought? (2001)
- ^ "The Religious Movements Page: Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect"". http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/cultsect/concult.htm. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ "Polish Anti-Cult Movement (Koscianska) - CESNUR". http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/riga2000/koscianska.htm. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ unacceptable message
- ^ Joel H. Spring (2006). Pedagogies of globalization: the rise of the educational security state. Psychology Press. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-8058-5557-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=0E_5dMU_zMQC&pg=PA60.
- ^ Hilmar Hoffmann; John Broadwin; Volker R. Berghahn (1997). The triumph of propaganda: film and national socialism, 1933-1945. Berghahn Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-1-57181-122-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=tKftDBVbLAQC&pg=PA140.
- ^ Propaganda Techniques
- ^ Scot Macdonald (2007). Propaganda and information warfare in the twenty-first century: altered images and deception operations. Taylor & Francis. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-415-77145-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=8C51a3tv91QC&pg=PA35.
- ^ http://www.factcheck.org/
- ^ "Letter from Noam Chomsky" to Covert Action Quarterly, quoting Alex Carey, Australian social scientist.
- ^ review of Carey, Alex (1995) Taking the Risk out of Democracy: Propaganda in the US and Australia, University of NSW Press.
- ^ Ross, Sheryl Tuttle. "Understanding Propaganda: The Epistemic Merit Model and Its Application to Art." Journal of Aesthetic Education, Vol. 36, No.1. pp. 16–30
- ^ Nagle, D. Brendan; Stanley M Burstein (2009). The Ancient World: Readings in Social and Cultural History. Pearson Education. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-205-69187-6.
- ^ Boesche, Roger. "Kautilya’s Arthasastra on War and Diplomacy in Ancient India", The Journal of Military History 67 (p. 9–38), January 2003.
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=kYbupalP98kC&pg=PA4&dq=%22the+woodcuts+by+Lucas+Cranach+commissioned+by+Luther+near+the+end+of+his+life%22&hl=en&ei=7HtjTJP9BcL78AamrdzWCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22the%20woodcuts%20by%20Lucas%20Cranach%20commissioned%20by%20Luther%20near%20the%20end%20of%20his%20life%22&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=_leG5ztYoZwC&pg=PA61&lpg=PA61&dq=%22This+woodcut+sequence+of+1545,+usually+referred+to+as+the+%22&source=bl&ots=v01iFZ5bbi&sig=z9acEc9elPY2wpgXGb0-Ylq2co8&hl=en&ei=2DxeTMOaA8OqlAeEh7CZCA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum#v=onepage&q=%22This%20woodcut%20sequence%20of%201545%2C%20usually%20referred%20to%20as%20the%20%22&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=kYbupalP98kC&pg=PA198&dq=%22Don%E2%80%99t+frighten+us+Pope,+with+your+ban%22&hl=en&ei=bHFjTO2dCsGB8gbctpGJCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22Don%E2%80%99t%20frighten%20us%20Pope%2C%20with%20your%20ban%22&f=false
- ^ Mark U. Edwards, Printing Propaganda and Martin Luther 15; Louise W. Holborn, “Printing and the Growth of a Protestant Movement in Germany from 1517 to 1524”, Church History, 11, no. 2 (1942), 123.
- ^ About Edward Berneys book chapter
- ^ Rogers, E.M. (1994). A history of communication study: A biographical approach. New York, NY: The Free Press.
- ^ Bernays, Edward. Propaganda (1928)
- ^ "Records". http://www.catalogue.nationalarchives.gov.uk/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=7100&CATLN=3&Highlight=&FullDetails=True. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ "Reports". http://www.catalogue.nationalarchives.gov.uk/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=6965&CATLN=3&Highlight=&FullDetails=True. Retrieved December 4, 2005.
- ^ Guardian — The cartoon that came in from the cold -
- ^ "Serbian Propaganda: A Closer Look". April 12, 1999. http://www.bu.edu/globalbeat/pubs/Pesic041299.html. "NOAH ADAMS: The European Center for War, Peace and the News Media, based in London, has received word from Belgrade that no pictures of mass Albanian refugees have been shown at all, and that the Kosovo humanitarian catastrophe is only referred to as the one made up or overemphasized by Western propaganda.
Also, and we quote from the report, "information programs are designed to present the illegitimacy of a NATO aggression on Yugoslavia, the unanimity of the Serbian people in resisting the enemy and Serbian invincibility. All three aims are wrapped in a nationalistic code, `most powerful Western nations, killers, death disseminators, fascists, dictators, criminals, villains, bandits, vandals, barbarians, gangsters, vampires, cowards, perverts, lunatics, scum and trash who want to destroy the small but honorable, dignified, freedom-loving Serbian nation." - ^ "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin verdict - 1. Joint Criminal Enterprise". http://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/brd-tj040901e1.htm#VIIA1.
- ^ "ICTY: Radoslav Brđanin verdict — C. The implementation of the Strategic Plan in the Bosnian Krajina". http://www.un.org/icty/brdjanin/trialc/judgement/brd-tj040901e1.htm#IVC.
- ^ "ICTY: Blaškić verdict — A. The Lasva Valley: May 1992 – January 1993 - b) The municipality of Busovača". http://www.un.org/icty/blaskic/trialc1/judgement/bla-tj000303e-3.htm#IIIA1b.
- ^ "ICTY: Blaškić verdict — A. The Lasva Valley: May 1992 – January 1993 - c) The municipality of Kiseljak". http://www.un.org/icty/blaskic/trialc1/judgement/bla-tj000303e-3.htm#IIIA1c.
- ^ "ICTY: Kordić and Čerkez verdict — IV. Attacks on towns and villages: killings - 2. The Conflict in Gornji Vakuf". http://www.un.org/icty/kordic/trialc/judgement/kor-tj010226e-5.htm#IVA2.
- ^ "ICTY: Naletilić and Martinović verdict — Mostar attack". http://www.un.org/icty/naletilic/trialc/judgement/nal-tj030331-1.htm#IIB2.
- ^ Slobodna Dalmacija — NAJVEĆI DONATOR HAAŠKOG SUDA JE — SAUDIJSKA ARABIJA [1]
- ^ Igor Lasić — Izlog izdavačkog smeća
- ^ Altheide, David L. "War and Mass Mediated Evidence." Cultural Studies — Critical Methodologies 9 (2009): 14-22.
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 23-32.
- ^ a b c d e Schleifer, Ron. "Reconstructing Iraq: Winning the Propaganda War in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly (2005): 15-24.
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 24
- ^ a b Garfield, Andrew. "The U.S. Counter-propaganda Failure in Iraq." Middle East Quarterly 14 (2007): 26
- ^ a b Shah, Anup. Iraq War Media Reporting, Journalism and Propaganda. Aug 1, 2007. May 12, 2009. <http://www.globalissues.org/article/461/media-reporting-journalism-and-propaganda.>
- ^ Goldstein, Sol. "A Strategic Failure: American Information Control Policy in Occupied Iraq." Military Review 88.2 (Mar. 2008): 58-65.
- ^ Baldor, Lolita C. (November 30, 2005). "U.S. Military Unclear on 'Planted' Stories". Associated Press. Archived from the original on June 30, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060630204816/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/11/30/national/w140545S58.DTL.
- ^ Baldor, Lolita C. (December 2, 2005). "Pentagon describes Iraq propaganda plan". Associated Press. Archived from the original on December 5, 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20051205031408/http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/13305355.htm.
- ^ Thrall, A. Trevor. "A Review of: "Weapons of Mass Deception: The Uses of Propaganda in Bush's War on Iraq, by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq, by Paul Rutherford Selling Intervention & War: The Presidency, the..." Political Communication 24.2 (Apr. 2007): 202-207.
- ^ John, Sue Lockett, et al. "Going Public, Crisis after Crisis: The Bush Administration and the Press from September 11 to Saddam." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 10.2 (Summer2007 2007): 195-219.
- ^ a b O'Shaughnessy, Nicholas. "Weapons of Mass Seduction: Propaganda, Media and the Iraq War." Journal of Political Marketing 3.4 (2004): 79-104. America: History & Life.
- ^ O'Connor, Mike (November 5, 2010). "Analysis: A PR department for Mexico's narcos". GlobalPost. http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/worldview/101026/mexico-drug-war-cartels-newspapers. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ Beckhart, Sarah (February 21, 2011). "The Narco Generation". AL DÍA (Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars's Mexico Institute). http://mexicoinstitute.wordpress.com/2011/02/21/the-narco-generation/. Retrieved 2012-03-28.
- ^ Mills, Mary. "Propaganda and Children During the Hitler Years". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/propchil.html
- ^ Hirsch, Herbert.|Genocide and the Politics of Memory. Chapel Hill & London: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. pg. 119
- ^ a b "Assoud Arrives". Tomorrow's Pioneers. episode 11. season 1. 2008-02-01.
- ^ a b Nissan Ratzlav-Katz, "PA TV Bunny Rabbit Threatens to 'Eat the Jews'", Arutz Sheva, February 12, 2008 (6 Adar 5768).
References[link]
- "Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques". Psychological Operations Field Manual No. 33-1. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Army. August 31, 1979. http://www.fas.org/irp/doddir/army/fm33-1/.
- Bytwerk, Randall L. (2004). Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. ISBN 0-87013-710-7.
- Edwards, John Carver (1991). Berlin Calling: American Broadcasters in Service to the Third Reich. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-93905-7.
- Howe, Ellic (1982). The Black Game: British Subversive Operations Against the German During the Second World War. London: Futura.
- Huxley, Aldous (1958). Brave New World Revisited. New York: Harper. ISBN 0-06-080984-1.
- Hindery, Roderick. "The Anatomy of Propaganda within Religious Terrorism". Humanist (March–April 2003): 16–19.
- O'Donnell, Victoria; Jowett, Garth S. (2005). Propaganda and Persuasion. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc. ISBN 1-4129-0897-3.
- Le Bon, Gustave (1895). The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind. ISBN 0-14-004531-7.
- Linebarger, Paul M. A. (1948). Psychological Warfare. Washington, D.C.: Infantry Journal Press. ISBN 0-405-04755-X. =
- Nelson, Richard Alan (1996). A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29261-2.
- Young, Emma (October 10, 2001). "Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan". New Scientist. http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99991404. Retrieved 2010-08-05.
- Shirer, William L. (1942). Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934–1941. New York: Albert A. Knopf. ISBN 5-9524-0081-7.
Further reading[link]
Books[link]
- Altheide, David L. & Johnson, John M. Bureaucratic Propaganda. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc. (1980)
- Brown, J.A.C. Techniques of Persuasion: From Propaganda to Brainwashing Harmondsworth: Pelican (1963)
- Chomsky, Noam and Herman, Edward. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. New York: Pantheon Books. (1988)
- Cole, Robert. Propaganda in Twentieth Century War and Politics (1996)
- Cole, Robert, ed. Encyclopedia of Propaganda (3 vol 1998)
- Combs, James E. & Nimmo, Dan. The New Propaganda: The Dictatorship of Palaver in Contemporary Politics. White Plains, N.Y. Longman. (1993)
- Cull, Nicholas John, Culbert, and Welch, eds. Propaganda and Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present (2003)
- Cunningham, Stanley, B. The Idea of Propaganda: A Reconstruction. Westport, Conn.: Praeger. (2002)
- Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973
- Kingsbury, Celia Malone. For Home and Country: World War I Propaganda on the Home Front (University of Nebraska Press; 2010; 308 pages). Describes propaganda directed toward the homes of the American homefront in everything from cookbooks and popular magazines to children's toys.
- Lasswell, Harold D.. Propaganda Technique in World War I. Cambridge, Mass: The M.I.T. Press. (1971)
- Le Bon, Gustave, The Crowd: a study of the Popular Mind (1895)
- MacArthur, John R.. Second Front: Censorship and Propaganda in the Gulf War. New York: Hill and Wang. (1992)
- Marlin, Randal. Propaganda & The Ethics of Persuasion. Orchard Park, New York: Broadview Press. (2002)
- McCombs M. E. & Shaw, D. L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36, 176-87.
- Linebarger, Paul M. Psychological Warfare. International Propaganda and Communications. ISBN 0-405-04755-X (1948)
- Pratkanis, Anthony & Aronson, Elliot. Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. (1992)
- Rutherford, Paul. Endless Propaganda: The Advertising of Public Goods. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (2000)
- Rutherford, Paul. Weapons of Mass Persuasion: Marketing the War Against Iraq. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. (2004)
- Snow, Nancy. Propaganda, Inc.: Selling America's Culture to the World. New York, NY: Seven Stories Press. (2010)
- Sproule, J. Michael. Channels of Propaganda. Bloomington, IN: EDINFO Press. (1994)
- Stauber, John, and Rampton, Sheldon Toxic Sludge Is Good for You! Lies, Damn Lies and the Public Relations Industry Monroe, Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995.
Essays/Articles[link]
- Bernays, Edward. "Propaganda". (1928)
- Brown, John H.. "Two Ways of Looking at Propaganda" (2006)
- Kosar, Kevin R., Public Relations and Propaganda: Restrictions on Executive Branch Activities, CRS Report RL32750, February 2005.
- Snow, Nancy. "American Persuasion, Influence and Propaganda"
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: propaganda |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Propaganda |
Current propaganda[link]
- PR Watch
- Is Government Propaganda Legal? Well...
- Spinwatch
- Propaganda Critic: A website devoted to propaganda analysis.
- Manufacturing Consent by Edward S. Herman and Noam Chomsky
- How Americans are propagandized about Afghanistan by Glenn Greenwald, Salon.com
- Holmes, Jamie (December 28, 2009). "US military is meeting recruitment goals with video games – but at what cost?". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/Opinion/2009/1228/US-military-is-meeting-recruitment-goals-with-video-games-but-at-what-cost. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
Historical propaganda[link]
- Documentation on Early Cold War U.S. Propaganda Activities in the Middle East by the National Security Archive. Collection of 148 documents and overview essay.
- Sacred Congregation of Propaganda from the Catholic Encyclopedia
- World War II propaganda leaflets: A website about airdropped, shelled or rocket fired propaganda leaflets. Some posters also.
- Canadian Wartime Propaganda - Canadian War Museum
- Northern Vietnamese Propaganda from the U.S. Vietnam War. The largest collection of North Vietnamese propaganda available on-line.
- "North Korea's art of propaganda", BBC, July 29, 2007: images of North Korean propaganda posters
- CBC Radio's "Nazi Eyes On Canada" (1942), series with Hollywood stars promoting Canadian War Bonds
- America at War, a digital collection of World War II–era American propaganda pamphlets and additional material
- Over 400 posters from World Wars II & II (searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format)
- "Propaganda." The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia.
- Psywar.org's large collection of propaganda leaflets from various conflicts
- Pyongyang Chronicles
- WWII: Intense Propaganda Posters - slideshow by Life magazine
- US Central Command (CENTCOM) archive of propaganda leaflets dropped in Iraq
- Stefan Landsberger's Chinese Propaganda Poster Pages
- Bytwerk, Randall, "Nazi and East German Propaganda Guide Page". Calvin College.
- US Navy recruiting posters archive
- Tim Frank Collection of WWII Propaganda Leaflets, Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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| name | Amber Lyon |
|---|---|
| birth date | |
| birth place | Denver, Colorado |
| death date | |
| nationality | American |
| occupation | Journalist, Filmmaker, Photographer }} |
Amber Lyon is an American investigative journalist and photographer. She is known for her work reporting human rights abuses against pro-democracy protesters in Bahrain and police brutality against protesters in the United States.
Early life and education [link]
Amber Lyon was born in Denver, Colorado and grew up in St. Louis, Missouri. She attended the University of Missouri School of Journalism, earning a Bachelors degree in Broadcast Journalism.
Career [link]
Following her graduation from the University of Missouri, Lyon began reporting for KVOA in Tucson, Arizona. In October 2006, Lyon won a regional Emmy award, from the Rocky Mountain Southwest Chapter of the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, for a late-breaking feature news item called "Fantasy". She shared the Emmy with KVOA chief photographer Paul Hanke. In October 2007 she received her second regional Rocky Mountain Southwest Chapter Emmy for "best on-camera talent reporter – general assignment". One month later, Lyon left KVOA to take Spanish-language immersion classes in Costa Rica and Guatemala. In October 2008, Lyon again won the Rocky Mountain Emmy Award for best on-camera talent. In June 2010, she began working for CNN, where she investigated sex trafficking, the Gulf oil spill, and the hacking collective known as Anonymous. Her investigations have focused on cultural, social, and government demonstrations and revolutions; human rights violations; sex trafficking; and environmental issues.
2010 Gulf of Mexico oil spill [link]
In July 2010, Lyon was the first journalist to scuba dive under the ''Deepwater Horizon'' oil spill, while broadcasting live on television. Her report, presented on CNN, revealed how BP's use of dispersants was sinking the oil into the water column, turning it into what she called "hidden oil", that could not be cleaned up or skimmed out of the water. Lyon and dive partner Philippe Cousteau found beads of broken down oil floating ten feet into the water column and questioned why BP would sink the oil, if that meant the oil would be impossible to clean up. Lyon's investigative reports from the Gulf of Mexico contributed to CNN winning a Peabody Award for oil spill coverage.
2010 Craigslist sex trafficking [link]
In 2010, Lyon investigated the sex trafficking of US minors on the online classified site Craigslist. Attorneys General from 17 states sent a letter to the online classified site demanding the closure of the adult services section, citing portions of Lyon's investigation in the letter. As a result, Craigslist closed down the section worldwide. Lyon also won a Gracie Award for women in media for the story.
2011 Arab Spring [link]
In 2011, CNN sent a four-person investigative film crew to Bahrain to examine the use of social media and Internet technology in facilitating the Arab Spring, or revolution, in Egypt, Tunisia, and Bahrain. The resulting work was entitled ''iRevolutionPrior to arriving in Bahrain, the CNN film crew had made arrangements for support and assistance from locals for the planned eight days that they were in the country. Interviews were scheduled with various individuals, who planned on participating in the documentary and speaking about the ongoing civil unrest and desire for governmental change in the region. While preparing for the interviews, following their arrival in the country, the CNN crew discovered that the majority of their contacts had gone into hiding or outright refused to participate, due to fears of retaliation from the governing regime. Actual acts of retaliation for those that participated included criminal charges, loss of employment, and destruction of family homes through fire.
The Bahraini individuals that were interviewed include doctors, patients, and civilians, who showed Lyon how they were tortured during an intense crackdown on protests, as well as after Bahraini Security forces took over the country's main hospital. Lyon also investigated and reported on Bahrain's systematic use of tear gas as a crowd-control device. She reported that while the tear gas was approved by the United Nations as a peace-keeping measure, the use resulted in the suffocation of protesters. In interviews following the reports, Lyon stated that she fears that the daily and nightly tear gassing will have long-term health effects on Bahrain's people.
After evading their government minders and covertly entering villages to document human rights abuses in Bahrain, the film crew experienced direct retaliation when they were detained at gunpoint with machine guns. According to Lyon, while the CNN team was detained, Bahraini security forces attempted to confiscate and destroy all of the processed film, however, Lyon and her producer were able to conceal vital video footage, which was used to create the documentary.
The documentary ''iRevolution'' was produced by CNN and was aired by CNN US though never aired in full on CNN international. Lyon worked with journalist Glenn Greenwald to investigate and present their findings and summation that the government of Bahrain, as well as other countries throughout the world are paying CNN for content. While CNN International denies Lyon's claims of censorship or any wrongdoing, they confirmed that they receive payment from the Bahrain Economic Development Board for advertising. The response of CNN International was criticized and dismissed by both Lyon and Greenwald.
2012 Anaheim police shooting and protests [link]
Lyon also reported on the aftermath of the July 21, 2012, shooting of Manuel Diaz in Anaheim, California, by local police officers responding to a neighborhood watch call. When the officers arrived and approached the group, the three men started to flee the scene. During the chase, the unarmed Diaz was fatally shot by one of the officers.In response to the protests and rioting following the shooting of Diaz, the Anaheim Police Department brought out riot gear in attempts to control the crowds. While attempting to report on the shooting, along with citywide protests, Lyon and colleague Tim Pool were fired upon by members of the Anaheim Police Department. The incident was captured on video, due to live filming at the time. Lyon reported that she had to hide between two trucks for several minutes to avoid being hit.
Honors and awards [link]
References[link]
Category:Year of birth missing (living people) Category:Living people Category:People from St. Louis, Missouri Category:American investigative journalists Category:Emmy Award winnershttp://wn.com/Amber_Lyon
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_Lyon
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Ron Paul | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 14th district |
|
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office January 3, 1997 |
|
| Preceded by | Greg Laughlin |
| Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 22nd district |
|
| In office January 3, 1979 – January 3, 1985 |
|
| Preceded by | Robert Gammage |
| Succeeded by | Tom DeLay |
| In office April 3, 1976 – January 3, 1977 |
|
| Preceded by | Robert Casey |
| Succeeded by | Robert Gammage |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Ronald Ernest Paul (1935-08-20) August 20, 1935 (age 76) Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
| Political party | Republican Party (1976–1988, 1988–present) |
| Other political affiliations |
Libertarian Party (1988 election) |
| Spouse(s) | Carol Wells |
| Children | Ronnie Lori Rand Robert Joy |
| Alma mater | Gettysburg College (B.S.) Duke University (M.D.) |
| Religion | Southern Baptist |
| Signature |  |
| Website | Congressional website Campaign website |
| Military service | |
| Service/branch | United States Air Force Texas Air National Guard |
| Years of service | 1963–1965 1965–1968 |
| Rank |  Captain[1] |
|
This article is part of a series about
Ron Paul |
|
Ronald Ernest "Ron" Paul (born August 20, 1935) is an American politician who has been the U.S. Representative for Texas's 14th congressional district, which includes Galveston, since 1997, and a three-time candidate for President of the United States, as a Libertarian in 1988 and as a Republican in 2008 and currently 2012. He is an outspoken critic of American foreign and monetary policies, including the Military–industrial complex and the Federal Reserve, and is known for his libertarian-leaning views, often differing from his own party on certain issues.
A native of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Paul is a graduate of Gettysburg College and Duke University School of Medicine, where he earned his medical degree. He served as a medical officer in the United States Air Force from 1963 until 1968. He worked as an obstetrician-gynecologist from the 1960s to the 1980s, delivering more than 4,000 babies. He became the first Representative in history to serve concurrently with a child in the Senate when his son Rand Paul was elected to the United States Senate for Kentucky in 2010.[2]
Ron Paul has been an active writer and publisher since the late 1970s, when he created the first of several newsletters bearing his name. He has published many books, beginning with The Case for Gold (1982) and including Liberty Defined: 50 Essential Issues That Affect Our Freedom (2011), End The Fed (2009), The Revolution: A Manifesto (2008), Pillars of Prosperity (2008), and A Foreign Policy of Freedom: Peace, Commerce, and Honest Friendship (2007). Paul has been characterized as the "intellectual godfather" of the Tea Party movement.[3][4]
On July 12, 2011, Paul announced that he would forego seeking another term in Congress in order to focus on his presidential bid.[5] On May 14, 2012, Paul announced that he would not be competing in any other Presidential primaries, though he is still competing for delegates in states where the primary election have already been held.[6]
Contents
|
Early life, education, and medical career[link]
Ronald Ernest Paul was born on August 20, 1935, in Pittsburgh,[7] the son of Howard Caspar Paul, who ran a small dairy company, and Margaret (née Dumont) Paul. His paternal great-grandparents emigrated from Germany, and his mother was of German and Irish ancestry.[8][9]
As a junior at suburban Dormont High School, he was the 220-yard dash state champion.[10] He graduated from Gettysburg College with a B.S. degree in Biology in 1957.[10]
Paul earned a Doctor of Medicine degree from Duke University's School of Medicine in 1961, and completed his medical internship at the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit and his residency in obstetrics and gynecology at Magee-Womens Hospital in Pittsburgh.[11] Paul served as a flight surgeon in the United States Air Force from 1963 to 1965 and then in the United States Air National Guard from 1965 to 1968.[12]
Paul and his wife then relocated to Texas, where he began a private practice in obstetrics and gynecology.[13] He refused to accept Medicaid or Medicare payments, but routinely lowered fees for patients who could not afford to pay.[14][15]
Early congressional career (1976–1985)[link]
While still a medical resident in the 1960s, Paul was influenced by Friedrich Hayek's The Road to Serfdom, which caused him to read many publications by Ludwig von Mises and Ayn Rand. He came to know economists Hans Sennholz and Murray Rothbard well, and credits to them his interest in the study of economics.[16]
When President Richard Nixon "closed the gold window" by ending American participation in the Bretton Woods System, thus ending U.S. dollar's loose association with gold[16] on August 15, 1971, Paul decided to enter politics[17] and became a Republican candidate for the United States Congress.[18]
Elections[link]
In 1974, incumbent Robert R. Casey defeated him for the 22nd district. President Gerald Ford later appointed Casey to direct the Federal Maritime Commission, and Paul won an April 1976 special election to the vacant office.[19] Paul lost the next regular election to Democrat Robert Gammage by fewer than 300 votes (0.2%), but defeated Gammage in a 1978 rematch, and was reelected in 1980 and 1982.[20] Gammage underestimated Paul's popularity among local mothers: "I had real difficulty down in Brazoria County, where he practiced, because he'd delivered half the babies in the county. There were only two obstetricians in the county, and the other one was his partner."[21]
Tenure[link]
Paul has served in Congress three different periods: first from 1976 to 1977, after he won a special election, then from 1979 to 1985, and finally since 1997.
In his early years, Paul served on the House Banking Committee, where he blamed the Federal Reserve for inflation and spoke against the banking mismanagement that resulted in the savings and loan crisis.[22][8] Paul argued for a return to the gold standard maintained by the US from 1873-1933, and with Senator Jesse Helms convinced the Congress to study the issue.[16] He spoke against the reinstatement of registration for the military draft in 1980, in opposition to President Jimmy Carter and the majority of his fellow Republican members of Congress.[23]
During his first term, Paul founded the Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (FREE), a non-profit "think tank" dedicated to promoting principles of limited government and free-market economics.[24]
Paul proposed term-limit legislation multiple times, while himself serving four terms in the House of Representatives.[23] In 1984, he decided to retire from the House in order to run for the U.S. Senate, complaining in his House farewell address that "Special interests have replaced the concern that the Founders had for general welfare.... It's difficult for one who loves true liberty and utterly detests the power of the state to come to Washington for a period of time and not leave a true cynic."[25][26] (On Paul's departure from the House, his congressional seat was assumed by former state representative Tom DeLay, who would eventually become Speaker of the House.)[27]
Committee assignments[link]
1984 U.S. Senate election[link]
Main article: United States Senate election in Texas, 1984
In 1984, Paul campaigned for the U.S. Senate, but lost the Republican primary to Phil Gramm, who had switched parties the previous year from Democrat to Republican.[28] Another candidate of the senatorial primary was Henry Grover, a conservative former state legislator who had lost the 1972 gubernatorial general election to the Democrat Dolph Briscoe, Jr.
Inter-congressional years[link]
1985–1997[link]
Following the loss of the 1984 senate race, Paul returned to his obstetrics practice and took part in a number of other business ventures.[8][29] Along with his former congressional chief of staff, Lew Rockwell, Paul founded a for-profit enterprise, Ron Paul & Associates, Inc. (RP&A) in 1984, with Paul serving as president, Rockwell as vice president, Paul's wife Carol as secretary, and daughter Lori Pyeatt as treasurer.[30] The company published a variety of political and investment-oriented newsletters including Ron Paul Freedom Report and Ron Paul Survival Report, and by 1993 was generating revenues in excess of $900,000.[31][32]
Paul also co-owned a mail-order coin dealership, Ron Paul Coins, for twelve years with Burt Blumert, who continued to operate the dealership after Paul resumed office in 1996.[33][34] Paul spoke multiple times at the American Numismatic Association's 1988 convention.[33] He worked with his Foundation for Rational Economics and Education on such projects as establishing the National Endowment for Liberty, producing the At Issue public policy series that was broadcast on the Discovery Channel and CNBC,[24] and continuing publication of newsletters.
1988 presidential campaign[link]
Main article: Ron Paul presidential campaign, 1988
Paul resigned from the Republican Party in 1987 and launched a bid for the presidency running on the Libertarian Party ticket. At the 1987 Libertarian National Convention, the party was split between a Conservative and Liberal wing. Paul represented the conservative wing, which was successful in fundraising, while the liberal wing claimed to have received ten times more (and more favorable) press coverage.[citation needed] Paul argued, "Pro-life libertarians have a vital task to perform: to persuade the many abortion-supporting libertarians of the contradiction between abortion and individual liberty; and to sever the mistaken connection in many minds between individual freedom and the 'right' to extinguish individual life."[35][36]
In the 1988 presidential election, Paul was on the ballot in 46 States,[37] scoring third in the popular vote with 432,179 votes (0.5%).[38] Paul was kept off the ballot in Missouri, and received votes there only when written in, due to what the St. Louis Post-Dispatch termed a "technicality".[39]
According to Paul, his presidential campaign was about more than obtaining office; he sought to promote his libertarian ideas, often to school and university groups regardless of vote eligibility. He said, "We're just as interested in the future generation as this election. These kids will vote eventually, and maybe, just maybe, they'll go home and talk to their parents."[37]
Paul considered campaigning for President during 1992,[40] but instead chose to endorse Pat Buchanan that year, and served as an adviser to Buchanan's Republican presidential primary campaign against incumbent President George H. W. Bush.[41]
Later congressional career (1997–present)[link]
Elections[link]
For more details on this topic, see Texas's 14th congressional district.
- 1996 campaign
During 1996, Paul was re-elected to Congress after a difficult campaign. The Republican National Committee endorsed incumbent Greg Laughlin in the primary; Paul won with assistance from baseball pitcher, constituent, and friend Nolan Ryan, tax activist and publisher Steve Forbes[8] and conservative commentator Pat Buchanan (both of whom had had presidential campaigns that year). Paul narrowly defeated Democratic attorney Charles "Lefty" Morris in the fall election, despite Morris' criticism over controversial statements in several newsletters that Ron Paul published.
- 1998–present
In 1998 and 2000, Paul defeated Loy Sneary, a Democratic Bay City, Texas, rice farmer and former Matagorda County judge.[17] In the 2008 Republican primary,[42] he defeated Friendswood city councilman Chris Peden,[43] with over 70 percent of the vote[44] and ran unopposed in the general election.[45] In the 2010 Republican primary, Paul defeated three opponents with 80 percent of the vote.[46]
On July 12, 2011, Paul announced that he would not seek re-election to the House in order to pursue the 2012 presidential election.[47][48]
Tenure[link]
- Legislation
Main article: List of legislation sponsored by Ron Paul
Of the 620 bills that Paul had sponsored through December 2011, over a period of more than 22 years in Congress, only one had been signed into law – a lifetime success rate of less than 0.3%.[49] The sole measure authored by Paul that was ultimately enacted allowed for a federal customhouse to be sold to a local historic preservation society (H.R. 2121 in 2009).[49]
By amending other legislation, he has helped prohibit funding for national identification numbers, funding for federal teacher certification,[17] International Criminal Court jurisdiction over the U.S. military, American participation with any U.N. global tax, and surveillance of peaceful First Amendment activities by citizens.[50]
- Affiliations
Paul was honorary chairman of, and is a member of the Republican Liberty Caucus, a political action committee that describes its goal as electing "liberty-minded, limited-government individuals".[51] He is an initiating member of the Congressional Rural Caucus, which deals with agricultural and rural issues, and the 140-member Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus.[52]
Committee assignments[link]
Rep. Paul serves on the following committee and subcommittees.[53]
With the election of the 112th Congress, and a resulting GOP majority in the House, Paul became the chairman of the Subcommittee on Domestic Monetary Policy and Technology starting in January 2011.[54]
2008 presidential campaign[link]
Main article: Ron Paul presidential campaign, 2008
2008 Republican primary campaign[link]
Paul formally declared his candidacy for the 2008 Republican nomination on March 12, 2007, on C-SPAN.[55] Few major politicians endorsed him, and his campaign was largely ignored by traditional media.[56] However, he attracted an intensely loyal grassroots following, in large part energized by "iconoclastic white men"[57] interacting through internet social media.[58][59][60] In May 2007, shortly after the first televised primary debates, the blogs search engine site Technorati.com listed Paul's name as the term most frequently searched for;[58] and Paul's campaign claimed that Paul had more YouTube channel subscribers than Barack Obama or any other candidate for president.[61] For a candidate who had had relatively low national name recognition prior to entering the race, Paul did surprisingly well in fundraising, taking in more money than any other Republican candidate in the fourth quarter of 2007, as the primary season headed into the Iowa caucuses.[62][63]
Despite benefiting from large numbers of campaign contributions from individual donors,[64] and the efforts of tech-savvy supporters determined to keep his name a frequent topic of discussion on the internet,[58] over the course of the campaign Paul was unable to translate the enthusiasm of his core supporters into large enough numbers of actual primary votes to unseat his rivals.
Paul came in 5th place in both the January 4 Iowa caucuses (10% of votes cast)[65] and the January 8 New Hampshire primary (8%).[66] With the exception of the Nevada caucuses January 19, where he came in 2nd (14%) behind Romney (51%), he did little better through the rest of January: Michigan 4th (6%), South Carolina 5th (4%), Florida 5th (3%). On SuperTuesday, February 5, he placed 4th in almost every state, generally taking in a mere 3–6% of the votes (although he did better in the mountain states of North Dakota (21%, 3rd place) and Montana (25%, 2nd place).[67][68]
By March, front-runner John McCain had secured enough pledged delegates to guarantee that he would win the nomination, and Romney and Huckabee had both formally withdrawn from the race. Paul, who had won no state primaries, knew that it was now mathematically impossible for him to win the nomination, as he had captured only 20[69] – 40 pledged delegates compared to more than 1,191 for McCain, yet he refused to concede the race and said that it was unlikely that he would ultimately endorse McCain.[70][71][72] Over the next few weeks, Paul's supporters clashed with establishment Republicans at several county and state party conventions over state party rules, the party platforms, and selection of delegates for the national convention.[73][74][75] In one of the more dramatic moments, Nevada's state party leaders, outmaneuvered by Paul supporters at the state nominating convention, resorted to the highly unusual measure of prematurely and abruptly shutting down the convention before selecting national delegates, with a plan to reconvene at a later date.[76][77]
On June 12, 2008, Paul finally withdrew his bid for the Republican nomination. He later said that one of the reasons he did not run in the general election as a third-party candidate, after losing the primary election, was that, as a concession to gain ballot access in certain states, he had signed legally-binding agreements to not run a third-party campaign if he lost the primary.[78] Some of the $4 million remaining campaign contributions was invested into the new political action and advocacy group called Ron Paul's Campaign for Liberty.[79]
Refusal to endorse the Republican candidate[link]
At a September 10, 2008, press conference, Paul announced his general support of four third-party candidates: Cynthia McKinney (Green Party); Bob Barr (Libertarian Party); Chuck Baldwin (Constitution Party); and Ralph Nader (independent). He said that each of them had pledged to adhere to a policy of balancing budgets, bringing the troops home, defending privacy and personal liberties, and investigating the Federal Reserve. Paul also said that under no circumstances would he be endorsing either of the two dominant parties' candidates (McCain – Republican Party, or Obama – Democratic Party) because there were no real differences between them, and because neither of them, if elected, would seek to make the fundamental changes in governance that were necessary. He urged instead that, rather than contribute to the “charade” that the two-party election system had become, the voters support the third-party candidates as a protest vote, to force change in the election process.[80][81] Later that same day, Paul gave a televised interview with Nader saying much the same again.[82]
Two weeks later, "shocked and disappointed" that Bob Barr (the Libertarian candidate) had pulled out of attending the press conference at the last minute and had admonished Paul for remaining neutral and failing to say which specific candidate Paul would vote for in the general election, Paul released a statement saying that he had decided to endorse Chuck Baldwin, the Constitution Party candidate, for president.[83]
In the November 2008 general election, Paul received 41,905 votes despite not actively campaigning.[84][85]
2012 presidential campaign[link]
Main article: Ron Paul presidential campaign, 2012
See also: Draft Ron Paul movement
Paul is a candidate for the Republican Party nomination for President of the United States in the 2012 election.
He won several early straw polls for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination [86] and in late April, 2011, he formed an official exploratory committee.[87][88] He participated in the first Republican presidential debate on May 5, 2011.[89] and on May 13, 2011, Paul formally announced his candidacy in an interview on ABC's Good Morning America.[90] He placed second in the 2011 Ames Straw Poll, missing first by 0.9%.[91]
In December 2011, with Ron Paul's increased support, the controversy over allegedly racist and homophobic statements in several Ron Paul newsletters in the 1980s and early 1990s once again gained media attention.[92] During this time Paul supporters asserted that he was continually ignored by the media despite his significant support, citing examples of where television news shows would fail to mention Paul in discussions of the Republican presidential hopefuls even when he was polling second.[93][94][95][96]
Paul came in third in the Iowa Republican Caucus held on January 3, 2012. Out of a turnout of 121,503 votes, Paul took 26,036 (21%) of the certified votes. Rick Santorum and Mitt Romney finished in a virtual tie for first place with 25% each.[97] In the New Hampshire Primary held on January 10, 2012, Paul received 23% of the votes and came in second after Romney's 39%.[98]
Ron Paul's results then declined, despite the withdrawal of candidates Michele Bachmann, Jon Huntsman and Rick Perry. He had fourth place finishes in the next two primaries, on January 21st in South Carolina (with 13% of the vote[99]) and on January 31st in Florida (where he received 7% of the vote.[100][101][102])
On February 4, Paul finished third in Nevada with 18.8% of the vote.[103] Three non-binding primaries were held on February 7th; Paul took 3rd place in Colorado[104] and Missouri[105] with 13% and 12% of the vote respectively. He fared better in Minnesota[106] with 27%, finishing second to Rick Santorum.
On May 14, Paul's campaign announced that due to lack of funds he would no longer actively campaign for votes in the 11 remaining primary states, including Texas and California, that had not yet voted.[6][107] He would, however, continue to seek to win delegates for the national party convention in the states that had already voted.
Political party identification[link]
Throughout his entire tenure in Congress, Paul has represented his district as a member of the Republican Party. However, he has frequently taken positions in direct opposition to the other members and the leadership of the party, and he has sometimes publicly questioned whether he really belonged in the party.
He had been a lifelong supporter of the Republican Party by the time he entered politics in the mid 1970s.[108] He was one of the first elected officials in the nation to support Ronald Reagan's presidential campaign,[109] and he actively campaigned for Reagan in 1976 and 1980.[110] After Reagan's election in 1980, Paul quickly became disillusioned with the Reagan administration's policies. He later recalled being the only Republican to vote against Reagan budget proposals in 1981,[111][112] aghast that "in 1977, Jimmy Carter proposed a budget with a $38 billion deficit, and every Republican in the House voted against it. In 1981, Reagan proposed a budget with a $45 billion deficit – which turned out to be $113 billion – and Republicans were cheering his great victory. They were living in a storybook land."[109] He expressed his disgust with the political culture of both major parties in a speech delivered in 1984 upon resigning from the House of Representatives to prepare for a (failed) run for the Senate, and he eventually apologized to his Libertarian friends for having supported Reagan.[111]
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By 1987, Paul was ready to sever all ties to the Republican Party, as he explained in a blistering resignation letter: "Since [1981] Ronald Reagan and the Republican Party have given us skyrocketing deficits, and astoundingly a doubled national debt. How is it that the party of balanced budgets, with control of the White House and Senate, accumulated red ink greater than all previous administrations put together? ... There is no credibility left for the Republican Party as a force to reduce the size of government. That is the message of the Reagan years."[110][108] A month later he announced he would seek the 1988 Libertarian Party nomination for president.
During the 1988 campaign, Paul called Reagan "a dramatic failure"[110] and complained that "Reagan's record is disgraceful. He starts wars, breaks the law, supplies terrorists with guns made at taxpayers' expense and lies about it to the American people."[113] Paul predicted that "the Republicans are on their way out as a major party,"[111] and he said that, although registered as a Republican, he had always been a Libertarian at heart.[112][111]
Paul returned to his private medical practice and managing several business ventures after losing the 1988 election; but by 1996, he was ready to return to politics, this time running on the Republican Party ticket again. He said that he had never read the entire Libertarian platform when he ran for president as a Libertarian in 1988, and that "I worked for the Libertarians on my terms, not theirs."[114] He added that in terms of a political label he preferred to call himself "a constitutionalist. In Congress I took an oath to uphold the Constitution, not the (Republican) platform."[114]
When he lost the Republican Party presidential primary election in 2008, Paul criticized the two major political parties, saying that there was no real difference between the parties and that neither of them truly intended to challenge the status quo. He refused to endorse the Republican Party's nominee for president, John McCain, and lent his support to third-party candidates instead.[115][116]
In 2012 presidential campaign, during which he acknowledged it was unlikely that he would win the Republican Party nomination,[117] Paul again asserted that he was participating in the Republican Party on his own terms, trying to persuade the rest of the party to move toward his positions rather than joining in with theirs.[118] He expressed doubt that he would support any of his rivals should they win the nomination, warning that, “If the policies of the Republican Party are the same as the Democrat Party and they don't want to change anything on foreign policy, they don't want to cut anything, they don't want to audit the Fed and find out about monetary policy, they don't want to have actual change in government, that is a problem for me."[119] On that same theme he said in another interview, "I would be reluctant to jump on board and tell all of the supporters that have given me trust and money that all of a sudden, I'd say, [all] we've done is for naught. So, let's support anybody at all ... even if they disagree with everything that we do."[120]
Political positions[link]
Main article: Political positions of Ron Paul
Paul has been described as conservative and libertarian.[8] According to University of Georgia political scientist Keith Poole, Paul had the most conservative voting record of any member of Congress from 1937 to 2002,[121] and is the most conservative of the candidates seeking the 2012 Republican nomination for president,[122] on a scale primarily measuring positions on the role of government in managing the economy – not positions on social issues or foreign policy matters.[123] Other analyses, in which key votes on domestic social issues and foreign policy factor more heavily, have judged Paul much more moderate. The National Journal, for instance, rated Paul only the 145th most conservative member of the House of Representatives based on votes cast in 2010.[124][125]
The foundation of Paul's political philosophy is the conviction that "the proper role for government in America is to provide national defense, a court system for civil disputes, a criminal justice system for acts of force and fraud, and little else."[126] He has been nicknamed "Dr. No,"[17] reflecting both his medical degree and his insistence that he will "never vote for legislation unless the proposed measure is expressly authorized by the Constitution."[22]
Paul is a proponent of Austrian School economics; he has authored six books on the subject, and displays pictures of Austrian School economists Friedrich Hayek, Murray Rothbard, and Ludwig von Mises (as well as of Grover Cleveland)[127] on his office wall. He regularly votes against almost all proposals for new government spending, initiatives, or taxes;[128] he cast two thirds of all the lone negative votes in the House during a 1995–1997 period.[17]
He has pledged never to raise taxes[129] and states he has never voted to approve a budget deficit. Paul believes that the country could abolish the individual income tax by scaling back federal spending to its fiscal year 2000 levels;[130][131] financing government operations would be primarily by excise taxes and non-protectionist tariffs. He endorses eliminating most federal government agencies, terming them unnecessary bureaucracies.
On April 15, 2011, Paul was one of four Republican members of Congress to vote against Rep. Paul Ryan's budget proposal, known as "The Path to Prosperity."[132]
Paul has a consistent record as an inflation hawk, having warned of hyperinflation as far back as 1981.[133] While Paul believes the longterm decrease of the U.S. dollar's purchasing power by inflation is attributable to its lack of any commodity backing, he does not endorse a "return" to a gold standard – as the U.S. government has established during the past – but instead prefers to eliminate legal tender laws and to remove the sales tax on gold and silver, so that the market may freely decide what type of monetary standard(s) there shall be.[134] Since 1999, he has introduced bills into each Congress seeking to eliminate the Federal Reserve System in a single year.[135][136][137]
Paul's foreign policy of nonintervention[138] made him the only 2008 Republican presidential candidate to have voted against the Iraq War Resolution in 2002. He advocates withdrawal from the United Nations, and from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, for reasons of maintaining strong national sovereignty.[139]
He endorses free trade, rejecting membership in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the World Trade Organization as "managed trade". He endorses increased border security and opposes welfare for illegal aliens, birthright citizenship and amnesty;[140] he voted for the Secure Fence Act of 2006. He voted for the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists in response to the September 11 attacks, but suggested war alternatives such as authorizing the president to grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal targeting specific terrorists. An opponent of the Iraq War and potential war with Iran, he has also criticized neoconservatism and U.S. foreign policy in the Middle East, arguing that both inadvertently cause terrorist reprisals against Americans. Paul has stated that "Israel is our close friend" and that it is not the place of the United States to "dictate how Israel runs her affairs".[141]
Paul endorses constitutional rights, such as the right to keep and bear arms, and habeas corpus for political detainees. He opposes the Patriot Act, federal use of torture, presidential autonomy, a national identification card, warrantless domestic surveillance, and the draft. Paul also believes that the notion of the separation of church and state is currently misused by the court system: "In case after case, the Supreme Court has used the infamous 'separation of church and state' metaphor to uphold court decisions that allow the federal government to intrude upon and deprive citizens of their religious liberty."[142]
Citing the Ninth and Tenth Amendments, Paul advocates states' rights to decide how to regulate social matters not cited directly by the Constitution. He opposes federal regulation of the death penalty[143] (although he opposes capital punishment),[144] of education,[145] and of marriage, and endorsed revising the military's "don't ask, don't tell" policy to concern mainly disruptive sexual behavior (whether heterosexual or homosexual).[146]
Paul says his years as an obstetrician led him to believe life begins at conception.[147]
He terms himself "strongly pro-life",[148] "an unshakable foe of abortion",[149] and believes regulation or ban[150] on medical decisions about maternal or fetal health is "best handled at the state level".[143][151] His abortion-related legislation, like the Sanctity of Life Act, is intended to negate Roe v. Wade and to get "the federal government completely out of the business of regulating state matters."[152]
Paul has stated that "The government shouldn't be in the medical business." He pushes to eliminate federal involvement with and management of health care, which he argues would allow prices to decrease due to the fundamental dynamics of a free market.[153] Paul also opposes the federal War on Drugs,[154] and believes the states should decide whether to regulate or deregulate drugs such as medical marijuana.[155] He also opposes federal government influenza inoculation programs.[156]
As a free-market environmentalist, he asserts private property rights in relation to environmental protection and pollution prevention.[citation needed] He called global warming a hoax in a 2009 Fox Business interview, saying, "You know, the greatest hoax I think that has been around in many, many years if not hundreds of years has been this hoax on the environment and global warming."[157] He acknowledges there is clear evidence of rising temperatures in some parts of the globe, but says that temperatures are cooling in other parts.[158]
Paul was critical of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, arguing that it sanctioned federal interference in the labor market and did not improve race relations. He once remarked: "The Civil Rights Act of 1964 not only violated the Constitution and reduced individual liberty; it also failed to achieve its stated goals of promoting racial harmony and a color-blind society".[159] Paul opposes affirmative action.[160]
He is an outspoken proponent of increased ballot access for 3rd party candidates,[161] but has sought to repeal the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, also known as the Motor Voter law.[162]
Newsletters controversy[link]
Main article: Ron Paul newsletters
Beginning in 1978, for more than two decades Paul and his associates published a number of political and investment-oriented newsletters bearing his name (Dr. Ron Paul's Freedom Report, The Ron Paul Survival Report, the Ron Paul Investment Letter, and the Ron Paul Political Report).[163] By 1993, a business through which Paul was publishing the newsletters was earning in excess of $900,000 per year.[163]
A number of the newsletters, particularly in the period between 1988 and 1994 when Paul was no longer in Congress, contained material that later proved highly controversial, dwelling on conspiracy theories, praising anti-government militia movements, and warning of coming race wars.[163][164] During Paul's 1996 congressional election campaign, and his 2008 and 2012 presidential primary campaigns, critics charged that some of the passages reflected racist, anti-Semitic, and homophobic bigotry.[165][166][167][168][169][170][171]
The newsletters included statements such as:
- "... I think we can safely assume that 95 percent of the black males in [Washington, DC] are semi-criminal or entirely criminal."[166]
- "Boy, it sure burns me to have a national holiday for that pro-communist philanderer, Martin Luther King. I voted against this outrage time and time again as a Congressmen. What an infamy that Ronald Reagan approved it! We can thank him for our annual Hate Whitey Day!"[163][172]
- "An ex-cop I know advises that if you have to use a gun on a youth [to defend yourself against armed robbery], you should leave the scene immediately, disposing of the wiped off gun as soon as possible.... I frankly don't know what to make of such advice, but even in my little town of Lake Jackson, Texas, I've urged everyone in my family to know how to use a gun in self defense. For the animals are coming."[163][173]
- “I miss the closet. Homosexuals, not to speak of the rest of society, were far better off when social pressure forced them to hide their activities. They could also not be as promiscuous. Is it any coincidence that the AIDS epidemic developed after they came 'out of the closet,' and started hyper-promiscuous sodomy? I don't believe so, medically or morally.”[174][175]
- “[Magic] Johnson may be a sports star, but he is dying [of AIDS] because he violated moral laws.”[164][176]
- “[T]he criminal ‘Justice’ Department wants to force dentists to treat these Darth Vader types [people with AIDS] under the vicious Americans With Disabilities Act;" and “[W]e all have the right to discriminate, which is what freedom of association is all about, especially against killers [AIDS patients].”[164][177]
Other passages referred to former Secretary of Health & Human Services Donna Shalala as a “short lesbian” and Martin Luther King, Jr. as a pedophile and “lying socialist satyr" – while offering praise for former Ku Klux Klan Imperial Wizard David Duke and other controversial figures.[163][164][174]
When criticism of the newsletters was leveled against Paul during his 1996 congressional election, he did not deny writing the newsletters, but instead defended them and said that the material had been taken out of context.[165][167][166] In later years, Paul said that the controversial material had been ghostwritten by members of a team that included 6 or 8 others and that, as publisher, not editor, he had not even been aware of the content of the controversial articles until years after they had been published.[167][178] He eventually disavowed those passages, and stated that in 1996 his campaign advisers had thought denying authorship would be too confusing and that he had to live with the material published under his name.[167][178] Some political commentators made note of the changing nature of the explanations he had provided over the years about his involvement with the newsletters.[179][180][181]
An estranged former long-term aide of Paul, Eric Dondero, alleged that Paul was lying about his role in the production of the controversial newsletters.[182][183] During the 2012 Republican presidential primary campaign, in January 2012, the Washington Post reported[184] that several of Paul's former associates said that Paul had been very involved in the production of the newsletters and had allowed the controversial material to be included as part of a deliberate strategy to boost profits. Paul's former secretary said, "it was his newsletter, and it was under his name, so he always got to see the final product.... He would proof it."[184] Paul continued to deny the accusations and to disavow the material.[185]
Personal life[link]
Paul has been married to Carol Wells since 1957.[186] They met in 1952 when Wells asked Paul to be her escort to her 16th birthday party.[187] They have five children, who were baptized Episcopalian:[8] Ronald, Lori, Randal, Robert, and Joy. Paul's son Randal is the junior United States senator from the state of Kentucky. Raised a Lutheran, Paul later became a Baptist.[188]
Bibliography[link]
Main article: Ron Paul bibliography
- Paul, Ron (1981) (PDF). Gold, Peace, and Prosperity: The Birth of a New Currency. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. OCLC 7877384. http://www.mises.org/books/goldpeace.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- Paul, Ron; Lehrman, Lewis; U.S. Gold Commission (September 1982) (PDF). The Case for Gold: A Minority Report of the U.S. Gold Commission. Washington, DC: Cato Institute (2d ed. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007). ISBN 0-932790-31-3. OCLC 8763972. http://www.mises.org/books/caseforgold.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- Paul, Ron (1983). Abortion and Liberty. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. ISBN 0-912453-02-8. OCLC 9682249.
- Paul, Ron (1983). Ten Myths About Paper Money: And One Myth About Paper Gold. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. OCLC 11765863.
- Paul, Ron (1984) (PDF). Mises and Austrian Economics: A Personal View. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute (2d ed. 2004). OCLC 19968524. http://www.mises.org/books/paulmises.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
- Paul, Ron (1987). Freedom Under Siege: The U.S. Constitution After 200 Years. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education (2d ed. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007). OCLC 19697005.
- Paul, Ron (1990). Challenge to Liberty: Coming to Grips with the Abortion Issue. Lake Jackson, Texas: Ron Paul Enterprises. OCLC 46960450.
- Paul, Ron (1991). The Ron Paul Money Book. Plantation Publishing. ISBN 0-521-44733-X.
- Paul, Ron (2000). A Republic, If You Can Keep It. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. OCLC 45414993. http://paul.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=510&Itemid=60. Retrieved 2011-09-06.
- Paul, Ron (2002). The Case for Defending America. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. OCLC 49744552.
- Paul, Ron (2002). The Ron Paul – Liberty In Media Awards–2001. Jersey City, NJ: Palisade Business Press. ISBN 1-893958-84-1.
- Paul, Ron (2003). The Ron Paul – Liberty In Media Awards – Vol. 2–2002. Jersey City, NJ: Palisade Business Press.
- Paul, Ron (2004). The Ron Paul – Liberty In Media Awards – Vol. 3–2003. Jersey City, NJ: Palisade Business Press. ISBN 1-893958-24-8.
- Upton, Fred; Paul, Ron (2005). Indecency in the Media: Rating and Restricting Entertainment Content: Should the House Pass H.R. 3717, the Broadcast Decency Enforcement Act?. Washington, DC: Congressional Digest Corp. OCLC 81150568.
- Rangel, Charles B.; Paul, Ron (2006). Compulsory National Service: 2006–2007 Policy Debate Topic: Should the All-Volunteer Force be Replaced by Universal, Mandatory National Service?. Bethesda, Maryland: Congressional Digest Corp. OCLC 84912971.
- Paul, Ron (2007). A Foreign Policy of Freedom: Peace, Commerce, and Honest Friendship. Lake Jackson, Texas: Foundation for Rational Economics and Education. ISBN 0-912453-00-1. OCLC 145174995.
- Paul, Ron (2008). Pillars of Prosperity. Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute. ISBN 1-933550-24-4.
- Paul, Ron; Haddad, Philip; Marsh, Roger (April 2008). Ron Paul Speaks. Guilford, Connecticut: Lyons Press. ISBN 1-59921-448-2. OCLC 199459258.
- Paul, Ron (2008). The Revolution: A Manifesto. New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 0-446-53751-9. OCLC 191881970.
- Paul, Ron (2009). End the Fed. New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-54919-6. OCLC 318878539.
- Paul, Ron (2011). Liberty Defined: 50 Essential Issues That Affect Our Freedom. New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4555-0145-8.
Other contributions[link]
- Belloc, Hilaire; Chesterton, Cecil (2007) [1911]. The Party System. Paul, Ron (foreword). Norfolk, Virginia: IHS Press. ISBN 1-932528-11-3. OCLC 173299105.
- Fortman, Erik; Lavello, Randy (2004). Webs of Power. Paul, Ron (interview). Austin, Texas: Van Cleave Publishing. ISBN 0-9759670-0-2. OCLC 61026033.
- Haugen, David M.; Musser, Susan, eds. (2007). Human Embryo Experimentation. Paul, Ron (Chapter 9: No form of stem cell research should be federally funded). Detroit, Michigan: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 0-7377-3243-1. OCLC 84152907.
- Haugen, David M., ed. (2007). National Security. Paul, Ron (Chapter 1–7: The federal debt is a threat to national security). Detroit, Michigan: Greenhaven Press. ISBN 0-7377-3761-1. OCLC 144227284.
- Jaeger, James; Baehr, Theodore; Griffin, G. Edward; Paul, Ron; Vieira, Edwin (2007). Fiat Empire: Why the Federal Reserve Violates the U.S. Constitution (DVD). Beverly Hills, California: Cornerstone-Matrixx Entertainment. OCLC 192133806.
- Minns, Michael Louis (2001). How to Survive the IRS. Paul, Ron (foreword). Fort Lee, NJ: Barricade Books. ISBN 1-56980-170-3. OCLC 44860846.
- Paul, Ron; Hayashi, Terry; Pardo, Victoriano; and Fisher, Edwin (August 1, 1969). "Evaluation of Renal Biopsy in Pregnancy Toxemia". Obstetrics and Gynecology (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists) 34 (2): 235–241. PMID 5798269.
- Paul, Ron (1999). "Being Pro-Life is Necessary to Defend Liberty". International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy (MCB University Press, Ltd) 19 (3–4): 11. DOI:10.1108/01443339910788712. ISSN 0144-333X. OCLC 89482648.
- Paul, Ron; Bartlett, Roscoe; et al. (2001) (Videotape). The United Nations & the New World Order. Brunswick, OH: American Portrait Films, Inc. ISBN 1-57341-132-9. OCLC 56793278.
- Pearl, Sandy; Beutel, Bill; Alis, Bob; Weingold, Dave; Paul, Ron; Bartsch, Ed (1980). Born Again (Videotape). Athens, GA: University of Georgia Instructional Resources Center. OCLC 7407395.
- Skousen, Mark; Weber, Chris; Ketcher, Michael, eds. (1987). The Closing Door. Paul, Ron (introduction). Bethel, Connecticut: Institute for the Preservation of Wealth (2d ed. 1988). ISBN 0-938689-03-7. OCLC 17209571.
- Vieira, Jr., Edwin (1983). Pieces of Eight. Paul, Ron (foreword). Fort Lee, NJ: Sound Dollar Committee. ISBN 978-0-8159-6226-7. OCLC 9919612.
- von NotHaus, Bernard, ed. (September 1, 2003). The Liberty Dollar Solution to the Federal Reserve. Paul, Ron (Chapter 21: Abolish the Fed). Evansville, Indiana: American Financial Press. ISBN 0-9671025-2-9.
References[link]
- ^ "Military Service: Members of the 106th Congress". Personal email correspondence of Bruce K. Melson. Will Pete. October 2000. http://www.willpete.com/military_service.htm. Retrieved 2011-09-07.
- ^ Douglas, William (2011-01-05). "Father watches with pride as Rand Paul becomes U.S. senator". The McClatchy Company. http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2011/01/05/106256/father-watches-with-pride-as-rand.html#storylink=misearch. Retrieved 2010-01-29.
- ^ Smith, James F. (2007-12-16). "Ron Paul's tea party for dollars". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/politics/politicalintelligence/2007/12/ron_pauls_tea_p.html.
- ^ "The Tea Party's Brain". The Atlantic. 2011-08-05. http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/11/the-tea-party-8217-s-brain/8280/a. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
- ^ Trygstad, Tyler (2011-07-12). "Ron Paul to Retire from Congress". Roll Call. http://www.rollcall.com/news/Ron-Paul-retire-207207-1.html?ET=rollcall:e10569:80081152a:&st=email. Retrieved 2011-07-12.
- ^ a b Dinan, Stephen (May 14, 2012). "Ron Paul ends his hunt for votes". Washington Times. http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/may/14/ron-paul-ends-his-hunt-votes/. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ^ Anderson, Lisa (2007-11-13). "A seller of ideas". Chicago Tribune. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/chicagotribune/access/1381838921.html?dids=1381838921:1381838921&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Nov+13%2C+2007&author=Lisa+Anderson&pub=Chicago+Tribune&desc=A+seller+of+ideas%3B+They+call+him+Dr.+No+--+no+big+government%2C+no+big+spending%2C+no+flouting+the+Constitution.+And+no+interest+in+a+slick+political+image.+Series%3A+THE+CONTENDERS+%3A+RON+PAUL+The+eighth+in+a+series+of+the+2008+presidential+candidates&pqatl=google. Retrieved 2011-01-03.
- ^ a b c d e f Caldwell, Christopher (2007-07-22). "The Antiwar, Anti-Abortion, Anti-Drug-Enforcement-Administration, Anti-Medicare Candidacy of Dr. Ron Paul". The New York Times Magazine. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/22/magazine/22Paul-t.html. Retrieved 2007-07-23.
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- ^ Paul, Ron (13 June 2002). "Restoring First Amendment Protections of Religion and Religious Speech to the U.S. House of Representatives". http://paul.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=330&Itemid=60. Retrieved 8 December 2010.
- ^ a b Lofton, John (August 2007). "Excerpts From Our Exclusive Ron Paul Interview". American View. http://theamericanview.com/index.php?id=916. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Rockwell, Lew (2010-12-13) Ron Paul, Defender of Human Dignity, LewRockwell.com
- ^ "Ron Paul on Education: Republican Representative (TX-14)". On the Issues. 2007-09-01. http://www.ontheissues.org/2008/Ron_Paul_Education.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2007-06-05). "Transcript of June 5 "CNN/WMUR/New Hampshire Union Leader" Republican presidential debate". CNN. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0706/05/se.01.html. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
- ^ Murtagh, Joseph (2007-06-28). "An Interview with Presidential Candidate Congressman Ron Paul". Muckraker Report (Team Liberty). Archived from the original on 2007-10-18. http://web.archive.org/web/20071018022258/http://www.teamliberty.net/id447.html. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
- ^ Paul, Ron (1999-10-27). "Providing for Consideration of H.R. 2260, Pain Relief Promotion Act of 1999". Congressional Record. U.S. House of Representatives. Archived from the original on September 8, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070908011246/http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec99/cr102799.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2007). "Life and Liberty". Ron Paul 2008. Archived from the original on 2007-10-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20071024143701/http://www.ronpaul2008.com/issues/life-and-liberty/. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2006-01-31). "Federalizing Social Policy". Congressional Record. U.S. House of Representatives. Archived from the original on December 29, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071229014649/http://www.house.gov/paul/tst/tst2006/tst013006.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
- ^ "Paul says merger plans must be derailed: 'You cannot amend the Constitution with a treaty'". Election 2008 Q&A (WorldNetDaily). 2007-07-10. http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=56526. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ Eddlem, Thomas R. (2005-05-02). "Who had the right to rule?". The New American. American Opinion Publishing, Inc. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Who+had+the+right+to+rule%3F+Accusations+about+the+abuses+of...-a0132162835. Retrieved 2007-10-05.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2004-05-05). "Free market Medicine". LewRockwell.com. http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul175.html. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2004-04-17). "The War on Drugs is a War on Doctors". Congressional Record. U.S. House of Representatives. Archived from the original on August 2, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080802163713/http://www.house.gov/paul/tst/tst2004/tst051704.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
- ^ "H.R. 2592". Library of Congress. 2001-07-23. http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d107:HR02592. Retrieved 2008-11-14.
- ^ Malcolm, Arthur (2009-04-30) "Ron Paul pooh-poohs swine flu; yet another grab for more Fed control!", L.A. Times blogsite. Retrieved 2009-10-7.
- ^ Anchor: David Asman (2009-11-04). "America's Nightly Scoreboard". 7 minutes in. Fox Business Network.
- ^ On the Issues: Global Warming
- ^ "The Trouble With Forced Integration by Ron Paul". http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul188.html. Retrieved May 24, 2010.
- ^ "Ron Paul on the Issues | Campaign 2008". The Washington Post. http://projects.washingtonpost.com/2008-presidential-candidates/issues/candidates/ron-paul/#affirmative-action. Retrieved 2011-12-22.
- ^ Paul, Ron (2004-07-15). "End the Two-Party Monopoly!". Congressional Record (House of Representatives). Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070930110358/http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2004/cr071504.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
- ^ "H.R. 2139: To Repeal the National Voter Registration Act of 1993". 108th Congress, 2003-05-15. http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h108-2139. Retrieved 23 January 2012.
- ^ a b c d e f Kirchick, James (2008-01-08). "Angry White Man: The Bigoted Past of Ron Paul". The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/angry-white-man. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ a b c d Kirchick, James (2012-01-17). "More Selections from Ron Paul's Newsletters". The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/99666/ron-paul-newsletters-part-two?page=0,1. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ a b Camia, Catalina (1996-05-22). "Candidate's Comments on Blacks Questioned". Dallas Morning News: 8A.
- ^ a b c Bernstein, Alan (1996-05-23). "Newsletter Excerpts Offer Amunition to Paul's Opponent/GOP Hopeful Quoted on Race, Crime". Houston Chronicle. http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl/1996_1343749/campaign-96-u-s-house-newsletter-excerpts-offer-am.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ a b c d "Dr. No". Texas Monthly. 2001-10. http://www.texasmonthly.com/preview/2001-10-01/feature7. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "Ron Paul interview by Wolf Blitzer". CNN (The Situation Room). 2008-01-10. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0801/10/sitroom.02.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "Ron Paul interview by Sanjay Gupta". CNN (Anderso Cooper 360 Degrees). 2011-12-21. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1112/21/acd.01.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ Strauss, Daniel (2011-12-29). "Huntsman Camp Hits Ron Paul for Controversial Newsletters". The Hill. http://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/news/201643-huntsman-camp-hits-ron-paul-for-controversial-newsletters. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "Old Issue Causing New Problem for Ron Paul". Houston Chronicle. 2011-12-27. http://blog.chron.com/rickperry/2011/12/old-issue-causing-new-problem-for-ron-paul/. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "The Coming Race War". Ron Paul Political Report. 1990-02. http://www.tnr.com/sites/default/files/February1990.pdf.
- ^ "Blast 'Em?". Ron Paul Political Report. 1992-10. http://www.tnr.com/sites/default/files/PoliticalReportOctober1992.pdf.
- ^ a b TNR Staff (2011-12-23). "A Collection of Ron Paul's Most Incendiary Newsletters". The New Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/98883/ron-paul-incendiary-newsletters-exclusive. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ "Newsletter". Ron Paul Political Report. 1990-06. http://www.tnr.com/sites/default/files/PR_June90_p6.pdf.
- ^ "Mr. Johnson's Magic". Ron Paul Political Report. 1991-12-15. http://www.tnr.com/sites/default/files/Dec91PolRep.PDF.
- ^ "AIDSophilia". Ron Paul Survival Report. 1993-11. http://www.tnr.com/sites/default/files/SurvRepNov93.pdf.
- ^ a b "Ron Paul interview by Ali Velshi". CNN (American Morning). 2011-12-20.
- ^ Hicks, Josh (2011-12-27). "Ron Paul and the Racist Newsletters (Fact Checker Biography)". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/fact-checker/post/ron-paul-and-the-racist-newsletters-fact-checker-biography/2011/12/21/gIQAKNiwBP_blog.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ Kucinich, Jackie (2011-12-21). "Paul's Story Changes on Racial Comments". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/story/2011-12-21/ron-paul-racist-newsletters/52147878/1. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ Legum, Judd (2011-12-27). "Fact Check: Ron Paul Personally Defended Racist Newsletters". Thinkprogress. http://thinkprogress.org/politics/2011/12/27/395391/fact-check-ron-paul-personally-defended-racist-newsletters/?mobile=nc. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ Newby, Joe (2011-12-26). "Former Staffer Says Ron Paul Lying about Role in Controversial Newsletter". Spokane Conservative Examiner.
- ^ Lord, Jeffrey (2011-12-20). "Ex-Ron Paul Aide Disputes Paul on Newsletters". The American Spectator. http://spectator.org/blog/2011/12/20/ex-ron-paul-aide-disputes-paul. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ a b Markon, Jerry; Crites, Alice (2012-1-27). "Paul Pursued Strategy of Publishing Controversial Newsletters, Associates Say". Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/ron-paul-signed-off-on-racist-newsletters-sources-say/2012/01/20/gIQAvblFVQ_story.html.
- ^ "Ron Paul interview by John King". CNN (John King USA). 2012-01-27. http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1201/27/jkusa.01.html. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
- ^ Paul, Carol (2007-03-16). "The American Dream – Through the Eyes of Mrs. Ron Paul". Daily Paul. http://dailypaul.com/node/53. Retrieved 2008-03-22.
- ^ Sheri & Bob Stritof. "Carol and Ron Paul Marriage Profile".
- ^ Husna Haq. "Election 101: Ron Paul sets sights on 2012. Ten things to know about him. – What is his family and religious background?". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Elections/2011/0513/Election-101-Ron-Paul-sets-sights-on-2012.-Ten-things-to-know-about-him/What-is-his-family-and-religious-background. Retrieved 2011-08-09.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ron Paul |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Ron Paul |
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Wikisource has original works written by or about: |
- Ron Paul's personal website, books, articles, links to political sites connected with Ron Paul
- Ron Paul at the Open Directory Project
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- U.S. House of Representatives Office of Ron Paul
- Biography at WhoRunsGov.com at The Washington Post
- Biography at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- Voting record maintained by The Washington Post
- Biography, voting record, and interest group ratings at Project Vote Smart
- Congressional profile at GovTrack
- Congressional profile at OpenCongress
- Issue positions and quotes at On the Issues
- Financial information at OpenSecrets.org
- Staff salaries, trips and personal finance at LegiStorm.com
- Campaign finance reports and data at the Federal Election Commission
- Appearances on C-SPAN programs
- Appearances at the Internet Movie Database
- Collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Works by or about Ron Paul in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Presidential campaign
- NOW on PBS "Ron Paul and Internet Politics". Also, a September 2008 NOW on PBS interview with Ron Paul
- PBS NewsHour with Jim Lehrer – Vote 2008: Ron Paul
- Ron Paul TV. Ron Paul Presidential Candidate Media and Internet Video Campaign.
| United States House of Representatives | ||
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| Preceded by Robert R. Casey |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 22nd congressional district April 3, 1976 – January 3, 1977 |
Succeeded by Robert Gammage |
| Preceded by Robert Gammage |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 22nd congressional district January 3, 1979 – January 3, 1985 |
Succeeded by Tom DeLay |
| Preceded by Greg Laughlin |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Texas's 14th congressional district January 3, 1997 – present |
Incumbent |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by David Bergland |
Libertarian Party presidential candidate 1988 |
Succeeded by Andre Marrou |
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| Preceded by Rob Andrews |
United States Representatives by seniority 53rd |
Succeeded by David Price |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Paul, Ron |
| Alternative names | Paul, Ronald Ernest |
| Short description | U.S. libertarian, physician, politician, obstetrician |
| Date of birth | August 20, 1935 |
| Place of birth | Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ron_Paul
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"Chomsky" redirects here. For other topics with the same name, see Chomsky (disambiguation).
 Noam Chomsky visiting Vancouver, British Columbia in 2004 |
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| Other names | Avram Noam Chomsky |
|---|---|
| Born | (1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 83) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |
| Era | 20th / 21st-century philosophy |
| Region | Western philosophy |
| School | Generative linguistics, Analytic philosophy |
| Main interests | Linguistics · Psychology Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Politics · Ethics |
| Notable ideas | Generative grammar, universal grammar, transformational grammar, government and binding, X-bar theory, Chomsky hierarchy, context-free grammar, principles and parameters, Minimalist program, language acquisition device, poverty of the stimulus, Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem, Chomsky Normal Form, propaganda model[1] |
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Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,[5][6] cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years.[7] Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics"[8][9][10] and a major figure of analytic philosophy.[5] His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.[11][12]
Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy[13] and contemporary capitalism,[14] and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure.[15] His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.
According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall.[16][17][18][19] Chomsky is the author of over 100 books.[20] He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, the universal grammar theory, and the Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem.
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, to Jewish parents in the affluent East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the elder son of noted professor of Hebrew at Gratz College and IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) member William Chomsky (1896–1977), a native of Ukraine. His mother, Elsie Chomsky (née Simonofsky)—a native of what is present-day Belarus—grew up in the United States and, unlike her husband, spoke "ordinary New York English". Chomsky's parents' first language was Yiddish,[21] but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it.[21] Although Chomsky's mother was part of the radical activism in the 1930s, he was influenced largely by his uncle who, having never passed 4th grade, owned a newsstand that acted as an "intellectual center [where] professors of this and that argu[ed] all night".[22] Chomsky was influenced also by being a part of a Hebrew-based, Zionist organization, as well as by hanging around anarchist bookstores.[22]
He describes his family as living in a sort of "Jewish ghetto", split into a "Yiddish side" and "Hebrew side", with his family aligning with the latter and bringing him up "immersed in Hebrew culture and literature", though he means more a "cultural ghetto than a physical one".[23] Chomsky also describes tensions he experienced with Irish Catholics and German Catholics and anti-semitism in the mid-1930s. He recalls "beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis.[23] In a discussion of the irony of his staying in the 1980s in a Jesuit House in Central America, Chomsky explained that during his childhood, "We were the only Jewish family around. I grew up with a visceral fear of Catholics. They're the people who beat you up on your way to school. So I knew when they came out of that building down the street, which was the Jesuit school, they were raving anti-Semites. So childhood memories took a long time to overcome."[24]
Chomsky remembers the first article he wrote was at age 10 while a student at Oak Lane Country Day School about the threat of the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.[25]
A graduate of Central High School of Philadelphia, Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, taking classes with philosophers such as C. West Churchman and Nelson Goodman and linguist Zellig Harris. Harris's teaching included his discovery of transformations as a mathematical analysis of language structure (mappings from one subset to another in the set of sentences). Chomsky referred to the morphophonemic rules in his 1951 master's thesis—The Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew—as transformations in the sense of Carnap's 1938 notion of rules of transformation (vs. rules of formation), and subsequently reinterpreted the notion of grammatical transformations in a very different way from Harris, as operations on the productions of a context-free grammar (derived from Post production systems). Harris's political views were instrumental in shaping those of Chomsky.[26] Chomsky earned a BA in 1949 and an MA in 1951.
In 1949, he married linguist Carol Schatz. They remained married for 59 years until her death from cancer in December 2008.[27] The couple had two daughters, Aviva (b. 1957) and Diane (b. 1960), and a son, Harry (b. 1967). With his wife Carol, Chomsky spent time in 1953 living in HaZore'a, a kibbutz in Israel. Asked in an interview whether the stay was "a disappointment" Chomsky replied, "No, I loved it"; however, he "couldn't stand the ideological atmosphere" and "fervent nationalism" in the early 1950s at the kibbutz, with Stalin being defended by many of the left-leaning kibbutz members who chose to paint a rosy image of future possibilities and contemporary realities in the USSR.[28] Chomsky notes seeing many positive elements in the commune-like living of the kibbutz, in which parents and children lived together in separate houses, and when asked whether there were "lessons that we have learned from the history of the kibbutz", responded,[29][30] that in "some respects, the kibbutzim came closer to the anarchist ideal than any other attempt that lasted for more than a very brief moment before destruction, or that was on anything like a similar scale. In these respects, I think they were extremely attractive and successful; apart from personal accident, I probably would have lived there myself – for how long, it's hard to guess."
Chomsky received his PhD in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harvard University as a Harvard Junior Fellow. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, one of his best-known works in linguistics.
Chomsky joined the staff of MIT in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics, and in 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor. As of 2010, Chomsky has taught at MIT continuously for 55 years.
In February 1967, Chomsky became one of the leading opponents of the Vietnam War with the publication of his essay, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals",[31] in The New York Review of Books. This was followed by his 1969 book, American Power and the New Mandarins, a collection of essays that established him at the forefront of American dissent. His far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy,[32][33] and he is frequently sought out for his views by publications and news outlets internationally. In 1977 he delivered the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, the Netherlands, under the title: Intellectuals and the State.
Chomsky has received death threats because of his criticisms of U.S. foreign policy.[34] He was also on a list of planned targets created by Theodore Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber; during the period that Kaczynski was at large, Chomsky had all of his mail checked for explosives.[34] He states that he often receives undercover police protection, in particular while on the MIT campus, although he does not agree with the police protection.[34]
Chomsky resides in Lexington, Massachusetts, and travels often, giving lectures on politics.
Thought[link]
Linguistics[link]
Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.
Perhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. He has always acknowledged his debt to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar, although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge.
It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate, and that he discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG.[35]
The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)—developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)—makes strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.
Proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as indications of innateness.
More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters," Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.
Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as Elizabeth Bates[36] and Michael Tomasello[37] argue very strongly against Chomsky's theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language with a number of general processing mechanisms in the brain that interact with the extensive and complex social environment in which language is used and learned.
His best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond "SPE phonology" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology.
Generative grammar[link]
Main article: Generative grammar
The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar, studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages.[38] The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar. From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore, he argues that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar would serve to bridge that gap.
Chomsky's theories have been immensely influential within linguistics, but they have also received criticism. One recurring criticism of the Chomskyan variety of generative grammar is that it is Anglocentric and Eurocentric, and that often linguists working in this tradition have a tendency to base claims about Universal Grammar on a very small sample of languages, sometimes just one. Initially, the Eurocentrism was exhibited in an overemphasis on the study of English. However, hundreds of different languages have now received at least some attention within Chomskyan linguistic analyses.[39][40][41][42][43] In spite of the diversity of languages that have been characterized by UG derivations, critics continue to argue that the formalisms within Chomskyan linguistics are Anglocentric and misrepresent the properties of languages that are different from English.[44][45][46] Thus, Chomsky's approach has been criticized as a form of linguistic imperialism.[47] In addition, Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. This practice has been criticized on general methodological grounds. Some psychologists and psycholinguists,[who?] though sympathetic to Chomsky's overall program, have argued that Chomskyan linguists pay insufficient attention to experimental data from language processing, with the consequence that their theories are not psychologically plausible. Other critics (see language learning) have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar to explain child language acquisition, arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient.
Today there are many different branches of generative grammar; one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomskyan and generative in orientation, but with significant differences in execution.
Chomsky hierarchy[link]
Main article: Chomsky hierarchy
Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modeling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science (especially in compiler construction and automata theory).[48] Indeed, there is an equivalence between the Chomsky language hierarchy and the different kinds of automata. Thus theorems about languages are often dealt with as either languages (grammars) or automata.
An alternate method of dealing with languages is based upon Formal Power series.[49] Formal Power series as well as the relationship between languages and semi-groups continued to occupy M. P. Schützenberger at the Sorbonne. Formal Power Series are similar to the Taylor Series one encounters in a course on Calculus, and it is especially useful for languages where words (terminal symbols) are commutative.[50]
Politics[link]
Main article: Noam Chomsky's political views
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Chomsky has stated that his "personal visions are fairly traditional anarchist ones, with origins in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism",[51] and he has praised libertarian socialism.[52] Although Chomsky tries to avoid the ambiguity of labels, his political views are often characterized in news accounts as "leftist"[53][54][55][56] or "left-wing," and he has described himself as an anarcho-syndicalist.[57] He is a member of the Campaign for Peace and Democracy and the Industrial Workers of the World international union.[58] Chomsky is also a member of the International Organization for a Participatory Society which he describes as having the potential to "carry us a long way towards unifying the many initiatives here and around the world and molding them into a powerful and effective force."[59][60] He published a book on anarchism titled Chomsky on Anarchism, published by the anarchist book collective AK Press in 2006.
Chomsky has engaged in political activism all of his adult life and expressed opinions on politics and world events, which are widely cited, publicized, and discussed. Chomsky has in turn argued that his views are those the powerful do not want to hear, and for this reason he is considered an American political dissident.
Chomsky asserts that authority, unless justified, is inherently illegitimate, and that the burden of proof is on those in authority. If this burden can't be met, the authority in question should be dismantled. Authority for its own sake is inherently unjustified. An example given by Chomsky of a legitimate authority is that exerted by an adult to prevent a young child from wandering into traffic.[61] He contends that there is little moral difference between chattel slavery and renting one's self to an owner or "wage slavery". He feels that it is an attack on personal integrity that undermines individual freedom. He holds that workers should own and control their workplace, a view held (as he notes) by the Lowell Mill Girls.[62]
Chomsky has strongly criticized the foreign policy of the United States. He claims double standards in a foreign policy preaching democracy and freedom for all while allying itself with non-democratic and repressive organizations and states such as Chile under Augusto Pinochet and argues that this results in massive human rights violations. He often argues that America's intervention in foreign nations, including the secret aid given to the Contras in Nicaragua, an event of which he has been very critical, fits any standard description of terrorism,[63][dead link] including "official definitions in the US Code and Army Manuals in the early 1980s."[64][65] Before its collapse, Chomsky also condemned Soviet imperialism; for example in 1986 during a question/answer following a lecture he gave at Universidad Centroamericana in Nicaragua, when challenged about how he could "talk about North American imperialism and Russian imperialism in the same breath," Chomsky responded: "One of the truths about the world is that there are two superpowers, one a huge power which happens to have its boot on your neck; another, a smaller power which happens to have its boot on other people's necks. I think that anyone in the Third World would be making a grave error if they succumbed to illusions about these matters."[66]
Regarding the death of Osama bin Laden, Chomsky stated: "We might ask ourselves how we would be reacting if Iraqi commandos landed at George W. Bush's compound, assassinated him, and dumped his body in the Atlantic. Uncontroversially, his crimes vastly exceed bin Laden’s, and he is not a 'suspect' but uncontroversially the 'decider' who gave the orders to commit the 'supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole' (quoting the Nuremberg Tribunal) for which Nazi criminals were hanged: the hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of refugees, destruction of much of the country, [and] the bitter sectarian conflict that has now spread to the rest of the region."[67]
He has argued that the mass media in the United States largely serve as a "bought priesthood"[68] of the U.S. government and U.S.-based corporations, with the three intertwined through common interests. In a famous reference to Walter Lippmann, Chomsky along with his coauthor Edward S. Herman has written that the American media manufactures consent among the public. Chomsky has condemned the 2010 US Supreme Court Citizens United ruling revoking the limits on campaign finance, calling it a "corporate takeover of democracy."[69]
Chomsky opposes the U.S. global "war on drugs", claiming its language is misleading, and refers to it as "the war on certain drugs." He favors drug policy reform, in education and prevention rather than military or police action as a means of reducing drug use.[70] In an interview in 1999, Chomsky argued that, whereas crops such as tobacco receive no mention in governmental exposition, other non-profitable crops, such as marijuana are attacked because of the effect achieved by persecuting the poor.[71] He has stated:
U.S. domestic drug policy does not carry out its stated goals, and policymakers are well aware of that. If it isn't about reducing substance abuse, what is it about? It is reasonably clear, both from current actions and the historical record, that substances tend to be criminalized when they are associated with the so-called dangerous classes, that the criminalization of certain substances is a technique of social control.[72]
Chomsky is critical of the American "state capitalist" system and big business; he describes himself as a socialist, specifically an anarcho-syndicalist, and is critical of "authoritarian" communist branches of socialism.[citation needed] He also believes that socialist values exemplify the rational and morally consistent extension of original unreconstructed classical liberal and radical humanist ideas to an industrial context. He believes that society should be highly organized and based on democratic control of communities and work places. He believes that the radical humanist ideas of his two major influences, Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, were "rooted in the Enlightenment and classical liberalism, and retain their revolutionary character."[73]
Chomsky has stated that he believes the United States remains the "greatest country in the world",[74] a comment that he later clarified by saying, "Evaluating countries is senseless and I would never put things in those terms, but that some of America's advances, particularly in the area of free speech, that have been achieved by centuries of popular struggle, are to be admired."[75] He has also said "In many respects, the United States is the freest country in the world. I don't just mean in terms of limits on state coercion, though that's true too, but also in terms of individual relations. The United States comes closer to classlessness in terms of interpersonal relations than virtually any society."[76]
Chomsky objects to the criticism that anarchism is inconsistent with support for government welfare, stating in part:
One can, of course, take the position that we don't care about the problems people face today, and want to think about a possible tomorrow. OK, but then don't pretend to have any interest in human beings and their fate, and stay in the seminar room and intellectual coffee house with other privileged people. Or one can take a much more humane position: I want to work, today, to build a better society for tomorrow – the classical anarchist position, quite different from the slogans in the question. That's exactly right, and it leads directly to support for the people facing problems today: for enforcement of health and safety regulation, provision of national health insurance, support systems for people who need them, etc. That is not a sufficient condition for organizing for a different and better future, but it is a necessary condition. Anything else will receive the well-merited contempt of people who do not have the luxury to disregard the circumstances in which they live, and try to survive.[77]
Chomsky holds views that can be summarized as anti-war but not strictly pacifist. He prominently opposed the Vietnam War and most other wars in his lifetime. He expressed these views with tax resistance and peace walks. In 1968, he signed the “Writers and Editors War Tax Protest” pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War.[78] He published a number of articles about the war in Vietnam, including "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". He maintains that U.S. involvement in World War II to defeat the Axis powers was probably justified, with the caveat that a preferable outcome would have been to end or prevent the war through earlier diplomacy. He believes that the dropping of nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were "among the most unspeakable crimes in history".[79]
Chomsky has made many criticisms of the Israeli government, its supporters, the United States' support of the government, and its treatment of the Palestinian people, arguing that " 'supporters of Israel' are in reality supporters of its moral degeneration and probable ultimate destruction" and that "Israel's very clear choice of expansion over security may well lead to that consequence."[80] Chomsky disagreed with the founding of Israel as a Jewish state, saying, "I don't think a Jewish or Christian or Islamic state is a proper concept. I would object to the United States as a Christian state."[81] Chomsky hesitated before publishing work critical of Israeli policies while his parents were alive, because he "knew it would hurt them" he says, "mostly because of their friends, who reacted hysterically to views like those expressed in my work."[82] On May 16, 2010, Israeli authorities detained Chomsky and ultimately refused his entry to the West Bank via Jordan.[83] A spokesman for the Israeli Prime Minister indicated that the refusal of entry was simply due to a border guard who "overstepped his authority" and a second attempt to enter would likely be allowed.[84] Chomsky disagreed, saying that the Interior Ministry official who interviewed him was taking instructions from his superiors.[84] Chomsky maintained that based on the several hours of interviewing, he was denied entry because of the things he says and because he was visiting a university in the West Bank but no Israeli universities.[84]
Chomsky has a broad view of free-speech rights, especially in the mass media, and opposes censorship. He has stated that "with regard to freedom of speech there are basically two positions: you defend it vigorously for views you hate, or you reject it and prefer Stalinist/fascist standards".[85] With reference to the United States diplomatic cables leak, Chomsky suggested that "perhaps the most dramatic revelation ... is the bitter hatred of democracy that is revealed both by the U.S. Government -- Hillary Clinton, others -- and also by the diplomatic service."[86] Chomsky refuses to take legal action against those who may have libeled him and prefers to counter libels through open letters in newspapers. One notable example of this approach is his response to an article by Emma Brockes in The Guardian which alleged he denied the existence of the Srebrenica massacre.[87][88][89] Chomsky's complaint prompted The Guardian to publish an apologetic correction and to withdraw the article from the paper's website.[90]
Chomsky has frequently stated that there is no connection between his work in linguistics and his political views and is generally critical of the idea that competent discussion of political topics requires expert knowledge in academic fields. In a 1969 interview, he said regarding the connection between his politics and his work in linguistics:
I still feel myself that there is a kind of tenuous connection. I would not want to overstate it but I think it means something to me at least. I think that anyone's political ideas or their ideas of social organization must be rooted ultimately in some concept of human nature and human needs.[91]
Some critics have accused Chomsky of hypocrisy when, in spite of his political criticism of American and European military imperialism, early research at the institution (MIT) where he did his linguistic research had been substantially funded by the American military.[92] Chomsky makes the argument that because he has received funding from the U.S. military, he has an even greater responsibility to criticize and resist its immoral actions.
He is also an outspoken advocate against the use of the death penalty and has spoken against the execution of Steven Woods.
I think the death penalty is a crime no matter what the circumstances, and it is particularly awful in the Steven Woods case. I strongly oppose the execution of Steven Woods on September 13, 2011.
In March 2012,[93] Chomsky endorsed Jill Stein for President of the United States in 2012, saying,
As you know, popular anger at the political and economic institutions, and the subordination of the former to the latter, has reached historic heights. And for sound reasons. There could hardly be a better time to open up political debate to the just anger and frustrations of citizens who are watching the country move towards what might be irreversible decline while a tiny sector of concentrated wealth and power implements policies of benefit to them and opposed by the general population, whom they are casting adrift.
Nick Cohen has criticised Chomsky for frequently making overly critical statements about Western governments, especially the US, and for allegedly refusing to retract his speculations when facts become available which disprove them.[94]
Media[link]
Another focus of Chomsky's political work has been an analysis of mainstream mass media (especially in the United States), its structures and constraints, and its perceived role in supporting big business and government interests. Edward S. Herman and Chomsky's book Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988) explores this topic in depth, presenting their "propaganda model" of the news media with numerous detailed case studies demonstrating it. According to this propaganda model, more democratic societies like the U.S. use subtle, non-violent means of control, unlike totalitarian systems, where physical force can readily be used to coerce the general population. In an often-quoted remark, Chomsky states that "propaganda is to a democracy what the bludgeon is to a totalitarian state." (Media Control)
The model attempts to explain this perceived systemic bias of the mass media in terms of structural economic causes rather than a conspiracy of people. It argues the bias derives from five "filters" that all published news must "pass through," which combine to systematically distort news coverage.
In explaining the first filter, ownership, he notes that most major media outlets are owned by large corporations. The second, funding, notes that the outlets derive the majority of their funding from advertising, not readers. Thus, since they are profit-oriented businesses selling a product—readers and audiences—to other businesses (advertisers), the model expects them to publish news that reflects the desires and values of those businesses. In addition, the news media are dependent on government institutions and major businesses with strong biases as sources (the third filter) for much of their information. Flak, the fourth filter, refers to the various pressure groups that attack the media for supposed bias. Norms, the fifth filter, refer to the common conceptions shared by those in the profession of journalism. (Note: in the original text, published in 1988, the fifth filter was "anticommunism". However, with the fall of the Soviet Union, it has been broadened to allow for shifts in public opinion.) The model describes how the media form a decentralized and non-conspiratorial but nonetheless very powerful propaganda system, that is able to mobilize an elite consensus, frame public debate within elite perspectives and at the same time give the appearance of democratic consent.
Chomsky and Herman test their model empirically by picking "paired examples"—pairs of events that were objectively similar except for the alignment of domestic elite interests. They use a number of such examples to attempt to show that in cases where an "official enemy" does something (like murder of a religious official), the press investigates thoroughly and devotes a great amount of coverage to the matter, thus victims of "enemy" states are considered "worthy". But when the domestic government or an ally does the same thing (or worse), the press downplays the story, thus victims of US or US client states are considered "unworthy."
They also test their model against the case that is often held up as the best example of a free and aggressively independent press, the media coverage of the Tet Offensive during the Vietnam War. Even in this case, they argue that the press was behaving subserviently to elite interests.
Science[link]
Chomsky sees science as a straightforward search for explanation, and rejects the views of it as a catalog of facts or mechanical explanations. In this light, the majority of his contributions to science have been frameworks and hypotheses, rather than "discoveries."[95]
As such, he considers certain so-called post-structuralist or postmodern critiques of logic and reason to be nonsensical:
I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of; those condemned here as "science", "rationality," "logic," and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me "transcend" these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, "my eyes glaze over" when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed.[96]
Although Chomsky believes that a scientific background is important to teach proper reasoning, he holds that science in general is "inadequate" to understand complicated problems like human affairs:
Science talks about very simple things, and asks hard questions about them. As soon as things become too complex, science can’t deal with them... But it’s a complicated matter: Science studies what’s at the edge of understanding, and what’s at the edge of understanding is usually fairly simple. And it rarely reaches human affairs. Human affairs are way too complicated.[97]
Psychology[link]
Chomsky's work in linguistics has had profound implications for modern psychology.[12] For Chomsky, linguistics is a branch of cognitive psychology; genuine insights in linguistics imply concomitant understandings of aspects of mental processing and human nature. His theory of a universal grammar was seen by many as a direct challenge to the established behaviorist theories of the time and had major consequences for understanding how children learn language and what, exactly, the ability to use language is.
In 1959, Chomsky published an influential critique of B.F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, a book in which Skinner offered a theoretical account of language in functional, behavioral terms. He defined "Verbal Behavior" as learned behavior that has characteristic consequences delivered through the learned behavior of others. This makes for a view of communicative behaviors much larger than that usually addressed by linguists. Skinner's approach focused on the circumstances in which language was used; for example, asking for water was functionally a different response than labeling something as water, responding to someone asking for water, etc. These functionally different kinds of responses, which required in turn separate explanations, sharply contrasted both with traditional notions of language and Chomsky's psycholinguistic approach. Chomsky thought that a functionalist explanation restricting itself to questions of communicative performance ignored important questions. (Chomsky—Language and Mind, 1968). He focused on questions concerning the operation and development of innate structures for syntax capable of creatively organizing, cohering, adapting and combining words and phrases into intelligible utterances.
In the review Chomsky emphasized that the scientific application of behavioral principles from animal research is severely lacking in explanatory adequacy and is furthermore particularly superficial as an account of human verbal behavior because a theory restricting itself to external conditions, to "what is learned," cannot adequately account for generative grammar. Chomsky raised the examples of rapid language acquisition of children, including their quickly developing ability to form grammatical sentences, and the universally creative language use of competent native speakers to highlight the ways in which Skinner's view exemplified under-determination of theory by evidence. He argued that to understand human verbal behavior such as the creative aspects of language use and language development, one must first postulate a genetic linguistic endowment. The assumption that important aspects of language are the product of universal innate ability runs counter to Skinner's radical behaviorism.
Chomsky's 1959 review has drawn fire from a number of critics, the most famous criticism being that of Kenneth MacCorquodale's 1970 paper On Chomsky’s Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 13, pages 83–99). MacCorquodale's argument was updated and expanded in important respects by Nathan Stemmer in a 1990 paper, Skinner's Verbal Behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, volume 54, pages 307–319). These and similar critiques have raised certain points not generally acknowledged outside of behavioral psychology, such as the claim that Chomsky did not possess an adequate understanding of either behavioral psychology in general, or the differences between Skinner's behaviorism and other varieties. Consequently, it is argued that he made several serious errors. On account of these perceived problems, the critics maintain that the review failed to demonstrate what it has often been cited as doing. As such, it is averred that those most influenced by Chomsky's paper probably either already substantially agreed with Chomsky or never actually read it. The review has been further critiqued for misrepresenting the work of Skinner and others, including by quoting out of context.[98] Chomsky has maintained that the review was directed at the way Skinner's variant of behavioral psychology "was being used in Quinean empiricism and naturalization of philosophy."[99]
It has been claimed that Chomsky's critique of Skinner's methodology and basic assumptions paved the way for the "cognitive revolution", the shift in American psychology between the 1950s through the 1970s from being primarily behavioral to being primarily cognitive. In his 1966 Cartesian Linguistics and subsequent works, Chomsky laid out an explanation of human language faculties that has become the model for investigation in some areas of psychology. Much of the present conception of how the mind works draws directly from ideas that found their first persuasive author of modern times in Chomsky.
There are three key ideas. First is that the mind is "cognitive", or that the mind actually contains mental states, beliefs, doubts, and so on. Second, he argued that most of the important properties of language and mind are innate. The acquisition and development of a language is a result of the unfolding of innate propensities triggered by the experiential input of the external environment. The link between human innate aptitude to language and heredity has been at the core of the debate opposing Noam Chomsky to Jean Piaget at the Abbaye de Royaumont in 1975 (Language and Learning. The Debate between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Harvard University Press, 1980). Although links between the genetic setup of humans and aptitude to language have been suggested at that time and in later discussions, we are still far from understanding the genetic bases of human language. Work derived from the model of selective stabilization of synapses set up by Jean-Pierre Changeux, Philippe Courrège and Antoine Danchin,[100] and more recently developed experimentally and theoretically by Jacques Mehler and Stanislas Dehaene in particular in the domain of numerical cognition lend support to the Chomskyan "nativism". It does not, however, provide clues about the type of rules that would organize neuronal connections to permit language competence. Subsequent psychologists have extended this general "nativist" thesis beyond language. Lastly, Chomsky made the concept of "modularity" a critical feature of the mind's cognitive architecture. The mind is composed of an array of interacting, specialized subsystems with limited flows of inter-communication. This model contrasts sharply with the old idea that any piece of information in the mind could be accessed by any other cognitive process (optical illusions, for example, cannot be "turned off" even when they are known to be illusions).
Debates[link]
Chomsky has been known to vigorously defend and debate his views and opinions, in philosophy, linguistics, and politics.[5] He has had notable debates with Jean Piaget,[101] Michel Foucault,[102] William F. Buckley, Jr.,[103] Christopher Hitchens,[104][105][106][107][108][109] George Lakoff,[110] Richard Perle,[111] Hilary Putnam,[112] Willard Quine,[113] and Alan Dershowitz,[114] to name a few. In response to his speaking style being criticized as boring, Chomsky said that "I'm a boring speaker and I like it that way.... I doubt that people are attracted to whatever the persona is.... People are interested in the issues, and they're interested in the issues because they are important."[115] "We don't want to be swayed by superficial eloquence, by emotion and so on."[116]
Influence[link]
Chomskyan models have been used as a theoretical basis in various fields of study. The Chomsky hierarchy is often taught in fundamental computer science courses as it confers insight into the various types of formal languages. This hierarchy can also be discussed in mathematical terms[117] and has generated interest among mathematicians, particularly combinatorialists. Some arguments in evolutionary psychology are derived from his research results.[118]
The 1984 Nobel Prize laureate in Medicine and Physiology, Niels K. Jerne, used Chomsky's generative model to explain the human immune system, equating "components of a generative grammar ... with various features of protein structures". The title of Jerne's Stockholm Nobel lecture was "The Generative Grammar of the Immune System".
Nim Chimpsky, a chimpanzee who was the subject of a study in animal language acquisition at Columbia University, was named after Chomsky in reference to his view of language acquisition as a uniquely human ability.
Famous computer scientist Donald Knuth admits to reading Syntactic Structures during his honeymoon and being greatly influenced by it. "...I must admit to taking a copy of Noam Chomsky's Syntactic Structures along with me on my honeymoon in 1961 ... Here was a marvelous thing: a mathematical theory of language in which I could use a computer programmer's intuition!".[119]
Academic achievements, awards and honors[link]
In early 1969, he delivered the John Locke Lectures at Oxford University; in January 1970, the Bertrand Russell Memorial Lecture at University of Cambridge; in 1972, the Nehru Memorial Lecture in New Delhi; in 1977, the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden; in 1988 the Massey Lectures at the University of Toronto, titled "Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies"; in 1997, The Davie Memorial Lecture on Academic Freedom in Cape Town,[120] and many others.[121]
Chomsky has received many honorary degrees from universities around the world, including from the following:
- University of London
- University of Chicago
- Loyola University of Chicago
- Swarthmore College
- University of Delhi
- Bard College
- University of Massachusetts Amherst
- University of Pennsylvania
- Georgetown University
- Amherst College
- University of Cambridge
- University of Colorado[122]
- University of Buenos Aires
- McGill University
- Rovira i Virgili University
- Columbia University
- Villanova University
- University of Connecticut
- University of Maine
- Scuola Normale Superiore
- University of Western Ontario
- University of Toronto
- Harvard University
- Universidad de Chile
- University of Bologna
- Universidad de La Frontera
- University of Calcutta
- Universidad Nacional de Colombia
- Vrije Universiteit Brussel
- Santo Domingo Institute of Technology
- Uppsala University
- University of Athens
- University of Cyprus
- Central Connecticut State University
- National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)
- Peking University[123]
- National Tsing Hua University [124]
He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical Society. In addition, he is a member of other professional and learned societies in the United States and abroad, and is a recipient of the Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award of the American Psychological Association, the Kyoto Prize in Basic Sciences, the Helmholtz Medal, the Dorothy Eldridge Peacemaker Award, the 1999 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Computer and Cognitive Science, and others.[125] He is twice winner of The Orwell Award, granted by The National Council of Teachers of English for "Distinguished Contributions to Honesty and Clarity in Public Language" (in 1987 and 1989).[126]
He is a member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts in Department of Social Sciences.[127]
In 2005, Chomsky received an honorary fellowship from the Literary and Historical Society.[128] In 2007, Chomsky received The Uppsala University (Sweden) Honorary Doctor's degree in commemoration of Carolus Linnaeus.[129] In February 2008, he received the President's Medal from the Literary and Debating Society of the National University of Ireland, Galway.[130] Since 2009 he is an honorary member of IAPTI.[131]
In 2010, Chomsky received the Erich Fromm Prize in Stuttgart, Germany.[132] In April 2010, Chomsky became the third scholar to receive the University of Wisconsin's A.E. Havens Center's Award for Lifetime Contribution to Critical Scholarship.[133]
Chomsky has an Erdős number of four.[134]
Chomsky was voted the leading living public intellectual in The 2005 Global Intellectuals Poll conducted by the British magazine Prospect. He reacted, saying "I don't pay a lot of attention to polls".[135] In a list compiled by the magazine New Statesman in 2006, he was voted seventh in the list of "Heroes of our time".[136]
Actor Viggo Mortensen with avant-garde guitarist Buckethead dedicated their 2006 album, called Pandemoniumfromamerica, to Chomsky.[137]
On January 22, 2010, a special honorary concert for Chomsky was given at Kresge Auditorium at MIT.[138][139] The concert, attended by Chomsky and dozens of his family and friends, featured music composed by Edward Manukyan and speeches by Chomsky's colleagues, including David Pesetsky of MIT and Gennaro Chierchia, head of the linguistics department at Harvard University.
In June 2011, Chomsky was awarded the Sydney Peace Prize, which cited his "unfailing courage, critical analysis of power and promotion of human rights".[140]
In 2011, Chomsky was inducted into IEEE Intelligent Systems' AI's Hall of Fame for the "significant contributions to the field of AI and intelligent systems".[141][142]
Bibliography[link]
Main article: Noam Chomsky bibliography
Filmography[link]
- Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media, Director: Mark Achbar and Peter Wintonick (1992)
- Last Party 2000, Director: Rebecca Chaiklin and Donovan Leitch (2001)
- Power and Terror: Noam Chomsky in Our Times, Director: John Junkerman (2002)
- Distorted Morality—America's War On Terror?, Director: John Junkerman (2003)
- Noam Chomsky: Rebel Without a Pause (TV), Director: Will Pascoe (2003)
- The Corporation, Directors: Mark Achbar and Jennifer Abbott; Writer: Joel Bakan (2003)
- Peace, Propaganda & the Promised Land, Directors: Sut Jhally and Bathsheba Ratzkoff (2004)
- On Power, Dissent and Racism: A discussion with Noam Chomsky, Journalist: Nicolas Rossier; Producers: Eli Choukri, Baraka Productions (2004)
- Lake of Fire, Director: Tony Kaye (2006)
- American Feud: A History of Conservatives and Liberals, Director: Richard Hall (2008)
- Chomsky & Cie Director: Olivier Azam (out in 2008)
- An Inconvenient Tax, Director: Christopher P. Marshall (out in 2009)
- The Money Fix, Director: Alan Rosenblith (2009)
- Pax Americana and the Weaponization of Space, Director: Denis Delestrac (2010)
- Article 12: Waking up in a surveillance society, Director: Juan Manuel Biaiñ (2010)
See also[link]
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Anarchism portal |
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Liberalism portal |
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Linguistics portal |
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Mind and Brain portal |
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Psychology portal |
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Socialism portal |
- American philosophy
- Axiom of categoricity
- Chomskybot
- "Colorless green ideas sleep furiously"
- English studies
- Knowledge worker
- List of American philosophers
- Important publications in computability
- The Anti-Chomsky Reader
References[link]
- ^ Kanan Makiya, Fouad Moughrabi, Adel Safty, Rex Brynen, "Letters to the Editor" in Journal of Palestine Studies, Journal of Palestine Studies via JSTOR (Vol. 23, No. 4, Summer, 1994, pp. 196–200), accessed December 4, 2007. Relevant quotation: "On page 146 of my book, I clearly adopt the propaganda model developed by Noam Chomsky and Edward Herman..."
- ^ Noam Chomsky (2011-09-22). Noam Chomsky on the Responsibility of Intellectuals: Redux. Ideas Matter. Event occurs at 09:23. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PK9W5DE7ZtQ. Retrieved 2011-10-16.
- ^ Barsky, Robert F.. "Chomsky and Bertrand Russell". Noam Chomsky: A Life of Dissent. http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/1/10.html. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
- ^ http://www.chomsky.info/books/reader01.htm
- ^ a b c "Noam Chomsky", by Zoltán Gendler Szabó, in Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers, 1860–1960, ed. Ernest Lepore (2004). "Chomsky's intellectual life had been divided between his work in linguistics and his political activism, philosophy coming as a distant third. Nonetheless, his influence among analytic philosophers has been enormous because of three factors. First, Chomsky contributed substantially to a major methodological shift in the human sciences, turning away from the prevailing empiricism of the middle of the twentieth century: behaviorism in psychology, structuralism in linguistics and positivism in philosophy. Second, his groundbreaking books on syntax (Chomsky (1957, 1965)) laid a conceptual foundation for a new, cognitivist approach to linguistics and provided philosophers with a new framework for thinking about human language and the mind. And finally, he has persistently defended his views against all takers, engaging in important debates with many of the major figures in analytic philosophy..."
- ^ The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (1999), "Chomsky, Noam," Cambridge University Press, pg. 138. "Chomsky, Noam (born 1928), preeminent American linguist, philosopher, and political activist... Many of Chomsky's most significant contributions to philosophy, such as his influential rejection of behaviorism... stem from his elaborations and defenses of the above consequences..."
- ^ "MIT Department of Linguistics: People: Faculty: Noam Chomsky". Web.mit.edu. http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/chomsky/index.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Clark, Neil (2003-07-14). "Great thinkers of our time – Noam Chomsky". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200307140016. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "Regarded as the father of modern linguistics, founder of the field of transformational-generative grammar, which relies heavily on logic and philosophy."
- ^ Fox, Margalit (1998-12-05). "A Changed Noam Chomsky Simplifies". New York Times. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20B1FFA3A5F0C768CDDAB0994D0494D81&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fC%2fChomsky%2c%20Noam. Retrieved 2008-08-02. "... Noam Chomsky, father of modern linguistics and the field's most influential practitioner; ..."
- ^ Thomas Tymoczko, Jim Henle, James M. Henle, Sweet Reason: A Field Guide to Modern Logic, Birkhäuser, 2000, p. 101.
- ^ Michael Sipser (1997). Introduction to the Theory of Computation. PWS Publishing. ISBN 0-534-94728-X.
- ^ a b "The Cognitive Science Millennium Project". Cogsci.umn.edu. http://www.cogsci.umn.edu/OLD/calendar/past_events/millennium/final.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "The Accidental Bestseller, Publishers Weekly, 5-5-03, accessed 05-03-11. "Chomsky's controversial political works...became mainstream bestsellers."
- ^ Arnove, Anthony (March 1997). "In Perspective: Noam Chomsky". International Socialism. http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/isj74/arnove.htm. Retrieved 29 October 2011.
- ^ Matt Dellinger, "Sounds and Sites: Noam Chomsky", The New Yorker, Link, 3-31-03, accessed 1-26-09
- ^ "Noam Chomsky". Web.archive.org. 2010-05-28. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20100528222251/http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/abcde/chomsky_noam.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Chomsky is Citation Champ". MIT News Office. 1992-04-15. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/1992/citation-0415.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Hughes, Samuel (July/August 2001). "Speech!". The Pennsylvania Gazette. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/200107--.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-03. "According to a recent survey by the Institute for Scientific Information, only Marx, Lenin, Shakespeare, Aristotle, the Bible, Plato, and Freud are cited more often in academic journals than Chomsky, who edges out Hegel and Cicero."
- ^ Robinson, Paul (1979-02-25). "The Chomsky Problem". The New York Times. "Judged in terms of the power, range, novelty and influence of his thought, Noam Chomsky is arguably the most important intellectual alive today. He is also a disturbingly divided intellectual."
- ^ "Books". chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/books.htm. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
- ^ a b "The Life and Times of Noam Chomsky, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Amy Goodman". www.chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20041126.htm. Retrieved 2008-12-21.
- ^ a b "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 1 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ a b Choamsky, Noam. Conversations with History, U. C. Berkeley, March 2002. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ghoXQxdk6s
- ^ "The Chomsky Tapes: Conversations with Michael Albert". Z magazine. November 2001. http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Chomsky/Chomsky_Tapes_MAlbert.html.
- ^ Kreisler (2002), "Chapter 1: Background". http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Barsky, Robert Franklin (1997). Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent. ECW Press. pp. 47. ISBN 978-1-55022-281-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=GhwvCoZBFoYC&pg=PA47. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Marquard, Bryan (2008-12-20). "Carol Chomsky; at 78; Harvard language professor was wife of MIT linguist". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2008/12/20/carol_chomsky_at_78_harvard_language_professor_was_wife_of_mit_linguist/. Retrieved 2008-12-20.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky interviewed by Shira Hadad". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20051110.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Eight Question on Kibbutzim: Answers from Noam Chomsky Questions from Nikos Raptis". Zmag.org. 1999-08-24. http://www.zmag.org/zspace/commentaries/186. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Kibbutzim as a Climate for Learning". Csudh.edu. http://www.csudh.edu/dearhabermas/kibbutzim01.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1967-02-23). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals". The New York Review of Books 8 (3). http://www.nybooks.com/articles/12172. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
- ^ Flint, Anthony (1995-11-19). "Divided Legacy". The Boston Globe. http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19951119.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04. "Ask this intellectual radical why he is shunned by the mainstream, and he'll say that established powers have never been able to handle his brand of dissent."
- ^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 4". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/4/17.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04. Barsky quotes an excerpt of Edward Herman examining why "one of America's most well-known intellectuals and dissidents would be thus ignored and even ostracized by the mainstream press". For example, "Chomsky has never had an Op Ed column in the Washington Post, and his lone opinion piece in the New York Times was not an original contribution but rather excerpts from testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee".
- ^ a b c Stroumboulopoulos, George (2006-03-13). "Noam Chomsky on The Hour". CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/thehour/video.php?id=991. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "The 'Chomskyan Era' (Excerpted from The Architecture of Language)". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/books/architecture01.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Elman, J., Bates, E., Johnson, M., Karmiloff-Smith, A., Parisi, D., & Plunkett, K. (1996). Rethinking innateness: A connectionist perspective on development. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
- ^ Tomasello, M (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01764-1.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53007-4.
- ^ Huang, Cheng-Teh James (1982). Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [1].
- ^ Matthews, G.H. (1965). Hidatsa Syntax. Mouton.
- ^ Platero, Paul Randolph (1978). Missing noun phrases in Navajo. MIT PhD dissertation. Available online [2].
- ^ Schütze, Carson T. (1993). Towards a Minimalist Account of Quirky Case and Licensing in Icelandic. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 19. Available online [3]
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- ^ Everett, D. (2008). Don't sleep, there are snakes: Life and language in the Amazonian jungle. Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-375-42502-0.
- ^ Van Valin, R. (2000). Linguistic diversity and theoretical assumptions. Chicago Linguistic Society Parasession Papers, 35, 373-391.
- ^ Muhlhausler, P. (1996). Linguistic ecology: Language change and linguistic imperialism in the Pacific region. Routledge.
- ^ Martin, Davis. Computability, complexity, and languages: Fundamentals of theoretical computer science. Boston: Academic, Harcourt, Brace, 1994: 327. Print.
- ^ "Computer Programming and Formal Systems", Eds. P. Braffort and D. Hirschberg, pp. 124-135
- ^ "Finite Semigroups and Recognizable Languages: An Introduction", by Jean-Eric Pin, Bull Research and Development, 2002
- ^ Chomsky (1996), pp. 71.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam, "Notes on Anarchism" [5] ... "Libertarian socialism is properly to be regarded as the inheritor of the liberal ideals of the Enlightenment."
- ^ Shane, Scott (2 October 2010). "Bin Laden Resurfaces in Recordings". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/03/world/asia/03binladen.html. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Thomson, Desson (21 December 2003). "Morris, McNamara: Bound by 'The Fog'". The Washington Post.
- ^ Folkenflik, David (27 February 2008). "William F. Buckley, Conservative Bulwark, Dies". NPR. http://m.npr.org/news/front/62983288?singlePage=true. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Gollust, David (5 January 2011). "US Sticking With Choice for Envoy Despite Venezuelan Rejection". Voice of America. http://www.voanews.com/english/news/americas/US-Sticking-With-Choice-for-Envoy-Despite-Venezuelan-Rejection--112972279.html. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ Chomsky wrote the preface to an edition of Rudolf Rocker's book Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. In it Chomsky wrote: "I felt at once, and still feel, that Rocker was pointing the way to a much better world, one that is within our grasp, one that may well be the only alternative to the 'universal catastrophe' towards which 'we are driving on under full sail'..." Book Citation: Rudolph Rocker. Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice. AK Press. p. ii. 2004.
- ^ 'Industrial Workers of the World - IWW Biography Retrieved 2012-2-11
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- ^ ZNet - Consider IOPS Retrieved 2012-4-3
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- ^ "Conversation with Noam Chomsky, p. 2 of 5". Globetrotter.berkeley.edu. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con2.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ An Evening With Noam Chomsky
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- ^ Chomsky, Noam (1987). On power and ideology: the Managua lectures. South End Press. pp. 51. ISBN 978-0-89608-289-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=Ot6pRjxv2ykC&pg=PA93#v=onepage&q=a%20huge%20power&f=false. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
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- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). Chomsky on democracy & education. Psychology Press. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-0-415-92632-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=84NQ3IXpbOYC&pg=PA30. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ Noam Chomsky. "The Corporate Takeover of U.S. Democracy". Chomsky.info. http://chomsky.info/articles/20100124.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
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- ^ Chomsky (1996), p. 77.
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- ^ Chomsky, Noam. 2003. Chomsky on Democracy & Education. Routledge. p. 399
- ^ 'Answers by Noam Chomsky' to questions about anarchism[dead link]
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- ^ "On the Future of Israel and Palestine". Chomsky.info. 2008-06-06. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20080606.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
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- ^ Jones, Mother (1988-10). Mother Jones Magazine. Mother Jones. pp. 30. http://books.google.com/books?id=I-cDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "Israel bars Noam Chomsky from West Bank". The Gazette. Agence France-Presse (Canwest Publishing Inc). May 16, 2010. http://www.montrealgazette.com/Israel+bars+Noam+Chomsky+from+West+Bank/3035253/story.html. [dead link]
- ^ a b c "Israel Roiled After Chomsky Barred From West Bank". The New York Times. May 17, 2010. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/18/world/middleeast/18chomsky.html?partner=rss&emc=rss.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Pateman, Barry (2005). Chomsky on anarchism. AK Press. pp. 167. ISBN 978-1-904859-20-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=_HkOaB89p7YC&pg=PA167. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "WikiLeaks Cables Reveal "Profound Hatred for Democracy on the Part of Our Political Leadership"". Noam Chomsky website. http://www.chomsky.info/interviews/20101130.htm. Retrieved December 25, 2010.
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- ^ Noam Chomsky (1980-09-10). "Free speech in a Democracy, (Daily Camera)". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/letters/198509--.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Corrections and clarifications". The Guardian. 2005-11-17. http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/nov/17/pressandpublishing.corrections. Retrieved 2011-04-28.
- ^ New Left Review, 57, Sept. – Oct. 1969, p. 21
- ^ Ghoshroy, S. (2008). Chomsky Discusses Economy, Military Hegemony. The Tech, 128, 51. Available online [6].
- ^ "Chomsky endorses Stein in 2012". Jill Stein for President. http://www.jillstein.org/chomsky. Retrieved 9 March 2012.
- ^ Nick Cohen (2007). What's Left?: How Liberals Lost Their Way. Harper Collins. pp. 14, 155–62, 164–8 , 170 , 179–80, 258. ISBN 978-0-00-722969-7.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (2009). "Mysteries of Nature: How Deeply Hidden?". Journal of Philosophy 106 (4): 167–200. ISSN 0022-362X.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam; Otero, Carlos Peregrín (2003). Chomsky on democracy & education. RoutledgeFalmer. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-415-92632-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=Y5Ouy4XoXPsC. Retrieved 16 August 2011.
- ^ "Science in the Dock, Discussion with Noam Chomsky, Lawrence Krauss & Sean M. Carroll". Chomsky.info. 2006-03-01. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/20060301.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Journal citation PMC2774611 - An Underdiscussed Aspect of Chomsky (1959)
- ^ Barsky (1997), "Chapter 3". http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/3/2.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Changeux, Jean-Pierre; Courrége, Philippe; Danchin, Antoine (October 1973). "A Theory of the Epigenesis of Neuronal Networks by Selective Stabilization of Synapses". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) 70 (10): 2974–8. DOI:10.1073/pnas.70.10.2974. PMC 427150. PMID 4517949. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=427150.
- ^ Massimo Piatelli-Palmarini, ed., Language and Learning: The Debate Between Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky, Routledge, 1975.
- ^ "''The Chomsky–Foucault Debate: On Human Nature''". Chomsky.info. http://www.chomsky.info/debates/1971xxxx.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ William F. Buckley vs. Noam Chomsky, YouTube
- ^ Noam Chomsky "A Quick Reaction", Counterpunch September 12, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "Against Rationalization: Minority Report", The Nation, September 24, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "Of Sin, the Left & Islamic Fascism", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "A Rejoinder to Noam Chomsky", The Nation, 2001
- ^ Noam Chomsky, "Reply to Hitchens' 'Rejoinder'", The Nation, 2001
- ^ "The New York Review of Books, "Chomsky Replies", 1973 20;12". Nybooks.com. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1973/jul/19/chomsky-replies/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky vs. Perle, YouTube
- ^ Hilary Putnam, "Externalism: Its Motivation and Its Critics", Harvard University, 2007.
- ^ KU Leuven, "An Epistemological Reading of the Debate between Quine and Chomsky", October 2003.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky v. Alan Dershowitz: A Debate on the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict", Democracy Now!, 23 December 2005.
- ^ "Chomsky Rebel". Dvdverdict.com. 2005-05-16. http://www.dvdverdict.com/reviews/chomskyrebel.php. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam. "False, False, False, and False: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Ray Suarez", January 20, 1999 Chomsky.info
- ^ Sakharov, Alex (2003-05-12). "Grammar". MathWorld. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Grammar.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ "Lecture 6: Evolutionary Psychology, Problem Solving, and 'Machiavellian' Intelligence". School of Psychology. Massey University. 1996. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070117055247/http://evolution.massey.ac.nz/lecture6/lect600.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Knuth, Donald (2003), Selected Papers on Computer Languages, CSLI Lecture Notes, Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information, http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/cl.html
- ^ "Van Zyl Slabbert to present TB Davie Memorial Lecture". Uct.ac.za. 2003-10-13. http://www.uct.ac.za/mondaypaper/archives/?id=4104. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ The Current Crisis in the Middle East: About the Lecture. MIT World.
- ^ "CU Regents". Cu.edu. https://www.cu.edu/regents/Awards/AwardsMaster.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Welcome to Peking University". English.pku.edu.cn. 2010-08-13. http://english.pku.edu.cn/News_Events/News/Campus/6797.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky Lectured in Beijing". Chinatoday.com.cn. 2010-12-12. http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/ctenglish/se/txt/2010-08/23/content_293243.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky, MIT Linguistics Program". Chomsky.info. 1928-12-07. http://www.chomsky.info/bios/2002----.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Past Recipients of the NCTE Orwell Award" (PDF). http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Involved/Volunteer/Appointed%20Groups/Past_Recipients_Orwell_Award.pdf. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts - Department of Social Sciences members Retrieved 2012-2-11
- ^ "Interviews Polathicks/Society » Interview: Noam Chomsky Speaks Out On Education and Power". Soundtracksforthem. 2005-09-20. http://soundtracksforthem.com/blog/?p=81. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Uppsala University’s Honorary Doctorates in Commemoration of Linnaeus". Uppsala University. 2007-02-13. http://info.uu.se/press.nsf/pm/uppsala.universitys.id0AC.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ http://www.literaryanddebating.com/press/80-archbishop-desmond-tutu-to-speak-to-litndeb; excerpt:the Literary and Debating Society’s President’s Medal, the society’s achievement award, [has] been won in the past by the likes of Noam Chomsky, Senator Mike Gravel, Congressman Bruce Morrison, journalist Fintan O’Toole and, playwright, Tom Murphy.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky, honorary member of IAPTI". Aipti.org. http://www.aipti.org/eng/honorary_members/. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "The 2010 Erich Fromm Prize to Noam Chomsky". International Erich Fromm Society. 2010-01-16. http://www.erich-fromm.de/biophil/en/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=190:the-2010-erich-fromm-prize-to-noam-chomsky&catid=54:latest-news. Retrieved 2010-04-05.
- ^ "Author, activist Noam Chomsky to receive award". News.wisc.edu. 2010-03-29. http://www.news.wisc.edu/17889. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "Some Famous People with Finite Erdös Numbers". The Erdös Number Project. Oakland University. http://www.oakland.edu/enp/erdpaths/. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
- ^ "Chomsky named top intellectual: British poll". Breitbart.com. 2005-10-18. http://www.breitbart.com/news/2005/10/18/051018152652.77esbn1j.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ Cowley, Jason (2006-05-22). "Heroes of Our Time". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/200605220016. Retrieved 2007-09-04.
- ^ "Viggo Mortensen's Spoken Word & Music CDs". Viggo Fan Base. http://www.viggofanbase.com/cds/#pfa.
- ^ "Noam Chomsky Honorary Concert". Edwardmanukyan.com. http://www.edwardmanukyan.com/concerts/chomsky_tribute.html. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ Weininger, David (2010-01-21). "Chomsky Tribute". Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/ae/music/articles/2010/01/22/fours_a_charm_for_parker_quartet/. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
- ^ "Controversy dogs Chomsky as he accepts Sydney Peace Prize". Smh.com.au. 2011-06-02. http://www.smh.com.au/entertainment/books/controversy-dogs-chomsky-as-he-accepts-sydney-peace-prize-20110601-1fgqf.html#ixzz1O7yqP75P. Retrieved 2011-08-16.
- ^ "AI's Hall of Fame". IEEE Intelligent Systems (IEEE Computer Society) 26 (4): 5–15. 2011. DOI:10.1109/MIS.2011.64. http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/homepage/2011/0811/rW_IS_AIsHallofFame.pdf. edit
- ^ "IEEE Computer Society Magazine Honors Artificial Intelligence Leaders". DigitalJournal.com. August 24, 2011 (2011-08-24). http://www.digitaljournal.com/pr/399442. Retrieved September 18, 2011 (2011-09-18). Press release source: PRWeb (Vocus).
- Chomsky, Noam (1996). Perspectives on Power. Montréal: Black Rose. ISBN 978-1-55164-048-8.
- Kreisler, Harry (2002-03-22). "Activism, Anarchism, and Power: Conversation with Noam Chomsky". Conversations with History. Institute of International Studies, UC Berkeley. http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people2/Chomsky/chomsky-con1.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.
External links[link]
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- chomsky.info official website
- Noam Chomsky at MIT
- Noam Chomsky at the Open Directory Project
- Noam Chomsky articles on libcom.org
- Noam Chomsky at Democracy Now!
- Column archive at The Guardian
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Noam Chomsky on Charlie Rose
- Noam Chomsky at the Internet Movie Database
- Works by or about Noam Chomsky in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Noam Chomsky at ZSpace
- Articles and videos featuring Noam Chomsky at AnarchismToday.org
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The Jerusalem Post
- Noam Chomsky collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Noam Chomsky at the Mathematics Genealogy Project
- Noam Chomsky at the AI Genealogy Project.
- Interviews and articles
- Talks by Noam Chomsky at A-Infos Radio Project
- Interview about Human Rights by scholars (English with French subtitles) – 2009
- Chomsky media files at the Internet Archive
- Noam Chomsky interviewed by Alyssa McDonald on New Statesman, September 2010.
- Noam Chomsky Interviews on The Real News (TRNN)
- Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance – discussion on the "Bush doctrine" and its implications, C-SPAN, Feb 2004
- Philosophies of Language & Politics – talk at The Commonwealth Club, October 2009
- Thought Economics Interviews Noam Chomsky – Noam Chomsky interviewed on global democracy, April 2011
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Chomsky, Avram Noam |
| Alternative names | Chomsky, Noam |
| Short description | linguist, psychologist, and activist |
| Date of birth | December 7, 1928 |
| Place of birth | East Oak Lane, Philadelphia, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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Wiki Summary
Propaganda is a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community toward some cause or position. Propaganda is usually repeated and dispersed over a wide variety of media in order to create the desired result in audience attitudes.
As opposed to impartially providing information, propaganda, in its most basic sense, presents information primarily to influence an audience. Propaganda often presents facts selectively (thus possibly lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an emotional rather than rational response to the information presented. The desired result is a change of the attitude toward the subject in the target audience to further a political agenda. Propaganda can be used as a form of political warfare.
While the term propaganda has justifiably acquired a strongly negative connotation by association with its most manipulative and jingoistic examples (e.g. Nazi Propaganda used to justify the Holocaust) , propaganda in its original sense was neutral, and could refer to uses that were generally benign or innocuous, such as public health recommendations, signs encouraging citizens to participate in a census or election, or messages encouraging persons to report crimes to the police, among others.
