Fergana Farg'ona / Фарғона
Fergana Location in Uzbekistan
Coordinates: 40°23′11″N 71°47′11″E / 40.38639°N 71.78639°E / 40.38639; 71.78639
Country	Uzbekistan
Province	Fergana Province
Population
• Total	214,000

Coordinates: 40°23′11″N 71°47′11″E / 40.38639°N 71.78639°E / 40.38639; 71.78639 Fergana (Uzbek: Farg'ona/Фарғона; Persian: فرغانه‎ Farghāneh; Russian: Фергана́) is a city (population: 214,000),^[1] the capital of Fergana Province in eastern Uzbekistan, at the southern edge of the Fergana Valley in southern Central Asia, cutting across the borders of Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Fergana is about 420 km east of Tashkent, and about 75 km west of Andijan.

History[link]

The fertile Fergana Valley was an important conduit on the Silk Roads (more precisely the North Silk Road), which connected the ancient Chinese capital of Xi'an to the west over the Wushao Ling Mountain Pass to Wuwei and emerging in Kashgar before linking to ancient Parthia,^[2] or on to the north of the Aral and Caspian Seas to ports on the Black Sea.

The ancient kingdom referred to as Dayuan (大宛, "Great Yuan", literally "Great Ionians") in the Chinese chronicles is now generally accepted as being in the Ferghana Valley. It is sometimes, though less commonly, written as Dawan (大宛^[3]). Dayuan were Greeks, the descendants of the Greek colonists that were settled by Alexander the Great in Ferghana in 329 BCE, and prospered within the Hellenistic realm of the Seleucids and Greco-Bactrians, until they were isolated by the migrations of the Yuezhi around 160 BCE. It has been suggested that the name "Yuan" was simply a transliteration of the words “Yona”, or “Yavana”, used throughout antiquity in Asia to designate Greeks (“Ionians”). Their capital was Alexandria Eschate.

The earliest Chinese visitor was the ambassador Zhang Qian, who passed through on his way to secure a military alliance with the Da Yuezhi or 'Great Yuezhi' against the Xiongnu, c. 127/126 BCE. The Shiji, Chap. 123 says:

Dayuan lies southwest of the territory of the Xiongnu, some 10,000 li [4,158 km] directly west of China. The people are also settled on the land, plowing the fields and growing rice and wheat. They also make wine out of grapes. The region has many fine horses which sweat blood;[apparently due to skin parasites which caused sores] their forebears are supposed to have been foaled from heavenly horses. The people live in houses in fortified cities, there being some seventy or more cities of various sizes in the region. The population numbers several hundred thousand. The people fight with bows and spears and can shoot from horseback. Dayuan is bordered on the north by Kangju, on the west by the kingdom of the Great Yuezhi, on the southwest by Daxia (Bactria), on the northeast by the land of the Wusun, and on the east by Yumi (Keriya) and Yutian (Khotan)."^[4]

Da Yuan appears as a powerful state in both the Shiji and the Hanshu. However, after Xian, king of Yarkand, conquered it about the middle of the 1st century CE, it gradually lost importance. The Hou Hanshu adds that Da Yuan sent tribute and offerings to the Chinese court in 130 CE along with Kashgar and Yarkand. After that, it is referred to as Liyi 栗弋 (preferably read Suyi 粟弋), and is specifically stated to be a dependency of Kangju.

By the time of the Weilüe (in the 3rd century CE), the old capital, Alexandria Eschate (modern Khujand), had become a separate kingdom called 'Northern Wuyi.'^[5]

Zoroastrian literature identifies the area as the Zoroastrian homeland. It was known as "Özkent" during Karakhanid rule. Fergana also played a central role in the history of the Mughal dynasty of South Asia in that Omar Sheikh Mirza, chieftain of Farghana, was the father of Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur (1483–1530), founder of the Mughal dynasty in India. At Mirza's death in 1498, Babur became chief, although he was still a minor.

During the expansion of Russia in the nineteenth century the Russians invaded Turkistan, gradually taking it over between 1855 and 1884. They took the capital of the Kokand Khanate in 1873 and included it within what was named the Fergana province of the Russian empire.

Modern Fergana city was founded in 1876 as a garrison town and colonial appendage to Margelan (13.5 miles to the northwest) by the Russians. It was initially named New Margelan (Новый Маргелан), then renamed Skobelev (Скобелев) in 1910 after the first Russian military governor of Fergana Valley. In 1924, after the Bolshevik reconquest of the region in 1918–1920, the name was changed to Fergana, after the province of which it was the centre.^[6] The Fergana canal was constructed in the 1930s.^[7]

Climate[link]

Architecture[link]

Fergana’s wide, orderly tree-shaded avenues and attractive blue-washed 19th century tsarist colonial-style houses are said to mimic the appearance of pre-modern and pre-earthquake Tashkent. There is a high proportion of Russian, Soviet Koreans and Tatar inhabitants compared to other Fergana Valley cities. With Russian as the primary language, the city has a distinctly different feel from most Uzbek cities. It retains an air of Soviet-era, pre-independence Uzbekistan.

Main sights[link]

• Museum of Local Studies – with displays of natural history, photographs, and local handicrafts
• Regional Theatre – in 1877 the house of General Mikhail “Old Bloody Eyes” Skobelev

Oil production[link]

Fergana Airport.

Fergana has been a center for oil production in the Fergana Valley since the region's first oil refinery was built near the city in 1908. Since then, more refineries have been added, and Fergana is one of the most important centers of oil refining in Uzbekistan. Natural gas from western Uzbekistan is transported by pipeline to the valley, where it is used to manufacture fertilizer. The Great Fergana Canal, built almost entirely by hand during the 1930s, passes through the northern part of the city and completed in 1939. During its construction, the canal and the city was widely photographed by the noted photographer Max Penson. With a western loan Fergana is able to modernize its refinery and also reduce air pollution^[9] emissions.

Notes[link]

See also[link]

• Babur
• FK Neftchy Farg'ona

References[link]

• Hill, John E. (2009) Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE. John E. Hill. BookSurge, Charleston, South Carolina. ISBN 978-1-4392-2134-1.
• Watson, Burton. Trans. 1993. Records of the Grand Historian of China: Han Dynasty II. Translated from the Shiji of Sima Qian. Chapter 123: "The Account of Dayuan," Columbia University Press. Revised Edition. ISBN 0-231-08166-9; ISBN 0-231-08167-7 (pbk.)
• Jean-Marie Thiébaud, Personnages marquants d'Asie centrale, du Turkestan et de l'Ouzbékistan, Paris, L'Harmattan, 2004. ISBN 2-7475-7017-7.

External links[link]

• Portal on Ferghana and Central Asia
• Fine arts of Fergana and Uzbekistan

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Alim Qasimov
Alim Gasimov
Background information
Born	1957
Origin	Shamakhi, Azerbaijan
Genres	Mugham, Ashiq
Occupations	Musician
Instruments	Singing, Daf
Years active	1977–present
Associated acts	Farghana Qasimova

Alim Qasimov (born 1957) is an Azerbaijani musician, and one of the foremost mugam singers in Azerbaijan. He was awarded the International Music Council-UNESCO Music Prize in 1999, one of the highest international accolades for music. His music is characterised by his vocal improvisation and represents a move away from the traditional style of mugham.^[1] Qasimov has recorded nine albums, three of which are mugham albums with his daughter, Ferghana Qasimova.

According to The New York Times, "Alim Qasimov is simply one of the greatest singers alive, with a searing spontaneity that conjures passion and devotion, contemplation and incantation."^[2]

He joined fellow Azerbaijani, Sabina Babayeva on stage at the Grand Final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2012 in Baku to sing back vocals for her entry, When the Music Dies.

Biography[link]

Formative years[link]

Born in 1957, Qasimov grew up in Nobur near Shamakha, Azerbaijan, a village 100 km north of the capital Baku.^[3][4] His family worked on a Soviet commune and Qasimov worked alongside his parents from a young age.^[5] He later reflected that growing up in poverty helped him to live modestly later in life and he never attempted to extricate himself from his peasant background.^[6] Qasimov's father was an occasional singer with a good voice but he was a humble man; he never pursued a professional career in singing.^[3] Qasimov on the other hand was a keen singer from a young age and his parents noticed his musical desire.^[5] Lacking the money to buy him an instrument, his father used a frame and a goat's stomach lining to make a crude drum for his son.^[3]

He began singing at religious events and his parents suggested that he study music at school.^[5] The form proved difficult for him at times: once, while performing in a local music contest at the age of fourteen, the audience —thinking he did not grasp the correct traditional style—laughed him off the stage.^[3] Despite various setbacks, his parents urged him to persist and he did, enrolling in the Musiki Mektebi state music school in Baku at 21-years-old.^[5][6] The course consisted of four years of study, specialising in vocal technique and mugham — the repertoire of classical Azerbaijani song. It was here that Qasimov honed his voice and his teachers were so impressed that they encouraged him to take the final exams two years early. He refused, stating that he still needed time to perfect his abilities.^[6] He had realised that music was no longer a pastime for him, but rather a necessity, saying his sole talent and desire was for music.^[3] Over the final years of his study he refined his vocal technique, easily passing the final exam, but he later reflected that he had placed too much emphasis on vocal perfection; he believed it was not until later that he fully understood the deeper content and emotion of mugham.^[6]

Professional career[link]

Qasimov began singing professionally while Azerbaijan was still under Soviet rule and the mugham form had not received support from the state. Performances were restricted and, whilst a few singers aimed to preserve the history of the traditional style, the ruling communist party largely regarded it as a local curiosity.^[6] However, Qasimov's growing popularity was accompanied by declining Soviet influence and in 1983 he won the national Jabbar Garyaghdioghlu Singing Competition.^[3][6]

As his career progressed he was recognised internationally, winning awards at the 1983 and 1987 UNESCO Symposia on Traditional and Modern Art of Central Asian ans Asian Countries. His tours were very well received in his both home country and abroad; as travel outside the Soviet Union was rare for citizens at the time, his tours and concerts garnered much press and many television announcements.^[6] As his career was blossoming, so was his personal life — Qasimov and his wife, Tamilla Aslanova, had their first child in 1980, Ferghana Qasimova, and later had two more children: a son, Gadir, and second daughter, Dilruba. Despite such changes, Qasimov's background continued to shape his personality and music, dismissing the foreign influences found in cities and television.^[4]

Over time, Qasimov's style had developed to include not only traditional Azerbaijani music and mugham, but also ashiq, a rural bardic tradition with roots in Turkey, Azerbaijan and the Azeri region of Iran.^[7] In addition, he was influenced by artists from other disciplines, placing particular importance on Qawwali singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan: "When I heard him in concert many doors were opened for me and many questions answered".^[6] His success was all the more impressive for he had broken from the traditional style of mugham and brought his own interpretation to the genre. He saw this as a way of showing mugham to a wider audience and making it relevant to contemporary society, saying: "The world in which we live changes daily. Music has to lend emotional expression to this vitality. I accommodate that by seeking out new paths and interpretations".^[6] Similarly he revolutionised the strict mugham instrumentation, introducing his own improvisation and including new sounds such as the double-reeded balaban (also known as a duduk), the clarinet and the nagara, a metal-bodied drum.^[3] Additionally, he remained conscious of the need to modernise when choosing his ensemble; mixing older, experienced players with younger, more dynamic musicians.^[6]

The 1990s saw Qasimov tour widely with concerts in Iran, Brazil, the United States and throughout Europe.^[3] His music gained more exposure in Europe and North America when a chance meeting with American musician Jeff Buckley at a classical music festival in France resulted in a collaboration. Buckley was a fan of Qasimov's music and they performed a duet of "What Will You Say" which featured on Buckley's Live à l'Olympia release.^[5] Buckley, an avid listener of Qawwali, was highly impressed with Qasimov's performance, noting: "he just came with his drum, and he sang, and it was so pure and effortless... That's what the voice is for".^[8] Qasimov was equally pleased with the collaboration, stating that his American counterpart "was very gifted and had a real feeling for Eastern people." The performance resulted in the introduction of Qasimov's music to a broader Western audience.^[5]

Revitalised by Azerbaijan's declaration of independence from the Soviet Union, the artistic importance of Azeri culture, including both Qasimov and mugham, began to be recognised internationally. Qasimov was named the "People's Artist of Azerbaijan" in 1993 and earned the highest honour in his field in 1999 when he won the International IMC-UNESCO Music Prize — an award given to high calibre musicians such as Dmitri Shostakovich, Leonard Bernstein, Ravi Shankar and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.^[6][9] Partly helped by Qasimov's extensive touring and promotion of mugham, UNESCO proclaimed the mugham of Azerbaijan a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity" in 2003, reassuring the preservation of a centuries-old classical tradition.^[10][11] Similarly, the preservation of Qasimov's own music was assured as he recorded and internationally released his music for the first time, beginning with Classical Mugham, a 1996 collaboration with the Mansurov brothers, and following with Azerbaijan: Art of the Mugham and Legendary Art of Mugham in 1998.^[12]

2000 to present: Introducing Ferghana[link]

	"Bagishla mani" noicon from Love's Deep Ocean Demonstrating the mugham style
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Qasimov's daughter, Ferghana Qasimova, had been informally practising with her father since the age of sixteen and was an avid student of mugham.^[3] By the age of twenty she had become a fully-fledged singer in her own right and Qasimov chose to introduce his daughter into his ensemble. Ferghana first appeared on 1997's The Legendary Art of Mugham on which the two shared the vocal tasks on the song Getme Getme. Their next album included a track, Bagishlamani, dedicated to his forebear; Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.^[6] The release marked a high point for Qasimov as it was his first widely available release to western audiences and it proved a critical success.^[13] His aim to reconnect younger generations with mugham began to pay dividends; not only was he appealing to traditional Islamic sections of the Azerbaijani population, but also to more Americanised and modern audiences.^[5] The break through amongst the younger generations spurred him on: "Sometimes young people come up after a concert to thank me. That's like giving me wings. I feel so elated when I can awaken such feelings in people while they are still young; mugham is not an easy genre for young people to understand".^[3]

Qasimov recorded and released further works with The Art of Mugham in 1997 and Central Asian Series, Vol. 6: Spiritual Music of Azerbaijan in 2007.^[12] He took the opportunity to perform in New York City in 2005 as part of Yo-Yo Ma's Silk Road Project. The concert aimed to promote multi-cultural artistic exchange between eastern and western cultures and The New York Times regarded Qasimov's performance, alongside Malik Mansurov and Rauf Islamov, as the highlight of the event.^[14] He toured throughout Europe, now bringing Ferghana along with him, and was in demand to appear at spiritual music festivals in countries such as France and Egypt.^[4][15] Their performances were often critically acclaimed, regardless of the location. Remarking upon a performance in London as part of "Voices of Central Asia", Michael Church stated in The Independent that "initial shock turned to delight as we were drawn into his intimate, multicoloured world".^[16] The father and daughter duo paid dividends and, following their performance in Cairo in May 2008, Al-Ahram Weekly stressed the qualities of their powerful vocal unity and stage presence, describing Qasimov as "a master of mugham".^[4]

Their brand of mugham proved equally popular the following September, performing a collaboration with experimental classical group the Kronos Quartet. Band leader David Harrington was keen to work with the Azerbaijani for the Ramadan Nights Festival, saying: "I realised his voice was as unique as Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan's, or the tenor John McCormack's in Irish ballads, or Bessie Smith's in St Louis Blues. There's a special quality to that voice, a connection between it and his inner life...he is up there in the top five of all time [singers]".^[5][17] Despite initial problems involving the Kronos Quartet's arrangements and Qasimov's improvisation, the event received positive reviews. Robin Denselow of The Guardian opined that Qasimov "is certainly one of the most thrilling, unashamedly emotional performers on the planet, and the finest exponent of mugham".^[18]

Influence and legacy[link]

In 21 November 2009, he was included in a 500 most influential Muslims of world book.^[19][20][21] The Icelandic singer Björk complimented Qasimov, by naming him as her "favourite singer alive today".^[22][23] In 2010, Alim Qasimov was nominated for the United States National Public Radio's "50 great voices in recorded history" award. ^[24]

Discography[link]

Alim Gasimov on the semi-final allocation draw ceremony of Eurovision Song Contest 2012

Albums[link]

• Classical Mugham (3 January 1996)
• The Art of Mugham: Azerbaidjan (Live) (1 December 1997)
• The Mugham of Azerbaidjan (1 October 1999)
• Love's Deep Ocean (11 October 1999) with Ferghana Qasimova
• The Legendary Art of Mugham (15 October 1997) with Alim Qasimov Ensemble
• Central Asian Series, Vol. 6: Spiritual Music of Azerbaijan (25 September 2007) with Ferghana Qasimova
• "Intimate dialogue" - Live at Morgenland Festival Osnabrück 2009 with Ferghana Qasimova

Singles[link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Alim and Fergana Qasimov: The Master and his Pearl Interview with Qasimov in Al-Ahram Weekly

External links[link]

• Alim and Ferghana Qasimov performing live

Nizami (Ganjavi)
A 20th century woven depiction of Nezami
Born	1141 (approximate) Ganja
Died	1209 Ganja
Period	12th century
Genres	Romantic Persian Epic Poetry,[1] Wisdom Literature
Notable work(s)	The Five Jewels (Panj Ganj)
Influences Ferdowsi, Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani, Sanai, Khaqani
Influenced Saadi, Amir Khusro, Rumi, Hafiz, Khwaju Kermani, Jami, Vahshi Bafqi, Maktabi Shirazi, Salman Saveji, Hatefi, Jamali, Ali-Shir Nava'i, Fuzûlî, Ahmad Khani and in general later poets of the Eastern Islamic World.

Nizami Ganjavi (Persian: نظامی گنجوی‎; Kurdish: Nîzamî Gencewî, نیزامی گه‌نجه‌وی, Nezāmi-ye Ganjavi; Azerbaijani: Nizami Gəncəvi, نظامی گنجوی;‎ 1141 to 1209), Nizami Ganje'i,^[2] Nizami,^[3] or Nezāmi (Persian: نظامی‎), whose formal name was Niẓām ad-Dīn Abū Muḥammad Ilyās ibn-Yūsuf ibn-Zakkī,^[4] was a 12th-century Persian poet.^[5][6][7][8] Nezāmi is considered the greatest romantic epic poet in Persian literature,^[9] who brought a colloquial and realistic style to the Persian epic.^[1][3] His heritage is widely appreciated and shared by Afghanistan,^[2] Azerbaijan,^[10] Iran,^[2] Kurdistan region^[11][12][13] and Tajikistan.^[2]

Life[link]

His personal name was Ilyas^[2] and his chosen pen-name was Nezami (also spelled as Nizami and Neẓāmi). He was born of an urban^[10] background in Ganja (Great Seljuq^[1] empire now present-day Azerbaijan) and is believed to have spent his whole life in South Caucasus. According to De Blois, Ganja was a city which at that time had predominantly an Iranian population.^[2] The Armenian historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi (Ca. 1200-1271) mentions that: "This city was densely populated with Iranians and a small number of Christians".^[14]

Because Nezami was not a court poet, he does not appear in the annals of the dyansties.^[15] Tazkerehs, which are the compilations of literary memoirs that include maxims of the great poets along with biographical information and commentary of styles refer to him briefly.^[15] Much of this material in these Tazkerehs are based on legends, anecdotes, and hearsays.^[15] Consequently, few facts are known about Nezami's life,^[10][15] the only source being his own work, which does not provide much information on his personal life.^[10]

Parents[link]

Nezami was orphaned^[3][16] early and was raised by his maternal uncle Khwaja Umar who took responsibility for him and afforded him an excellent education. His mother, named Ra'isa, was of a Kurdish^[3][10][17] background. His father, whose name was Yusuf is mentioned once by Nezami in his poetry.^[3] In the same verse, Nezami mentions his grandfather's name as Zakki. In part of the same verse,^[18] some have taken the word Mu'ayyad as a title for Zakki^[4] while others have interpreted it as the name of his great grandfather. Some sources have stated that his father might be possibly from Qom.^[3][17]

Nezami was at least half Iranian,^[10] but there exists a difference of opinion, about his father's ethnicity and Iranic^[19] and others^[20] have been mentioned.

Family[link]

Nezami was married three times. His first wife, Afaq, a Kipchak slave girl, was sent to him by Fakhr al-Din Bahramshah, the ruler of Darband, as a part of a larger gift. She became Nezami's first and most beloved wife. His only son Mohammad was from Afaq. Afaq died after "Khosrow and Shirin" was completed. Mohammad was seven at the time. Strangely enough, Nezami's other wives, too, died prematurely - the death of each coinciding with the completion of an epic, prompting the poet to say, "God, why is it that for every mathnavi I must sacrifice a wife!"^[21]

Education[link]

Nezami was not a philosopher^[22] in the sense of Avicenna or an expositor of theoretical sufism in the sense of Ibn 'Arabi. However, he is regarded as a philosopher^[22] and gnostic^[22] who mastered various fields of Islamic thoughts which he synthesized in a way that brings to mind the traditions of later Hakims such as Qutb al-Din Shirazi.^[22]

Often referred to by the honorific Hakim("the Sage"), Nezami is both a learned poet and master of a lyrical and sensuous style. About Nezami's prodigious learning there is no doubt. Poets were expected to be well versed in many subjects; but Nezami seems to have been exceptionally so. His poems show that not only he was fully acquainted with Arabic and Persian literatures and with oral and written popular and local traditions, but was also familiar with such diverse fields as mathematics, astronomy,^[23] astrology,^[23] alchemy, medicine, botany, Koranic exegesis, Islamic theory and law, Iranian myths and legends,^[24] history, ethics, philosophy and esoteric thought, music, and the visual arts.^[3] His strong character, social sensibility, and knowledge of oral and written historical records, as well as his rich Persian^[15] cultural heritage unite pre-Islamic and Islamic Iran into the creation of a new standard of literary achievement. Being a product of the Iranian^[25] culture of the time, he not only created a bridge between pre-Islamic and Islamic Iran, but also between Iran^[25] and the whole ancient world.

Influences and Literary Scene[link]

Khosrow Parviz discovers Shirin bathing in a pool

The recent discovery and publication of the anthology titled Nozhat al-Majales contains Persian language quatrains from Nizami and 114 other poets from the northwestern Iran (Arrān, Šarvān, Azerbaijan; including 24 poets from Ganja alone) during the same era.^[26] Unlike other parts of Persia, where the poets mostly belonged to higher echelons of society such as scholars, bureaucrats, and secretaries, a good number of poets in the northwestern areas rose from among the common people with working class backgrounds, and they frequently used colloquial expressions in their poetry.^[26] Accordingly, the book demonstrates the social conditions at the time, reflecting the full spread of Persian language and the culture in the region, which is evidenced by the common use of spoken idioms in poems and the professions of many of the poets.^[26] The influence of the northwestern Pahlavi language, for example, which had been the spoken dialect of the region, is clearly observed in the poems contained in this anthology.^[26] However, at the same time, the Caucasus region was entertaining a unique mixture of ethnic cultures.^[26] Khaqani's mother was a Nestorian Christian, Mojir Baylqani's mother was an Armenian, and Nezami's mother was a Kurd.^[26] Their works reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity of the region.^[26]

By the end of the tenth century,^[15] Persian literature became widespread from the eastern Mediterranean to the banks of the Indus. The earliest extant example of Persian poetry from the area is that of Qatran Tabrizi(1009–1072) who served in the courts of the Shaddadid and Rawadid dynasties. Qatran Tabrizi, is credited with what some scholars in the last century have termed as the founder of the "Azerbaijan"^[3] or "Trans-Cacausian" school^[27] or "Tabriz School"^[28] or "Shirvan School"^[28] or "Arranian Style"^[29] of Persian poetry. This school produced a distinctive style of poetry in Persian, which contrasted with "Khurasani" ("Eastern") style in its rhetorical sophistication, its innovative use of metaphor, its use of technical terminology and Christian imagery, the presence of Persian^[30] archaism while borrowing from Arabic vocabulary, as well as new concepts.^[26]

The Seljuqs took control of Ganja from the Shaddadids in 1075 A.D. and spread Persian literary westwards to their courts. In the middle of the twelfth century, the Seljuks control of the region weakened and their provincial governors, virtually autonomous local princes, further encouraged Persian^[25] culture, art and poetry in their courts. Persian culture characteristically flourished in this era when political power was diffused and Persian remained the primary language, Persian civil cervants, merchants were in great demand and rival dynastines continue to vie for the service of Persian poets.^[15] This was especially true in Ganjeh, the Caucasian outpost town where Nizami lived.^[15] Nezami was patronized by different rulers and dedicated his epics to various rival dynasties including the Seljuqs, Eldiguzids(who maintained control of Ganja during most of the later 12th century), Shirvanshahs, the ruler of Ahar and Ahmadilis. Although he enjoyed the patronage of various rulers and princes, he avoided the court life and is generally believed to have lived a secluded life. Since he was not a court poet, he does not appear in the annals of the dynasties which list the names of events of the ruling families.^[15]

According to Professor Chelkowski: It seems that Nezami's favorite pastime was reading Firdawsi's monumental epic Shahnameh (The book of Kings).^[25] Nezami has mentioned Ferdowsi as the Sage (Hakim) and Knower/Wise (daanaa) and the great master of discourse: who has decorated words like new bride. Nezami advises the son of the Shirvanshah to read the Shah-nama and to remember the meaningful sayings of the wise.^[31] Nezami has used the Shahnameh as a source in his three epics of "Haft Paykar", "Khosrow and Shirin" and "Eskandar-nameh".^[25]

The story of Vis and Ramin also had an immense influence on Nezami. Although Nezami takes the bases for most of his plots from Ferdowsi, but the basis for his rhetoric comes from Gorgani.^[32] This is especially noticeable in the Khosrow and Shirin, which is of the same meter and imitates some scenes from Vis and Ramin. Nezami's concern with astrology also has a precedent in an elaborate astrological description of the night sky in Vis and Ramin. Nezami had a paramount influence on the romantic tradition, and Gorgani can be said to have initiated much of the distinctive rhetoric and poetic atmosphere of this tradition, with the absence of the Sufi influences, which are seen in Nezami's epic poetry.

The first monumental work of Nezami, the Makhzan al-Asrar is influenced by Sanai's "Hadikat al-Hakika".^[33][34][35] Nezami acknowledges this but considers his work to be superior. The main similarities between Sanai's poem and Nezami's are in its ethico-philosophical genre, although Nezami uses a different metre and organized the whole work in a different fashion.^[34] Khaqani Sherwani daring imagery, was to have a momentous^[36] influence on Nezami Ganjavi and through the latter on Persian poetry^[36] in general.

Works[link]

Wikisource has original works written by or about: Nezami Ganjavi

Persian Wikisource has original text related to this article: نظامی گنجوی

Nezami lived in an age of both political instability and intense intellectual activity, which his poems reflect; but little is known about his life, his relations with his patrons, or the precise dates of his works, as the many legends built up around the poet color the accounts of his later biographers.

Persian Lyrical Poetry[link]

Only a small corpus of his lyric poetry, mainly qaṣīdahs ("odes") and ghazals ("lyrics") have survived. Some of his quatrains have also been recorded in the anthology Nozhat al-Majales (which was compiled around 1250 A.D.) by Jamal Khalil Shirvani^[26] along with 23 other poets from Ganja.

Quinary ("Panj Ganj" or "Khamsa")[link]

Nezami is best known for his five long narrative poems, which have been preserved. He dedicated his poems to various rulers of the region as was custom of that time for great poets, but avoided court life. Nezami was a master of the Masnavi style (double-rhymed verses). He wrote poetical works; the main one is the Panj Ganj (Persian: Five Jewels) "Quinary", also known by the Persian pronunciation of the same word in Arabic, Khamsa. The first of his five 'Treasures', called The Storehouse of Mysteries^[9] was influenced by Sanai of Ghazna's (d. 1131) monumental Garden of Truth. The other ‘Treasures’ were medieval romances. Khusaw and Shirin, Bahrām-e Gur, and Alexander the Great, who all have episodes devoted to them in Ferdowsi's Book of Kings,^[9] appear again here at the center of three of four of Nezami's narrative poems. The adventure of the paired lovers, Leyli and Majnun, is the subject of the second of his four romances, and derived from Arabic sources.^[9] In all these cases, Nezami reworked the material from his sources in a substantial way.^[9]

The Khamsa was a popular subject for lavish manuscripts illustrated with painted miniatures at the Persian and Mughal courts in later centuries. Examples include the Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208), created for the Mughal Emperor Akbar in the 1590s.

• 

  Sassanid king, Bahram Gur is a great favourite in Persian tradition and poetry. Depction of Nezami's "Bahram and the Indian Princess in the Black Pavilion" Khamsa("Quintet"), mid-16th century Safavid era.

• 

  A manuscript from Nezami's Khamsa dated 1494, depicting Muhammad's journey fromMecca to the Dome of the Rock to heaven. The archangel Gabriel is seen to Muhammad's right with multiple wings.

• 

  A scene from the romance "Layla and Majnun". The thwarted lovers meet for the last time before their deaths. Both have fainted and Majnun's elderly messenger attempts to revive Layla while wild animals protect the pair from unwelcome intruders. Late sixteenth century illustration.

• 

  1543 illustration of the Mi'raj from the Khamseh, probably created by the court painter Sultan Muhammad. This version was created for the Persian Shah Tahmasp I.^[37]

The Quinary(Five Treasures-Panj Ganj) includes the five Persian books of Nezami:

Makhzan al-Asrar[link]

• Makhzan al-Asrar(Persian: مخزن الاسرار) "The Storehouse of Mysteries" (1163) (some put it at 1176)

The ethico-philosophical poems of about 2,250 Persian distichs was dedicated to Fakhr al-Din Bahramshah, the ruler of Erzinjan. The story deals with such esoteric subjects as philosophy and theology. The story contains twenty discourses, each of them portraying an exemplary story on religious and ethical topics. Each chapter concludes with apostrophe to the poet himself containing his pen name.^[35] The content of the poems are indicated in the heading to each chapter and are written in a typical Homiletics style.^[35] The stories which discuss spiritual and practical concerns enjoin kingly justice, riddance of hypocrisy, warning of vanity of this world and the need to prepare for the after-life.^[3] The general message of the discourse is that Nezami preaches the ideal way of life drawing attention to his reader of the supreme rank man among God's creatures and approaching of the end life and the necessity of man becoming aware of his spiritual destination.^[35] In a few chapters he address the duties of a King, but as a whole he addresses himself to mankind in general^[35] rather than his royal patrons. In the introduction, the poet provides an account of his solitary vigils, called Khalwat.^[35] There is no indication that these were Sufi vigils, but are used as a literally fantasy on the duty of spiritually inclined poet he wanted to be.^[35] In highly rhetorical style, the aim he pursues is to transcend the limitation of secular literature of the courts.^[35] With this work, Nezami joins the destination of Persian poetry which had started with Sanai and was continued by others, in the first place by Attar Neyshapuri^[35]

Not a romantic epic, "The Treasury of Mysteries" was translated into English by Gholam H. Darab in 1945.^[38] After this early work, Nezami turned into narrative poetry.

Khosrow o Shirin[link]

Khusrau stand on either side of the canal built to supply Shirin with the milk of goats and cows, taken from the Khamseh of Nizami

• Khosrow o Shirin(Persian: خسرو و شیرین) "Khosrow and Shirin" (1177–1180)

A story of pre-Islamic^[25] Persian origin which is found in the great epico-historical poems of Shahnameh and is based on a true story that was further romanticized by Persian poets.^[39] The story chosen by Nezami, was commissioned and dedicated to the Seljuk Sultan Toghril II, the Atabek Muhammad ibn Eldiguz Jahan Pahlavan and his brother Qizil Arsalan. It contains about 6,500 distichs in length, the story depicts the love of Sassanian Khosrow II Parviz towards his Armenian^[40] princess Shirin. Khusrow and Shirin recounts the story of King Khosrow's courtship of Princess Shirin, and vanquishing of his love-rival, Farhad.^[41] The story has a complex structure with several genres exploited simultaneously; and contains many verbal exchanges and letters, all imbued with lyrical intensity.^[9] Khosrow endures long journeys, physical and spiritual, before returning to Shirin, his true love.^[9] They are eventually married, but eventually Khosrow is killed by his son and Shirin commits suicide over the body of her murdered husband.^[9] Pure and selfless love is represented here embodied in the figure of Farhad, secretly in love with Shirin, who finally falls victim to the king's ire and jealousy.^[9]

The influence of Vis o Ramin is visible as the poem imitates a major scene (that of the lovers arguing in the snow) from Vis o Rāmin, as well as being in the same meter (hazaj) as Gorgāni's poem.^[32] Nezami's concern with astrology also has a precedent in an elaborate astrological description of the night sky in Vis o Rāmin.^[32] In turn, Nezami's great work had a tremendous influence on later authors and many imitations of this work were made.^[39] With complete artistic and sturctual unity, the epic of Khosrow o Shirin turned to be a turning point not only for Nizami but for all of Persian literature.^[15]

Layli o Majnun[link]

• Layli o Majnun(Persian: لیلی و مجنون) "Layla and Majnun" (1192)

A story of Arabic origin^[42] which was later absorbed and embellished by the Persians.^[25] The poem of 4,600 distichs was dedicated, in 1192, to Abu al-Muzaffar Shirvanshah, who claimed descent from the Sassanid King, whose exploits are reflected in Nezami's "Seven Beauties"(Haft Paykar). The poem is based on the popular Arab legend of ill-starred lovers: the poet Qays falls in love with his cousin Layla, but is prevented from marrying her by Layla's father. Layla's father forbids contact with Qays and Qays becomes obsessed and starts signing of his love for Layla in public. The obsession becomes so severe that he sees and evaluates everything in terms of Layla; hence his sobriquet "the possessed" (Majnun).^[42] Realizing that cannot obtain union even when other people intercede for him, he leaves society and roams naked in the desert among the beasts. However the image of Layla was so ingrained in him that he cannot eat or sleep. His only activity becomes composing poetry of longing for Layla.^[42] Meanwhile Layla is married against her will, but she guards her virginity by resisting the advances of her husband. Arranging a secret meeting with Majnun, they meet, but have no physical contact. Rather they recite poetry to each other from a distance. Layla's husband dies eventually which removes the legal obstacles to a licit union. However Majnun is so focused on the ideal picture of Layla in his mind that he had fled to the desert. Layla dies out of grief and is buried in her bridal dress. Hearing this news, Majun rushes to her grave where he instantly dies. They are buried side by side and their grave becomes a site of pilgrimage. Someone dreams that in Paradise they are united and live as a king and queen.^[42] Nezami composed his romance at the request of the Shirvanshah Akhsatan. Initially, he doubted that this simple story about the agony and pain of an Arab boy wandering in rough mountains and burning deserts would be a suitable subject for royal court poetry and his cultured audience.^[42] It was his son who persuaded him to undertake the project, saying: "wherever tales of love are read, this will add spice to them".^[42] Nezami used many Arabic anecdotes in the story but also adds a strong Persian flavor to the legend.^[42] He adapted the disconnected stories about Majnun to fit the requirement of a Persian romance.^[43]

He Persianises^[23] the poem by adding several techniques borrowed from the Persian epic tradition, such as the portrayal of characters, the relationship between characters, description of time and setting, etc.^[44] and adapts the disconnected stories to fit the requirements of a Persian romance.^[43]

The Story of Layla and Majnun by Nizami, was translated and edited by Dr. Rudolf Gelpke into an English version in collaboration with E. Mattin and G. Hill Omega Publications and published in 1966.^[23] A comprehensive analysis in English containing partial translations of Nezami's romance Layla and Majnun examining key themes such as chastity, constancy and suffering through an analysis of the main characters was recently accomplished by Ali Asghar Seyed-Gohrab.^[45]

Eskandar Nameh[link]

• Eskandar-nameh (Persian: اسکندرنامه) "The Book of Alexander" (1194) or (1196–1202)

The Romance of Alexander the Great" contains 10,500 distichs. There are differences of opinion on whether this was Nezami's last epic or the Haft Paykar.^[46] The names of its dedicatees are uncertain but the ruler of Ahar, Nosart al-Din Bishkin b. Mohammad has been mentioned.^[40] The story is based on Islamic myths developed about Alexander the Great, which derive from Qur'anic references to the Dhu'l-Qarnayn as well as from the Greek Alexander romance of Pseudo-Callisthenes. It consists of two books, Sharaf-Nama and Iqbal-nameh. The poem narrates the three stages in Alexander's life: first as the conqueror of the world; then as a seeker after knowledge, gaining enough wisdom to acknowledge his own ignorance; and finally as a prophet, traveling once again across the world, from west to east, and south to north to proclaim his monotheistic creed to the world at large.^[9] The Sharaf-nama discusses the birth of Alexander, his succession to the throne of Rum (Greece), his wars against Africans who invaded Egypt, his conquest of Persia and his marriage to the daughter of Darius. The episode also discusses Alexander's pilgrimage to Mecca, his stay in the Caucasus and his visit to Queen Nushaba of Barda' and her court of Amazons. Alexander conquers India, China and the land of the Rus. The Sharafnama concludes with Alexander's unsuccessful search for the water of immortal life.^[40]

The Iqbal-nameh is a description of Alexander's personal growth into the ideal ruler on a model ultimately derived, through Islamic intermediaries, from Plato's Republic.^[40] He has debates with Greek and Indian philosophers (c.f. with Garshaspnama) and a major portion of the text is devoted to the discourses he has with seven Greek sages. The poet then tells of Alexander's end and adds an account of the circumstances of the death of each of the seven sages.^[40] Nezami's image of Alexander is that of an Iranian^[47] knight.

An English translation of the Sharaf-Nama by Henry Wilberforce-Clarke was published in 1881 under the title Sikandar Nama e Bara and is available online.^[48]

Haft Paykar[link]

• Haft Paykar(Persian: هفت پیکر) "The Seven Beauties" (1197) (also called Bahram-Nama)

A pre-Islamic story of Persian^[25] origin, it was dedicated to the ruler of Maragha, 'Ala' Al-Din korp Arslan. It is the story of Bahram V, the Sassanid king, who is born to Yazdegerd after twenty years of childlessness and supplication to Ahura Mazda for a child. The Haft Paykar is a romanticized biography of the Sasanian Persian empire ruler Bahram Gur.^[46] His adventurous life had already been treated by Ferdowsi in the Shahnama, to which fact Nezami alludes a number of times.^[3] In general, his method is to omit those episodes that the earlier poet had treated, or to touch on them only very briefly, and to concentrate on new material.^[46] The poet starts by giving an account of the birth of Bahram Gur and his upbringing in the court of the Arab King No'man and his fabled palace Khwarnaq. Bahram whose upbringing is entrusted to Nom'man becomes a formidable huntsman. While wandering through the fabled palace, he discovers a locked room which contains a depiction of seven princesses; hence the name Haft Paykar (seven beauties). Each of these princesses is from the seven different climes (traditional Zoroastriani-Islamic division of the Earth) and he falls in love with them. His father Yazdegerd I passes away and Bahram returns to Persia to claim his throne from pretenders. After some episodes he is recognized as King and rescues the Persians from a famine. Once the country is stable, the King searches for the seven princesses and wins them as his brides. His architect is ordered to construct seven domes for each of his new brides. The architect tells him that each of the seven climes is ruled by one of the seven planets (classical planetary system of Zoroastrian-Islamic world) and advises him to assure good fortune by adorning each dome with the color that is associated with each clime and planet. Bahram is skeptical but follows the advice of the architect. The princesses take up residence in the splendid pavilions. On each visit, the king visits the princesses on successive days of the week; on Saturday the Indian princess, who is governed by Saturn and so on. The princesses names are Furak (Nurak), the daughter of the Rajah of India, as beautiful as the moon; Yaghma Naz, the daughter of the Khaqan of the Turks; Naz Pari, the daughter of the king of Khwarazm; Nasrin Nush, the daughter of the king of the Slavs; Azarbin (Azareyon), the daughter of the king of Morocco; Humay, the daughter of the Roman Caesar; and Diroste(wholesome), a beautiful Iranian princess from the House of Kay Ka'us. Each princess relates to the king a story matching the mood of her respective color.^[46] These seven beautifully constructed, highly sensuous stories occupy about half of the whole poem.^[46] While the king is busy with the seven brides, his evil minister seizes power in the realm. Bahram Gur discovers that the affairs of Persia are in disarray, the treasury is empty and the neighboring rulers are posed to invade. He clears his mind first by going hunting. After returning from hunt, he sees a suspended dog from a tree. The owner of the dog, who was shepherd, tells the story of how his faithful watchdog had betrayed his flock to a she-wolf in return for sexual favors.^[46] He starts investigating the corrupt minister and from the multitude of complaints, he selects seven who tell him the injustice they have suffered. The minister is subsequently put to death and Bahram Gur restores justice and orders the seven pleasure-domes to be converted to fire temples^[46] for the pleasure of God. Bahram then goes hunting for the last time but mysteriously disappears. As a pun on words, while trying to hunt the wild ass (gūr) he instead finds his tomb (gūr).^[46]

Ritter, in his introduction to the critical edition describes it as: the best and most beautiful epic in New Persian poetry and at the same time . . . one of the most important poetical creations of the whole of oriental Indo-European literature.^[46] The Haft Paykar is considered the poet's masterpiece.^[3] Overall, in this masterpiece, Nezami illustrates the harmony of the universe, the affinity of the sacred and the profane, and the concordance of ancient and Islamic Iran.^[34]

The story was translated to English in 1924 by Charles Edward Wilson.^[49] A newer English rendering based on more complete manuscripts was accomplished by Professor Julia Scott Meysami.^[3]

An excerpt (Original Persian):

گوهر نیک را ز عقد مریز وآنکه بد گوهرست ازو بگریز بدگهر با کسی وفا نکند اصل بد در خطا خطا نکند اصل بد با تو چون شود معطی آن نخواندی که اصل لایخطی کژدم از راه آنکه بدگهرست ماندنش عیب و کشتنش هنرست
هنرآموز کز هنرمندی در گشائی کنی نه در بندی هرکه ز آموختن ندارد ننگ در برآرد ز آب و لعل از سنگ
وانکه دانش نباشدش روزی ننگ دارد ز دانش‌آموزی ای بسا تیز طبع کاهل کوش که شد از کاهلی سفال فروش
وای بسا کور دل که از تعلیم گشت قاضی‌القضات هفت اقلیم

English translation by Wilson:

Take not apart the good pearl from the string; from him who is of evil nature flee.
An evil nature acts consistently: have you not heard that Nature does not err?
The evil-natured man keeps faith with none; the erring nature does not fail to err.
The scorpion since it is by nature bad—to let it live's a fault, to kill it, good.
Seek knowledge, for through knowledge you effect that doors to you be opened and not closed.
He who shames not at learning can draw forth pearls from the water, rubies from the rock.
Whilst he to whom no knowledge is assigned—that person (you will find) ashamed to learn.
How many, keen of mind, in effort slack, sell pottery from lack of pearls (to sell)!
How many a dullard, through his being taught, becomes the chief judge of the Seven Climes!

Influence and Legacy[link]

Nizami Mausoleum in Ganja.

The influence of Neẓāmi’s work on the subsequent development of Persian^[50] literature has been enormous and the Khamsa became a pattern that was emulated in later Persian poetry (and also in other Islamic literatures).^[50] The legacy of Nezami is widely felt in the Islamic world and his poetry has influenced the development of Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Kurdish and Urdu poetry amongst many other languages.

In Persian miniature, the stories in Nezami’s poems alongside those of Ferdowsi's Shahnama have been the most frequently illustrated literary works.^[50] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica: Nezami is admired in Persian-speaking lands for his originality and clarity of style, though his love of language for its own sake and of philosophical and scientific learning makes his work difficult for the average reader.^[1] Nezami composed his verses in Persian^[51] and Western Encyclopedias such as Encyclopedia of Islam,^[34] Encyclopædia Iranica,^[52] Encyclopædia Britannica^[1] and orientalists of many countries^[53] consider Nezami as a significant Persian poet and hail him as the greatest exponent of romantic epic poetry in Persian literature.^[54]

Amongst the many notable poets who have taken the Five Treasures of Nezami as their model may be mentioned Amir Khusro, Jalal Farahani, Khwaju Kermani, Mohammad Katebi Tarr-Shirini, Abdul Rahman Jami, Hatefi Jami, Vahshi Bafqi, Maktabi Shirazi, Ali-Shir Nava'i, Abdul Qader-e Bedel Dehlavi, Fuzûlî, Hashemi Kermani, Fayzi, Jamali^[55] and Ahmad Kahni. Not only poets, but historians such as Rawandi were also influenced by Nezami's poetry and used his poem in rendering history. Besides these, scores of poets have started their composition with the first line of the Makhzan al-Asrar.

According to Dr. Rudolf Gelpke: Many later poets have imitated Nizami's work, even if they could not equal and certainly not surpass it; Persians, Turks, Indians, to name only the most important ones. The Persian scholar Hekmat has listed not less than forty Persians and thirteen Turkish versions of Layli and Majnun.^[23]

According to Vahid Dastgerdi, If one would search all existing libraries, one would probably find more than 1000 versions of Layli and Majnun.

Jami in his Nafahatol Ons remarks that: Although most of Nezami's work on the surface appear to be romance, in reality they are a mask for the essential truths and for the explanation of divine knowledge.

Jami in his Baharestan mentions that: Nezami's excellence is more manifest than the sun and has no need of description. Hashemi of Kerman remarks: The empire of poetry obtained its law and order from Nezami's beautiful verses and To present words before Nezami's silent speech is a waste of time.

Amir Khusro writes:
"The ruler of the kingdom of words, famed hero,
Scholar and poet, his goblet [glass] toasts.
In it - pure wine, it's drunkingly sweet,
Yet in goblet [glass] beside us - only muddy setting."

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe writes:
A gentle, highly gifted spirit, who, when Ferdowsi had completed the collected heroic traditions, chose for the material of his poems the sweetest encounters of the deepest love. Majnun and Layli, Khosrow and Shirin, lovers he presented; meant for one another by premonition, destiny, nature, habit, inclination, passion staunchly devoted to each other; but divided by mad ideas, stubbornness, chance, necessity, and force, then miraculously reunited, yet in the end again in one way or another torn apart and separated from each other.

Depiction of Nizami on Azerbaijani manat (1993)

With regards to the recitation of his poetry, Peter Chelkowski states: "The memorization and recitation of their literary heritage has alway beens vital to Iranians, whose attitude towards the power of the written and spoken word is revential. Even today the national passion for poetry is constantly expressed over radio and television, in teahouses, in literary socities, in daily conversation, and in the Musha'areh, the poetry recitation contest. Nizami's work serves as a vehicle and a symbol of this tradition, for it unites universality with deep-rooted artistic endeavor, a sense of justice and passion for the arts and sciences with spirituallity and genuine piety. for richness and fineness of metaphor, accuracy, and profundity of psychological observation, and sheer virtuosity of storytelling, Nizami is unequalled".^[15]

Nezami's story of Layla and Majnun also provided the namesake for a hit single by Eric Clapton, also called Layla. Recorded with Derek and the Dominos, Layla was released on the 1970 album Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs. The album was highly influenced by Nezami and his poetry of unrequited love. The fifth song of Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs, "I Am Yours", was in fact a Nezami composition, set to music by Clapton.

The Soviet ballet produced a film, Leili and Medjnun, named after a poem by Nizami Gandjevi.^[56] The ballet "Seven Beauties" by Azerbaijani composer Gara Garayev, based on Nezami's famous poem, won an international acclaim.^[57]

A minor planet 3770 Nizami, discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Chernykh in 1974 is named after him. Monuments to Nezami are found in many cities of Azerbaijan and Iran, as well as in Moscow, St. Petersburg and Udmurtiya (Russia), Kiev (Ukraine), Tashkent (Uzbekistan), Marneuli (Georgia), Chişinău (Moldova). The Museum of Azerbaijan literature in Baku is named after Nezami.

Nezami was depicted on the obverse of the Azerbaijani 500 manat banknote of 1993-2006.^[58] In 2008, coinciding with the 800th anniversary of his death, the National Bank of Azerbaijan minted a 100 manat gold commemorative coin dedicated to his memory.^[59]

In 2004, there was a conference organized in the University of Cambridge bringing about eminent scholars on Nezami. The book containing the proceedings of this conference was published under the title: "Nizami: A Key to the Treasure of Hakim " in 2011 by Leiden Press.^[60]

Mausoleum and Museum in Azerbaijan Republic[link]

The Nizami Museum of Literature is located in Baku, Azerbaijan Republic. The Nezami Mausoleum, built in honor of Nezami, stands just outside the city of Ganja, Azerbaijan Republic. It is a tall cylindrical building, surrounded by gardens. To one side, there is a metal statue commemorating Nezami's epic poems. The mausoleum was originally built in 1947 in place of an old collapsed mausoleum, and rebuilt in its present form after Azerbaijan Republic regained its independence after the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.

See also[link]

Poetry portal

• Ferdowsi
• Khaqani
• Vis o Ramin
• Asadi Tusi
• Nozhat al-Majales
• List of Persian poets and authors
• Persian literature

Notes[link]