Latifundia are pieces of property covering very large land areas. The latifundia (Latin: lātus, "spacious" + fundus, "farm, estate")^[1] of Roman history were great landed estates, specializing in agriculture destined for export: grain, olive oil, or wine. They were characteristic of Magna Graecia and Sicily, of Egypt and the North African Maghreb and of Hispania Baetica in southern Spain. The latifundia were the closest approximation to industrialized agriculture in Antiquity, and their economics depended upon slave labour.

Today, latifundia are only found in Latin America and Italy^{[citation needed]} and the term is often extended to describe the haciendas (in Spanish) and fazendas (in Portuguese) of colonial and post-colonial Bolivia, Brazil, Mexico, Venezuela, Uruguay, Cuba, Chile (called latifundio or simply fundo) and Argentina. These originated under colonial law allowing forced labor recruitment and land grants for military services. In post-colonial times, ending the dominance of the latifundia system by implementing agrarian reforms became a popular goal of several governments in the region.

Ancient Rome[link]

The basis of the latifundia in Spain and Sicily was the ager publicus that fell to the dispensation of the state through Rome's policy of war in the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD. As much as a third of the arable land of a new province was taken for agri publici and then divided up with at least the fiction of a competitive auction for leaseholdings rather than outright ownership. Later in the Empire, as leases were inherited, ownership of the former common lands became established by tradition, and the leases became taxable.

The first latifundia were accumulated from the spoils of war, confiscated from conquered peoples beginning in the early 2nd century BC. The prototypical latifundia were the Roman estates in Magna Graecia (the south of Italy) and in Sicily, which distressed Pliny the Elder (died AD 79) as he travelled, seeing only slaves working the land, not the sturdy Roman farmers who had been the backbone of the Republic's army.^[2] Latifundia expanded with conquest, to the Roman provinces of the Maghreb and in Hispania Baetica, the south of Spain.

Large villa holdings in the Campania around Rome, in the valley of the Po and in southern Gaul organized populations in a self-sufficient economy, more similar to the haciendas of Latin America, while they produced oil, wine or garum for exportation. The practice of establishing agricultural coloniae as a way to compensate Roman soldiers formed smaller landholdings, which would be accumulated by large landholders in times of want. Thus the direction, over time, was in larger consolidations of landholdings.

Latifundia could be devoted to livestock (sheep and cattle) or to cultivation of olive oil, grain, and wine. However, in Rome, they did not produce grain and Rome had to import grain (in the Republican period, from Sicily and North Africa, in the Imperial era, from Egypt). Ownership of land, organized in the latifundia, defined the Roman Senatorial class. It was the only acceptable source of wealth for senators, though Romans of the elite class would set up their freedmen as merchant traders, and participate as silent partners in profits to which senatores were disqualified.

The latifundia quickly started economic consolidation as larger estates achieved greater economies of scale and senators did not pay land taxes. Owners re-invested their profits by purchasing smaller neighbouring farms, since smaller farms had a lower productivity and could not compete, in an ancient precursor of agribusiness. By the 2nd century AD, latifundia had in fact displaced small farms as the agricultural foundation of the Roman Empire. This effect contributed to the destabilizing of Roman society as well. As the small farms of the Roman peasantry were bought up by the wealthy and their vast supply of slaves, the landless peasantry were forced to idle and squat around the city of Rome, relying greatly on handouts.

Overall, the latifundia increased productivity. It was one of the greatest levels of worker productivity before the 19th century. Such consolidation was not universally approved, as it consolidated more and more land into fewer and fewer hands, mainly Senators and the Roman emperor. Pliny the Elder argued that the latifundia had ruined Italy and would ruin the Roman provinces as well. He reported that at one point just six owners possessed half of the province of Africa.^[3]

But then again, Pliny the Elder was very much against the profit-oriented villas as presented in the writings of Columella. His writings can be seen as a part of the 'conservative' reaction to the gain- and profit-oriented new attitudes of the upper classes of the Early Empire. (Martin 1971)^{[page needed]}

Ancient Greece[link]

The landscape of the Greek mainland does not lend itself to large estates.^[4] Olive oil and wine for trade were typically produced by many small groves and vineyards, concentrated in fewer hands at the presses and shipping ports. The grasslands of Thessaly and Macedon were pasture for grazing horses. Meat was not a staple in Mediterranean diets.^[5]

The Hellenistic (Greek influenced culture) latifundia were typical of the export-oriented agriculture of coastal Syria and Ptolemaic Egypt.

Europe[link]

In the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the largely self-sufficient villa-system of the latifundia remained among the few political-cultural centres of a fragmented Europe. These latifundia had been of great importance economically, until the long-distance shipping of wine and oil, grain and garum disintegrated, but extensive lands controlled in a single pair of hands still constituted power: it can be argued that the latifundia formed part of the economic basis of the European social feudal system. The gift of a villa, or of a series of them, owned by a powerful patron was at the basis of all the great monasteries and abbeys founded in Western Europe until the time of Charlemagne, when the land-gifts, significantly, tended to be of forest instead.

Italy[link]

In the 6th century Cassiodorus was able to apply his own latifundia to support his short-lived Vivarium in the heel of Italy. Shortly thereafter, Monte Cassino was founded in a former Imperial villa. But in the 10th century the Abbey of Cluny was founded on a gift of the duke of Aquitaine's chase, or hunting forest.

In Sicily, The latifundia dominated the island from medieval times. They were abolished by sweeping land reform mandating smaller farms in 1950-1962, funded from the Cassa per il Mezzogiorno, the Italian government's development Fund for the South (1950–1984).^[6]

Spain[link]

In the Iberian Peninsula, the Castilian Reconquista of Muslim territories provided the Christian kingdom with sudden extensions of land, which the kings ceded as rewards to nobility, mercenaries and military orders to exploit as latifundia, which had been first established as the commercial olive oil and grain latifundia of Roman Hispania Baetica. The gifts finished the traditional small private ownership of land, eliminating a social class that had also been typical of the Al-Andalus period.

In the Iberian peninsula, the possessions of the Church did not pass to private ownership until the desamortización, the "secularization" of church-owned latifundia, which proceeded in pulses through the 19th century.

Big areas of Andalusia are still populated by an underclass of jornaleros, landless peasants who are hired by the latifundists as "day workers" for specific seasonal campaigns. The jornalero class has been fertile ground for socialism and anarchism. Still today, among the main Andalusian trade unions is the Rural Workers Union (Sindicato Obrero del Campo), a far-left group famous for their squatting campaigns in the town of Marinaleda, in Seville province.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth[link]

Following the Union of Lublin in 1569, large expanses of land in Ukraine came under the control of the Polish Crown, allowing for their exploitation by the Polish nobility. Over the course of the 17th century, these lands came to be mainly concentrated in vast estates, now commonly referred to as Latifundia, which were owned by a small number of magnate families which came to be the dominant political and social group in the commonwealth. These estates were diminished following the Cossack revolts of the 17th century, and largely disappeared following the Russia's annexation of the eastern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth at the close of the 18th century.

See also[link]

• Latifundio–minifundio land tenure structure
• Pronoia

Notes[link]

1. ^ The singular *latifundium occurs but once (in Pliny's Natural History 13.92, with the meaning "estate", suggesting to Anton J.L. van Hoofff an undefined, colloquial deprecating term, rather than a description of a particular type of farm. To the linguistic evidence presented by K.D. White, (Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 14 [1967:62-79]), who found only seven instances of the rare word latifundia in Roman texts, Van Hooff added five more instances in "Some More Latifundia" Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte 31,1 (1st Quarter 1982:126-128), and found that two were "in a neutral, almost technical way" (p. 128).
2. ^ Pliny's six occurrences of latifundia are in his Natural History, 13.92, 17.192, 18.17, 18.35, 18.261 and 18.296.
3. ^ "The men of olden times believed that above all moderation should be observed in landholding, for indeed it was their judgment that it was better to sow less and plow more intensively. Virgil, too, I see agreed with this view. To confess the truth, the latifundia have ruined Italy, and soon will ruin the provinces as well. Six owners were in possession of half of the province of Africa at the time when the Emperor Nero had them put to death." (Pliny's Natural History 18.7.35).
4. ^ See agriculture of ancient Greece.
5. ^ See Ancient Greek cuisine.
6. ^ John Paul Russo, "The Sicilian Latifundia," Italian Americana, March 1999, Vol. 17 Issue 1, pp 40-57

References[link]

• Stephen L. Dyson, The Roman Countryside (Duckworth Debates in Archaeology)
• René Martin: Recherches sur les agronomes latins et leurs conceptions économiques et sociales, Paris, 1971.
• John Paul Russo, "The Sicilian Latifundia," Italian Americana, March 1999, Vol. 17 Issue 1, pp 40–57

External links[link]

• On Roman wealth: gentleman farmers
• Kautsky, Karl (1908) "The Technological Inferiority of the Slave Economy" from I. The Slave Economy, Book Two: Society In The Roman Empire, Foundations of Christianity. Published in English: Russell and Russell, 1953.
• Dr Frithjof Kuhnen, (University of Göttingen), "Latifundia (Hacienda)"
• Jonathan Conning (Hunter College), "Latifundia economics" Hunter College Department of Economics Working Papers with number 02/1.

Dick Annegarn (born in The Hague, 6 May 1952) is a Dutch rock singer-songwriter who sings mostly in French, although on occasion Dutch and English. He spent his youth in Brussels, and after having learned to play guitar he went to Paris, where he recorded his first album in 1973, which was very successful; although nearly never happened, as his money had run out and he was ready to return home before finding a producer for his songs just as he was about to leave. This was the subject of his best known song "Bruxelles".

He quit the music business in 1978 at the height of his fame citing its corrupt nature and then worked on social projects^{[citation needed]} in Paris before slowly returning to music, working often with avant garde and occidental musicians, before releasing a string of albums in the late nineties up to 'Plouc' (2005), where he played with musicians from the south of France, accompanying his unique voice and guitar with often sparse and unusual arrangements played on brass instruments.

Proclaimed by many as the "son of Jacques Brel"^{[citation needed]}; he is one of the most well-respected current day troubadours of the chanson, plus a charismatic and irreverent performer. He does not like the musical trade and prefers an underground lifestyle.

Because he is not French but a Dutchman educated in Brussels and Paris, he has a unique French singing voice, very guttural and well articulated. His lyrics are sublime "poetry of the earth"^{[citation needed]} and he has a playful yet caustic sense of humour with emotive, stark and imaginative arrangements like Townes Van Zandt or John Martyn. His "outsider" status as a gay man was also the subject of his 'Un' Ombre' album.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• Dick Annegarn (1974)
• Je te vois (1974)
• Mireille (1975)
• Anticyclone (1976)
• De ce spectacle ici sur terre (live, 1978)
• Ferraillages (1980)
• Citoyen (1981)
• 140 BXL (live, 1984)
• Frère ? (1986)
• Ullegarra (1990)
• Chansons fleuves (1990)
• InéDick (1992)
• Approche-toi (1997)
• Adieu Verdure (1999)
• Au Cirque d'Hiver (live, 2000)
• Un' ombre (2002)
• Plouc (2005)
• Soleil du soir (2008)

Singles[link]

• Va (1975)
• Lille CD promo (1998)
• Voleur de chevaux CD promo (1999)

Compilations[link]

• Bruxelles (3 first albums + part of the 4th one+ the songs Va and Les Gueux) (1996)
• Les Années nocturnes (Frères ?, Ullegara and Chansons fleuves) (2007)

Contributions[link]

• Egmont and the FF Boom, featuring Daniel Schell (1978 ?)
• Route Manset (1996)
• Aux suivants, Hommage à Jacques Brel (2003)
• Plutôt tôt Plutôt tard (2005, tôt ou tard)

Tribute album[link]

• Le Grand Dîner or Tribute à Dick Annegarn (2006, tôt ou tard), on which he himself contributes

External links[link]

• Official website