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Late 19th-century photograph of a Japanese mountain warrior-priest (yamabushi) fully robed and equipped, armed with a naginata and tachi.

Japanese martial arts refers to the enormous variety of martial arts native to Japan. At least three Japanese terms are often used interchangeably with the English phrase "Japanese martial arts": "budō" (武道^?), literally meaning "martial way", "bujutsu" (武術^?), which has no perfect translation but means something like science, art, or craft of war, and "bugei" (武芸^?), literally meaning "martial art." The term "budō" is a modern one, and is normally intended to indicate the practice of martial arts as a way of life, and encompassing physical, spiritual, and moral dimensions with a focus of self-improvement, fulfillment, or personal growth. The terms bujutsu and bugei have more discrete definitions, at least historically speaking. Bujutsu refers specifically to the practical application of martial tactics and techniques in actual combat.^[1] Bugei refers to the adaptation or refinement of those tactics and techniques to facilitate systematic instruction and dissemination within a formal learning environment.^[1]

History[link]

The historical origin of Japanese martial arts can be found in the warrior traditions of the samurai and the caste system that restricted the use of weapons by members of the non-warrior classes. Originally, samurai were expected to be proficient in many weapons, as well as unarmed combat, and attain the highest possible mastery of combat skills, for the purpose of glorifying either themselves or their liege. Over time, this purpose gave way to a philosophy of achieving spiritual goals by striving to perfect their martial skills.^{[citation needed]}

Ordinarily, the development of combative techniques is intertwined with the tools used to execute those techniques. In a rapidly changing world, those tools are constantly changing, requiring that the techniques to use them be continuously reinvented. The history of Japan is somewhat unique in its relative isolation. Compared with the rest of the world, the Japanese tools of war evolved slowly. Many people believe that this afforded the warrior class the opportunity to study their weapons with greater depth than other cultures. Nevertheless, the teaching and training of these martial arts did evolve, first with conditions on the battlefield (archery giving way to the sword; giving way to spear), then through a long period of peace, and finally into modern times. Over time two trends defined the arts - first there was increasing specialization, and second, many of the arts evolved towards more peaceful practices and took on the teachings of budō which implies a higher purpose than just the mastering of arms.^{[citation needed]}

The martial arts developed or originating in Japan are extraordinarily diverse, with vast differences in training tools, methods, and philosophy across innumerable schools and styles. That said, Japanese martial arts may generally be divided into koryū and gendai budō based on whether they existed prior to or after the Meiji Restoration, respectively. Since gendai budō and koryū often share the same historical origin, one will find various types of martial arts (such as jujutsu, kenjutsu, or naginatajutsu) on both sides of the divide.

A note on the organization of this article; it would be impossible to discuss Japanese martial arts in terms of the thousands of individual schools or styles, such as Ittō-ryū, Daitō-ryū, or Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū. Instead, major sections are divided based on when the art originated (regardless of whether it is still practiced), and subsections are dedicated to the root type of martial art, such as jujutsu (the art of empty-handed combat through use of indirect application of force) or the modern kendo (Japanese sport fencing), wherein notable styles or major differences between styles may be discussed.

Koryū[link]

Koryū (古流:こりゅう^?), meaning traditional school, or old school, refers specifically to schools of martial arts, originating in Japan, either prior to the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, or the Haitōrei edict in 1876. ^[2] The term also is used generally to indicate that a particular style or art is "traditional", rather than "modern". However, what it means for an art to be either "traditional" or "modern" is subject to some debate. As a general rule of thumb, the primary purpose of a koryū martial art was for use in war. The most extreme example of a koryū school is one that preserves its traditional, and often ancient, martial practices even in the absence of continuing wars in which to test them. Other koryū schools may have made modifications to their practices that reflect the passage of time (which may or may not have resulted in the loss of "koryū" status in the eyes of its peers). This is as opposed to "modern" martial arts, whose primary focus is generally upon the self-improvement (mental, physical, or spiritual) of the individual practitioner, with varying degrees of emphasis on the practical application of the martial art for either sport or self defence purposes.^{[citation needed]}

The following subsections represent not individual schools of martial arts, but rather generic "types" of martial arts. These are generally distinguishable on the basis of their training methodology and equipment, though wide variation still exists within each.

Sumo[link]

Sumo (相撲:すもう, sumō^?), considered by many to be Japan's national sport, has its origins in the distant past. The earliest written records of Japan, which are dated from the 8th century AD, record the first sumo match in 23 BC, occurring specifically at the request of the emperor and continuing until one man was too wounded to continue^{[citation needed]}. Beginning in 728 AD, the emperor Shōmu Tennō (聖武 天皇, 701–756) began holding official sumo matches at the annual harvest festivals. This tradition of having matches in the presence of the emperor continued, but gradually spread, with matches also held at Shinto festivals, and sumo training was eventually incorporated into military training. By the 17th century, sumo was an organized professional sport, open to the public, enjoyed by both the upper class and commoners.

Today, sumo retains much of its traditional trappings, including a referee dressed as a Shinto priest, and a ritual where the competitors clap hands, stomp their feet, and throw salt in the ring prior to each match. To win a match, competitors employ throwing and grappling techniques to force the other man to the ground; the first man to touch the ground with a part of the body other than the bottom of the feet, or touch the ground outside the ring with any part of the body, loses. Six grand tournaments are held annually in Japan, and each professional fighter's name and relative ranking is published after each tournament in an official list, called the banzuke, which is followed religiously by sumo fans.

Jujutsu[link]

Jujutsu training at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920.

Jujutsu (柔術:じゅうじゅつ, jūjutsu^?), literally translates to "art of pliance". More accurately, however, it means the art of using indirect force, such as joint locks or throwing techniques, to defeat an opponent, as opposed to direct force such as a punch or a kick. This is not to imply that jujutsu does not teach or employ strikes, but rather that the art's aim is the ability to use an attacker's force against him or her, and counter-attack where they are weakest or least defended.

Methods of combat included striking (kicking, punching), throwing (body throws, joint-lock throws, unbalance throws), restraining (pinning, strangulating, grappling, wrestling) and weaponry. Defensive tactics included blocking, evading, off balancing, blending and escaping. Minor weapons such as the tantō (dagger), ryufundo kusari (weighted chain), jutte (helmet smasher), and kakushi buki (secret or disguised weapons) were almost always included in koryū jujutsu.

Most of these were battlefield-based systems to be practiced as companion arts to the more common and vital weapon systems. At the time, these fighting arts went by many different names, including kogusoku, yawara, kumiuchi, and hakuda. In reality, these grappling systems were not really unarmed systems of combat, but are more accurately described as means whereby an unarmed or lightly armed warrior could defeat a heavily armed and armored enemy on the battlefield. Ideally, the samurai would be armed and would not need to rely on such techniques.^{[citation needed]}

In later times, other koryū developed into systems more familiar to the practitioners of the jujutsu commonly seen today. These systems are generally designed to deal with opponents neither wearing armor nor in a battlefield environment. For this reason, they include extensive use of atemi waza (vital-striking technique). These tactics would be of little use against an armored opponent on a battlefield. They would, however, be quite valuable to anyone confronting an enemy or opponent during peacetime dressed in normal street attire. Occasionally, inconspicuous weapons such as knives or tessen (iron fans) were included in the curriculum.^{[citation needed]}

Today, jujutsu is practiced in many forms, both ancient and modern. Various methods of jujutsu have been incorporated or synthesized into judo and aikido, as well as being exported throughout the world and transformed into sport wrestling systems, adopted in whole or part by schools of karate or other unrelated martial arts, still practiced as they were centuries ago, or all of the above.

Swordsmanship[link]

A matched set (daisho) of antique Japanese (samurai) swords and their individual mountings (koshirae), katana on top and wakisashi below, Edo period.

Swordsmanship, the art of the sword, has an almost mythological ethos, and is believed by some to be the paramount martial art, surpassing all others. Regardless of the truth of that belief, the sword itself has been the subject of stories and legends through virtually all cultures in which it has been employed as a tool for violence. In Japan, the use of the katana is no different. Although originally the most important skills of the warrior class were proficiency at horse-riding and shooting the bow, this eventually gave way to swordsmanship. The earliest swords, which can be dated as far back as the Kofun era (3rd and 4th centuries) were primarily straight bladed. According to legend, curved swords made strong by the famous folding process were first forged by the smith Amakuni Yasutsuna (天國 安綱, c.700 AD).^[3] Other sources explain that the folding process was brought to Japan from China.

The primary development of the sword occurred between 987 AD and 1597 AD. This development is characterized by profound artistry during peaceful eras, and renewed focus on durability, utility, and mass production during the intermittent periods of warfare, most notably civil warfare during the 12th century and the Mongolian invasions during the 13th century (which in particular saw the transition from mostly horseback archery to hand to hand ground fighting).

This development of the sword is paralleled by the development of the methods used to wield it. During times of peace, the warriors trained with the sword, and invented new ways to implement it. During war, these theories were tested. After the war ended, those who survived examined what worked and what didn't, and passed their knowledge on. In 1600 AD, Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川 家康, 1543–1616) gained total control of all of Japan, and the country entered a period of prolonged peace that would last until the Meiji Restoration. During this period, the techniques to use the sword underwent a transition from a primarily utilitarian art for killing, to one encompassing a philosophy of personal development and spiritual perfection.

The terminology used to describe the Japanese art of swordsmanship is somewhat ambiguous. Many names have been used to describe various aspects of the art, or to encompass the art as a whole.

Kenjutsu[link]

Kenjutsu (剣術:けんじゅつ^?) literally means "the art/science of the sword". Although the term has been used as a general term to refer to swordsmanship as a whole, in modern times, kenjutsu is more often used to refer to the specific aspect of swordsmanship dealing with partnered sword training. It is the oldest form of training, and at its simplest level, consists of two partners with swords drawn, practicing combat drills. Historically practiced with wooden katana (bokken), this most often consists of pre-determined forms, called kata, or sometimes called kumitachi, and similar to the partner drills practiced in kendo. Among advanced students, kenjutsu training may also include increasing degrees of freestyle practice.

Battōjutsu[link]

Battōjutsu (抜刀術:ばっとうじゅつ^?), literally meaning "the art/science of drawing a sword", and developed in the mid-15th century, is the aspect of swordsmanship focused upon the efficient draw of the sword, cutting down one's enemy, and returning the sword to its scabbard (saya). The term came into use specifically during the Warring States Period (15th–17th cent.). Closely related to, but predating iaijutsu, battōjutsu training emphasizes defensive counter-attacking. Battōjutsu training technically incorporates kata, but generally consist of only a few moves, focusing on stepping up to an enemy, drawing, performing one or more cuts, and sheathing the weapon. Battōjutsu exercises tend to lack the elaborateness, as well as the aesthetic considerations of iaijutsu or iaidō kata. Finally, note that use of the name alone is not dispositive; what is battōjutsu to one school may be iaijutsu to another.

Iaijutsu and Iaidō[link]

Iaijutsu (居合術:いあいじゅつ^?), approximately "the art/science of mental presence and immediate reaction", is also the Japanese art of drawing the sword. However, unlike battōjutsu, iaijutsu tends to be technically more complex, and there is a much stronger focus upon perfecting form. The primary technical aspects are smooth, controlled movements of drawing the sword from its scabbard, striking or cutting an opponent, removing blood from the blade, and then replacing the sword in the scabbard.

Iaidō (居合道:いあいどう^?), which would be "the way of mental presence and immediate reaction", is nominally the modernization of iaijutsu, but in practice is frequently identical to iaijutsu.^{[citation needed]} The replacement of jutsu with dō is part of the 20th century emphasis upon personal and spiritual development; an evolution that took place in many martial arts. In the case of iaidō, some schools merely changed in name without altering the curriculum, and others embraced the wholesale change from a combat-orientation to spiritual growth.

Naginatajutsu[link]

A samurai wielding a naginata.

Naginatajutsu (長刀術:なぎなたじゅつ^?) is the Japanese art of wielding the naginata, a weapon resembling the medieval European glaive or guisarme. Most naginata practice today is in a modernized form (gendai budō) called the "way of naginata" (naginata-dō) or "new naginata" (atarashii naginata), in which competitions are also held.

However, many koryu maintain naginatajutsu in their curriculum. Also of note, during the late Edo period, naginata were used to train women and ladies in waiting. Thus, most naginatajutsu styles are headed by women and most naginata practitioners in Japan are women. This has led to the impression overseas that naginatajutsu is a martial art that was not used by male warriors. In fact, naginatajutsu was developed by the warrior monks of early medieval Japan and was widely used by samurai.

Sōjutsu[link]

Sōjutsu (槍術:そうじゅつ^?) is the Japanese art of fighting with the spear (yari). For most of Japan's history, sōjutsu was practiced extensively by traditional schools. In times of war, it was a primary skill of many soldiers. Today it is a minor art taught in very few schools.

Ninjutsu[link]

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Ninjutsu was developed by groups of people mainly from the Iga Province and Kōka, Shiga of Japan. Throughout history the shinobi have been seen as assassins, scouts and spies. They are mainly noted for their use of stealth and deception. Throughout history many different schools (ryū) have taught their unique versions of ninjutsu. An example of these is the Togakure-ryū. This ryū was developed after a defeated samurai warrior called Daisuke Togakure escaped to the region of Iga. Later he came in contact with the warrior-monk Kain Doshi who taught him a new way of viewing life and the means of survival (ninjutsu).^[4]

Ninjutsu was developed as a collection of fundamental survivalist techniques in the warring state of feudal Japan in the 14th century. The ninja used their art to ensure their survival in a time of violent political turmoil. Ninjutsu included methods of gathering information, and techniques of non-detection, avoidance, and misdirection. Ninjutsu can also involve training in disguise, escape, concealment, archery, medicine, explosives, and poisons.^[5]

Other koryū martial arts[link]

The original martial art schools of Japan were almost entirely sogo (comprehensive) bujutsu. With the long peace of the Tokugawa shogunate there was an increase in specialization with many schools identifying themselves with particular major battlefield weapons. However, there were many additional weapons employed by the warriors of feudal Japan, and an art to wielding each. Usually they were studied as secondary or tertiary weapons within a school but there are exceptions, such as the art of wielding the short staff, (jōdō) which was the primary art taught by the Shintō Musō-ryū.

Other arts existed to teach military skills other than the use of weaponry. Examples of these include marine skills such as swimming and river-fording (suijutsu), equestrianism (bajutsu), arson and demolition (kajutsu).

Gendai budō[link]

Gendai budō (現代武道:げんだいぶどう^?), literally meaning "modern martial way", is a generic term used to describe Japanese martial arts that are considered "modern". That is, either the art was founded after the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, or an art which changed its methodology in such a way that it lost koryū status, and is now considered gendai budō. Aikido and judo are examples of gendai budō that were founded in the modern era, while iaidō represents the modernization of a practice that has existed for centuries.

The core difference is, as was explained under "koryū", above, that koryū arts are practiced as they were when their primary utility was for use in war, while the primary purpose of gendai budō is for self-improvement, with application as a secondary purpose. Additionally, many of the gendai budō have included a modern sporting element to them. Judo and modern kendo are both examples of this.

Judo[link]

Judoka executing a throw(o-soto-gari).

Judo (柔道:じゅうどう, jūdō^?), literally meaning "gentle way" or "way of softness", is a modern grappling-based martial art, practiced primarily as a sport. It contains substantially the same emphasis on the personal, spiritual, and physical self-improvement of its practitioners as can be found throughout gendai budō.

Judo was created by Kano Jigoro (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō, 1860–1938) at the end of the 19th century. Kano was a brilliant martial artist educated at the Tokyo Imperial University. The combination of martial talent and formal education enabled Kano to take the koryū martial arts he learned (specifically Kitō-ryū and Tenjin Shin'yo-ryū jujutsu), and systematically reinvent them into a martial art with an emphasis on freestyle practice and competition. Kano devised a powerful system of new techniques and training methods, which famously culminated on June 11, 1886, in a tournament that would later be dramatized by celebrated Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa (黒沢 明 Kurosawa Akira, 1910–1998), in the film "Sanshiro Sugata" (1943). In that tournament, fifteen of Kano's students faced fifteen students from a rival jujutsu school. The result was two losses, one draw, and twelve victories for the judo students.^{[citation needed]}

Judo became an Olympic sport in 1964, and has spread throughout the world. Kano Jigoro's original school, the "Kodokan", has students worldwide, and many other schools have been founded by Kano's students. Of particular note is Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, which traces its history back to Kodokan judo practitioner Mitsuyo Maeda (1880–1941), who emigrated to Brazil in the early 20th century and taught judo there. Today, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu is a practice distinct from Olympic judo, which is the predominant form of judo practiced.^{[citation needed]}

Kendo[link]

Kendo training at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920.

Kendo (剣道:けんどう, kendō^?), meaning the "way of the sword", is based on Japanese sword-fighting. It is an evolution of the art of kenjutsu, and its exercises and practice are descended from several particular schools of swordsmanship. The primary technical influence in its development was the kenjutsu school of Ittō-ryū (founded c. 16th century AD), whose core philosophy revolved around the concept that all strikes in swordsmanship revolve around the technique kiri-oroshi (vertical downward cut). The modern form of kendo really began to take shape with the introduction of bamboo swords, called shinai,^{[citation needed]} and the set of lightweight wooden armour, called bogu, by Naganuma Sirōzaemon Kunisato (長沼 四郎左衛門 国郷, 1688–1767), which allowed for the practice of strikes at full speed and power without risk of injury to the competitors.

Today, virtually the entire^{[citation needed]} practice of modern kendo is governed by the All Japan Kendo Federation, founded in 1951. Competitions are judged by points, with the first competitor to score two points on their opponent declared the winner. One point may be scored with a successful and properly executed strike to any of several targets: a thrust to the throat, or a strike to the top of the head, sides of the head, sides of the body, or forearms. Practitioners also compete in forms (kata) competitions, using either wooden or blunted metal swords, according to a set of forms promulgated by the AJKF.

Aikido[link]

Aikido shihōnage technique.

Aikido (合氣道:あいきどう, aikidō^?) is a modern grappling-based Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平 Ueshiba Morihei, 1883 – 1969). The art consists of "striking", "throwing" and "joint locking" techniques and is known for its fluidity and blending with an attacker, rather than meeting "force with force". Emphasis is upon joining with the rhythm and intent of the opponent in order to find the optimal position and timing with which to apply force. Aikidō is also known for emphasizing the spiritual and philosophical development of its students reflecting the religious background of its founder.

Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu incorporating training movements such as those for the yari (spear), jō (a short quarterstaff), and perhaps also juken (bayonet). Arguably the strongest influence is that of kenjutsu and in many ways, an aikidō practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman.

Kyūdō[link]

A full draw (kai).

Kyūdō (弓道:きゅうどう^?), which means “way of the bow", is the modern name for Japanese archery. Originally in Japan, kyujutsu, the “art of the bow", was a discipline of the samurai, the Japanese warrior class. The bow is a long range weapon that allowed a military unit to engage an opposing force while it was still far away. If the archers were mounted on horseback, they could be used to even more devastating effect as a mobile weapons platform. Archers were also used in sieges and sea battles.

However, from the 16th century onward, firearms slowly displaced the bow as the dominant battlefield weapon. As the bow lost its significance as a weapon of war, and under the influence of Buddhism, Shinto, Daoism and Confucianism, Japanese archery evolved into kyudō, the “way of the bow". In some schools kyudō is practiced as a highly refined contemplative practice, while in other schools it is practiced as a modern day sport.

Karate[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Karate (空手, karate^?) literally means "empty hand". However, the word "karate" written with homophonic ideograms means "China hand", rather than "empty hand". It is also sometimes called "the way of the empty hand" (空手道, karatedō^?).

Modern karate originated in Okinawa, formerly known as the Ryūkyū Kingdom, but now a part of present-day Japan. Karate is a fusion of pre-existing Okinawan martial arts, called "te", and Chinese martial arts. It is an art that has been adopted and developed by practitioners on the Japanese main island of Honshu.

Karate's route to Honshu began with Gichin Funakoshi (船越 義珍 Funakoshi Gichin, 1868–1957), who is called the father of modern karate, and is the founder of Shotokan karate. Although some Okinawan karate practitioners were already living and teaching in Honshū, Funakoshi gave public demonstrations of karate in Tokyo at a physical education exhibition sponsored by the ministry of education in 1917, and again in 1922. As a result, karate training was subsequently incorporated into Japan's public school system. It was also at this time that the white uniforms and the kyū/dan ranking system (both originally implemented by judo's founder, Kano Jigoro) were adopted.

Karate practice is primarily characterized by linear punching and kicking techniques executed from a stable, fixed stance. Many styles of karate practiced today incorporate the forms (kata) originally developed by Funakoshi and his teachers, and many different weapons originally used as farm implements by the peasants of Okinawa, such as the sai, sickle (kama), and quarterstaff (bō). Many modern karate practitioners also participate in full, light, and no-contact competitions.

Philosophical and strategic concepts[link]

Aiki[link]

The principle of aiki (合気^?) is particularly difficult to describe or explain. The most simple translation of aiki, as "joining energy", belies its philosophical depth. Generally, it is the principle of matching your opponent in order to defeat him. It is this concept of "matching", or "joining", or even "harmonizing" (all valid interpretations of ai) that contains the complexity. One may "match" the opponent in a clash of force, possibly even resulting in a mutual kill. This is not aiki. Aiki is epitomized by the notion of joining physically and mentally with the opponent for the express purpose of avoiding a direct clash of force. In practice, aiki is achieved by first joining with the motion of the opponent (the physical aspect) as well as the intent (the mental portion), then overcoming the will of the opponent, redirecting their motion and intent.

Historically, this principle was used for destructive purposes; to seize an advantage and kill one's opponent. The modern art of aikido is founded upon the principle that the control of the opponent achieved by the successful application of aiki may be used to defeat one's opponent without harming them.

Attitude[link]

Kokoro (心:こころ) is a concept that crosses through many martial arts, but has no single discrete meaning. Literally translating as "heart", in context it can also mean "character" or "attitude." Character is a central concept in karate, and in keeping with the do nature of modern karate, there is a great emphasis on improving oneself. It is often said that the art of karate is for self-defense; not injuring one's opponent is the highest expression of the art. Some popularly repeated quotes implicating this concept include:

"The ultimate aim of Karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of its participants." -Gichin Funakoshi^[6]

Budō[link]

Literately "the way of war", used in a similar way as the term martial arts but specifically relating to Japanese styles.

Bushidō[link]

A code of honor for samurai way of life, in principle similar to chivalry but culturally very different. Literally "the way of the warrior", those dedicated to Bushido have exemplary skill with a sword or bow, and can withstand great pain and discomfort. It emphasizes courage, bravery, and loyalty to their lord (daimyo) above all.

Courtesy[link]

Shigeru Egami:^[7]

Words that I have often heard are that "everything begins with rei and ends with rei." The word itself, however, can be interpreted in several ways; it is the rei of reigi meaning "etiquette, courtesy, politeness" and it is also the rei of keirei, "salutation" or "bow." The meaning of rei is sometimes explained in terms of kata or katachi ("formal exercises" and "form" or "shape" ). It is of prime importance not only in karate but in all modern martial arts. For the purpose in modern martial arts, let us understand rei as the ceremonial bow in which courtesy and decorum are manifest. He who would follow the way of karate must be courteous, not only in training but in daily life. While humble and gentle, he should never be servile. His performance of the kata should reflect boldness and confidence. This seemingly paradoxical combination of boldness and gentleness leads ultimately to harmony. It is true, as Master Funakoshi used to say, that the spirit of karate would be lost without courtesy.

Kiai[link]

A term describing 'fighting spirit'.^{[citation needed]}

Hard and soft methods[link]

The "yin-yang" symbol (Chinese: taijitu).

There are two underlying strategic methodologies to the application of force in Japanese martial arts. One is the hard method (剛法, gōhō^?), and the other is the soft method (柔法, jūhō^?). Implicit in these concepts is their separate but equal and interrelated nature, in keeping with their philosophical relationship to the Chinese principles of yin and yang (Jap.: in and yō).

The hard method is characterized by the direct application of counter-force to an opposing force. In practice, this may be a direct attack, consisting of movement directly towards the opponent, coinciding with a strike towards the opponent. A defensive technique where the defender stands their ground to block or parry (directly opposing the attack by stopping it or knocking it aside) would be an example of a hard method of defense. Hard method techniques are generally conceptualized as being linear.

The soft method is characterized by the indirect application of force, which either avoids or redirects the opposing force. For example, receiving an attack by slipping past it, followed by adding force to the attacker's limb for the purpose of unbalancing an attacker is an example of soft method. Soft method techniques are generally conceptualized as being circular.

These definitions give rise to the often illusory distinction between "hard-style" and "soft-style" martial arts. In truth, most styles technically practice both, regardless of their internal nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one would render the practitioner's skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin and yang alone are each only half of a whole.

Openings, initiative and timing[link]

Openings, initiative, and timing are deeply interrelated concepts applicable to self defense and competitive combat. They each describe different considerations relevant to successfully initiating or countering an attack.

Openings (隙, suki^?) are the foundation of a successful attack. Although possible to successfully injure an opponent who is ready to receive an attack, it is obviously preferable to attack when and where one's opponent is open. What it means to be open may be as blatant as an opponent becoming tired and lowering their guard (as in physically lowering their hands), or as subtle as a momentary lapse in concentration. In the classical form of combat between masters, each would stand almost entirely motionless until the slightest opening was spotted; only then would they launch as devastating an attack as they could muster, with the goal of incapacitating their opponent with a single blow.^[8]

In Japanese martial arts, "initiative" (先, sen^?) refers to "the decisive moment when a killing action is initiated."^[9] There are two types of initiative in Japanese martial arts, early initiative (先の先, sen no sen^?), and late initiative (後の先, go no sen^?). Each type of initiative complements the other, and has different advantages and weaknesses. Early initiative is the taking advantage of an opening in an opponent's guard or concentration (see suki, supra). To fully take the early initiative, the attack launched must be with total commitment and lacking in any hesitation, and virtually ignoring the possibility of a counter-attack by the opponent. Late initiative involves an active attempt to induce an attack by the opponent that will create a weakness in the opponent's defenses, often by faking an opening that is too enticing for the opponent to pass up.^[9]

All of the above concepts are integrated into the idea of the combat interval or timing (間合い, maai^?). Maai is a complex concept, incorporating not just the distance between opponents, but also the time it will take to cross the distance, and angle and rhythm of attack. It is specifically the exact "position" from which one opponent can strike the other, after factoring in the above elements. For example, a faster opponent's maai is farther away than a slower opponent. It is ideal for one opponent to maintain maai while preventing the other from doing so.^[10]

The Three Attacks

• Go no sen - meaning “late attack” involves a defensive or counter movement in response to an attack.^[11]
• Sen no sen - a defensive initiative launched simultaneously with the attack of the opponent.^[11]
• Sensen no sen - an initiative launched in anticipation of an attack where the opponent is fully committed to their attack and thus psychologically beyond the point of no return.^[11]

Shuhari[link]

The principle of Shuhari describes the three stages of learning.

States of mind: empty, immovable, remaining, and beginner's[link]

Pedagogy[link]

Schools[link]

Literally meaning "flow" in Japanese, is the term used to describe a particular school of an art. U.S.A. school of Japanese martial arts.^{[citation needed]}

Instructors[link]

Sensei (先生^?) is the title used for a teacher, in a similar manner to a college 'Professor' in the United States. Sōke (宗家:そうけ^?) translates as "headmaster" meaning the head of a ryu.^{[citation needed]}

Seniors and juniors[link]

The relationship between senior students (先輩, senpai^?) and junior students (後輩, kōhai^?) is one with its origins not in martial arts, but rather in Japanese and Asian culture generally. It underlies Japanese interpersonal relationships in many contexts, such as business, school, and sports. It has become part of the teaching process in Japanese martial arts schools. A senior student is senior to all students who either began training after him or her, or who they outrank. The role of the senior student is crucial to the indoctrination of the junior students to etiquette, work ethic, and other virtues important to the school. The junior student is expected to treat their seniors with respect, and plays an important role in giving the senior students the opportunity to learn leadership skills. Senior students may or may not teach formal classes, but in every respect their role is as a teacher to the junior students, by example and by providing encouragement.^[12]

Ranking systems[link]

There are ultimately two systems of education in the Japanese martial arts, although some schools have been known to blend these two systems together. The old education system prior 1868 was based on a curriculum in order to preserved the tradition. The curriculum is organized by a very few series of level that would be passed down within the Ryu (tradition). The curriculum would culminate in the student achieving a "license of total transmission" (menkyo kaiden), which was a license permitting the student to teach the ryu's tradition outside of the ryu.

The modern system after 1868 (dan'i), the invention of which is credited to judo founder Kano Jigoro, awards belts in accordance with students reaching a particular rank. Students progress by promotion through a series of "grades" (kyū), followed by a series of "degrees" (dan), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some arts use only white and black belts to distinguish between skill levels, while others use a progression of colored belts for kyū levels.

Forms[link]

It has often been said that forms (kata) are the backbone of the martial arts. Nevertheless, different schools and styles put a varying amount of emphasis upon their practice.

See also[link]

• Musha shugyō
• Okinawan martial arts

References[link]

v t e Martial arts by regional origin The Martial Arts Portal     China (styles · list · wrestling) "External": Shaolin Kung Fu Northern: Changquan · Fanziquan · Northern Praying Mantis Southern: Bājíquán · Hung Ga · Southern Praying Mantis · Wing Chun Wudangquan / "Internal": Baguazhang · Liuhebafa · T'ai chi ch'uan · Xingyiquan Japan and Ryūkyū (Okinawa) traditional: swordsmanship (kenjutsu) (Battōjutsu)  · stick fighting (bojutsu) (Jōdō)  · archery (kyujutsu)  · spear (sojutsu)  · unarmed (jujutsu)  · Sumo · Kobudō · Ninjutsu modern: Aikido · Iaido · Judo · Jūkendō  · Karate · Kendo · Nippon Kempo Korea: Hapkido · Subak · Taekkyeon · Taekwondo · Kuk Sul Do · Tang Soo Do  · Ssireum Burma : Lethwei Laos  : Muay Lao Malaysia: Tomoi · Silat Melayu Thailand: Muay Boran  · Krabi krabong  · Silat Pattani Indonesia: Pencak Silat Philippines: Eskrima · Kuntao · Panantukan · Sikaran Vietnam: Vovinam Indian subcontinent North India: Gatka (Sikh) · Inbuan (Mizoram) · Lathi (stick fighting) · Malla-yuddha  · Musti yuddha  · Mukna (Manipur) · Pehlwani (Persian wrestling)  · Thang-Ta (Manipur) South India: Kalarippayattu  · Kuttu varisai  · Marma Ati  · Silambam Middle East and Central Asia Greater Iran Varzesh-e Pahlavani, Pehlwani folk wrestling: Armenian, Azeri, Mongolian, Turkish, Uzbek Western Historical fencing: German · French school of fencing · Italian · Spanish stick fighting: Bataireacht · Bâton français · Juego del Palo · Jogo do Pau · quarterstaff  · singlestick striking: Pankration · Greek boxing, Russian fist fighting folk wrestling: Breton · English: Cumbrian, Devon, Lancashire · Greek · Icelandic · Scottish · Serbian · Swiss Other Americas: Okichitaw Africa: Dambe, Istunka, Canarian wrestling, Senegalese wrestling Oceania: Mau rākau Modern or hybrid Olympics: Fencing · Boxing · Judo · Taekwondo · Wrestling  Australia: Zen Do Kai  Brazil: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu · Capoeira · Luta livre esportiva  Canada: Defendo  · Okichitaw  PRC: Wushu · Sanshou  France: Canne de combat · Kinomichi · Savate  Germany: Universal Fight  Iran: Kung Fu To'a  Israel: Kapap · Krav Maga  Indonesia: Tarung Derajat  Japan: Judo · Japanese kickboxing  · Karate (styles)  · Puroresu · Shoot Boxing · Shooto · Shootfighting · Shoot wrestling  South Korea: Haidong Gumdo · Kuk Sool Won  · Taekwondo  Norway: Stav  Philippines: Modern Arnis · Yawyan Russia: Sambo · Systema · Retuinskih's System ROSS · Spetsnaz GRU hand-to-hand combat style · Kadochnikov's Systema · Ryabko's Systema Serbia: Real Aikido  Thailand: Muay Thai · Krabi krabong  United Kingdom: Bartitsu · Catch wrestling · Defendu  USA: Chun Kuk Do · Jeet Kune Do · Kajukenbo · American kickboxing  · Marine Corps Martial Arts Program · Modern Army Combatives · Toso Kune Do · Collegiate Wrestling

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Martial arts are extensive systems of codified practices and traditions of combat that are practiced for a variety of reasons, including self-defense, competition, physical health and fitness, as well as mental, physical and spiritual development. The term martial art has become heavily associated with the fighting arts of eastern Asia, but was originally used in regard to the combat systems of Europe as early as the 1550s. An English fencing manual of 1639 used the term in reference specifically to the "Science and Art" of swordplay. The term is ultimately derived from Latin, martial arts being the "Arts of Mars," the Roman god of war.^[1] Some martial arts are considered 'traditional' and tied to an ethnic, cultural or religious background, while others are modern systems developed either by a founder or an association.

Variation and scope[link]

Martial arts may be categorized along a variety of criteria, including:

• Traditional or historical arts and contemporary styles of folk wrestling vs. modern hybrid martial arts.
• Regional origin, especially Eastern Martial Arts vs. Western Martial Arts
• Techniques taught: Armed vs. unarmed, and within these groups by type of weapon (swordsmanship, stick fighting etc.) and by type of combat (grappling vs. striking; stand-up fighting vs. ground fighting)
• By application or intent: self-defense, combat sport, choreography or demonstration of forms, physical fitness, meditation, etc.
• Within Chinese tradition: "external" vs. "internal" styles

By technical focus[link]

Unarmed

Unarmed martial arts can be broadly grouped into focusing on strikes, those focusing on grappling and those that cover both fields, often described as hybrid martial arts.

Strikes

• Punching: Boxing (Western), Wing Chun
• Kicking: Capoeira, Kickboxing, Taekwondo, Tang Soo Do, Savate
• Others using strikes: Karate, Kung Fu, Muay Thai, Ninjutsu, Sanshou, Vale Tudo

Grappling

• Throwing: Glima, Judo, Sambo
• Joint lock/Chokes/Submission holds: Aikido, Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Hapkido, Submission Wrestling
• Pinning Techniques: Judo, Wrestling, Sambo

Weapon-based

Those traditional martial arts which train armed combat often encompass a wide spectrum of melee weapons, including bladed weapons and polearms. Such traditions include eskrima, silat, Kalarippayattu, kobudo, and historical European martial arts, especially those of the German Renaissance. Many forms of Chinese martial arts also feature weapons as part of their curriculum.

Sometimes, training with one specific weapon will be considered a style of martial arts in its own right. This is especially the case in Japanese martial arts with disciplines such as kenjutsu and kendo (sword), bojutsu (staff), and kyudo (archery). Similarly, modern Western martial arts and sports include modern fencing, stick-fighting systems like canne de combat or singlestick, and modern competitive archery.

By application or intent[link]

Combat-oriented

Many martial arts, especially those from Asia, also teach side disciplines which pertain to medicinal practices. This is particularly prevalent in traditional Indian martial arts which may teach bone-setting, and other aspects of traditional Indian medicine.^[2]

Martial arts can also be linked with religion and spirituality. Numerous systems are reputed to have been founded, disseminated, or practiced by monks or nuns.

For example, gatka is a weapon-based Indian martial art created by the Sikhs of the Punjab region of India and the Kshatriya caste of Hindus have another ancient martial art named Shastra vidhya.

Japanese styles, when concerning non-physical qualities of the combat, are strongly influenced by Zen philosophy. Concepts like "empty mind" and "beginner's mind" are recurrent. Aikido, for instance, can have a strong philosophical belief of the flow of energy and peace fostering, as idealised by its founder Morihei Ueshiba.

Systema draws upon breathing and relaxation techniques, as well as elements of Russian Orthodox thought, to foster self-conscience and calmness, and to benefit the practitioner in different levels: the physical, the psychological and the spiritual.^[3]

Some martial arts in various cultures can be performed in dance-like settings for various reasons, such as for evoking ferocity in preparation for battle or showing off skill in a more stylized manner. Many such martial arts incorporate music, especially strong percussive rhythms. (See also war dance.)

History[link]

Historical martial arts[link]

While evidence show that martial arts have roots in prehistory, the earliest evidence of systematic training in specific martial arts traditions emerges in antiquity (late 1st millennium BC) in both Asia and Europe. The foundation of modern Asian martial arts is likely a blend of early Chinese and Indian martial arts. During the Warring States period of Chinese history (480-221 BC) extensive development in martial philosophy and strategy emerged, as described by Sun Tzu in The Art of War (c. 350 BC).^[4] Legendary accounts link the origin of Shaolinquan to the spread of Buddhism from India during the early 5th century AD, with the figure of Bodhidharma, to China.^[5]

Boxing was practiced in the ancient Mediterranean.

In Europe, the earliest sources of martial arts traditions date to Classical Antiquity.

Boxing (pygme, pyx), Wrestling (pale) and Pankration were represented in the Ancient Olympic Games. The Romans produced gladiatorial combat as a public spectacle.

Systema has its roots in the combat skills of the medieval Russian warriors

During the Middle Ages, the development of the cossacks as self-governing warrior communities in the current region of Ukraine and Southern Russia resulted in an accumulation of fighting skills passed through generations. Due to a wide variety of climate and enemies, these people developed versatile and fast-learning martial habilities, which are considered to be the roots of systema.^[6][7]

A number of historical combat manuals have survived from the European Middle Ages. This includes such styles as sword and shield, two-handed swordfighting and other types of melee weapons besides unarmed combat. The most famous of these is Johannes Lichtenauer's Fechtbuch (Fencing book) of the 14th century, which today forms the basis of the German school of swordsmanship. Likewise, Asian martial arts become well-documented during the medieval period, Japanese martial arts beginning with the establishment of the samurai nobility in the 12th century, Chinese martial arts with Ming era treatises such as Ji Xiao Xin Shu, Indian martial arts in medieval texts such as the Agni Purana and the Malla Purana, and Korean martial arts with Joseon era texts such as Muyejebo (1598). "Historical martial arts" in both Asia and Europe are mostly based on such records of the late medieval to early modern period (15th to 17th centuries; see also Koryū).

European swordsmanship was trained for duels until the Napoleonic era, and developed into sport fencing during the 19th century. Modern boxing originates with Jack Broughton's rules in the 18th century, and reaches its present form with the Marquess of Queensberry Rules of 1867. Europe's colonization of Asian countries also brought about a decline in local martial arts, especially with the introduction of firearms. This can clearly be seen in India after the full establishment of British Raj in the 19th century.^[8] Similar phenomena occurred in Southeast Asian colonies such as Malaysia, Indonesia, Vietnam and the Philippines.

Folk styles[link]

All over the world, there are traditional styles of folk wrestling, and in some cases also stick fighting, rooted in local culture and folklore. In East and Southeast Asia, these are forms such as Korean, Khmer or Mongolian wrestling and Japanese Sumo, in South and Southwest Asia Indo-Persian Pehlwani, in Central and Western Asia Turkic (Uzbek, Tatar) styles; in Europe, there are Icelandic, Swiss and various English wrestling traditions. African folk wrestling includes the West African style of Lutte Traditionnelle.

While these arts are based on historical traditions of folklore, they are not "historical" in the sense that they reconstruct or preserve a historical system from a specific era. They are rather contemporary regional sports that coexist with the modern forms of martial arts sports as they have developed since the 19th century, often including cross-fertilization between sports and folk styles; thus, the traditional Thai style of Muay Boran developed into the modern national sport of Muay Thai, which in turn came to be practiced worldwide and contributed significantly to modern hybrid styles like kickboxing and mixed martial arts.

Modern history[link]

late 19th to early 20th century

The mid to late 19th century marks the beginning of the history of martial arts as modern sports developed out of earlier traditional fighting systems. In Europe, this concerns the developments of boxing and fencing as sports. In Japan, the same period marks the formation of the modern forms of judo, jujitsu, karate, and kendo (among others) based on revivals of old schools of Edo period martial arts which had been suppressed during the Meiji Restoration.^{[citation needed]} Modern Muay Thai rules date to the 1920s. In China, the modern history of martial arts begins in the Nanjing decade (1930s) following the foundation of the Central Guoshu Institute in 1928 under the Kuomintang government.

Western interest in Asian martial arts arises towards the end of the 19th century, due to the increase in trade between the United States with China and Japan.^{[citation needed]} Relatively few Westerners actually practiced the arts, considering it to be mere performance. Edward William Barton-Wright, a railway engineer who had studied jujitsu while working in Japan between 1894–97, was the first man known to have taught Asian martial arts in Europe. He also founded an eclectic style named Bartitsu which combined jujutsu, judo, boxing, savate and stick fighting.

Fencing and Greco-Roman wrestling was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics. FILA Wrestling World Championships and Boxing at the Summer Olympics were introduced in 1904. The tradition of awarding championship belts in wrestling and boxing can be traced to the Lonsdale Belt, introduced in 1909.

20th century (1914 to 1989)

The International Boxing Association was established in 1920. World Fencing Championships have been held since 1921.

Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, or Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, is an adaptation of pre–World War II judo developed by the brothers Carlos and Hélio Gracie, with a large focus on groundwork. Jiu-Jitsu gained fame quickly in Brazil because of the popular fights with Capoeira fighters.^[9]

As Western influence grew in Asia a greater number of military personnel spent time in China, Japan, and South Korea during World War II and the Korean War and were exposed to local fighting styles. Jujutsu, judo and karate first became popular among the mainstream from the 1950s-60s. Due in part to Asian and Hollywood martial arts movies, most modern American martial arts are either Asian-derived or Asian influenced.^[10] The term kickboxing (キックボクシング) was created by the Japanese boxing promoter Osamu Noguchi for a variant of Muay Thai and Karate that he created in the 1950s. American kickboxing was developed in the 1970s, as a combination of boxing and karate. Taekwondo was developed in the context of the Korean War in the 1950s.

The later 1960s and 1970s witnessed an increased media interest in the Chinese fighting systems, influenced by martial artist Bruce Lee. Jeet Kune Do, the system he founded, has its roots in Wing Chun, western boxing, savate and fencing. Bruce Lee is credited as one of the first instructors to openly teach Chinese martial arts to Westerners.^[11] World Judo Championships have been held since 1956, Judo at the Summer Olympics was introduced in 1964. Karate World Championships were introduced in 1970.

Following the "kung fu wave" in Hong Kong action cinema in the 1970s, a number of mainstream films produced during the 1980s contributed significantly to the perception of martial arts in western popular culture. These include The Karate Kid (1984) and Bloodsport (1988). This era produced some Hollywood action stars with martial arts background, such as Jean-Claude Van Damme and Chuck Norris.

Also during the 20th century, a number of martial arts systems were adapted for self-defense purposes for military hand-to-hand combat. World War II combatives, Kapap (1930s) and Krav Maga (1950s) in Israel, Systema (Soviet era Russia), San Shou (People's Republic of China). The US military de-emphasized hand-to-hand combat training during the Cold War period, but revived it with the introduction of LINE in 1989.

1990 to present

Jackie Chan one of the best known Hollywood actor and martial artist.

During the 1990s Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu became popular and proved to be effective in mixed martial arts competitions such as the UFC and PRIDE.^[12]

The K-1 rules of kickboxing were introduced in 1993, based on 1980s Seidokaikan karate.

Jackie Chan and Jet Li are prominent movie figures who have been responsible for promoting Chinese martial arts in recent years.

With the continual discovery of "new" Medieval and Renaissance fighting manuals, the practice of Historical European Martial Arts and other Western Martial Arts are growing in popularity across the United States and Europe.

Testing and competition[link]

Testing or evaluation is important to martial art practitioners of many disciplines who wish to determine their progression or own level of skill in specific contexts. Students within individual martial art systems often undergo periodic testing and grading by their own teacher in order to advance to a higher level of recognized achievement, such as a different belt color or title. The type of testing used varies from system to system but may include forms or sparring.

Steven Ho executing a Jump Spin Hook Kick

Various forms and sparring are commonly used in martial art exhibitions and tournaments. Some competitions pit practitioners of different disciplines against each other using a common set of rules, these are referred to as mixed martial arts competitions. Rules for sparring vary between art and organization but can generally be divided into light-contact, medium-contact, and full-contact variants, reflecting the amount of force that should be used on an opponent.

Light- and medium-contact[link]

These types of sparring restrict the amount of force that may be used to hit an opponent, in the case of light sparring this is usual to 'touch' contact, e.g. a punch should be 'pulled' as soon as or before contact is made. In medium-contact (sometimes referred to as semi-contact) the punch would not be 'pulled' but not hit with full force. As the amount of force used is restricted, the aim of these types of sparring is not to knock out an opponent; a point system is used in competitions.

A referee acts to monitor for fouls and to control the match, while judges mark down scores, as in boxing. Particular targets may be prohibited, certain techniques may be forbidden (such as headbutting or groin hits), and fighters may be required to wear protective equipment on their head, hands, chest, groin, shins or feet. Some grappling arts, such as aikido, use a similar method of compliant training that is equivalent to light or medium contact.

In some styles (such as fencing and some styles of Taekwondo sparring), competitors score points based on the landing of a single technique or strike as judged by the referee, whereupon the referee will briefly stop the match, award a point, then restart the match. Alternatively, sparring may continue with the point noted by the judges. Some critics of point sparring feel that this method of training teaches habits that result in lower combat effectiveness. Lighter-contact sparring may be used exclusively, for children or in other situations when heavy contact would be inappropriate (such as beginners), medium-contact sparring is often used as training for full contact

Full-contact[link]

Full-contact sparring or competition, where strikes are not pulled but thrown with full force as the name implies, has a number of tactical differences from light and medium-contact sparring. It is considered by some to be requisite in learning realistic unarmed combat.^[13]

In full-contact sparring, the aim of a competitive match is either to knock out the opponent or to force the opponent to submit. Where scoring takes place it may be a subsidiary measure, only used if no clear winner has been established by other means; in some competitions, such as the UFC 1, there was no scoring, though most now use some form of judging as a backup.^[14] Due to these factors, full-contact matches tend to be more aggressive in character, but rule sets may still mandate the use of protective equipment, or limit the techniques allowed.

Nearly all mixed martial arts organizations such as UFC, Pancrase, Shooto use a form of full-contact rules, as do professional boxing organizations and K-1. Kyokushin karate requires advanced practitioners to engage in bare-knuckled, full-contact sparring while wearing only a karate gi and groin protector but does not allow punches to the face, only kicks and knees. Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and judo matches do not allow striking, but are full-contact in the sense that full force is applied in the permitted grappling and submission techniques.

Martial Sport[link]

Several martial arts, such as Judo, are Olympic sports.

Martial arts have crossed over into sports when forms of sparring become competitive, becoming a sport in its own right that is dissociated from the original combative origin, such as with western fencing. The Summer Olympic Games includes Judo, Taekwondo, western archery, boxing, javelin, wrestling and fencing as events, while Chinese Wushu recently failed in its bid to be included, but is still actively performed in tournaments across the world. Practitioners in some arts such as kickboxing and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu often train for sport matches, whereas those in other arts such as aikido and Wing Chun generally spurn such competitions. Some schools believe that competition breeds better and more efficient practitioners, and gives a sense of good sportsmanship. Others believe that the rules under which competition takes place have diminished the combat effectiveness of martial arts or encourage a kind of practice which focuses on winning trophies rather than a focus such as cultivating a particular moral character.

The question of "which is the best Martial Art" has led to inter style competitions fought with very few rules allowing a variety of fighting styles to enter with few limitations. This was the origin of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship tournament (later renamed UFC 1: The Beginning) in the U.S. inspired by the Brazilian Vale tudo tradition and along with other minimal rule competitions, most notably those from Japan such as Shooto and Pancrase, have evolved into the combat sport of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA).

Some martial artists compete in non-sparring competitions such as breaking or choreographed routines of techniques such as poomse, kata and aka, or modern variations of the martial arts which include dance-influenced competitions such as tricking. Martial traditions have been influenced by governments to become more sport-like for political purposes; the central impetus for the attempt by the People's Republic of China in transforming Chinese martial arts into the committee-regulated sport of wushu was suppressing what they saw as the potentially subversive aspects of martial training, especially under the traditional system of family lineages.^[15]

Health and fitness benefits[link]

Training in martial arts imparts many benefits to the trainee, physical, mental, emotional and spiritual.^[16]

Through systematic practice in the martial arts a person's physical fitness may be boosted (strength, stamina, flexibility, movement coordination, etc.,)^{[citation needed]} as the whole body is exercised and the entire muscular system is activated. Beyond contributing to physical fitness, martial arts training also has benefits for mental health, contributing to self-esteem, self-control, emotional and spiritual well-being. For this reason, a number of martial arts schools have focused purely on therapeutic aspects, de-emphasizing the historical aspect of self-defense or combat completely.^{[citation needed]}

According to Bruce Lee, martial arts also have the nature of an art, since there is emotional communication and complete emotional expression.^{[citation needed]}

Self-defense, military and law enforcement applications[link]

U.S. Army Combatives instructor Matt Larsen demonstrates a chokehold.

Some traditional martial concepts have seen new use within modern military training. Perhaps the most recent example of this is point shooting which relies on muscle memory to more effectively utilize a firearm in a variety of awkward situations, much the way an iaidoka would master movements with their sword.

During the World War II era William E. Fairbairn and Eric A. Sykes were recruited by the Special Operations Executive (SOE) to teach their martial art of defendu (itself drawing on jujutsu and Western boxing) and pistol shooting to UK, US, and Canadian special forces. The book Kill or Get Killed, written by Colonel Rex Applegate, was based on the defendu taught by Sykes and Fairbairn. Both Fairbairn's Get Tough and Appelgate's Kill or Get Killed became classic works on hand-to-hand combat.

Traditional hand-to-hand, knife, and spear techniques continue to see use in the composite systems developed for today's wars. Examples of this include European Unifight, the US Army's Combatives system developed by Matt Larsen, the Israeli army's kapap and Krav Maga, and the US Marine Corps's Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP).

Unarmed dagger defenses identical to those found in the manual of Fiore dei Liberi and the Codex Wallerstein were integrated into the U.S. Army's training manuals in 1942^[17] and continue to influence today's systems along with other traditional systems such as eskrima and silat.

The rifle-mounted bayonet, which has its origin in the spear, has seen use by the United States Army, the United States Marine Corps, and the British Army as recently as the Iraq War.^[18]

Martial arts industry[link]

Martial arts since the 1970s has become a significant industry, a subset of the wider sport industry (including cinema and sports television).

Hundreds of millions of people worldwide practice some form of martial art. Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide.^[19] The South Korean government in 2009 published an estimate that Taekwondo is practiced by 70 million people in 190 countries.^[20]

The wholesale value of martial arts related sporting equipment shipped in the United States was estimated at 314 million USD in 2007; participation in the same year was estimated at 6.9 million (ages 6 or older, 2% of US population).^[21] R. A. Court, CEO of Martial Arts Channel, stated the total revenue of the US martial arts industry at USD 40 billion and the number of US practitioners at 30 million in 2003.^[22] Ultimate Fighting Championship generated a revenue of about USD 250 million in 2008, about 90% of the entire Mixed Martial Arts industry. World Wrestling Entertainment had a revenue of USD 1.4 billion.^[23]

Martial arts fraud[link]

Asian martial arts experienced a surge of popularity in the west during the 1970s, and the rising demand resulted in numerous low quality or fraudulent schools. Fueled by fictional depictions in martial arts movies, this led to the "ninja craze" of the 1980s United States.^[24] The rank system introduced for judo in the 1880s proved commercially viable, and "colored belt" systems were adopted in many martial arts degree mills (also known as "McDojos"; parodied in Penn & Teller: Bullshit! episode "Martial Arts", June 2010).

See also[link]

Martial arts portal

• For a time line of martial arts historical milestones, see Martial arts timeline
• For a detailed history of martial arts see: History of martial arts
• For a detailed list of martial arts, see List of martial arts
• For a detailed list of fictional martial arts, see List of fictional martial arts

Equipment[link]

• Breaking boards
• Dummy partners such as the wooden dummy
• Hojo undō, specialized conditioning equipment
• List of martial arts weapons
• Protective equipment for sparring and competition for example Boxing gloves and Headgear
• Targets such as punching bags and the makiwara

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Martial arts

• Martial arts at the Open Directory Project
• World Martial Arts Community
• Martial art books and resources

v t e Martial arts by regional origin The Martial Arts Portal     China (styles · list · wrestling) "External": Shaolin Kung Fu Northern: Changquan · Fanziquan · Northern Praying Mantis Southern: Bājíquán · Hung Ga · Southern Praying Mantis · Wing Chun Wudangquan / "Internal": Baguazhang · Liuhebafa · T'ai chi ch'uan · Xingyiquan Japan and Ryūkyū (Okinawa) traditional: swordsmanship (kenjutsu) (Battōjutsu)  · stick fighting (bojutsu) (Jōdō)  · archery (kyujutsu)  · spear (sojutsu)  · unarmed (jujutsu)  · Sumo · Kobudō · Ninjutsu modern: Aikido · Iaido · Judo · Jūkendō  · Karate · Kendo · Nippon Kempo Korea: Hapkido · Subak · Taekkyeon · Taekwondo · Kuk Sul Do · Tang Soo Do  · Ssireum Burma : Lethwei Laos  : Muay Lao Malaysia: Tomoi · Silat Melayu Thailand: Muay Boran  · Krabi krabong  · Silat Pattani Indonesia: Pencak Silat Philippines: Eskrima · Kuntao · Panantukan · Sikaran Vietnam: Vovinam Indian subcontinent North India: Gatka (Sikh) · Inbuan (Mizoram) · Lathi (stick fighting) · Malla-yuddha  · Musti yuddha  · Mukna (Manipur) · Pehlwani (Persian wrestling)  · Thang-Ta (Manipur) South India: Kalarippayattu  · Kuttu varisai  · Marma Ati  · Silambam Middle East and Central Asia Greater Iran Varzesh-e Pahlavani, Pehlwani folk wrestling: Armenian, Azeri, Mongolian, Turkish, Uzbek Western Historical fencing: German · French school of fencing · Italian · Spanish stick fighting: Bataireacht · Bâton français · Juego del Palo · Jogo do Pau · quarterstaff  · singlestick striking: Pankration · Greek boxing, Russian fist fighting folk wrestling: Breton · English: Cumbrian, Devon, Lancashire · Greek · Icelandic · Scottish · Serbian · Swiss Other Americas: Okichitaw Africa: Dambe, Istunka, Canarian wrestling, Senegalese wrestling Oceania: Mau rākau Modern or hybrid Olympics: Fencing · Boxing · Judo · Taekwondo · Wrestling  Australia: Zen Do Kai  Brazil: Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu · Capoeira · Luta livre esportiva  Canada: Defendo  · Okichitaw  PRC: Wushu · Sanshou  France: Canne de combat · Kinomichi · Savate  Germany: Universal Fight  Iran: Kung Fu To'a  Israel: Kapap · Krav Maga  Indonesia: Tarung Derajat  Japan: Judo · Japanese kickboxing  · Karate (styles)  · Puroresu · Shoot Boxing · Shooto · Shootfighting · Shoot wrestling  South Korea: Haidong Gumdo · Kuk Sool Won  · Taekwondo  Norway: Stav  Philippines: Modern Arnis · Yawyan Russia: Sambo · Systema · Retuinskih's System ROSS · Spetsnaz GRU hand-to-hand combat style · Kadochnikov's Systema · Ryabko's Systema Serbia: Real Aikido  Thailand: Muay Thai · Krabi krabong  United Kingdom: Bartitsu · Catch wrestling · Defendu  USA: Chun Kuk Do · Jeet Kune Do · Kajukenbo · American kickboxing  · Marine Corps Martial Arts Program · Modern Army Combatives · Toso Kune Do · Collegiate Wrestling