Safety (S) is a position in American and Canadian football, played by a member of the defense. The safeties are defensive backs who line up from ten to fifteen yards behind the line of scrimmage. There are two variations of the position in a typical formation, the free safety (FS) and the strong safety (SS). Their duties depend on the defensive scheme. The defensive responsibilities of the safety and cornerback usually involve pass coverage towards the middle and sidelines of the field, respectively.

Safeties are the last line of defense, and are thus expected to be sure tacklers. As professional and college football have become more focused on the passing game, safeties have become more involved in covering the eligible pass receivers.

Strong safety

The strong safety tends to be somewhat larger and stronger than the free safety. However, the word ''strong'' is used because he is assigned to cover the "strong side" of the offense, the side on which the big, powerful tight end lines up on offensive plays. The strong safety tends to play closer to the line and assist in stopping the run. He may also be responsible for covering a player, such as a running back or fullback or H-back, who comes out of the backfield to receive a pass. A strong safety's duties are a hybrid of those belonging to a linebacker and those of the other defensive backs, in that he both covers the pass and stops the run. Two of the most notable retired strong safeties are Ken Houston and John Lynch. Among the best active strong safeties are Troy Polamalu and Adrian Wilson.

Free safety

The free safety tends to be smaller and faster than the strong safety. His job tends to be to keep some distance from the line of scrimmage, watch the play unfold, and follow the ball. The free safety would correspond to the quarterback in man coverage, but as the quarterback usually remains in the pocket the free safety is "free" to double cover another player. On pass plays, the free safety is expected to assist the cornerback on his side and to close the distance to the receiver by the time the ball reaches him. Offenses tend to use the play-action pass specifically to make the free safety expect a run play, which would draw him closer to the line of scrimmage, and reduce his effectiveness as a pass defender. Furthermore, quarterbacks often use a technique to "look off" a free safety, by purposely looking to the other side of the field during a pass play, with the intention to lure the free safety away from the intended target receiver on the other side of the field. This phenomenon often tests how effective a free safety's wit and athleticism are at defending long pass plays. If the offense puts a receiver in the slot, then the free safety may be called upon to cover that receiver. Free safeties occasionally blitz as well. When this happens, the pressure on the quarterback is often very severe since a blitz by a defensive back is not usually anticipated. Free safeties, because of their speed and deep coverage, are often prone to catching interceptions. Standout retired free safeties include Paul Krause, Larry Wilson, and Willie Wood. Ed Reed and Nick Collins are among the best active free safeties.

Cover-2

Instead of the safeties dividing up their jobs in terms of run support and pass support, the safeties will sometimes divide up the field into a left half and a right half, with each being responsible for anything that comes into his half of the field. This type of division of responsibility is becoming increasingly common, and is called a "cover-2" defense. The cover-2 was first used by the Pittsburgh Steelers in the 1970s, but was made famous by the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the late 1990s. Led by head coach Tony Dungy and defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin, the Buccaneers built a dominating defense, with strong safety John Lynch at the forefront. This particular variation of the cover-2 is referred to as the "Tampa 2". Since then, the popularity of the cover-2 has soared. Both of the teams in Super Bowl XLI, the Colts and the Bears (the former being coached by Dungy, the latter by his former protégé at Tampa, Lovie Smith), ran a base cover-two defense.

References

External links

phillyBurbs.com ''Football 101: The Free Safety''

Category:American football positions

da:Safety (spiller) de:Safety (Footballposition) es:Safety (posición) fr:Safety it:Safety (defensive back) pl:Safety (pozycja) pt:Safety fi:Takapuolustaja

Name	Josh Reed
Currentteam	Free Agent
Currentnumber	--
Currentpositionplain	Wide receiver
Birth date	May 01, 1980
Birth place	Rayne, Louisiana
Heightft	5
Heightin	10
Weight	210
College	Louisiana State
Draftyear	2002
Draftround	2
Draftpick	36
Debutyear	2002
Debutteam	Buffalo Bills
Pastteams	Buffalo Bills (–) San Diego Chargers ()*
Status	Active
Highlights	2x First-team All-SEC (2000-2001) Consensus First-team All-American (2001) Fred Biletnikoff Award (2001)
Statweek	17
Statseason	2009
Statlabel1	Receptions
Statvalue1	331
Statlabel2	Receiving yards
Statvalue2	3,575
Statlabel3	Receiving average
Statvalue3	11.5
Statlabel4	Receiving touchdowns
Statvalue4	10
Nfl	REE314559 }}

Joshua Blake "Josh" Reed (born May 1, 1980 in Rayne, Louisiana) is an American football wide receiver who is currently a free agent. He was drafted by the Buffalo Bills in the second round of the 2002 NFL Draft. He played college football at Louisiana State.

At LSU in 2001, Reed was awarded the Fred Biletnikoff Award as the nation's best receiver.

College career

While at LSU, Reed was one of the most productive receivers in college football. In only two years as a wide receiver (his freshman year he played running back for most of the season and he declared for the NFL draft after his junior season) he rewrote the SEC record books. He holds the SEC record for receiving yardage in a game (293 vs. Alabama in 2001) and season (1,740 in 2001). He also held the career receiving yardage record with 3,001 yards until 2002 when the record was broken by Georgia receiver Terrence Edwards. Reed also holds the SEC season record for receiving yardage per game (145.0 in 2001) and is second in the career receiving yardage per game (96.8).

Professional career

Buffalo Bills

Reed was drafted by the Buffalo Bills in the second round (36th overall) of the 2002 NFL Draft. In 2003, Reed replaced Peerless Price as the Bills' starting wide receiver. He caught 58 passes and two touchdowns. Reed was hospitalized for two days in November 2006 after bruising his kidney.

Reed caught 311 passes for 3,575 yards and 10 touchdowns with the Bills. He became an unrestricted free agent following the 2009 season.

San Diego Chargers

Reed was signed by the San Diego Chargers to a one-year contract on June 11, 2010. He was released by the Chargers on September 4, 2010.

References

Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:People from Rayne, Louisiana Category:Players of American football from Louisiana Category:American football wide receivers Category:LSU Tigers football players Category:Buffalo Bills players Category:San Diego Chargers players

Name	Reshad Jones
Currentteam	Miami Dolphins
Currentnumber	20
Currentpositionplain	Safety
Birth date	February 25, 1988
Birth place	Atlanta, Georgia
Heightft	6
Heightin	1
Weight	214
College	Georgia
Draftyear	2010
Draftround	5
Draftpick	163
Pastteams	Miami Dolphins (–present)
Status	Active
Highlights	None
Statseason	2011
Statlabel1	Tackles
Statvalue1	21
Statlabel2	Sacks
Statvalue2	1
Statlabel3	INTs
Statvalue3	1
Nfl	JON653665 }}

Reshad Jones (born February 25, 1988 in Atlanta, Georgia) is an American football safety for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League. He was drafted by the Dolphins in the fifth round of the 2010 NFL Draft. He played college football at Georgia.

Professional career

Pre-draft

Jones announced on January 4, 2010 that he would forgo his senior season at Georgia and enter the 2010 NFL Draft.

He was considered one of the top safety prospects for the 2010 NFL Draft.

Miami Dolphins

Jones was selected by the Miami Dolphins in the fifth round (163rd overall) of the 2010 NFL Draft. Jones recorded his first career interception and first career sack versus the Tennessee Titans on November 14, 2010.

References

External links

Georgia Bulldogs bio

Category:1988 births Category:Living people Category:People from Atlanta, Georgia Category:Players of American football from Georgia (U.S. state) Category:American football safeties Category:Georgia Bulldogs football players Category:Miami Dolphins players

Name	Andrew Johnson
Office	17th President of the United States
Term start	April 15, 1865
Term end	March 4, 1869
Predecessor	Abraham Lincoln
Successor	Ulysses Grant
Office2	16th Vice President of the United States
President2	Abraham Lincoln
Term start2	March 4, 1865
Term end2	April 15, 1865
Predecessor2	Hannibal Hamlin
Successor2	Schuyler Colfax
Office3	Governor of Tennessee
Term start3	March 12, 1862
Term end3	March 4, 1865
Predecessor3	Isham Harris
Successor3	Edward East (Acting)
Term start4	October 17, 1853
Term end4	November 3, 1857
Predecessor4	William Campbell
Successor4	Isham Harris
Jr/sr5	United States Senator
State5	Tennessee
Term start5	March 4, 1875
Term end5	July 31, 1875
Predecessor5	William Brownlow
Successor5	David Key
Term start6	October 8, 1857
Term end6	March 4, 1862
Predecessor6	James Jones
Successor6	David Patterson
State7	Tennessee
District7	1st
Term start7	March 4, 1843
Term end7	March 4, 1853
Predecessor7	Thomas Arnold
Successor7	Brookins Campbell
Birth date	December 29, 1808
Birth place	Raleigh, North Carolina, U.S.
Death date	July 31, 1875
Death place	Elizabethton, Tennessee, U.S.
Party	Democratic PartyNational Union Party (1864–1868)
Spouse	Eliza McCardle
Children	MarthaCharlesMaryRobertAndrew
Profession	Tailor
Religion	IrreligionNon-denominational Christianity
Signature	Andrew Johnson Signature.svg
Signature alt	Cursive signature in ink }}

Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 July 31, 1875) was the 17th President of the United States (1865–1869). Following the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln, Johnson presided over the Reconstruction era of the United States in the four years after the American Civil War. His tenure was controversial as his positions hostile to the Freedmen came under heavy political attack from Republicans.

When Tennessee seceded in 1861, Johnson was a U.S. Senator from Greeneville in East Tennessee. A Unionist, he was the only Southern senator not to resign. He became the most prominent War Democrat from the South and supported Lincoln's military policies during the American Civil War of 1861–1865. In 1862, Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee, where he was energetic and effective in fighting the rebellion and beginning the transition to Reconstruction.

Johnson was nominated as the vice presidential candidate in 1864 on the National Union Party ticket. He and Lincoln were elected in November 1864 and inaugurated on March 4, 1865. Johnson succeeded to the presidency upon Lincoln's assassination on April 15, 1865.

As president, he took charge of Presidential Reconstruction – the first phase of Reconstruction – which lasted until the Radical Republicans gained control of Congress in the 1866 elections. His conciliatory policies towards the South, his hurry to reincorporate the former Confederate states back into the union, and his vetoes of civil rights bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with Radical Republicans. The Radicals in the House of Representatives impeached him in 1868, charging him with violating the law (specifically the Tenure of Office Act), but the Senate acquitted him by a single vote.

Johnson's party status was ambiguous during his presidency. As president, he did not identify with the two main parties – though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. While President he attempted to build a party of loyalists under the National Union label. Asked in 1868 why he did not become a Democrat, he said, "It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic Party. Why don't they join me ... if I have administered the office of president so well?" His failure to make the National Union brand an actual party made Johnson effectively an independent during his presidency, though he was supported by Democrats and later rejoined the party as a Democratic Senator from Tennessee from 1875 until his death. Johnson was the first U.S. President to undergo an impeachment trial. He is commonly ranked by historians as being among the worst U.S. presidents.

Early life

Andrew Johnson was born in Raleigh, North Carolina, to Jacob Johnson (1778–1812) and Mary McDonough (1783–1856). Jacob died when Andrew was around three years old, leaving his family in poverty. Johnson's mother then took in work spinning and weaving to support her family, and she later remarried. She bound Andrew as an apprentice tailor. In the 1820s, he worked as a tailor in Laurens, South Carolina. Johnson had no formal education and taught himself how to read and write.

At age 16 or 17, Johnson left his apprenticeship and ran away with his brother to Greeneville, Tennessee, where he found work as a tailor. His master used legal procedures to force him to return but failed, and Johnson was on his own. At the age of 18, Johnson married 16 year-old Eliza McCardle in 1827; she was the daughter of a local shoemaker. Between 1828 and 1852, the couple had five children: Martha (1828), Charles (1830), Mary (1832), Robert (1834), and Andrew Jr. (1852). Eliza taught Johnson arithmetic up to basic algebra and tutored him to improve his literacy and writing skills.

Early political career

Johnson participated in debates at the local academy at Greeneville, Tennessee and later organized a worker's party that elected him as alderman in 1829. He served in this position until he was elected mayor in 1833. In 1835, he was elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives where, after serving a single term, he was defeated for re-election.

Johnson was attracted to the states rights Democratic Party of Andrew Jackson. He became a spokesman for the numerous yeomen farmers and mountaineers against the wealthier, but fewer, planter elite families that had held political control in the state and nationally. In 1839, Johnson was elected to a second, non-consecutive term in the Tennessee House, and was elected to the Tennessee Senate in 1841, where he served one two-year term. In 1843, he became the first Democrat to win election as the U.S. representative from Tennessee's 1st congressional district. Among his activities for the common man's interests as a member of the House of Representatives and the Senate, Johnson advocated "a free farm for the poor" bill that would give land to farmers. Johnson was a U.S. representative for five terms until 1853, when he was elected Governor of Tennessee.

Political ascendancy

Johnson was elected governor of Tennessee, serving from 1853 to 1857. He was then elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate, serving from October 8, 1857 – March 4, 1862. He was chairman of the Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense (Thirty-sixth Congress). As a U.S. senator, he continued to push for the Homestead Act. It finally passed in 1862, after the Civil War had begun and Southerners had resigned from Congress.

As the slavery question became more critical, Johnson continued to take a middle course. He opposed the antislavery Republican Party because he believed the Constitution guaranteed the right to own slaves. He supported President Buchanan's administration. He also approved the Lecompton Constitution proposed by proslavery settlers in Kansas. At the same time, he made it clear that his devotion to the Union exceeded his devotion to right to own slaves.

Johnson's stand in favor of both the Union and the right to own slaves might have made him a logical compromise candidate for president. However, he was not nominated in 1856 because of a split within the Tennessee delegation. In 1860, the Tennessee delegation nominated Johnson for president at the Democratic National Convention, but when the convention and the party broke up, he withdrew from the race. In the election, Johnson reluctantly supported Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky, the candidate of most Southern Democrats.

Before Tennessee voted on secession, Johnson, based in Unionist East Tennessee, toured the state speaking in opposition to the act, which he said was unconstitutional. Johnson was an aggressive stump speaker and often responded to hecklers, even those in the Senate. When Tennessee seceded, Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. His explanation for this decision was, "Damn the negroes, I am fighting those traitorous aristocrats, their masters."

Lincoln appointed Johnson military governor of occupied Tennessee in March 1862 with the rank of brigadier general. During his three years in this office, he "moved resolutely to eradicate all pro-Confederate influences in the state." This "unwavering commitment to the Union" was a significant factor in his choice as vice president by Lincoln. Johnson vigorously suppressed the Confederates, telling his subordinates: "Whenever you hear a man prating about the Constitution, spot him as a traitor." He later spoke out for black suffrage, arguing, "The better class of them will go to work and sustain themselves, and that class ought to be allowed to vote, on the ground that a loyal negro is more worthy than a disloyal white man." The Confederacy seized his slaves.

Vice presidency

As a leading War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was an ideal candidate for the Republicans in 1864 as they enlarged their base to include War Democrats. They changed the party name to the National Union Party to reflect this expansion. During the election, Johnson replaced Hannibal Hamlin as Lincoln's running mate. He was elected vice president of the United States and was inaugurated March 4, 1865. At the ceremony, Johnson, who had been drinking to offset the pain of typhoid fever (as he claimed later), gave a rambling speech and appeared intoxicated to many. According to Senator Zachariah Chandler, he "disgraced himself and the Senate by making a drunken foolish speech." In early 1865, Johnson talked harshly of hanging traitors like Jefferson Davis, which endeared him to radicals.

On April 14, 1865, Abraham Lincoln was shot and mortally wounded by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer, while the president was attending a play at Ford's Theater. Booth's plan was to destroy the administration by ordering conspirators to assassinate Johnson, lieutenant general of the Union army Ulysses S. Grant, and Secretary of State William H. Seward that night. Grant survived when he failed to attend the theater with Lincoln as planned, Seward narrowly survived his wounds, while Johnson escaped attack as his would-be assassin, George Atzerodt, failed to go through with the plan.

Presidency 1865–1869

On April 15, 1865, following Lincoln's death that morning, Johnson was sworn in as President of the United States by the newly appointed Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase. Johnson was the first vice president to succeed to the presidency upon the assassination of a president and the third vice president to become a president upon the death of a sitting president.

Reconstruction

Northern anger over the assassination of Lincoln and the immense human cost of the war led to demands for harsh policies. Vice President Andrew Johnson had taken a hard line and had spoken of hanging rebel Confederates. In late April 1865, he was noted telling an Indiana delegation that, "Treason must be made odious ... traitors must be punished and impoverished ... their social power must be destroyed." However, when he succeeded Lincoln as president, Johnson took a much softer line, commenting, "I say, as to the leaders, punishment. I also say leniency, reconciliation and amnesty to the thousands whom they have misled and deceived," and ended up pardoning many Confederate leaders.

His class-based resentment of the rich appeared in a May 1865 statement to W.H. Holden, the man he appointed governor of North Carolina: "I intend to confiscate the lands of these rich men whom I have excluded from pardon by my proclamation, and divide the proceeds thereof among the families of the wool hat boys, the Confederate soldiers, whom these men forced into battle to protect their property in slaves." In practice, Johnson was seemingly not harsh toward the Confederate leaders. He allowed the Southern states to hold elections in 1865. Subsequently, prominent former Confederate leaders were elected to the U.S. Congress, which, however, refused to seat them. Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about Reconstruction and the way the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a quick restoration, similar to the plan of leniency that Lincoln advocated before his death.

Break with the Republicans: 1866

Johnson-appointed governments all passed Black Codes that gave the freedmen second class status. In response to the Black Codes and worrisome signs of Southern recalcitrance, the Republicans prevented the secessionist states from receiving representation in Congress in fall 1865. Congress also renewed the Freedman's Bureau, but Johnson vetoed it. Senator Lyman Trumbull of Illinois, leader of the moderate Republicans, took affront at the Black Codes. Trumbull proposed the first Civil Rights bill.

Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the Civil Rights bill, Johnson broke decisively with them by vetoing it on March 27. His veto message objected to the measure because it conferred citizenship on the freedmen at a time when eleven out of thirty-six states were unrepresented and attempted to fix, by federal law, "a perfect equality of the white and black races in every State of the Union." Johnson said it was an invasion by federal authority of the rights of the states; it had no warrant in the Constitution and was contrary to all precedents. It was a "stride toward centralization and the concentration of all legislative power in the national government." Johnson, in a letter to Gov. Thomas C. Fletcher of Missouri, wrote, "This is a country for white men, and by God, as long as I am President, it shall be a government for white men."

The Democratic Party, proclaiming itself the party of white men, North and South, aligned with Johnson. However, the Republicans in Congress overrode his veto and the Civil Rights measure became law.

The last moderate proposal was the Fourteenth Amendment, also written by Trumbull. It was designed to put the key provisions of the Civil Rights Act into the Constitution, but it went further. It extended citizenship to every person born in the United States (except Indians on reservations), penalized states that did not give the vote to freedmen, and most importantly, created new federal civil rights that could be protected by federal courts. It guaranteed the federal war debt and voided all Confederate war debts. Johnson unsuccessfully sought to block ratification of the amendment.

The moderates' effort to compromise with Johnson had failed and an all-out political war broke out between the Republicans (both radical and moderate) on one side, and on the other Johnson and his allies in the Democratic party in the North, and the conservative groupings in the South. The decisive battle was the election of 1866, in which the Southern states were not allowed to vote. Johnson campaigned vigorously, undertaking a public speaking tour of the north that was known as the "Swing Around the Circle"; the tour proved politically disastrous, with Johnson widely ridiculed and occasionally engaging in hostile arguments with his audiences. The Republicans won by a landslide and took full control of Reconstruction.

Historian James Ford Rhodes explained Johnson's inability to engage in serious negotiations:

"But," as Sumner shrewdly said, "the President himself is his own worst counsellor, as he is his own worst defender." Johnson acted in accordance with his nature. He had intellectual force but it worked in a groove. Obstinate rather than firm it undoubtedly seemed to him that following counsel and making concessions were a display of weakness. At all events from his December message to the veto of the Civil Rights Bill he yielded not a jot to Congress. The moderate senators and representatives (who constituted a majority of the Union party) asked him for only a slight compromise; their action was really an entreaty that he would unite with them to preserve Congress and the country from the policy of the radicals. The two projects which Johnson had most at heart were the speedy admission of the Southern senators and representatives to Congress and the relegation of the question of negro suffrage to the States themselves. Himself shrinking from the imposition on these communities of the franchise for the coloured people, his unyielding disposition in regard to matters involving no vital principle did much to bring it about. His quarrel with Congress prevented the readmission into the Union on generous terms of the members of the late Confederacy....He sacrificed two important objects to petty considerations. His pride of opinion, his desire to beat, blinded him to the real welfare of the South and of the whole country.

Impeachment

First attempt

There were two attempts to remove President Andrew Johnson from office. The first occurred in the fall of 1867. On November 21, 1867, the House Judiciary committee produced a bill of impeachment that consisted of a vast collection of complaints against him. After a furious debate, a formal vote was held in the House of Representatives on December 5, 1867, which failed 57–108.

Second attempt

Johnson notified Congress that he had removed Edwin Stanton as Secretary of War and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General Lorenzo Thomas. Johnson had originally wanted to replace Stanton with General Ulysses S. Grant, but Grant refused to accept the position. This violated the Tenure of Office Act, a law enacted by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Johnson had vetoed the act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The act said, "...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified," thus removing the president's previous unlimited power to remove any of his cabinet members at will. Years later in the case ''Myers v. United States'' in 1926, the Supreme Court ruled that such laws were unconstitutional.

The Senate and House debated the act. Thomas attempted to move into the war office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House impeached Johnson for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act.

On March 5, 1868, a court of impeachment to hear charges against the president was constituted in the Senate. William M. Evarts served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution, and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the president who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the act had already run its course.

There were three votes in the Senate. One came on May 16 for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on May 26 for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned. On all three occasions, 35 senators voted "guilty" and 19 "not guilty", thus falling short of the two-thirds majority required for conviction in impeachment trials by a single vote. A decisive role was played by seven Republican senators - William Pitt Fessenden, Joseph S. Fowler, James W. Grimes, John B. Henderson, Lyman Trumbull, Peter G. Van Winkle and Edmund G. Ross of Kansas, who provided the decisive vote; disturbed by how the proceedings had been manipulated to give a one-sided presentation of the evidence, they voted against conviction, in defiance of their party and public opinion. President John F. Kennedy discusses this in further detail in his book, ''Profiles In Courage.''

Christmas Day amnesty for Confederates

One of Johnson's last significant acts was granting unconditional amnesty to all Confederates on Christmas Day, December 25, 1868, after the election of Ulysses S. Grant to succeed him, but before Grant took office in March 1869. Earlier amnesties, requiring signed oaths and excluding certain classes of people, had been issued by Lincoln and by Johnson.

Administration and Cabinet

Clear	yes
Name	A. Johnson
President	Andrew Johnson
President start	1865
President end	1869
Vice president	''None''
Vice president start	1865
Vice president end	1869
State	William H. Seward
State start	1865
State end	1869
War	Edwin M. Stanton
War start	1865
War end	1868, replaced ad interim by Ulysses Grant before being reinstated by Congress in Jan 1868
War 2	John M. Schofield
War start 2	1868
War end 2	1869
Treasury	Hugh McCulloch
Treasury start	1865
Treasury end	1869
Justice	James Speed
Justice start	1865
Justice end	1866
Justice 2	Henry Stanbery
Justice start 2	1866
Justice end 2	1868
Justice 3	William M. Evarts
Justice start 3	1868
Justice end 3	1869
Post	William Dennison
Post start	1865
Post end	1866
Post 2	Alexander W. Randall
Post start 2	1866
Post end 2	1869
Navy	Gideon Welles
Navy start	1865
Navy end	1869
Interior	John P. Usher
Interior date	1865
Interior 2	James Harlan
Interior start 2	1865
Interior end 2	1866
Interior 3	Orville H. Browning
Interior start 3	1866
Interior end 3	1869 }}

Judicial appointments

Andrew Johnson appointed only nine Article III federal judges during his presidency, all to United States district courts. Johnson is one of only four presidents who did not appoint a justice to serve on the Supreme Court. In April 1866 he nominated Henry Stanbery to fill the vacancy left with the death of John Catron, but the Republican Congress eliminated the seat. Johnson also appointed one judge to the United States Court of Claims, Samuel Milligan, who served from 1868 to 1874. ,,m

States admitted to the Union

Nebraska – March 1, 1867

Foreign policy

Johnson forced the French out of Mexico by sending an army to the border and issuing an ultimatum. The French withdrew in 1867, and the government they supported quickly collapsed. Secretary of State Seward negotiated the purchase of Alaska from Russia on April 9, 1867 for $7.2 million. This is equivalent to $}} in present day terms. Critics sneered at "Seward's Folly" and "Seward's Icebox" and "Icebergia." Seward also negotiated to purchase the Danish West Indies, but the Senate refused to approve the purchase in 1867 (it eventually happened in 1917). The Senate likewise rejected Seward's arrangement with Britain to arbitrate the ''Alabama'' Claims.

The U.S. experienced tense relations with Britain and its colonial government in Canada in the aftermath of the war. Lingering resentment over the perception of British sympathy toward the Confederacy resulted in Johnson initially turning a blind eye towards a series of armed incursions by Fenians (Irish-American civil war veterans) into Canada. These small-scale Fenian Raids were easily repulsed by the British. Eventually, Johnson ordered the Fenians disarmed and barred from crossing the border, but the Canadians feared an American takeover and moved toward Canadian Confederation.

Johnson's purchase of Alaska from the Russian Empire in 1867 was his most important foreign policy action. The idea and implementation is credited to Seward as Secretary of State, but Johnson approved the plan.

Post-presidency

Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate from Tennessee in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. However, in 1874 the Tennessee legislature did elect him to the U.S. Senate. Johnson served from March 4, 1875, until his death from a stroke near Elizabethton, Tennessee, on July 31 that year. In his first speech since returning to the Senate, which was also his last, Johnson spoke about political turmoil in Louisiana. His passion aroused a standing ovation from many of his fellow senators who had once voted to remove him from the presidency. He is the only former president to serve in the Senate. Johnson was buried just outside Greeneville, Tennessee, with his body wrapped in an American flag and a copy of the U.S. Constitution placed under his head, according to his wishes. The burial ground was dedicated as the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery in 1906, now part of the Andrew Johnson National Historic Site.

Historians' changing views on Andrew Johnson

Views on Johnson changed over time, depending on historians' perception of Reconstruction. The widespread denunciation of Reconstruction after the compromise of 1877 resulted in Johnson being portrayed in a favorable light. By the 1930s a series of favorable biographies enhanced his prestige. Furthermore, a Beardian School (named after Charles Beard and typified by Howard K. Beale) argued that the Republican Party in the 1860s was a tool of corrupt business interests, and that Johnson stood for the people. They rated Johnson "near great", but have since reevaluated and now consider Johnson "a flat failure".

The Civil Rights movement of the 1960s brought a new perspective on Reconstruction, which was increasingly seen as a noble effort to build an interracial nation. Beginning with W.E.B. Du Bois' ''Black Reconstruction'', first published in 1935, historians noted African American efforts to establish public education and welfare institutions, gave muted praise for Republican efforts to extend suffrage and provide other social institutions, and excoriated Johnson for siding with the opposition to extending basic rights to former slaves. In this vein, Eric Foner denounced Johnson as a "fervent white supremacist" who foiled Reconstruction, whereas Sean Wilentz wrote that Johnson "actively sided with former Confederates" in his attempts to derail it. Accordingly, Johnson is today among those commonly mentioned among the worst presidents in U.S. history. According to Glenn W. LaFantasie, Professor of Civil War History at Western Kentucky University, "Johnson is a particular favorite for the bottom of the pile because of his impeachment (although he was acquitted in the Senate by one vote in May 1868), his complete mishandling of Reconstruction policy, his inept dealings with his Cabinet and Congress, his drinking problem (he was probably inebriated at his inauguration), his bristling personality, and his enormous sense of self-importance. He once suggested that God saw fit to have Lincoln assassinated so that he could become president. A Northern senator averred that "Andrew Johnson was the queerest character that ever occupied the White House."

See also

List of American Civil War generals

United States presidential election, 1864

History of the United States (1865-1918)

Tennessee Johnson

List of Presidents of the United States

US Presidents on US postage stamps

Bibliography

Beale, Howard K., ''The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1930). ISBN 0-8044-1085-2

Les Benedict, Michael, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1999). ISBN 0-393-31982-2

Boulard, Garry, "The Swing Around the Circle—Andrew Johnson and the Train Ride that Destroyed a Presidency" (2008) ISBN 978-1-4401-0239-4

Castel, Albert E., ''The Presidency of Andrew Johnson '' (1979). ISBN 0-7006-0190-2

DeWitt, D. M., ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1903).

Du Bois, W. E. B. 'The Transubstantiation of a Poor White' in ''Black Reconstruction: An Essay Toward the History of the Part Which Black People Have Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880'' (1935). ISBN 0-527-25280-8.

Dunning, W. A., ''Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction'' (New York, 1898)

Dunning, W. A., ''Reconstruction, Political and Economic'' (New York, 1907) online edition

Foster, G. Allen, ''Impeached: The President who almost lost his job'' (New York, 1964).

Gordon-Reed, Annette ''Andrew Johnson: The American Presidents Series: The 17th President, 1865-1869'', ISBN 0-8050-6948-8 .

* Gordon-Reed, Annette speaking on CSPAN Booktv ''Andrew Johnson''

Hatfield, Mark O., with the Senate Historical Office, Vice Presidents of the United States, 1789–1993.(U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997), p. 219

Mantell,Martin E. ''Johnson, Grant, and the Politics of Reconstruction'' (1973)

McKitrick,Eric L., ''Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1961). ISBN 0-19-505707-4

Means;Howard, ''The Avenger Takes His Place: Andrew Johnson and the 45 Days That Changed the Nation'' (New York, 2006)

Milton; George Fort. ''The Age of Hate: Andrew Johnson and the Radicals'' (1930) online edition

Patton; James Welch. ''Unionism and Reconstruction in Tennessee, 1860–1869'' (1934) online edition

Rhodes; James Ford ''History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 to the McKinley-Bryan Campaign of 1896'' Volume: 6. 1920. Pulitzer prize.

Schouler, James. ''History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 7. 1865–1877. The Reconstruction Period'' (1917)

Sledge, James L. III. "Johnson, Andrew" in ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.'' edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. (2000)

Stewart, David, O. ''Impeached: the Trial of President Andrew Johnson and the Fight for Lincoln's Legacy'' (2009) Simon and Schuster, New York, NY. ISBN 978-1-4165-4749-5.

Stryker, Lloyd P., ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' (1929). ISBN 0-403-01231-7 online edition

Trefousse, Hans L. ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989). ISBN 0-393-31742-0 online edition

Winston; Robert W. ''Andrew Johnson: Plebeian and Patriot'' (1928) online edition

Primary sources

Ralph W. Haskins, LeRoy P. Graf, and Paul H. Bergeron et al., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Johnson'' 16 volumes; University of Tennessee Press, (1967–2000). ISBN 1-57233-091-0. Includes all letters and speeches by Johnson, and many letters written to him. Complete to 1875.

Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869

Series of ''Harper's Weekly'' articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial

Johnson's obituary, from the ''New York Times''

Notes

External links

The Impeachment trial of President Johnson as reported in Harper's Monthly Magazine April 1868

Obituary, NY Times, August 1, 1875, ''Andrew Johnson Dead''

Articles of Impeachment

White House Biography

Vice Presidential biography. From the Senate Historical Office.

Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson

Andrew Johnson Cleveland Speech (September 3, 1866)

''Congressional Globe'' transcript of Johnsons inaugural address

''Speeches of Andrew Johnson : President of the United States '' 1866 collection at archive.org

Andrew Johnson's 200th Birthday Celebration site at DiscoverGreeneville.com

Andrew Johnson: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress

Tennessee State Library & Archives, Andrew Johnson Papers, 1846-1875

Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of Governor Andrew Johnson, 1853-1857

Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of (Military) Governor Andrew Johnson, 1862-1865

Retrieved on 2009-03-02

Essay on Andrew Johnson and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs

Paper comparing the impeachments of Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton

Category:1808 births Category:1875 deaths Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent Andrew Johnson Category:Burials in Tennessee Category:Deaths from stroke Category:Democratic Party Presidents of the United States Category:Democratic Party state governors of the United States Category:Democratic Party Vice Presidents of the United States Category:Democratic Party United States Senators Category:Governors of Tennessee Category:History of the United States (1865–1918) Category:Impeached United States officials Category:Mayors of places in Tennessee Category:Members of the Tennessee House of Representatives Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee Category:People of American Reconstruction Category:People from Greeneville, Tennessee Category:People from Raleigh, North Carolina Category:People of North Carolina in the American Civil War Category:People of Tennessee in the American Civil War Category:Presidents of the United States Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees Category:Tennessee city council members Category:Tennessee Democrats Category:Tennessee State Senators Category:Union Army generals Category:Union political leaders Category:United States presidential candidates, 1860 Category:United States presidential candidates, 1868 Category:United States Senators from Tennessee Category:United States vice-presidential candidates, 1864

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name	Greg Egan
birth date	August 20, 1961
birth place	Perth, Western Australia
occupation	Writer, former Programmer
nationality	Australian
period	1990s-present
genre	Science fiction
website	http://www.gregegan.net }}

Greg Egan (born 20 August 1961) is an Australian science fiction author.

Egan published his first work in 1983. He specialises in hard science fiction stories with mathematical and quantum ontology themes, including the nature of consciousness. Other themes include genetics, simulated reality, posthumanism, mind uploading, sexuality, artificial intelligence, and the superiority of rational naturalism over religion. He is a Hugo Award winner (with eight other works shortlisted for the Hugos), and has also won the John W Campbell Memorial Award for Best Novel. His early stories feature strong elements of supernatural horror, while due to his more popular science fiction he is known for his tendency to deal with complex technical material, like inventive new physics and epistemology, in an unapologetically thorough manner.

Egan's short stories have been published in a variety of genre magazines, including regular appearances in ''Interzone'' and ''Asimov's Science Fiction''.

Egan holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the University of Western Australia, and currently lives in Perth. He has recently been active on the issue of refugees' mandatory detention in Australia. Egan is a vegetarian.

Egan does not attend science fiction conventions, does not sign books, and appears in no photographs on the Web.

Works

Novels

''An Unusual Angle'' (1983), ISBN 0-909106-12-6 (not science fiction)

''Quarantine'' (1992), ISBN 0-7126-9870-1

''Permutation City'' (1994), ISBN 1-85798-174-X

''Distress'' (1995), ISBN 1-85798-286-X

''Diaspora'' (1997), ISBN 1-85798-438-2

''Teranesia'' (1999), ISBN 0-575-06854-X

''Schild's Ladder'' (2002), ISBN 0-575-07068-4

''Incandescence'' (2008), ISBN 1597801283

''Zendegi'' (2010), ISBN 978-1597801744

''Orthogonal: Book One: The Clockwork Rocket'' (2011), ISBN 978-1-59780-227-7

Collections

''Axiomatic'' (1995), ISBN 1-85798-281-9

''Our Lady of Chernobyl'' (1995), ISBN 0-646-23230-4

''Luminous'' (1998), ISBN 1-85798-551-6

''Dark Integers and Other Stories'' (2008), ISBN 978-1596061552

''Crystal Nights and Other Stories'' (2009), ISBN 978-1596062405

''Oceanic'' (2009), ISBN 978-0575086524

Short stories

Stories collected in ''Axiomatic''

''The Infinite Assassin''

''The Hundred Light-Year Diary''

''Eugene''

''The Caress''

''Blood Sisters''

''Axiomatic''

''The Safe-Deposit Box''

''Seeing''

''A Kidnapping''

''Learning to Be Me''

''The Moat''

''The Walk''

''The Cutie''

''Into Darkness''

''Appropriate Love''

''The Moral Virologist''

''Closer''

''Unstable Orbits in the Space of Lies''

Stories collected in ''Our Lady Of Chernobyl''

''Chaff''

''Beyond the Whistle Test''

''Transition Dreams''

''Our Lady of Chernobyl''

Stories collected in ''Luminous''

''Chaff''

''Mitochondrial Eve''

''Luminous''

''Mister Volition''

''Cocoon''

''Transition Dreams''

''Silver Fire''

''Reasons to Be Cheerful''

''Our Lady of Chernobyl''

''The Planck Dive''

Stories collected in ''Dark Integers and Other Stories''

''Luminous''

''Riding the Crocodile''

''Dark Integers''

''Glory''

''Oceanic''

Stories collected in ''Crystal Nights and Other Stories''

''Lost Continent''

''Crystal Nights''

''Steve Fever''

''TAP''

''Induction''

''Singleton''

''Oracle''

''Border Guards''

''Hot Rock''

Stories collected in ''Oceanic''

''Lost Continent''

''Dark Integers''

''Crystal Nights''

''Steve Fever''

''Induction''

''Singleton''

''Oracle''

''Border Guards''

''Riding the Crocodile''

''Glory''

''Hot Rock''

''Oceanic''

Other stories

''Only Connect''

''Yeyuka''

''Worthless''

''Mind Vampires''

''Neighbourhood Watch''

''Wang's Carpets''

''Reification Highway''

''Dust''

''Before''

''Fidelity''

''The Demon's Passage''

''In Numbers''

''The Vat''

''The Extra''

''Beyond the Whistle Test''

''Scatter My Ashes''

''Tangled Up''

''The Way She Smiles, The Things She Says''

''Artifact''

Academic papers

''An Efficient Algorithm for the Riemannian 10j Symbols'' by Dan Christensen and Greg Egan

''Asymptotics of 10j Symbols'' by John Baez, Dan Christensen and Greg Egan

Awards

''Permutation City'': John W. Campbell Memorial Award (1995)

''Oceanic'': Hugo Award, Locus Award, Asimov's Readers Award (1999)

Egan is a multiple Seiun Award winner.

''Teranesia'' was nominated for the 2000 Ditmar Award for best novel. Egan declined the award.

Usenet newsgroups

Egan occasionally contributes posts to a variety of (mostly scientific and/or technical) Usenet newsgroups, using his own name. From December 1994 to September 1999 he contributed regularly to the group rec.arts.sf.written, where he engaged in dialogue with his readers about his work, and science fiction in general.

Footnotes

External links

Works Online

Category:1961 births Category:Australian novelists Category:Australian science fiction writers Category:Australian vegetarians Category:Hugo Award winning authors Category:Australian atheists Category:People from Perth, Western Australia Category:Australian computer programmers Category:Living people Category:University of Western Australia alumni

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