B-2 Spirit
A USAF B-2 Spirit in flight
Role	Stealth Strategic bomber
National origin	United States
Manufacturer	Northrop Corporation Northrop Grumman
First flight	17 July 1989
Introduction	April 1997
Status	Active service: 20 aircraft
Primary user	United States Air Force
Number built	21[1][2]
Program cost	US$44.75 billion (through 2004)[3]
Unit cost	$737 million (1997 cost for each aircraft)[3] $1.07 billion (today with inflation)[4]

The Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit (also known as the Stealth Bomber) is an American strategic bomber, featuring low observable stealth technology designed for penetrating dense anti-aircraft defenses; it is able to deploy both conventional and nuclear weapons. The bomber has a crew of two and can drop up to eighty 500 lb (230 kg)-class JDAM GPS-guided bombs, or sixteen 2,400 lb (1,100 kg) B83 nuclear bombs. The B-2 is the only aircraft that can carry large air to surface standoff weapons in a stealth configuration.

Development originally started under the "Advanced Technology Bomber" (ATB) project during the Carter administration, and its performance was one of the reasons for his cancellation of the B-1 Lancer. ATB continued during the Reagan administration, but worries about delays in its introduction led to the reinstatement of the B-1 program as well. Program costs rose throughout development. Designed and manufactured by Northrop Grumman with assistance from Boeing, the cost of each aircraft averaged US$737 million (in 1997 dollars).^[3] Total procurement costs averaged $929 million per aircraft, which includes spare parts, equipment, retrofitting, and software support.^[3] The total program cost, which includes development, engineering and testing, averaged $2.1 billion per aircraft in 1997.^[3]

Because of its considerable capital and operational costs, the project was controversial in the U.S. Congress and among the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The winding-down of the Cold War in the later portion of the 1980s dramatically reduced the need for the aircraft, which was designed with the intention of penetrating Soviet airspace and attacking high-value targets. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Congress slashed initial plans to purchase 132 bombers to 21. In 2008, a B-2 was destroyed in a crash shortly after takeoff, and the crew ejected safely.^[5] A total of 20 B-2s remain in service with the United States Air Force.

Though originally designed primarily as a nuclear bomber, the B-2 was first used in combat to drop conventional bombs on Serbia during the Kosovo War in 1999, and saw continued use during the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.^[6] B-2s were also used during the 2011 Libyan civil war.^[7]

Development[link]

Origins[link]

In the mid-1970s the search for a new US strategic bomber to replace the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress was underway, with nothing to show for it. First the B-70 and then the B-1A were canceled after only small numbers were built. The B-70 was intended to fly above and beyond defensive interceptor aircraft, only to find these same attributes made it especially vulnerable to surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). The B-1 attempted to avoid SAMs by flying close to the ground to use terrain to mask its radar signature, only to face a new generation of interceptors with look-down/shoot-down capabilities that could attack them from above.^{[citation needed]}

However, technology continued to progress throughout. By the mid-1970s it was becoming clear that there was an entirely different way to avoid missiles and intercepts. Known today as "stealth", the idea was to build an aircraft with an airframe that deflected or absorbed radar signals so that too little was reflected back to the radar unit. An aircraft that was stealthy enough would be able to fly wherever it pleased, and could be attacked only by weapons and systems that did not rely on radar. Although such possibilities exist, notably human observers, ranges were so short that most aircraft could fly right by the defence with impunity, especially at night.^[8]

In 1974 DARPA requested information from US aviation firms about the largest radar cross section of an aircraft where it would remain effectively invisible to radars.^[9] Initially, Northrop and McDonnell Douglas were selected for further work. Lockheed had experience in this field due to their work on the Lockheed SR-71, which included a number of stealthy features, notably its canted vertical stabilizers, the use of composite materials in key locations, and the overall finish in radar absorbing paint. A key improvement was the introduction of computer models that could be used to predict the reflections from flat surfaces and could be used to design a "faceted" aircraft. Work on the first such designs had started in 1975 with "the hopeless diamond", a model built at Lockheed to test the concepts.^[10] Improvements quickly followed that allowed designs with more traditional layouts and construction techniques.

These plans were well advanced by the summer of 1975, when DARPA started the Experimental Survivability Testbed (XST) project. Northrop and Lockheed won the first round of testing, and Lockheed was the sole winner of the second round in April 1976. This led to the Have Blue program.^[11]

ATB program[link]

By 1976 these programs had advanced to the point where the concept of a long-range strategic stealth bomber appeared to be a safe bet. Whereas the B-1 relied on flying around known defense sites and could only change its mission within a limited selection of pre-selected routes, a stealth bomber would be able to overfly the Soviet Union with impunity, allowing it to loiter and hunt for targets instead of simply running in and out as fast as possible. In a nuclear exchange, this would allow it to wait out the initial attacks and find targets that escaped destruction, eliminating the "overkill" that was built into existing war planning. Better yet, as the need for high speed was reduced or eliminated, and all of the extremely expensive electronic warfare equipment removed, the aircraft would be much simpler and less expensive.

Carter was aware of these developments during 1977, and it appears to have been one of the major reasons the B-1 was canceled.^[12] Further studies were ordered in early 1978, by which point the Have Blue platform had flown and proven the concepts. During the 1980 presidential election in 1979, Ronald Reagan repeatedly complained that Carter was weak on defense, and used the B-1 as a prime example. In return, on 22 August 1980, the Carter administration publicly disclosed that the United States Department of Defense (DoD) was working to develop stealth aircraft, including a bomber.^[13]

The Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) began in 1979.^[14] Full development of the black project followed. The black program was funded under the code name "Aurora".^[15] After the evaluations of the companies' proposals, the ATB competition was reduced to the Northrop/Boeing and Lockheed/Rockwell teams with each receiving a study contract for further work.^[14] Both teams used flying wing designs.^[15] Northrop had previous experience from the development of the YB-35 and YB-49 flying wing aircraft.^[16] The Northrop design was larger while the Lockheed design included a small tail.^[15]

The B-2's first public display in 1988

The Northrop/Boeing team's ATB design was selected over the Lockheed/Rockwell design on 20 October 1981.^[14][17] The Northrop design received the designation B-2 and the name "Spirit". The bomber's design was changed in the mid-1980s when the mission profile was changed from high-altitude to low-altitude, terrain-following. The redesign delayed the B-2's first flight by two years and added about US$1 billion to the program's cost.^[13] An estimated US$23 billion was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 by 1989.^[18] MIT scientists helped assess the mission effectiveness of the aircraft under a five-year classified contract during the 1980s.^[19]

The B-2 was first publicly displayed on 22 November 1988, at Air Force Plant 42, Palmdale, California, where it was assembled. This initial viewing was heavily guarded and guests were not allowed to see the rear of the B-2. However, Aviation Week editors found that there was no ban on overflying the airfield apron/presentation area and, to the chagrin of the USAF, took pictures from above of the aircraft's then-secret planform and suppressed engine exhausts. The B-2's first public flight was on 17 July 1989 from Palmdale.^[20] At the program's peak, approximately 13,000 people were employed at a dedicated plant in Pico Rivera, California for the aircraft's engineering and portions of its manufacturing.^[21]

The B-2's first public flight in 1989

Espionage[link]

In 1984, a Northrop employee, Thomas Cavanaugh, was arrested for attempting to sell classified information to the Soviet Union, which apparently was smuggled out of the Pico Rivera, California factory.^[22] Cavanaugh was eventually sentenced to life in prison and released on parole in 2001.

Noshir Gowadia, a design engineer who worked on the B-2's propulsion system, was arrested in October 2005 for selling B-2 related classified information to foreign countries.^[23] On 9 August 2010, Gowadia was convicted in the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii on 14 of 17 charges against him.^[24] On 24 January 2011, Gowadia was sentenced to 32 years in prison.^[25]

Program costs and procurement[link]

A procurement of 132 aircraft was planned in the mid-1980s, but was later reduced to 75.^[26] By the early 1990s, the Soviet Union had disintegrated, which effectively eliminated the Spirit's primary Cold War mission. Under budgetary pressures and congressional opposition, in his 1992 State of the Union Address, President George H.W. Bush announced B-2 production would be limited to 20 aircraft.^[27] In 1996, however, the Clinton administration, though originally committed to ending production of the bombers at 20 aircraft, authorized the conversion of a 21st bomber, a prototype test model, to Block 30 fully operational status at a cost of nearly $500 million.^[28]

In 1995, Northrop made a proposal to the USAF to build 20 additional aircraft with a flyaway cost of $566 million each.^[29]

The program was the subject of public controversy for its costs to American taxpayers. In 1996, the General Accounting Office disclosed that the USAF's B-2 bombers "will be, by far, the most costly bombers to operate on a per aircraft basis", costing over three times as much as the B-1B (US$9.6 million annually) and over four times as much as the B-52H ($US6.8 million annually). In September 1997, each hour of B-2 flight necessitated 119 hours of maintenance in turn. Comparable maintenance needs for the B-52 and the B-1B are 53 and 60 hours respectively for each hour of flight. A key reason for this cost is the provision of air-conditioned hangars large enough for the bomber's 172 ft (52.4 m) wingspan, which are needed to maintain the aircraft's stealthy properties, especially its "low-observable" stealthy skins.^[30][31] Maintenance costs are about $3.4 million a month for each aircraft.^[32]

In a 1994 live fire exercise near Point Mugu, California, a B-2 drops forty-seven 500 lb (230 kg) class Mark 82 bombs, which is more than half of a B-2's total ordnance payload

The total "military construction" cost related to the program was projected to be US$553.6 million in 1997 dollars. The cost to procure each B-2 was US$737 million in 1997 dollars, based only on a fleet cost of US$15.48 billion.^[3] The procurement cost per aircraft as detailed in General Accounting Office (GAO) reports, which include spare parts and software support, was $929 million per aircraft in 1997 dollars.^[3]

The total program cost projected through 2004 was US$44.75 billion in 1997 dollars. This includes development, procurement, facilities, construction, and spare parts. The total program cost averaged US$2.13 billion per aircraft.^[3]

Opposition[link]

In its consideration of the fiscal year 1990 defense budget, the House Armed Services Committee trimmed $800 million from the B-2 research and development budget, while at the same time staving off a motion to kill the bomber. Opposition in committee and in Congress was mostly broad and bipartisan, with Congressmen Ron Dellums (D-CA), John Kasich (R-OH), and John G. Rowland (R-CT) authorizing the motion to kill the bomber and others in the Senate such as Jim Exon (D-NE) and John McCain (R-AZ) also opposing the project.^[33]

The growing cost of the B-2 program, and evidence of flaws in the aircraft's ability to elude detection by radar,^[33] were among factors that drove opposition. At the peak production period specified in 1989, the schedule called for spending US$7 billion to $8 billion per year in 1989 dollars, something Committee Chair Les Aspin (D-WI) said "won't fly financially."^[34]

In 1990, the Department of Defense accused Northrop of using faulty components in the flight control system. Efforts have also been made to reduce the probability of bird ingestion, which could damage engine fan blades.^[35]

In time, a number of prominent members of Congress began to oppose the program's expansion, including former Democratic presidential nominee John Kerry, who cast votes against the B-2 in 1989, 1991 and 1992 while a US Senator representing Massachusetts. By 1992, Republican President George H.W. Bush called for the cancellation of the B-2 and promised to cut military spending by 30% in the wake of the collapse of the Soviet Union.^[36]

In May 1995, on the basis of its 1995 Heavy Bomber Force Study, the DOD determined that additional B-2 procurements would exacerbate efforts to develop and implement long term recapitalization plans for the U.S. Air Force bomber force.

In October 1995, former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force, General Mike Ryan, and Former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General John Shalikashvili, strongly recommended against Congressional action to fund the purchase of any additional B-2s, arguing that to do so would require unacceptable cuts in existing conventional and nuclear-capable aircraft to pay for the new bombers,^[37] and because the military had much higher priorities on which to spend its limited procurement dollars.^[38]

Some B-2 advocates argued that procuring twenty additional aircraft would save money because B-2s would be able to deeply penetrate anti-aircraft defenses and use low-cost, short-range attack weapons rather than expensive standoff weapons. However, in 1995, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), and its Director of National Security Analysis, found that additional B-2s would reduce the cost of weapons expended by the bomber force by less than US$2 billion in 1995 dollars during the first two weeks of a conflict, which is when the Air Force envisions bombers would make their greatest contribution. This is a small fraction of the US$26.8 billion (in 1995 dollars) life cycle cost that the CBO projected an additional 20 B-2s would cost.^[39]

In 1997, as Ranking Member of the House Armed Services Committee and National Security Committee, Congressman Ron Dellums (D-CA), a long-time opponent of the bomber, cited five independent studies and offered an amendment to that year's defense authorization bill to cap production of the bombers to the existing 21 aircraft. The amendment was narrowly defeated.^[40] Nonetheless, Congress did not approve funding for the purchase of any additional B-2 bombers.

Upgrades[link]

A number of upgrade packages were applied to the B-2 during the 21st century. In 2004, Northrop Grumman tested a new alternate high-frequency material (AHFM) for use as a RAM coating for the B-2.^[41] The Air Force Research Laboratory has developed a new material to be used on the part of the wing trailing edge that is subject to engine exhaust to replace the current material that degrades.^[42] In 2008, the US Congress funded upgrades to the B-2's weapon control systems for hitting moving targets.^[43]

In July 2008, the B-2's computing architecture was redesigned with a new integrated processing unit (IPU) that communicates via a fiber optic network and a smaller, faster single-board processor that runs a new version of the operational flight program (OFP) software converted from JOVIAL to C by automated tools.^[44][45]

On 29 December 2008, Air Force officials awarded a production contract to Northrop Grumman to modernize the B-2 fleet's radars. The contract provides advanced radar components, with the aim of sustained operational viability of the B-2 fleet into the future. The contract has a target value of some US$468 million.^[46] The award follows successful flight testing with the upgraded equipment. A modification to the radar was needed since the US Department of Commerce required the B-2 to use a different radar frequency.^[47] It was reported on 22 July 2009 that the B-2 had passed the second of the two USAF audit milestones associated with this upgraded AESA radar capability.^[48]

On 28 April 2009, an Air Force/contractor team verified that the 30,000 lb (14,000 kg) Massive Ordnance Penetrator (MOP) would fit in the B-2's bomb bay.^[49]

Future developments[link]

Schwartz has said that the 1980s era stealth of the B-2 will become less survivable in contested airspace in the future so the USAF is continuing to develop the Next-Generation Bomber in spite of cuts in other areas.^[50]

As of 2011^[update], the Pentagon is evaluating a radically different unmanned stealth bomber, characterized as a "mini-B-2", to come into operational service by 2020.^[51] During a transition period, US political expert Rebecca Grant has posited when the B-2 is no longer able to penetrate enemy defenses, the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II may take on its strike/interdiction role. The F-35 will carry a version of the B61 nuclear bomb as a tactical bomber and so will not be covered by strategic arms limitation treaties such as New START.^[52]

Design[link]

The B-2's engines are buried within its wing to conceal the engines' fans and minimize their exhaust signature. The crew of two sit side-by-side in the cockpit.

The B-2's low-observable, or "stealth", characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated anti-aircraft defenses to attack its most heavily defended targets. The bomber's stealth comes from a combination of reduced acoustic, infrared, visual and radar signatures, making it difficult for opposition defenses to detect, track and engage the aircraft. Many specific aspects of the low-observability process remain classified. The B-2's composite materials, special coatings and flying wing design, which reduces the number of leading edges, contribute to its stealth characteristics.^[53] The Spirit has a radar signature of about 0.1 m².^[54] Each B-2 requires a climate-controlled hangar large enough for its 172-foot (52 m) wingspan to protect the operational integrity of its sophisticated radar absorbent material and coatings.^[55] The engines are buried within the wing to conceal the engines' fans and hide their exhaust.^[56]

The blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 significant advantages over previous bombers. The U.S. Air Force reports its range as approximately 6,000 nautical miles (6,900 mi; 11,000 km).^[6][57] Also, its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and providing a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. It combines GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) with GPS-aided bombs such as Joint Direct Attack Munition (JDAM). This uses its passive electronically scanned array APQ-181 radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy when "unguided" gravity bombs are equipped with a GPS-aided "smart" guidance tail kit. It can bomb 16 targets in a single pass when equipped with 1,000 or 2,000-pound (450 kg or 900 kg) bombs, or as many as 80 when carrying 500 lb (230 kg) bombs.

Vice President Dick Cheney sits inside the cockpit of a B-2 with pilot Capt. Luke Jayne during a visit to Whiteman AFB in 2006.

The B-2 has a crew of two: a pilot in the left seat, and mission commander in the right.^[6] The B-2 has provisions for a third crew member if needed.^[58] For comparison, the B-1B has a crew of four and the B-52 has a crew of five.^[6] B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve crew performance on long sorties. The B-2 is highly automated, and, unlike two-seat fighters, one crew member can sleep, use a toilet or prepare a hot meal while the other monitors the aircraft.^[59]

A B-2 during aerial refueling which extends its range past 6,000 miles (9,700 km) to support intercontinental sorties.

The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design, integration and support, is Northrop Grumman. Boeing, Raytheon (formerly Hughes Aircraft), G.E. and Vought Aircraft Industries, are subcontractors.

The original B-2 design had tanks for a contrail-inhibiting chemical, but this was replaced in the final design with a contrail sensor from Ophir that alerts the pilot when he should change altitude.^[60] Mission planning also considers altitudes where the probability of contrail formation is minimized.

Operational history[link]

The first operational aircraft, christened Spirit of Missouri, was delivered to Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, where the fleet is based, on 17 December 1993.^[61] The B-2 reached initial operational capability (IOC) on 1 January 1997.^[62] Depot maintenance for the B-2 is accomplished by U.S. Air Force contractor support and managed at Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at Tinker Air Force Base.^[6] Originally designed to deliver nuclear weapons, modern usage has shifted towards a flexible role with conventional and nuclear capability.

Into combat[link]

An Air Force maintenance crew services a B-2 at Andersen AFB, Guam, 2004

The B-2 has seen service in four campaigns. Its combat debut was during the Kosovo War in 1999. It was responsible for destroying 33% of selected Serbian bombing targets in the first eight weeks of U.S. involvement in the War.^[6] During this war, B-2s flew non-stop to Kosovo from their home base in Missouri and back.^[6] The B-2 was the first aircraft to deploy GPS satellite guided JDAM "smart bombs" in combat use in Kosovo.^[63]

B-2 Spirit U.S. Air Force video

The B-2 has been used to drop bombs on Afghanistan in support of the Operation Enduring Freedom. With the support of aerial refueling, the B-2 flew one of its longest missions to date from Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri to Afghanistan and back.^[6]

The B-2's combat use preceded a U.S. Air Force declaration of "full operational capability" in December 2003.^[6] The Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report noted that the B-2's serviceability for Fiscal Year 2003 was still inadequate, mainly due to the maintainability of the B-2's low observable coatings. The evaluation also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings with "pop-up threats".^[6]

During the Iraq War (Operation Iraqi Freedom), B-2s operated from Diego Garcia and an undisclosed "forward operating location". Other sorties in Iraq have launched from Whiteman AFB.^[6] This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and one mission of over 50 hours. "Forward operating locations" have been previously designated as Andersen Air Force Base in Guam and RAF Fairford in the UK, where new climate controlled hangars have been constructed. B-2s have conducted 27 sorties from Whiteman AFB and 22 sorties from a forward operating location, releasing more than 1.5 million pounds of munitions,^[6] including 583 JDAM "smart bombs" in 2003.^[64]

All B-2s, nuclear-capable B-52s, and nuclear intercontinental ballistic missiles have shifted to the nuclear-focused Air Force Global Strike Command set up in September 2009.^[65][66]

In March 2011, B-2s were the first US aircraft into action in Operation Odyssey Dawn, the UN mandated enforcement of the Libyan no-fly zone. Three B-2s dropped 40 bombs on a Libyan airfield in support of the UN no-fly zone.^[67]

Operators[link]

The "Spirit of Indiana" sits on the ramp at Andersen AFB in Guam on 23 June 2006

B-2s are operated exclusively by the United States Air Force active units.

• United States Air Force
  • 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base (currently has 19 B-2s)
    • 13th Bomb Squadron
    • 393d Bomb Squadron
    • 394th Combat Training Squadron
  • 131st Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base (Missouri Air National Guard)^[68]
    • 110th Bomb Squadron
  • 412th Test Wing, Edwards Air Force Base (currently has one B-2)
    • 419th Flight Test Squadron
  • 53d Wing, Eglin Air Force Base (former)
    • 72d Test and Evaluation Squadron, Whiteman Air Force Base
  • 57th Wing, Nellis Air Force Base (former)
    • 325th Weapons Squadron, Whiteman Air Force Base
    • 715th Weapons Squadron (inactivated)

Accidents[link]

The crashed B-2

On 23 February 2008, the B-2 Spirit of Kansas, 89-0127 crashed on the runway shortly after takeoff from Andersen Air Force Base in Guam.^[69] B-2 89-0127 had been operated by the 393rd Bomb Squadron, 509th Bomb Wing, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri, and had logged 5,176 flight hours. It was the first crash of a B-2. The two person crew ejected safely from the aircraft and survived the crash. The aircraft was completely destroyed, a hull loss valued at US$1.4 billion.^[70][71] After the accident, the Air Force took the B-2 fleet off operational status until clearing the fleet for flight status 53 days later on 15 April 2008.^[72] The cause of the crash was later determined to be moisture in the aircraft's Port Transducer Units during air data calibration, which distorted the information being sent to the bomber's air data system. As a result, the flight control computers calculated an inaccurate airspeed, and a negative angle of attack, causing the aircraft to pitch upward 30 degrees during takeoff.^[73]

In February 2010, another serious incident involving a B-2 occurred at Andersen Air Force Base in Guam. The aircraft involved was AV-11 "Spirit of Washington". The aircraft was severely damaged by fire while on the ground and underwent 18 months of temporary repairs in order to enable it to fly back to the mainland for more comprehensive repairs.^[74][75]

Aircraft on display[link]

Mockup of a B-2 Spirit on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force

No operational B-2s have been retired by the Air Force to be put on display. However, B-2s have made periodic appearances on ground display at various air shows.

• B-2 test article (s/n AT-1000), the second of two built without engines or instruments for static testing, was placed on display in 2004 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton, Ohio.^[76] The test article passed all structural testing requirements before the airframe failed.^[77] The Museum's restoration team spent over a year reassembling the fractured airframe. The display airframe is marked to resemble The Spirit of Ohio (S/N 82-1070), the B-2 used to test the design's ability to withstand extreme heat and cold.^[76] The exhibit features the actual Spirit of Ohio nose wheel door, with its distinctive Fire and Ice artwork, which was painted and signed by the technicians who performed the temperature testing.^[76] The restored test aircraft is on display in the museum's "Cold War Gallery".^[78]

• From 1989 to 2004, the South Dakota Air and Space Museum located on the grounds of Ellsworth Air Force Base displayed the 10-short-ton (9-metric-ton) "Honda- Stealth", a 60% scale mock-up of a stealthy bomber which had been built by North American Honda in 1988 for an advertising campaign.^[79] Although not an actual replica of a B-2, the mock-up was close enough to the B-2's design to arouse suspicion that Honda had intercepted classified, top secret information, as the B-2 project was still officially classified in 1988. Honda donated the model to the museum in 1989, on condition that the model be destroyed if it was ever replaced with a different example. In 2005, when the museum received a B-1 Lancer for display (Ellsworth being a B-1 base), the museum destroyed the mock-up.^[80][81]

Specifications (B-2A Block 30)[link]

Orthographically projected diagram of the B-2 Spirit

Mounting a 2000lb class BDU-56 practice bomb onto a rotary launcher

Data from USAF Fact Sheet,^[6] Pace,^[82] Spick^[57]

General characteristics

• Crew: 2
• Length: 69 ft (21.0 m)
• Wingspan: 172 ft (52.4 m)
• Height: 17 ft (5.18 m)
• Wing area: 5,140 ft² (478 m²)
• Empty weight: 158,000 lb (71,700 kg)
• Loaded weight: 336,500 lb (152,200 kg)
• Max. takeoff weight: 376,000 lb (170,600 kg)
• Powerplant: 4 × General Electric F118-GE-100 non-afterburning turbofans, 17,300 lbf (77 kN) each
• Fuel Capacity: 167,000 pounds (75,750 kilograms)

Performance

• Maximum speed: Mach 0.95 (550 knots, 630 mph, 1,010 km/h) at 40,000 ft altitude / Mach 0.95 at sea level^[82]
• Cruise speed: Mach 0.85^[57] (487 knots, 560 mph, 900 km/h) at 40,000 ft altitude
• Range: 6,000 nmi (11,100 km (6,900 mi))
• Service ceiling: 50,000 ft (15,200 m)
• Wing loading: 67.3 lb/ft² (329 kg/m²)
• Thrust/weight: 0.205

Armament

• 2 internal bays for 50,000 lb (23,000 kg) of ordnance.^[57]

• 80× 500 lb class bombs (Mk-82) mounted on Bomb Rack Assembly (BRA)
• 36× 750 lb CBU class bombs on BRA
• 16× 2000 lb class weapons (Mk-84, JDAM-84, JDAM-109) mounted on Rotary Launcher Assembly (RLA)
• 16× B61 or B83 nuclear weapons on RLA

Later avionics and equipment improvements allow B-2A to carry JSOW, GBU-28, and GBU-57A/Bs as well. The Spirit is also designated as a delivery aircraft for the AGM-158 JASSM when the missile enters service.

Individual aircraft[link]

Side view of a B-2 Spirit

B-2 in flight over the Mississippi River (St. Louis, Missouri) with the Gateway Arch and Busch Stadium in the background

B-2 from below

Sources: FAS.org,^[85] B-2 Spirit (Pace)^[86]

See also[link]

	United States Air Force portal
	Aviation portal

Related lists

• List of active United States military aircraft
• List of bomber aircraft
• List of flying wing aircraft
• List of aerospace megaprojects
  

References[link]

Notes

Bibliography

Further reading[link]

• Richardson, Doug. Northrop B-2 Spirit (Classic Warplanes). New York: Smithmark Publishers Inc., 1991. ISBN 0-8317-1404-2.
• Sweetman, Bill. Inside the Stealth Bomber. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-7603-0627-3.
• Winchester, Jim, ed. "Northrop B-2 Spirit". Modern Military Aircraft (Aviation Factfile). Rochester, Kent, UK: Grange Books plc, 2004. ISBN 1-84013-640-5.
• The World's Great Stealth and Reconnaissance Aircraft. New York: Smithmark, 1991. ISBN 0-8317-9558-1.

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: B-2 Spirit

• B-2 Spirit fact sheet and gallery on U.S. Air Force site
• B-2 Spirit page on Northrop Grumman site
• B-2 page on NASA Langley site
• B-2 Spirit page at GlobalSecurity.org
• B-2 Bomber page on Center for Defense Information site
• B-2 Spirit Stealth bomber on airforce-technology.com
• B-2 Spirit (Stealth Bomber) page on aircraft-info.net
• B-2 Stealth Bomber article on How It Works Daily

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Northrop Grumman Corporation

Type	Public
Traded as	NYSE: NOC S&P 500 Component
Industry	Aerospace and Defense
Founded	1994
Headquarters	2980 Fairview Park Drive, Falls Church, Virginia, United States
Area served	Worldwide
Key people	Wesley G. Bush (Chairman & CEO)[1]
Products	Aircraft carriers Military aircraft Military vessels Missile defense systems Satellites Information Technology Advanced electronic sensors and systems
Revenue	US$ 15.073 billion (2011)[2]
Operating income	US$ 3.276 billion (2011)[2]
Profit	US$ 2.118 billion (2011)[2]
Total assets	US$ 25.411 billion (2011)[2]
Total equity	US$ 10.336 billion (2011)[2]
Employees	72.500 (2011)[2]
Website	NorthropGrumman.com

Northrop Grumman Corporation (NYSE: NOC) is an American global aerospace and defense technology company formed by the 1994 purchase of Grumman by Northrop. The company was the fourth-largest defense contractor in the world as of 2010,^[3] and the largest builder of naval vessels. Northrop Grumman employs over 75,000 people worldwide.^[4] Its 2010 annual revenue is reported at US$34 billion.^[5] Northrop Grumman ranks #72 on the 2011 Fortune 500 list of America's largest corporations^[6] and ranks in the top ten military-friendly employers.^[7] It has its headquarters in Falls Church, Virginia.

Products and services[link]

Naval[link]

Newport News Shipbuilding manufactures all U.S. aircraft carriers, including supercarriers. It has built the Nimitz-class supercarriers and is building the new Gerald R. Ford-class supercarrier. It is also one of only two companies capable of producing U.S. nuclear submarines. A separate sector, Northrop Grumman Ship Systems, produces amphibious assault ships and many other commercial and military craft, including icebreakers, tankers, and cargo ships. In a partnership with Science Applications International Corporation, Northrop Grumman provides naval engineering and architecture services as well as naval maintenance services.

In January 2008, Northrop Grumman combined its Newport News and Ship Systems sectors into a new business unit named Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding.^[8] And on March 31, 2011 this was spun off as Huntington Ingalls Industries Inc (NYSE: HII)^[9]

Aerospace[link]

Northrop Grumman manufactured the B-2 Spirit strategic bomber.

A BQM-74 Chukar unmanned aerial drone launches from a US Navy vessel.

Separate sectors, such as Aerospace Systems, produce aircraft for the US and other nations. The B-2 Spirit strategic bomber, the E-8C Joint STARS surveillance aircraft, the RQ-4 Global Hawk, and the T-38 Talon supersonic trainer, are used by the US Air Force. The US Army uses Northrop Grumman's RQ-5 Hunter unmanned air vehicle, which have been in operational use for more than 10 years. The US Navy uses Northrop Grumman-built aerial vehicles such as the BQM-74 Chukar, RQ-4 Global Hawk based BAMS UAS, C-2 Greyhound, E-2 Hawkeye, and the EA-6B Prowler. Northrop Grumman provides major components and assemblies for different aircraft such as F/A-18 Hornet, F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the EA-18G Growler. Many aircraft, such as the F-5, T-38 Talon, and E-2 Hawkeye are used by other nations.^{[citation needed]}

The former Space Technology sector (now Aerospace Systems Sector) builds satellites and space payloads for the US government, including NASA, NOAA and the US Air Force.^{[citation needed]} The sector's Directed Energy unit builds chemical and solid-state lasers. Working with Boeing, the sector provides^[when?] the chemical laser for the Boeing YAL-1 Airborne Laser system.^{[citation needed]}

The former Mission Systems sector (now Information Systems Sector) is engaged in supporting the U.S. ballistic missile program; integrating various command, control and intelligence systems; and providing technical and management services to governmental and military customers.

Northrop Grumman intends to bid for the U.S. Air Force's next-generation strategic bomber project. Though it has not built a large manned aircraft since wrapping up B-2 Spirit production in the 1990s, The company has "been working hard to turn that perception around, with the skills and capabilities that back it up."^[10] It continues to build the RQ-4 Global Hawk, with many of the same long endurance and sensor technologies that are required for bombers.

Northrop Grumman partnered with EADS to offer the KC-30^[11] in the U.S. Air Force's KC-X tanker competition.^[12] The US Air Force chose the Northrop Grumman/EADS's KC-30 in February 2008,^[13] but the win was contested and the tanker program was halted by Defense Department in September 2008. Northrop Grumman announced in March 2010 it was withdrawing from the competition.^[14]

In November 2010, Northrop Grumman was selected by NASA for consideration for potential contract awards for heavy lift launch vehicle system concepts, and propulsion technologies.^[15]

Radar and sensors[link]

Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems creates military sensors and related products, including C4I radar systems for air defense, Airspace Management radar systems such as AMASS, and battlefield surveillance systems like the Airborne Reconnaissance Low (ARL). Tactical aircraft sensors produced by Northrop Grumman Electronic Systems include the AN/APG-68 radar and the AN/APG-80 advanced agile beam fire control radar for the F-16 Fighting Falcon, the AN/APG-77 Advanced Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar for the F-22 Raptor, and the AN/APG-81 AESA radar for the F-35 Lightning II, and the AN/AAQ-37 electro-optical Distributed Aperture System (DAS) for the F-35, and the highly reliable APQ-164 Passive Electronically Scanned Array (PESA) radar for the B-1 Lancer. Electronic Systems also produces and maintains the AWACS aerial surveillance systems for the U.S., the United Kingdom, NATO, Japan, and other customers. Northrop Grumman is the prime contractor for the development and integration of the Air Force's $2-billion Multi-Platform Radar Technology Insertion Program. Many other smaller products are made by Northrop Grumman, such as night vision goggles and secure communications equipment.

Affiliated companies and partners[link]

Remotec, a subsidiary, is the foremost manufacturer of remote control vehicles for explosive ordnance disposal and hazardous material handling. A Norway and UK-based subsidiary, Park Air Systems, makes aerial navigation, air traffic control, and communications equipment for international customers. They also have worked closely with Antenna Associates, Inc., a leading manufacturer of Identification friend or foe (IFF)/Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) antennas located in Massachusetts.

In 2008, Northrop Grumman also began working with DHS Systems LLC, the manufacturer of the Deployable Rapid Assembly Shelter (DRASH) located in New York, as part of the U.S. Army's Standard Integrated Command Post System (SICPS) program.^[16]

In August 2007, Northrop Grumman acquired Scaled Composites in which it had previously owned a 40% stake.

Other services[link]

In addition to providing the products created by Northrop Grumman, the company also provides many military and non-military services, usually to governments. It is among the largest suppliers of IT services to the U.S. federal government, for instance. And Vinnell, a Northrop Grumman subsidiary within the Technical Services sector, provides training and communications services for the military. For example Vinnell landed a $48 million contract to train the Iraqi Army in 2003.^[17]

Many other nations, and individual states in the U.S. have contracted Northrop Grumman for various large-scale projects. In 2005, for instance, the company won a $2 billion contract with Virginia to overhaul most of the state's IT operations.^[18] Later that year, Great Britain paid for a $1.2 billion contract with the company to provide maintenance of many aspects of the country's defensive radar.^[19]

Northrop Grumman also performs various foreign functions in the War on Drugs. The company sends planes to spray herbicides on suspected cocaine fields in Colombia and opium poppy fields in Afghanistan.^[20][21]

History[link]

Originally formed in California in 1939, Northrop Corporation was reincorporated in Delaware in 1985. In 1994, Northrop Aircraft merged with Grumman Aerospace to create the company Northrop Grumman. Both companies were previously established in the airplane manufacturing industry, and Grumman was famous for building the Apollo Lunar Module. The new company acquired Westinghouse Electronic Systems in 1996, a major manufacturer of radar systems. Logicon, a defense computer contractor, was added in 1997. Previously, Logicon had acquired Geodynamics Corporation in March 1996 and Syscon Corporation in February 1995.

A merger between Northrop Grumman and competitor Lockheed Martin was not approved by the U.S. government in 1998, slowing the consolidation of the defense industry. But in 1999, the company acquired Teledyne Ryan, which developed surveillance systems and unmanned aircraft. It also acquired California Microwave, Inc., and Data Procurement Corporation, in the same year. Other entities acquired included Xetron Corporation (1996), Inter-National Research Institute Inc. (1998), Federal Data Corporation (2000), Navia Aviation As (2000), Comptek Research, Inc. (2000), and Sterling Software, Inc. (2000).

In 1999, Northrop Grumman and SAIC created AMSEC LLC as a joint venture, which grew "from $100 million in revenue in 2000 to approximately $500 million in fiscal year 2007." ^[22]

In 2001 the company acquired Litton Industries, a shipbuilder and provider of defense electronics systems to the U.S. Navy. During the acquisition process, a new Delaware holding company, NNG, Inc., was formed. It merged with Northrop Grumman through a one-for-one common shares exchange in April 2001. Both Northrop Grumman and Litton became subsidiaries of the new holding company. The original Northrop Grumman Corporation then changed its name to Northrop Grumman Systems Corporation; the holding company, NNG, Inc., changed its name to Northrop Grumman Corporation.

Later that year, Newport News Shipbuilding was added to the company. And in 2002, Northrop Grumman acquired TRW, which became the Space Technology sector based in Redondo Beach, CA, and the Mission Systems sector based in Reston, VA, with sole interest in their space systems and laser systems manufacturing. The Aeronautical division was sold to Goodrich, and the automotive divisions were spun off and retained the TRW name.

There have been many other smaller acquisitions throughout this period.^[23] On July 20, 2007, Northrop Grumman became the sole owner of Burt Rutan's Scaled Composites.^[24]

Northrop Grumman and Boeing have also recently collaborated on a design concept for NASA's upcoming Orion spacecraft (previously the Crew Exploration Vehicle), but that contract went to rival Lockheed Martin on August 31, 2006. Northrop Grumman announced formation of a new business unit (sector), effective January 1, 2006 called Technical Services.

In 2007 Northrop Grumman created the National Workforce Centers. The National Workforce centers are an alternative to Offshoring.^[25] Current locations are Auburn, AL; Corsicana, TX; Fairmont, WV; Helena, MT; Johnstown, PA; and Lebanon, VA. The Rapid City, SD location will be closing in January, 2012.^[26]

Three employees of Northrop Grumman (Thomas Howes, Marc Gonsalves and Keith Stansell) were freed in July 2008 after five years of captivity in Colombia during Operation Jaque. Tom Janis, also a former Northrop employee, was killed by the FARC shortly after their plane crashed in the Colombian jungle in 2003.^[27]

Business sectors[link]

As of April 2011, Northrop Grumman is made up of four business sectors:^[28]

• Aerospace Systems
• Electronic Systems
• Information Systems
• Technical Services

Subsidiaries[link]

• Scaled Composites

Corporate governance[link]

Kent Kresa was the CEO of the company from 1990, before the merger with Grumman in 1994, and led the serial-acquisition strategy for the company for the next 13 years with a total of 15 additional acquisitions after Grumman that include Litton, Logicon, Westinghouse's defense electronics business, Ryan Aeronautical and Newport News Shipbuilding, and TRW. He was required to retire in 2003 at age 65. At this point, Ronald Sugar, formerly the chief operating officer, took over as CEO.^[29] Sugar also served^[when?] as the company chairman of the board.^{[citation needed]}

In January 2010. Wes Bush succeeded Sugar as CEO and also assumed the position of company president.^[30]

Corporate headquarters[link]

Northrop Grumman has its headquarters in West Falls Church (previously Jefferson), unincorporated Fairfax County, Virginia, in the Falls Church area.^[31][32][33]

Northrop Grumman was headquartered in the Century City area of Los Angeles, California.^[34][35] but on January 4, 2010 announced plans to move to the Washington Metropolitan Area by 2011.^[36]

In January 2010 Northrop Grumman announced that it will move its headquarters to the Washington, DC area so the company can be closer to government customers.^[37] Wesley Bush, the new CEO of Northrop Grumman, stated that the company needed to be located close to Capitol Hill lawmakers and officials from intelligence and military communities.^[38] Northrop Grumman considered sites in Washington, DC and in suburbs in Maryland and Virginia.^[37] During the time of the announcement the company had not yet selected a headquarters site; the company planned to be at the new headquarters by the northern hemisphere Summer of 2011. Charles Proctor of the Los Angeles Business Journal said "In a way, the announcement was not a surprise" due to the trend of aerospace companies moving to the DC area and the fact that the newly hired CEO is from West Virginia. Proctor added that CEOs often move corporate headquarters to places that they want the headquarters located. Larry Kosmont, a Los Angeles area economic development consultant, described the move announcement as a "structural failure at all levels for Los Angeles County."^[38]

V. Dion Haynes of the Washington Post said that District of Columbia economic development officials were "pitching the city's urban hipness and proximity to Capitol Hill power brokers" to Northrop Grumman. In addition Maryland promoted its highly educated workforce and its large number of federal facilities, while Virginia marketed itself as a state with relatively low taxes.^[39]

In July 2010 the company announced it would purchase an existing building in Fairfax County and that it would schedule to move into the new building in the summer of 2011. The company planned to consolidate its Century City headquarters and its existing Arlington County, Virginia offices into the new headquarters. In July 2010 it employed about 40,000 in the Washington DC metropolitan area, including DC and surrounding Maryland and Virginia.^[31]

Accolades and criticism[link]

Northrop Grumman was named Forbes's Company of the Year in 2002.^[29] Forbes's announcement credited the company with "master[ing] the art of innovation."^[40] Northrop Grumman no longer appears on their list of America's 400 Best Big Companies, however.^[41] Northrop Grumman is credited with sponsoring educational programs^[42] and donating thousands of dollars to various charities.^[43][44]

Many members of the U.S. government have attended company events and spoken highly of the company and its contributions.^[45] In December 2007, Northrop Grumman Corporation was awarded the prestigious Ron Brown Award for Corporate Leadership, the only Presidential award recognizing companies for outstanding achievement in employee and community relations.^[46]

Environmental record[link]

Based on 2008 data, researchers at the Political Economy Research Institute of the University of Massachusetts Amherst identified Northrop Grumman as the 62nd-largest corporate producer of air pollution in the United States. According to their study, Northrop Grumman facilities released more than 23,798 pounds of toxic chemicals into the air in that year.^[47] The corporation has also been linked to 52 superfund toxic waste sites.^[48]

In 2003, the company was among 84 parties with which the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Department of Justice, and the state of New York reached an estimated US$ 15 million settlement for the rehabilitation of the Mattiace Petrochemical Company Superfund site in Glen Cove, Long Island.^[49] In the same year, Northrop Grumman agreed to pay $33,214 after EPA inspectors found hazardous waste violations at the Capistrano test site.^[50]

As a response to many of the previous claims, the company has stood up as an organization for social responsibility. Among the recent projects is the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory Project. To reduce the carbon footprint created by Northrop Grumman operations, and in anticipation of upcoming new regulations, the EHS Leadership Council championed an initiative in 2008 to develop a way to accurately quantify company-wide greenhouse gas emissions, and address the issue responsibly.

In 2008, Northrop Grumman launched its Environmental Sustainability program, which aims to advance Northrop Grumman’s commitment to environmental performance both internally and externally.^[51]

The company was named one of Computerworld's Top 12 Green-IT Organizations in October 2010 for its large-scale data center migration effort.^[52]

Political contributions and governmental ties[link]

From 1990-2002, Northrop Grumman contributed $8.5 million to federal campaigns.^[53] According to PAC summary data compiled by Source Watch, the company gave US$1,011,260 to federal candidates in 2005-2006 election cycle, compared to $10,612,837 given by all defense contractors in the same cycle.^[54] This donation amount was only behind that of General Dynamics and Lockheed Martin in the defense industry. The majority of the contributions, 63%, went to Republicans.^[55] Former Northrop Grumman Electronics Systems chief James G. Roche served for two years as Secretary of the Air Force for George W. Bush. As reported by the Los Angeles Times, Roche would eventually be nominated to head the Army, but would be forced to withdraw his nomination among accusations of mismanaging a contract with Boeing and of failing to properly handle the Air Force sexual assault scandals of 2003.^[56] According to CorpWatch, "at least seven former officials, consultants, or shareholders of Northrop Grumman" have held posts "in the Bush administration...including Deputy Secretary of Defense Paul Wolfowitz, Vice-Presidential Chief of Staff I. Lewis Libby, Pentagon Comptroller Dov Zakheim, and Sean O’Keefe, director of NASA." Wolfowitz and Libby have both since left the government amid scandals.

Scandals[link]

Northrop Grumman has had to deal with multiple scandals during its history. The company was sued in 1999 for allegedly knowingly giving the Navy defective aircraft. This suit seeks $210 million in damages and is ongoing.^[57] Then in 2003, the company was sued for allegedly overcharging the U.S. government for space projects in the 1990s.^[58] Northrop Grumman paid $111.2 million to settle that suit out of court.^[59]

Wikinews has related news: University study finds U.S. defense contract information in 'electronic waste' in Africa

In 1995, Robert Ferro, an employee for TRW, a company acquired by Northrop Grumman, discovered that satellite components manufactured for the United States Air Force (USAF) were faulty and likely to fail in operation. TRW allegedly suppressed Ferro's report of the problem and hid the information from the USAF, even after a satellite in space equipped with the faulty components experienced serious anomalies. Ferro later sued Northrop Grumman in federal court under the federal whistle-blower law. On April 2, 2009 Northrop Grumman agreed to pay $325 million to settle the suit. Ferro was awarded $48.8 million of the settlement. Northrop Grumman stated about the settlement that, "it believed that TRW had 'acted properly under its contracts' and that the company had substantive defenses against the claims."^[60][61]

From August 25 through September 2, 2010, Virginia's computer operations experienced a week-long computer outage. Northrop Grumman operated these systems under a $2.4 billion contract. As a result, as many as 45,000 citizens could not renew their drivers licenses prior to their expiration. Computer systems for 26 of the state's 89 agencies were affected and Governor Bob McDonnell announced that some data may be permanently lost.^[62][63] Northrop Grumman has apologized for the outage and will fund an investigation.^[64] Northrop Grumman had contributed approximately $75,000 to McDonnell's campaign.^[65]