United States presidential election, 2008
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Presidential election results map. Blue denotes states/districts won by Obama/Biden, and Red denotes those won by McCain/Palin. Numbers indicate electoral votes allotted to the winner of each state. Obama won one electoral vote (from Nebraska's 2nd congressional district) of Nebraska's five. |
|
The United States presidential election of 2008 was the 56th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on November 4, 2008. Democrat Barack Obama, then the junior United States Senator from Illinois, defeated Republican John McCain, the senior U.S. Senator from Arizona. Obama received 365 electoral votes, and McCain 173. The popular vote was 69,456,897 to 59,934,814, respectively. Obama received the most votes for a presidential candidate in American history.[2]
During the presidential election campaign, the major-party candidates ran on a platform of change and reform in Washington. Domestic policy and the economy eventually emerged as the main themes in the last few months of the election campaign after the onset of an economic crisis.
Nine states voted for a different party than they did in the 2004 election. Each had voted for the Republican nominee in 2004 and contributed to Obama's sizable Electoral College victory. The selected electors from each of the 50 states and the District of Columbia voted for President and Vice President of the United States on December 15, 2008. Those votes were tallied before a joint session of Congress on January 8, 2009.
Along with the Democratic and Republican parties, three other parties nominated candidates who appeared on the ballot in enough states to theoretically win the minimum 270 electoral votes needed to win the election. These were the Constitution Party, the Green Party, and the Libertarian Party. In addition, independent candidate Ralph Nader ran his own campaign.
This was the first U.S. presidential election since 1952 in which neither major party nominee was the incumbent president, nor the incumbent vice president, and the first since 1928 in which neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president was involved in the electoral process (either in primaries or at the convention). It was the first U.S. presidential election in which the nominees of both major parties were sitting U.S. senators.
This also was the first U.S. presidential election in which an African American was elected, as well as the first in which an African American won the nomination of one of the two major parties.
In 2004, President George W. Bush won reelection, defeating the Democratic nominee, Senator John Kerry. After Republican pickups in the House and Senate in the 2004 elections, Republicans maintained control of the executive and legislative branches of the federal government.
Bush's approval ratings had been slowly declining from their high point of almost 90% after 9/11,[3] and they were barely 50% by his reelection. Although Bush was reelected with a larger Electoral College margin than in 2000, during his second term, Bush's approval rating dropped more quickly, with the Iraq War and the federal response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005 being most detrimental to the public's perception of his job performance.[4][5]
By September 2006, Bush's approval rating was below 40%,[6] and in the November 2006 Congressional elections, Democrats gained the majority in both houses. Bush's approval ratings continued to drop steadily throughout the rest of his term.[7][8]
In the United States, there are two major political parties, the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. There are also several minor parties, usually called third parties, who have not won a presidential election since 1848 (Lincoln's National Union Party, which won in 1864, was a short-lived coalition of Republicans and Northern Democrats rather than an independent party), although in 1912 former President Theodore Roosevelt, as candidate of the Progressive Party (nicknamed the Bull Moose Party) came in second by a wide margin, defeating the Republican candidate.[9] Most media and public focus is on the two major parties.
Each major party hosts candidates who go through a nomination process to determine the presidential nominee for that party. The nomination process consists of primaries and caucuses, held by the 50 states, as well as Guam, Puerto Rico, Washington, D.C., U.S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands. The winner of each of these primary elections usually receives delegates proportional to the percentage of the popular vote that candidate received in each states. In many Republican primaries, all the state's delegates are awarded to the winning candidate. In the Democratic Party, high-ranking party members known as superdelegates each receive one vote in the convention. Whichever candidate has the majority of the delegates at the end of the primary elections is designated the presumptive nominee until he or she is formally nominated and endorsed for the presidency by his or her political party. This is done by the aforementioned delegates for each party.
- Barack Obama, U.S. Senator from Illinois
- Hillary Clinton, U.S. Senator from New York
- John Edwards, former U.S. Senator from North Carolina
- Bill Richardson, Governor of New Mexico
- Dennis Kucinich, U.S. Representative from Ohio
- Joe Biden, U.S. Senator from Delaware
- Mike Gravel, former U.S. Senator from Alaska
- Christopher Dodd, U.S. Senator from Connecticut
- Tom Vilsack, former Governor of Iowa
- Evan Bayh, U.S. Senator from Indiana
Media speculation began almost immediately after the results of the 2004 presidential elections became known. In the 2006 midterm elections, the Democrats regained majorities in both houses of Congress.[10] Early polls taken before anyone had announced a candidacy had shown Senators Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama as the most popular potential Democratic candidates.[11] Nevertheless, the media speculated on several other candidates, including Al Gore, the runner-up in the 2000 election; John Kerry, the runner-up in the 2004 election; John Edwards, his running mate; Delaware Senator Joseph Biden; New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson; Iowa Governor Tom Vilsack; and Indiana Senator Evan Bayh.[12]
Edwards was one of the first to formally announce his candidacy for the presidency, on December 28, 2006. This run would be his second attempt at the presidency.[13] Clinton announced intentions to run in the Democratic primaries on January 20, 2007.[14] Obama announced his candidacy on February 10 in his home state of Illinois.[14] None of the candidates received a significant bounce in their poll numbers after their official announcements.[15] Through most of 2007, even after it was evident Al Gore would not run, John Edwards and Al Gore each hovered between the third and fourth place spots in the polls behind Clinton and Obama.[16]
"Front-runner" status is dependent on the news agency reporting, and by October 2007, the consensus listed the three aforementioned candidates as leading the pack after several debate performances. The Washington Post listed Clinton, Edwards and Obama as the front runners, "leading in polls and fundraising and well ahead of the other major candidates".[17] Clinton led in nearly all nationwide opinion polling until January 2008.[16]
Comedian Stephen Colbert mounted his own campaign for the nomination in his home state of South Carolina, announcing it in October 2007.[18] Public Opinion Strategies conducted a poll and found Colbert nationally in fifth place at 2.3% behind Sen. Joseph Biden's 2.7% [19]
The early primaries and caucuses are considered the most critical of nomination process. Most candidates lacking support drop out after doing poorly in the Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary, and these states' results often shift national preferences, according to historical polling data.[20] The states that hold early primaries and caucuses are, chronologically, Iowa, New Hampshire, Nevada, and South Carolina. In 2008, Florida and Michigan moved their primaries into January against the Democratic Party's rules, and the results of these primaries were discounted and disputed until after the rest of the contests occurred.[21]
At the start of the year, support for Barack Obama began rising in the polls, passing Clinton for first place in Iowa; Obama ended up winning the Iowa caucus, with John Edwards coming in second and Clinton in third.[22] Obama's win was fueled mostly by first time caucus-goers and Independents and showed voters viewed him as the candidate of change.[22] Iowa is viewed as the state that jump-started Obama's campaign and set him on track to win the nomination and the presidency.[23] After the Iowa caucus, Joe Biden and Christopher Dodd withdrew from the nomination contest.[22]
Obama became the new front runner in New Hampshire when his poll numbers skyrocketed after his victory in Iowa.[24] The Clinton campaign was struggling after a bad loss in Iowa and no strategy beyond the early primaries and caucuses. According to The Vancouver Sun, "Campaign strategists had mapped a victory scenario that envisioned the former first lady wrapping up the Democratic presidential nomination by Super Tuesday on Feb. 5."[25] In what is considered a turning point for her campaign, Clinton had a strong performance at the Saint Anselm College, ABC and Facebook debates several days before the New Hampshire primary as well as an emotional interview in a public broadcast live on TV.[26] Clinton won that primary by 2% of the vote, contrary to the predictions of pollsters who consistently had her trailing Obama for a few days up to the primary date.[24] On January 30, 2008, after placing in third in the New Hampshire and South Carolina primaries, Edwards announced that he was suspending his campaign for the presidency, but he did not initially endorse any remaining candidate.[27][28]
Super Tuesday occurred on February 5, 2008, during which the largest-ever number of simultaneous state primary elections was held.[29] Super Tuesday ended up leaving the Democrats in a virtual tie, with Obama amassing 847 delegates to Clinton's 834 from the 23 states that held Democratic primaries.[30]
Earlier, on February 3 on the UCLA campus, celebrities Oprah Winfrey, Caroline Kennedy and Stevie Wonder, among others, made appearances to show support for Barack Obama in a rally led by Michelle Obama.[31] In addition, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger's wife at the time, Maria Shriver, endorsed Obama.[32] California was one of the Super Tuesday states that were rich in delegates. Obama trailed in the California polling by an average of 6.0% before the primary; he ended up losing the state by 8.3%.[33] Some analysts cited a large Latino turnout that voted for Clinton as the deciding factor.[34]
Louisiana, Nebraska, Hawaii, Wisconsin, U.S. Virgin Islands, the District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia primaries and the Washington and Maine caucuses all took place after Super Tuesday in February. Obama won all of them, giving him ten consecutive victories after Super Tuesday.[35][36]
On March 4, Hillary Clinton carried Ohio and Rhode Island in the Democratic primaries; some considered these wins, especially Ohio, a surprise upset,[37] although she led in the polling averages in both states.[33][38] She also carried the primary in Texas, but Obama won the Texas caucuses held the same day and netted more delegates from the state than Clinton.[39]
Only one state held a primary in April. This was Pennsylvania, on April 22. Although Obama made a strong effort to win Pennsylvania, Hillary Clinton won the primary by nearly 10%, with approximately 55% of the vote.[40] Obama had outspent Clinton three to one in Pennsylvania, but his comment at a San Francisco fundraiser that small-town Americans "cling" to guns and religion drew sharp criticism from the Clinton campaign and may have hurt his chances in the Keystone State.[41] In addition, Clinton had several advantages in Pennsylvania. Throughout the primary process, she relied on the support of older, white, working class voters. Pennsylvania held a closed primary, which means that only registered Democrats could vote, and, according to Ron Elving of NPR, "The established Democratic electorate was older, whiter, more Catholic and more working-class than in most of the primaries to date."[42] After Pennsylvania, Obama had a higher number of delegates and popular votes than Clinton did and was still in a stronger position to win the nomination. Clinton, however, had received the endorsement of more superdelegates than Obama.[40]
On May 6, North Carolina and Indiana held their Democratic presidential primaries. Clinton and Obama campaigned aggressively there before the voting took place. The candidates acknowledged the importance of these primaries and said they were turning point states that could make or break either of their campaigns.[43] Polling had shown Obama a few points ahead in North Carolina and Clinton similarly leading in Indiana.[44][45] In the actual results, Obama outperformed the polls by several points in both states, winning by a significant margin in North Carolina[46] and losing by only 1.1% in Indiana (50.56% to 49.44%).[47] After these primaries, most pundits declared that it had become increasingly improbable, if not impossible, for Clinton to win the nomination.[48] The small win in Indiana barely kept her campaign alive for the next month.[49] Although she did manage to win the majority of the remaining primaries and delegates, it was not enough to overcome Obama's substantial delegate lead.
During late 2007, the two parties adopted rules against states' moving their primaries to an earlier date in the year. For the Republicans, the penalty for this violation was supposed to be the loss of half the state party's delegates to the convention. The Democratic penalty was the complete exclusion from the national convention of delegates from states that broke these rules. The Democratic Party allowed only four states to hold elections before February 5, 2008. Initially, the Democratic leadership said it would strip all delegates from Florida and Michigan, which had moved their primaries into January. In addition, all major Democratic candidates agreed officially not to campaign in Florida or Michigan, and Edwards and Obama removed their names from the Michigan ballot. Clinton won a majority of delegates and popular votes from both states (though 40% voted uncommitted in Michigan) and subsequently led a fight to seat all the Florida and Michigan delegates.[50]
Political columnist Christopher Weber noted that while her action was self-serving, it was also pragmatic to forestall Florida or Michigan voters becoming so disaffected they did not vote for Democrats in the general election.[51] There was some speculation that the fight over the delegates could last until the convention in August. On May 31, 2008, the Rules and Bylaws Committee of the Democratic Party reached a compromise on the Florida and Michigan delegate situation. The committee decided to seat delegates from Michigan and Florida at the convention in August, but to only award each a half-vote.[52]
Technically the nomination process for major political parties continues through June of election year. In previous cycles the candidates were effectively chosen by the end of the March primaries. However, Barack Obama did not win enough delegates to secure the nomination until June 3, after a 17-month-long campaign against Hillary Clinton. Obama had a wide lead in states won, while Clinton had won majorities in several of the larger states. Because a form of proportional representation and popular vote decided Democratic state delegate contests, numbers were close between Clinton and Obama, the contest for the nomination continued into June 2008.[53] By May, Clinton claimed to hold a lead in the popular vote, but the Associated Press found her numbers accurate only in one close scenario.[54]
In June, after the last of the primaries had taken place, Obama secured the Democratic nomination for President, with the help of multiple super delegate endorsements (most of the super delegates had refused to declare their support for either candidate until the primaries were completed).[55] He was the first African American to win the nomination of a major political party in the United States.[56] For several days, Clinton refused to concede the race, although she signaled her presidential campaign was ending in a post-primary speech on June 3 in her home state of New York.[57] She finally conceded the nomination to Obama on June 7. She pledged her full support to the presumptive nominee and vowed to do everything she could to help him get elected.[58]
Not only was 2008 the first election since 1952 that neither the incumbent president nor the incumbent vice president was a candidate in the general election, but it was also the first time since the 1928 election that neither sought his party's nomination for president. Since term limits prevented Bush from seeking the nomination and being a candidate, the unique aspect was Vice President Cheney's decision not to seek the Republican nomination.[59][60] This left the Republican field just as open to a wide field of new candidates as the Democratic field.
- John McCain, U.S. Senator from Arizona
- Mike Huckabee, former Governor of Arkansas
- Mitt Romney, former Governor of Massachusetts
- Ron Paul, U.S. Representative from Texas
- Fred Thompson, former U.S. Senator from Tennessee
- Duncan Hunter, U.S. Representative from California
- Rudy Giuliani, former Mayor of New York City
- Alan Keyes, former U.S. ECOSOC Ambassador from Maryland
- Tom Tancredo, U.S. Representative from Colorado
- Sam Brownback, U.S. Senator from Kansas
- Tommy Thompson, former Governor of Wisconsin
- Jim Gilmore, former Governor of Virginia
Immediately after the 2006 midterm elections, media pundits began speculating, as they did about the Democrats, about potential Republican candidates for President in 2008.[11] In November 2006, Former New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani led in the polls, followed closely by Arizona Senator John McCain.[61] The media speculated that Giuliani's pro-choice stance on abortion and McCain's age and support of the unpopular Iraq War would be detriments to their candidacies.[11] Giuliani remained the frontrunner in the polls throughout most of 2007, with McCain and former Tennessee Senator Fred Thompson fighting for second place.[62] Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee, Giuliani, Former Massachusetts Governor Mitt Romney, and Texas Congressman Ron Paul announced their candidacies on January 28, February 5, February 13, and March 12, respectively.[63][64][65][66] McCain officially announced his candidacy on March 1, 2007, after several informal announcements.[67] In the third quarter of 2007, the top four GOP (Republican) fundraisers were Romney, Giuliani, Thompson, and Ron Paul.[68] MSNBC's Chuck Todd christened Giuliani and John McCain the front runners after the second Republican presidential debate in early 2007.[69]
Huckabee, after winning in Iowa, had little money and hoped for a third-place finish in New Hampshire. McCain eventually displaced Rudy Giuliani and Romney as the front runner in New Hampshire. McCain staged a turnaround victory,[70] having been written off by the pundits and polling in single digits less than a month before the race.[71]
With the Republicans stripping Michigan and Florida of half their delegates for moving their primaries into January 2008 against party rules, the race for the nomination was based there. McCain meanwhile managed a small victory over Huckabee in South Carolina,[72] setting him up for a larger and more important victory over Romney in Florida, which held a closed primary on January 29.[73] By this time, after several scandals, no success in the early primaries, and a third-place finish in Florida, Giuliani conceded from the nomination race and endorsed John McCain the next day.[74]
In February, McCain, besides winning Giuliani's support, was endorsed by California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger before the California primary took place on Super Tuesday. This gave him a significant boost in the polls for the state's primary,[75] which awarded the greatest number of delegates of all the states. On Super Tuesday, McCain won his home state of Arizona, taking all 53 delegates, and the largest of the Super Tuesday prizes, nearly all of California's 173 delegates. McCain also scored wins in seven other states, picking up 574 delegates.[76] Huckabee was the "surprise performer", winning 5 states and 218 delegates.[76] Romney won 7 states and 231 delegates.[76] Two days later, Romney suspended his presidential campaign, saying that if he stayed in the race, he would "forestall the launch of a national campaign and be making it easier for Senator Clinton or Obama to win".[77] His departure left Huckabee and Paul as McCain's only major challengers in the remaining primaries and caucuses. Romney endorsed McCain on February 14.[78]
Louisiana, Washington, Kansas, Wisconsin, and Washington held primaries in February after Super Tuesday. Despite McCain picking up big victories, Huckabee won Louisiana and Kansas. McCain narrowly carried the Washington caucuses over Huckabee and Paul, who amassed a large showing.[36] The Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico closed February for the Republicans. After Super Tuesday, John McCain had become the clear front runner, but by the end of February, he still had not acquired enough delegates to secure the nomination. In March, John McCain clinched the Republican nomination after sweeping all four primaries, Texas, Ohio, Vermont, and Rhode Island, putting him over the top of the 1,191 delegates required to win the GOP nomination.[38] Mike Huckabee then conceded the race to McCain, leaving Ron Paul, who had just 16 delegates, as his only remaining opponent.[79]
Along with the Democratic and Republican parties, three other parties nominated candidates with ballot access in enough states to win the minimum 270 electoral votes needed to win the election. These were the Constitution Party, the Green Party, and the Libertarian Party. In addition, independent candidate Ralph Nader ran his own campaign.
The Constitution Party nominated writer, pastor, and conservative talk show host Chuck Baldwin for President, and attorney Darrell Castle of Tennessee for Vice President.[80][81] While campaigning, Baldwin voiced his opposition to the Iraq war, the Sixteenth Amendment, Roe v. Wade, the IRS, and the Federal Reserve.[82]
The Green Party nominated former Democratic Congresswoman Cynthia McKinney of Georgia for President, and political activist Rosa Clemente from New York for Vice President. McKinney campaigned on a platform that supported single-payer universal health care, the withdrawal of American troops from Iraq and Afghanistan, reparations for African Americans, and the creation of a Department of Peace.[83]
The Libertarian Party nominated former Republican Congressman Bob Barr of Georgia for President, and his former rival for the Libertarian nomination Wayne Allyn Root of Nevada, for Vice President. During the 2008 presidential campaign, Barr advocated a reworking or abolishment of the income tax[84] and opposed the war in Iraq[85] and the Patriot Act.[86]
Sites of the 2008 National Party Conventions
- April 23–26, 2008: 2008 Constitution Party National Convention held in Kansas City, Missouri.
- May 23–26, 2008: 2008 Libertarian National Convention, held in Denver, Colorado.
- July 10–13, 2008: 2008 Green Party National Convention, held in Chicago, Illinois.
- August 25–28, 2008: 2008 Democratic National Convention, held in Denver, Colorado.
- September 1–4, 2008: 2008 Republican National Convention, held in Saint Paul, Minnesota.
An issue that was brought up was possible,[87][88][89] and then actual,[90][91][92] nomination by the Democratic Party. On August 28, 2008, when Obama formally accepted the Democratic nomination for President, he became the first African American to be nominated for President by a major political party.[90] The television audiences for both McCain's and Obama's acceptance speeches broke records, according to Nielsen ratings.[93]
The unpopular war in Iraq was a key issue during the campaign before the economic crisis. John McCain supported the war while Barack Obama opposed it. (Obama's early and strong opposition to the war helped him stand out against the other Democratic candidates during the primaries, as well as stand out to a war-weary electorate during the general campaign). Though McCain meant it as a peacetime presence like the United States maintained in Germany and Japan after World War II,[94] his statement that the United States could be in Iraq for as much as the next 50 to 100 years would prove costly. Obama used it against him as part of his strategy to tie him to the unpopular President Bush.
John McCain's support for the troop 'surge' employed by General David Petraeus, which was one of several factors credited with improving the security situation in Iraq, may have boosted McCain's stance on the issue in voters' minds. McCain (who supported the invasion) argued that his support for the successful surge showed his superior judgment. However, Obama was quick to remind voters that there would have been no need for a "surge" had there been no war at all, thus questioning McCain's judgment.
George W. Bush had become increasingly unpopular by the beginning of 2008. Polls consistently showed that only twenty to thirty percent of the American public approved of his job performance.[95][96] In March 2008, Bush endorsed McCain at the White House,[97] but Bush did not make a single appearance for McCain during the campaign. Bush appeared at the 2008 GOP convention only through a live video broadcast. He chose not to appear in person due to disaster events in the Gulf of Mexico in the aftermath of Hurricane Gustav. Although he supported the war in Iraq, McCain made an effort to show that he had disagreed with Bush on many other key issues such as climate change. During the entire general election campaign, Obama countered by pointing out in ads and at numerous campaign rallies that McCain had claimed in an interview that he voted with Bush 90% of the time, and congressional voting records supported this for the years Bush was in office.[98]
Before the Democratic primaries had even begun, the dichotomy of change versus experience had already become a common theme in the presidential campaign, with Senator Hillary Clinton positioning herself as the candidate with experience and Obama embracing the characterization as the candidate most able to bring change to Washington. Before the official launch of her campaign, aides for Clinton were already planning to position her as the 'change' candidate, as strategist Mark Penn made clear in an October 2006 memo titled "The Plan."[99] In his presidential run announcement, Obama framed his candidacy by emphasizing that "Washington must change."[100] In response to this, Clinton adopted her experience as a major campaign theme.[101] By early and mid-2007, polls regularly found voters identifying Clinton as the more experienced candidate and Obama as the "fresh" or "new" candidate.[102][103] Exit polls on Super Tuesday found that Obama won voters who thought that the ability to bring change was the most important quality in a candidate, who made up a majority of the Democratic electorate. By a margin of about 2-1, Clinton was able to make up for this deficiency by an almost total domination among voters who thought experience was the most important quality.[104] These margins generally remained the same until Obama clinched the Democratic nomination on June 3.
Obama campaigning as a symbol of change in
Cleveland,
Ohio with a "Change We Need" sign
Obama’s promised “universal health care, full employment, a green America, and an America respected instead of feared by its enemies”.[105] He used new media to “form a bond with his supporters” which helped him “appeal to the youth audience’s need to feel special, in-the-know, empowered and special”. This was best displayed in his text message announcement of Joe Biden as the vice-presidential candidate.[106] He has also declared, in his book The Audacity of Hope, that he did not experience a religious upbringing. Rather he developed his faith due to the church’s ability to motivate social change.[107] Bowdern wrote, "This is best exemplified in his “50 state strategy”, where he campaigned in states that historically would never vote for a Democrat. The 2008 presidential election saw a large youth turn out, up to 51%."[108]
John McCain quickly adopted similar campaign themes against Obama at the start of the general election campaign. Polls regularly found the general electorate as a whole divided more evenly between 'change' and 'experience' as candidate qualities than the Democratic primary electorate, which split in favor of 'change' by a nearly 2-1 margin.[109] Advantages for McCain and Obama on experience and the ability to bring change, respectively, remained steady through the November 4 election. However, final pre-election polling found that voters considered Obama's inexperience less of an impediment than McCain's association with sitting President George W. Bush,[110] an association which was rhetorically framed by the Obama campaign throughout the election season as "more of the same".
McCain appeared to undercut his line of attack by picking first-term Alaska governor Sarah Palin to be his running mate.[111] Palin had been governor only since 2006, and before that had been a council member and mayor of Wasilla. Nonetheless, she excited much of the conservative base of the GOP with her speech at the 2008 Republican National Convention, a group that was initially lukewarm toward McCain's candidacy.[112] However, media interviews suggested that Palin lacked knowledge on certain key issues, and they cast doubt among many voters about her qualifications to be Vice President or President.[113] Because of Palin's conservative views, there was also concern that she would alienate independents and moderates, two groups that pundits observed McCain would need to win the election.[114]
Polls taken in the last few months of the presidential campaign and exit polls conducted on Election Day showed the economy as the top concern for voters.[115][116] In the fall of 2008, many news sources were reporting that the economy was suffering its most serious downturn since the Great Depression.[117] During this period, John McCain's election prospects fell with several politically costly comments about the economy.
On August 20, John McCain said in an interview with Politico that he was uncertain how many houses he and his wife, Cindy, owned; "I think—I'll have my staff get to you."[118] Both on the stump and in Obama's political ad, "Seven", the gaffe was used to portray McCain as unable to relate to the concerns of ordinary Americans. This out-of-touch image was further cultivated when, on September 15, the day of the Lehman Brothers bankruptcy, at a morning rally in Jacksonville, Florida, McCain declared that "the fundamentals of our economy are strong," despite what he described as "tremendous turmoil in our financial markets and Wall Street."[119] With the perception among voters to the contrary, the comment appeared to cost McCain politically.
On September 24, 2008, after the onset of the 2008 financial crisis, McCain announced that he was suspending his campaign to return to Washington to help craft a $700 billion bailout package for the troubled financial industry, and he stated that he would not debate Obama until Congress passed the bailout bill.[120] Despite this decision, McCain was portrayed as not playing a significant role in the negotiations for the first version of the bill, which fell short of passage in the House. He eventually decided to attend the first presidential debate on September 26, despite Congress' lack of immediate action on the bill. His ineffectiveness in the negotiations and his reversal in decision to attend the debates were seized upon to portray McCain as erratic in his response to the economy. Days later, a second version of the original bailout bill was passed by both the House and Senate, with Obama, his vice presidential running mate Joe Biden, and McCain all voting for the measure.
All the aforementioned remarks and campaign issues hurt McCain's standing with voters. All these also occurred after the economic crisis and after McCain's poll numbers had started to fall. Although sound bites of all of these "missteps" were played repeatedly on national television, most pundits and analysts agree that the actual financial crisis and economic conditions caused McCain's large drop in support in mid-September and severely damaged his campaign.[121][122]
The Commission on Presidential Debates announced four debates:[123]
- September 26: The first presidential debate took place at the University of Mississippi. The central issues debated were supposed to be foreign policy and national security. However, due to the economic climate, some questions appeared on this topic. The debate was formatted into nine nine-minute segments, and the moderator, Jim Lehrer of PBS, introduced the topics.[124]
- October 2: The vice-presidential debate was hosted at Washington University in St. Louis, and was moderated by Gwen Ifill of PBS.[125]
- October 7: The second presidential debate took place at Belmont University. It was a town meeting format debate moderated by NBC News anchor Tom Brokaw, and addressed issues raised by members of the audience, particularly the economy.[126]
- October 15: The third and final presidential debate was hosted at Hofstra University. It focused on domestic and economic policy. Like the first presidential debate, it was formatted into segments, with moderator Bob Schieffer introducing the topics.[126]
Another debate was sponsored by the Columbia University political union and took place there on October 19. All candidates who could theoretically win the 270 electoral votes needed to win the election were invited, and Ralph Nader, Cynthia McKinney, and Chuck Baldwin agreed to attend. Amy Goodman, principal host of Democracy Now!, moderated. It was broadcast on cable by C-SPAN and on the Internet by Break-the-Matrix.[127][128]
The reported cost of campaigning for president has increased significantly in recent years. One source reported that if the costs for both Democratic and Republican campaigns were added together (for the presidential primary election, general election, and the political conventions), the costs have more than doubled in only eight years ($448.9 million in 1996, $649.5 million in 2000, and $1.01 billion in 2004).[129] In January 2007, Federal Election Commission Chairman Michael E. Toner estimated that the 2008 race would be a $1 billion election, and that to be taken seriously, a candidate would have needed to raise at least $100 million by the end of 2007.[130]
Although he had said he would not be running for president, published reports in 2007 indicated that billionaire and New York City mayor Michael Bloomberg had been considering a presidential bid as an independent with up to $1 billion of his own fortune to finance it.[131] Bloomberg ultimately ended this speculation by unequivocally stating that he would not run.[132]
With the increase in money expenditures, many candidates did not use the public financing system funded by the presidential election campaign fund checkoff. John McCain,[133] Tom Tancredo,[134] John Edwards,[135] Chris Dodd,[136] and Joe Biden[137] qualified for and elected to take public funds throughout the primary process. Major Democratic candidates Hillary Clinton and Barack Obama chose not to participate in the public financing system.[138]
Howard Dean collected large contributions through the Internet in his 2004 primary run. In 2008, candidates went even further to reach out to Internet users through their own sites and such sites as YouTube, MySpace, and Facebook.[139][140]
Democratic Party candidate Barack Obama created a broad popular movement and a new method of campaigning by courting and mobilizing activists, donations, and voters through the Internet. It was part of a campaign that mobilized grassroots workers in every state. Obama also set fundraising records in more than one month by gaining support from a record-breaking number of individual small donors.[141]
On December 16, 2007, Ron Paul collected $6 million, more money on a single day through Internet donations than any presidential candidate in US history.[142][143][144]
Anonymous and semi-anonymous smear campaigns, traditionally done with fliers and push calling, also spread to the Internet.[145] Organizations specializing in the production and distribution of viral material, such as Brave New Films, emerged; such organizations have been said to be having a growing influence on American politics.[146]
According to required campaign filings as reported by the Federal Election Commission (FEC), 148 candidates for all parties collectively raised $1,644,712,232 and spent $1,601,104,696 for the primary and general campaigns combined through November 24, 2008. The amounts raised and spent by the major candidates, according to the same source, were as follows:
| Candidate (Party) |
Amount raised |
Amount spent |
Votes |
Average spent per vote |
| Barack Obama (D) |
$778,642,962 |
$760,370,195 |
69,498,215 |
$10.94 |
| John McCain (R) |
$379,006,485 |
$346,666,422 |
59,948,240 |
$5.78 |
| Ralph Nader (I) |
$4,496,180 |
$4,187,628 |
738,720 |
$5.67 |
| Bob Barr (L) |
$1,383,681 |
$1,345,202 |
523,713 |
$2.57 |
| Chuck Baldwin (C) |
$261,673 |
$234,309 |
199,437 |
$1.17 |
| Cynthia McKinney (G) |
$240,130 |
$238,968 |
161,680 |
$1.48 |
Excludes spending by independent expenditure concerns.
Source: Federal Election Commission[147] |
In an October 17–20, 2008, NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll of registered voters, 2% said race made them more likely to vote for Barack Obama, 4% said it made them less likely to do so, and 2% were not sure. Race was not a major factor for the other 92% (margin of error was ±2.9%).[148]
A July 18–21, 2008, NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll showed that 20% of African American registered voters and 8% of white registered voters considered race the single most important factor when voting (margin of error was ±3.1%). This percentage increased in both groups from previous polls.[149]
A June 6–9, 2008, NBC News/Wall Street Journal poll showed that 17% were enthusiastic about Obama being the first African American president, 70% were comfortable or indifferent, and 13% had reservations or were uncomfortable (margin of error was ±3.1%).[150]
Hillary Clinton "openly solicited the votes of 'hard working white Americans'".[151] For Obama, race was the word to be avoided. He would often place white people behind him when in a hall speaking to a large black group in order to avoid racial imagery.[152] Obama had to deal with media related jibes, including Fox News labeling his wife as "Obama's baby-mama" and attempting to interpret a fist tap as either a racial move, or a "terrorist fist jab".[153]
Some pre-election controversies in the election revolved around challenges to voter registration lists, involving techniques such as caging lists alleged to constitute voter suppression.
Allegations of voter list purges using unlawful criteria caused controversy in at least six swing states: Colorado, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Nevada and North Carolina.[154] On October 5, 2008 the Republican Lt. Governor of Montana, John Bohlinger, accused the Montana Republican Party of vote caging to purge 6,000 voters from three counties which trend Democratic.[155] Allegations arose in Michigan that the Republican Party planned to challenge the eligibility of voters based on lists of foreclosed homes.[156] The campaign of Democratic presidential nominee Barack Obama filed a lawsuit challenging this. The House Judiciary Committee wrote to the Department of Justice requesting an investigation.[157]
Virginia election authorities were ordered by a federal judge to preserve late-arriving absentee ballots sent by active-duty military personnel following a suit by the McCain campaign. It alleged that the state sent absentee ballots late to service members.[158] According to federal law, absentee ballots must be mailed to troops in foreign countries at least 45 days before an election. The charge against Virginia was that the ballots were not printed until after the deadline and therefore were mailed late to soldiers abroad.[159]
Guam's 173,000 residents are U.S. citizens, and must obey U.S. laws passed in Washington, yet they have neither a voting member of Congress, nor votes in the Electoral College.[160] Since 1980, they have held a straw poll for president at the same time as the U.S. national elections. In 2007, Guam's legislature voted to move the straw poll up to September to draw attention to the choices of Guam's population and their continued disfranchisement,[160] but the governor vetoed the bill.[161] Obama won the 2008 Guam straw poll with 20,120 votes to McCain's 11,940.[162]
Libertarian candidate Bob Barr filed a lawsuit in Texas to have Obama and McCain removed from the ballot in that state.[163] His campaign alleged that both the candidates had missed the August 26 deadline to file, and were present on the ballot contrary to Texas election law. Neither candidate at the time of the deadline had been confirmed as the candidate for their respective parties. The Texas Supreme Court dismissed the lawsuit without explanation.[164]
In Ohio, identified by both parties as a key state, allegations surfaced from both Republicans and Democrats that individuals from out of state were moving to the state temporarily and attempting to vote despite not meeting the state's requirement of permanent residency for more than 29 days. The Franklin County Board of Elections referred 55 cases of possible voting irregularities to the local prosecutor.[165] Three groups attracted particular notice: 'Vote from Home,' 'Vote Today Ohio,' and 'Drop Everything and Come to Ohio.' Vote from Home attracted the most attention when thirteen of the group's members moved to the same location in eastern Columbus. Members of the group organized by Marc Gustafson, including several Marshall and Rhodes scholars studying at Oxford University, settled with Franklin County Prosecutor Ron O'Brien to have their challenged ballots withdrawn.[166][167][168][169] The Obama campaign and others alleged that members of the McCain campaign had also voted without properly establishing residency.[165] Since 1953, only six people in Ohio have gone to prison for illegal voting.[170]
A controversy arose regarding Obama's contact with Bill Ayers, a Professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and a former leader of the Weather Underground, a radical left organization in the 1970s.[171] Investigations by The New York Times, CNN, concluded that Obama does not have a close relationship with Ayers.[172][173][174] Ayers served on two nonprofit boards with Obama and in 1995, Ayers and his wife, Bernardine Dohrn, hosted a gathering at their home,[175] where Alice Palmer introduced Obama as her chosen successor in the Illinois State Senate.[173][176]
The matter was initially raised by Sean Hannity and other hosts on conservative talk radio programs, and then by moderator George Stephanopoulos during a debate between Clinton and Obama in April 2008. In October 2008, the matter was mentioned in attack ads, robocalls, mass mailings, and campaign speeches by Republican presidential candidate John McCain[citation needed] and vice presidential candidate Sarah Palin as an issue in the general election campaign. Obama has condemned Ayers' past,[177][178] and stated that he does not have a close association with him.[175]
Significant criticism was leveled at media outlets' coverage of the presidential election season. At the February debate, Tim Russert of NBC News was criticized for what some perceived as disproportionately tough questioning of Democratic presidential contender Hillary Clinton.[179] Among the questions, Russert had asked Clinton, but not Obama, to provide the name of the new Russian President (Dmitry Medvedev).[179] This was later parodied on Saturday Night Live. In October 2007, liberal commentators accused Russert of harassing Clinton over the issue of supporting drivers' licenses for illegal immigrants.[180]
On April 16, ABC News hosted a debate in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Moderators Charles Gibson and George Stephanopoulos were criticized by viewers, bloggers and media critics for the poor quality of their questions.[179][180] Many viewers said they considered some of the questions irrelevant when measured against the importance of the faltering economy or the Iraq war. Included in that category were continued questions about Obama’s former pastor, Senator Hillary Clinton’s assertion that she had to duck sniper fire in Bosnia more than a decade ago, and Senator Obama's not wearing an American flag pin.[179] The moderators focused on campaign gaffes and some believed they focused too much on Obama.[180] Stephanopoulos defended their performance, saying "Senator Obama was the front-runner" and the questions were "not inappropriate or irrelevant at all."[179][180]
In an op-ed published on 2008 April 27 in The New York Times, Elizabeth Edwards wrote that the media covered much more of "the rancor of the campaign" and "amount of money spent" than "the candidates' priorities, policies and principles."[181] Author Erica Jong commented that "our press has become a sea of triviality, meanness and irrelevant chatter."[182] A Gallup poll released on May 29, 2008 also estimated that more Americans felt the media was being harder on Hillary Clinton than they were towards Barack Obama.[183]
The Project for Excellence in Journalism and Harvard University's Joan Shorenstein Center on the Press, Politics and Public Policy conducted a study of 5,374 media narratives and assertions about the presidential candidates from January 1 through March 9, 2008. The study found that Obama received 69% favorable coverage and Clinton received 67%, compared to only 43% favorable media coverage of McCain.[184] Another study by the Center for Media and Public Affairs at George Mason University found the media coverage of Obama to be 72% negative from June 8 to July 21 compared to 57% negative for McCain.[185] An October 29 study found 29% of stories about Obama to be negative, compared to 57% of stories about McCain being negative.[186]
An October 22, 2008 Pew Research Center poll estimated 70% of registered voters believed journalists wanted Barack Obama to win the election, as opposed to 9% for John McCain.[187] Another Pew survey, conducted after the election, found that 67% of voters thought that the press fairly covered Obama, versus 30% who viewed the coverage as unfair. Regarding McCain, 53% of voters viewed his press coverage as fair versus 44% who characterized it as unfair. Among affiliated Democrats, 83% believed the press fairly covered Obama; just 22% of Republicans thought the press was fair to McCain.[188]
Final poll closing times on Election Day.
7:30PM EST [00:30 UTC] (3)
8PM EST [01:00 UTC] (15+DC)
8:30PM EST [01:30 UTC] (1)
9PM EST [02:00 UTC] (15)
10PM EST [03:00 UTC] (4)
11PM EST [04:00 UTC] (5)
1AM EST [06:00 UTC] (1)
Election Day was on November 4, 2008. The majority of states allowed early voting, with all states allowing some form of absentee voting.[189] Voters cast votes for listed presidential candidates but were actually selecting representatives for their state's slate of Electoral College.
A McCain victory quickly became improbable as Obama amassed early wins in his home state of Illinois, the Northeast, and the critical battleground states of Ohio (which no Republican has ever been elected President without winning) and Pennsylvania by 9:20 PM.[190] Obama won the entire Northeast by comfortable margins and the Great Lakes states of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota by double digits. McCain managed to hold on to traditionally Republican states like North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Montana, Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and his home state of Arizona. McCain, unlike Bush in 2000 and 2004, failed to win all the southern states: Obama won Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia. Obama also won the hotly contested states of Iowa and New Mexico, which Al Gore had won in 2000 and George W. Bush in 2004. Also, for only the second time since 1940 (1964 being the other), Indiana went Democratic, giving Obama all eight Great Lakes states, the first time a presidential candidate had done so since Richard Nixon in 1972.
CNN and Fox News called Virginia for Obama shortly before 11pm, leaving him only 50 electoral votes shy of victory with only six West Coast states (California, Oregon, Washington, Idaho, Alaska, and Hawaii) still voting. All American networks called the election in favor of Obama at 11:00 PM Eastern Standard Time as the polls closed on the West Coast. Obama was immediately declared the winner in California, Oregon, Washington, and Hawaii, McCain won Idaho, and the Electoral College totals were updated to 297 for Obama and 146 for McCain (270 are needed to win). McCain gave a concession speech half an hour later in his hometown of Phoenix, Arizona.[191] President-elect Obama appeared just before midnight Eastern Time on November 5 in Grant Park, Chicago, in front of a crowd of 250,000 people to deliver his victory speech.[192]
Cartogram of the Electoral Votes for 2008 United States presidential election, each square representing one electoral vote. The map shows the impact of winning
swing states. Nebraska, being one of two states that are not winner-take-all, for the first time had its votes split, with its
second congressional district voting for Obama.
Following Obama's speech, spontaneous street parties broke out in cities across the United States including Philadelphia, Houston, Las Vegas, Miami, Chicago, Columbus, Detroit, Boston, Los Angeles, Portland, Washington, D.C., San Francisco, Denver, Atlanta, Madison, and New York City[193] and around the world in London; Bonn; Berlin; Obama, Japan; Toronto; Rio de Janeiro; Sydney; and Nairobi.[194]
Later on election night, after Obama was named the President-elect, he picked up several more wins in swing states in which the polls had shown a close race. These included Florida, Indiana, Virginia, and the western states of Colorado and Nevada. All of these states had been carried by Bush in 2004. North Carolina and the bellwether state of Missouri remained undecided for several days. Eventually Obama was declared the winner in North Carolina and McCain in Missouri, with Obama pulling out a rare win in Nebraska's 2nd congressional district. This put the projected electoral vote count at 365 for Obama and 173 for McCain. Obama's victories in the populous swing states of Florida, Ohio, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Virginia contributed to his decisive win. The presidential electors cast their ballots for President and Vice President, and Congress tallied these votes on January 8, 2009.[195]
The voter turnout for this election was broadly predicted to be high by American standards,[196][197][198] and a record number of votes were cast.[199] The final tally of total votes counted was 131.3 million, compared to 122.3 million in 2004 (which also boasted the highest record since 1968, the last presidential election before the voting age was lowered to 18). Expressed as a percentage of eligible voters, 131.2 million votes could reflect a turnout as high as 63.0% of eligible voters, which would be the highest since 1960.[200][201] This 63.0% turnout rate is based on an estimated eligible voter population of 208,323,000.[201] Another estimate puts the eligible voter population at 212,720,027, resulting in a turnout rate of 61.7%, which would be the highest turnout rate since 1968.[202]
American University's Center for the Study of the American Electorate released a report on November 6, 2008, two days after the election, which concluded that the anticipated increase in turnout had failed to materialize.[200] That report was the basis for some news articles that indicated voter turnout failed to meet expectations.[203][204] When the remaining votes were counted after the release of the report, the total number of votes cast in the presidential election was raised to 131.2 million, which surpassed the American University report's preliminary estimate of 126.5 to 128.5 million voters by a factor of between 2% and 4%.
The election saw increased participation from African-Americans. African Americans made up 11.1% of the electorate in 2004, versus 13.0% in 2008.[205] According to exit polls, over 95% of African Americans voted for Barack Obama. This played a critical role in southern states such as North Carolina. 74% of North Carolina's registered African American voters turned out, as opposed to 69% of North Carolinians in general, with Obama carrying 100% (with rounding) of African American females and African Americans age 18 to 29, according to exit polling.[206] This was the case in Virginia as well where much higher turnout among African Americans propelled Obama to victory in the former Republican stronghold.[207] Even in southern states where Obama was unsuccessful, such as Georgia and Mississippi, due to large African American turnout he was much more competitive than John Kerry in 2004.[208][209]
| Presidential ticket |
Party |
Ballot access[210] |
Votes |
| Obama / Biden |
Democratic |
50+DC |
69,456,897 |
| McCain / Palin |
Republican |
50+DC |
59,934,814 |
| Nader / Gonzalez |
Independent |
45+DC |
736,804 |
| Barr / Root |
Libertarian |
45 |
524,524 |
| Baldwin / Castle |
Constitution |
37 |
199,314 |
| McKinney / Clemente |
Green |
32 |
161,195 |
| Others—total |
|
(see below) |
226,908 |
No other candidate had ballot access in enough states to win 270 electoral votes. All six candidates appeared on the ballot for a majority of the voters, while the 17 other listed candidates were available to no more than 30% of the voters.[211]
The following candidates (and/or parties) had ballot listing and/or write-in status in more than one state:[212]
- Alan Keyes (America's Independent Party) received 47,768 votes; listed in three states: Colorado and Florida, plus California (listed as American Independent), and also had write-in status in Kentucky, Ohio, Texas, and Utah.
- Ron Paul received 41,905 votes; listed in Louisiana (Louisiana Taxpayers) and in Montana (Constitution), with write-in status in California.
- Róger Calero (Socialist Workers Party) received 7,561 votes; listed in ten states. He was listed by name in Delaware, Minnesota, New Jersey, New York, and Vermont. James Harris was listed as his stand-in in Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, and Washington, and also had write-in status in California.
- Brian Moore (Socialist Party, see Brian Moore presidential campaign, 2008) received 6,566 votes; listed in eight states: Colorado, Florida, Iowa, New Jersey, Ohio, and Wisconsin, and Tennessee (independent) and Vermont (Liberty Union). He also filed for write-in status in 17 other states: Alaska, Connecticut, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New York, North Carolina, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and Wyoming.
- Gloria La Riva (Party for Socialism and Liberation) received 6,808 votes[213] nationally; listed in 12 states: Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Iowa, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Washington, and Wisconsin.
- Charles Jay (Boston Tea Party) received 2,420 votes; listed in Colorado and Florida, and in Tennessee (as independent), with write-in status in Arizona, Montana, and Utah.
- Tom Stevens (Objectivist) received 755 votes; listed in Colorado and Florida.
- Gene Amondson (Prohibition) received 653 votes; listed in Colorado, Florida, and Louisiana.
- Jonathan Allen (HeartQuake) received 483 votes; listed only in Colorado, with write-in status in Arizona, Georgia, Montana, Texas, and other states.
The following candidates (parties) were listed on ballot in only one state:
In Nevada, 6,251 votes were cast for "None Of These Candidates".[214] In the three states that officially keep track of "blank" votes for President, 103,193 votes were recorded as "blank".[215] More than 100,000 write-in votes were cast and recorded for a scattering of other candidates, including 62 votes for "Santa Claus" (in ten states) and 11 votes for "Mickey Mouse" (in five states).[216]
According to the Federal Election Commission, an unusually high number of "miscellaneous" write-ins were cast for president in 2008, including 112,554 tallied in the 17 states that record votes for non-listed candidates.[217] There were more presidential candidates on the ballot than at any other time in U. S. history, except for the 1992 election, which also had 23 candidates listed in at least one state.
Popular vote totals are from the official Federal Election Commission report. Congress certified the electoral vote totals on January 8, 2009.[195]
| Presidential candidate |
Party |
Home state |
Popular vote |
Electoral
vote |
Running mate |
| Count |
Pct |
Vice-presidential candidate |
Home state |
Elect. vote |
| Barack Obama |
Democratic |
Illinois |
69,456,897 |
52.92% |
365 |
Joe Biden |
Delaware |
365 |
| John McCain |
Republican |
Arizona |
59,934,814 |
45.66% |
173 |
Sarah Palin |
Alaska |
173 |
| Ralph Nader |
Independent |
Connecticut |
738,475 |
0.56% |
0 |
Matt Gonzalez |
California |
0 |
| Bob Barr |
Libertarian |
Georgia |
523,686 |
0.40% |
0 |
Wayne Allyn Root |
Nevada |
0 |
| Chuck Baldwin |
Constitution |
Florida |
199,314 |
0.15% |
0 |
Darrell Castle |
Tennessee |
0 |
| Cynthia McKinney |
Green |
Georgia |
161,603 |
0.12% |
0 |
Rosa Clemente |
North Carolina |
0 |
| Other |
242,539 |
0.18% |
— |
Other |
— |
| Total |
131,257,328 |
100% |
538 |
|
538 |
| Needed to win |
270 |
|
270 |
- Results by state
This table records the official final state election-board tallies for those presidential candidates who were listed on ballots in enough states to have a theoretical chance for a majority in the Electoral College. The first two columns contain the state name and its number of electors. Bold indicates statewide vote count winner in each state and winners in each electoral district of Maine and Nebraska, the only two states that apportion electoral votes by district. State popular vote results are from the official Federal Election Commission report. Four states, Georgia, Illinois, New York, and Ohio, have since amended the popular vote results. The updated Georgia results, Illinois results, New York results, and Ohio results are included here. The two rightmost columns show 1)Obama's percentage margin over McCain and 2)the percentage cast for the two major candidates combined.
| State |
Electors |
Obama votes |
% |
McCain votes |
% |
Nader votes |
% |
Barr votes |
% |
Baldwin votes |
% |
McKinney votes |
% |
Others votes |
% |
Obama – McCain |
Obama + McCain |
| Alabama |
9 |
813,479 |
38.74 |
1,266,546 |
60.32 |
6,788 |
0.323 |
4,991 |
0.238 |
4,310 |
0.205 |
|
|
3,705 |
0.176 |
−21.58 |
99.06 |
| Alaska |
3 |
123,594 |
37.89 |
193,841 |
59.42 |
3,783 |
1.16 |
1,589 |
0.487 |
1,660 |
0.509 |
|
|
1,730 |
0.530 |
−21.54 |
97.31 |
| Arizona |
10 |
1,034,707 |
45.12 |
1,230,111 |
53.64 |
11,301 |
0.493 |
12,555 |
0.547 |
1,371 |
0.060 |
3,406 |
0.149 |
24 |
0.001 |
−8.52 |
98.75 |
| Arkansas |
6 |
422,310 |
38.86 |
638,017 |
58.72 |
12,882 |
1.19 |
4,776 |
0.440 |
4,023 |
0.370 |
3,470 |
0.319 |
1,139 |
0.105 |
−19.85 |
97.58 |
| California |
55 |
8,274,473 |
61.01 |
5,011,781 |
36.95 |
108,381 |
0.799 |
67,582 |
0.498 |
3,145 |
0.023 |
38,774 |
0.286 |
57,764 |
0.426 |
24.06 |
97.97 |
| Colorado |
9 |
1,288,576 |
53.66 |
1,073,589 |
44.71 |
13,350 |
0.556 |
10,897 |
0.454 |
6,233 |
0.260 |
2,822 |
0.118 |
5,894 |
0.245 |
8.95 |
98.37 |
| Connecticut |
7 |
997,772 |
60.59 |
629,428 |
38.22 |
19,162 |
1.16 |
|
|
311 |
0.019 |
90 |
0.005 |
29 |
0.002 |
22.37 |
98.81 |
| Delaware |
3 |
255,459 |
61.94 |
152,374 |
36.95 |
2,401 |
0.582 |
1,109 |
0.269 |
626 |
0.152 |
385 |
0.093 |
58 |
0.014 |
25.00 |
98.89 |
| District of Columbia |
3 |
245,800 |
92.46 |
17,367 |
6.53 |
958 |
0.360 |
|
|
|
|
590 |
0.222 |
1,138 |
0.428 |
85.92 |
98.99 |
| Florida |
27 |
4,282,074 |
51.03 |
4,045,624 |
48.22 |
28,124 |
0.335 |
17,218 |
0.205 |
7,915 |
0.094 |
2,887 |
0.034 |
6,902 |
0.082 |
2.82 |
99.25 |
| Georgia |
15 |
1,844,123 |
46.99 |
2,048,759 |
52.20 |
1,158 |
0.030 |
28,731 |
0.732 |
1,402 |
0.036 |
250 |
0.006 |
63 |
0.002 |
−5.21 |
99.19 |
| Hawaii |
4 |
325,871 |
71.85 |
120,566 |
26.58 |
3,825 |
0.843 |
1,314 |
0.290 |
1,013 |
0.223 |
979 |
0.216 |
|
|
45.26 |
98.43 |
| Idaho |
4 |
236,440 |
36.10 |
403,012 |
61.53 |
7,175 |
1.10 |
3,658 |
0.558 |
4,747 |
0.725 |
|
|
|
|
−25.43 |
97.62 |
| Illinois |
21 |
3,419,348 |
61.92 |
2,031,179 |
36.78 |
30,948 |
0.560 |
19,642 |
0.356 |
8,256 |
0.150 |
11,838 |
0.214 |
1,160 |
0.021 |
25.14 |
98.70 |
| Indiana |
11 |
1,374,039 |
49.95 |
1,345,648 |
48.91 |
909 |
0.033 |
29,257 |
1.06 |
1,024 |
0.037 |
87 |
0.003 |
90 |
0.003 |
1.03 |
98.86 |
| Iowa |
7 |
828,940 |
53.93 |
682,379 |
44.39 |
8,014 |
0.521 |
4,590 |
0.299 |
4,445 |
0.289 |
1,423 |
0.093 |
7,332 |
0.477 |
9.53 |
98.32 |
| Kansas |
6 |
514,765 |
41.65 |
699,655 |
56.61 |
10,527 |
0.852 |
6,706 |
0.543 |
4,148 |
0.336 |
35 |
0.003 |
36 |
0.003 |
−14.96 |
98.26 |
| Kentucky |
8 |
751,985 |
41.17 |
1,048,462 |
57.40 |
15,378 |
0.842 |
5,989 |
0.328 |
4,694 |
0.257 |
|
|
|
|
−16.23 |
98.57 |
| Louisiana |
9 |
782,989 |
39.93 |
1,148,275 |
58.56 |
6,997 |
0.357 |
|
|
2,581 |
0.132 |
9,187 |
0.469 |
10,732 |
0.547 |
−18.63 |
98.50 |
| Maine |
2* |
421,923 |
57.67 |
295,273 |
40.36 |
10,636 |
1.45 |
251 |
0.034 |
177 |
0.024 |
2,900 |
0.396 |
431 |
0.059 |
17.31 |
98.03 |
| ME 1st Dist. |
1 |
232,145 |
60.51 |
144,604 |
37.69 |
5,263 |
1.37 |
|
|
|
|
1,362 |
0.355 |
252 |
0.066 |
22.82 |
98.21 |
| ME 2nd Dist. |
1 |
189,778 |
54.61 |
150,669 |
43.35 |
5,373 |
1.55 |
|
|
|
|
1,538 |
0.443 |
179 |
0.052 |
11.25 |
97.96 |
| Maryland |
10 |
1,629,467 |
61.92 |
959,862 |
36.47 |
14,713 |
0.559 |
9,842 |
0.374 |
3,760 |
0.143 |
4,747 |
0.180 |
9,205 |
0.350 |
25.44 |
98.39 |
| Massachusetts |
12 |
1,904,097 |
61.80 |
1,108,854 |
35.99 |
28,841 |
0.936 |
13,189 |
0.428 |
4,971 |
0.161 |
6,550 |
0.213 |
14,483 |
0.470 |
25.81 |
97.79 |
| Michigan |
17 |
2,872,579 |
57.43 |
2,048,639 |
40.96 |
33,085 |
0.661 |
23,716 |
0.474 |
14,685 |
0.294 |
8,892 |
0.178 |
170 |
0.003 |
16.47 |
98.39 |
| Minnesota |
10 |
1,573,354 |
54.06 |
1,275,409 |
43.82 |
30,152 |
1.04 |
9,174 |
0.315 |
6,787 |
0.233 |
5,174 |
0.178 |
10,319 |
0.355 |
10.24 |
97.88 |
| Mississippi |
6 |
554,662 |
43.00 |
724,597 |
56.18 |
4,011 |
0.311 |
2,529 |
0.196 |
2,551 |
0.198 |
1,034 |
0.080 |
481 |
0.037 |
−13.17 |
99.18 |
| Missouri |
11 |
1,441,911 |
49.29 |
1,445,814 |
49.43 |
17,813 |
0.609 |
11,386 |
0.389 |
8,201 |
0.280 |
80 |
0.003 |
|
|
−0.13 |
98.72 |
| Montana |
3 |
231,667 |
47.25 |
242,763 |
49.52 |
3,686 |
0.752 |
1,355 |
0.276 |
143 |
0.029 |
23 |
0.005 |
10,638 |
2.17 |
−2.26 |
96.77 |
| Nebraska |
2* |
333,319 |
41.60 |
452,979 |
56.53 |
5,406 |
0.675 |
2,740 |
0.342 |
2,972 |
0.371 |
1,028 |
0.128 |
2,837 |
0.354 |
−14.93 |
98.13 |
| NE 1st Dist. |
1 |
121,468 |
44.34 |
148,179 |
54.09 |
1,970 |
0.719 |
929 |
0.339 |
1,019 |
0.372 |
393 |
0.143 |
|
|
−9.75 |
98.43 |
| NE 2nd Dist. |
1 |
138,752 |
49.96 |
135,439 |
48.76 |
1,621 |
0.584 |
1,007 |
0.363 |
604 |
0.217 |
321 |
0.116 |
|
|
1.19 |
98.72 |
| NE 3rd Dist. |
1 |
73,099 |
29.63 |
169,361 |
68.64 |
1,815 |
0.736 |
804 |
0.326 |
1,349 |
0.547 |
314 |
0.127 |
|
|
−39.01 |
98.26 |
| Nevada |
5 |
533,736 |
55.15 |
412,827 |
42.65 |
6,150 |
0.635 |
4,263 |
0.440 |
3,194 |
0.330 |
1,411 |
0.146 |
6,267 |
0.648 |
12.49 |
97.80 |
| New Hampshire |
4 |
384,826 |
54.13 |
316,534 |
44.52 |
3,503 |
0.493 |
2,217 |
0.312 |
226 |
0.032 |
40 |
0.006 |
3,624 |
0.510 |
9.61 |
98.65 |
| New Jersey |
15 |
2,215,422 |
57.27 |
1,613,207 |
41.70 |
21,298 |
0.551 |
8,441 |
0.218 |
3,956 |
0.102 |
3,636 |
0.094 |
2,277 |
0.059 |
15.57 |
98.98 |
| New Mexico |
5 |
472,422 |
56.91 |
346,832 |
41.78 |
5,327 |
0.642 |
2,428 |
0.292 |
1,597 |
0.192 |
1,552 |
0.187 |
|
|
15.13 |
98.69 |
| New York |
31 |
4,804,701 |
62.88 |
2,752,728 |
36.03 |
41,248 |
0.540 |
19,595 |
0.256 |
634 |
0.008 |
12,801 |
0.168 |
8,936 |
0.117 |
26.86 |
98.91 |
| North Carolina |
15 |
2,142,651 |
49.69 |
2,128,474 |
49.36 |
1,448 |
0.034 |
25,722 |
0.596 |
|
|
158 |
0.004 |
13,942 |
0.323 |
0.33 |
99.04 |
| North Dakota |
3 |
141,278 |
44.62 |
168,601 |
53.25 |
4,189 |
1.32 |
1,354 |
0.428 |
1,199 |
0.379 |
|
|
|
|
−8.63 |
97.87 |
| Ohio |
20 |
2,940,044 |
51.50 |
2,677,820 |
46.91 |
42,337 |
0.742 |
19,917 |
0.349 |
12,565 |
0.220 |
8,518 |
0.149 |
7,149 |
0.125 |
4.59 |
98.41 |
| Oklahoma |
7 |
502,496 |
34.35 |
960,165 |
65.65 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
−31.29 |
100.00 |
| Oregon |
7 |
1,037,291 |
56.75 |
738,475 |
40.40 |
18,614 |
1.02 |
7,635 |
0.418 |
7,693 |
0.421 |
4,543 |
0.249 |
13,613 |
0.745 |
16.35 |
97.15 |
| Pennsylvania |
21 |
3,276,363 |
54.64 |
2,655,885 |
44.29 |
42,977 |
0.717 |
19,912 |
0.332 |
1,092 |
0.018 |
|
|
|
|
10.35 |
98.93 |
| Rhode Island |
4 |
296,571 |
63.13 |
165,391 |
35.21 |
4,829 |
1.03 |
1,382 |
0.294 |
675 |
0.144 |
797 |
0.170 |
122 |
0.026 |
27.92 |
98.34 |
| South Carolina |
8 |
862,449 |
44.90 |
1,034,896 |
53.87 |
5,053 |
0.263 |
7,283 |
0.379 |
6,827 |
0.355 |
4,461 |
0.232 |
|
|
−8.98 |
98.77 |
| South Dakota |
3 |
170,924 |
44.75 |
203,054 |
53.16 |
4,267 |
1.12 |
1,835 |
0.480 |
1,895 |
0.496 |
|
|
|
|
−8.41 |
97.91 |
| Tennessee |
11 |
1,087,437 |
41.83 |
1,479,178 |
56.90 |
11,560 |
0.445 |
8,547 |
0.329 |
8,191 |
0.315 |
2,499 |
0.096 |
2,337 |
0.090 |
−15.07 |
98.73 |
| Texas |
34 |
3,528,633 |
43.68 |
4,479,328 |
55.45 |
5,440 |
0.067 |
56,116 |
0.695 |
5,395 |
0.067 |
831 |
0.010 |
2,781 |
0.034 |
−11.77 |
99.13 |
| Utah |
5 |
327,670 |
34.41 |
596,030 |
62.58 |
8,416 |
0.884 |
6,966 |
0.731 |
12,012 |
1.26 |
982 |
0.103 |
294 |
0.031 |
−28.18 |
96.99 |
| Vermont |
3 |
219,262 |
67.44 |
98,974 |
30.44 |
3,339 |
1.03 |
1,067 |
0.328 |
500 |
0.154 |
66 |
0.020 |
1,904 |
0.586 |
37.00 |
97.89 |
| Virginia |
13 |
1,959,532 |
52.63 |
1,725,005 |
46.33 |
11,483 |
0.308 |
11,067 |
0.297 |
7,474 |
0.201 |
2,344 |
0.063 |
6,355 |
0.171 |
6.30 |
98.96 |
| Washington |
11 |
1,750,848 |
57.65 |
1,229,216 |
40.48 |
29,489 |
0.971 |
12,728 |
0.419 |
9,432 |
0.311 |
3,819 |
0.126 |
1,346 |
0.044 |
17.18 |
98.13 |
| West Virginia |
5 |
303,857 |
42.59 |
397,466 |
55.71 |
7,219 |
1.01 |
|
|
2,465 |
0.346 |
2,355 |
0.330 |
89 |
0.012 |
−13.12 |
98.30 |
| Wisconsin |
10 |
1,677,211 |
56.22 |
1,262,393 |
42.31 |
17,605 |
0.590 |
8,858 |
0.297 |
5,072 |
0.170 |
4,216 |
0.141 |
8,062 |
0.270 |
13.90 |
98.53 |
| Wyoming |
3 |
82,868 |
32.54 |
164,958 |
64.78 |
2,525 |
0.992 |
1,594 |
0.626 |
1,192 |
0.468 |
|
|
1,521 |
0.597 |
−32.24 |
97.32 |
| U.S. Total |
538 |
69,498,215 |
52.93 |
59,948,240 |
45.66 |
738,720 |
0.563 |
523,713 |
0.399 |
199,437 |
0.152 |
161,680 |
0.123 |
226,979 |
0.173 |
7.27 |
98.59 |
-
Popular vote by county. Red represents counties that went for McCain, Blue represents counties that went for Obama. Connecticut, Hawaii, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont had all counties go to Obama. Alaska and Oklahoma had all counties go to McCain.
-
Presidential popular votes by county as a scale from red/Republican to blue/Democratic.
-
Cartogram of popular vote with each county rescaled in proportion to its population. Deeper blue represents a Democratic majority, brighter red represents a Republican majority.[218]
-
Voting shifts per county from the 2004 to the 2008 election. Darker blue indicates the county voted more Democratic. Darker red indicates the county voted more Republican.
States/districts in the 2008 United States Presidential election where the margin of victory was less than 5%. Blue states/districts went for Obama, red for McCain. Yellow states were won by either candidate by 5% or more. Nevada, Colorado, New Mexico, Virginia and Iowa were won by Bush in 2004 but were won by Obama by a margin of more than 5% in 2008.
Red font color denotes states won by Republican John McCain; blue denotes those won by Democrat Barack Obama.
States/districts where the margin of victory was under 5% (88 electoral votes):
- Missouri 0.14%
- North Carolina 0.32%
- Indiana 1.04%
- Nebraska's 2nd congressional district 1.19%
- Montana 2.25%
- Florida 2.82%
- Ohio 4.59%
States/districts where margin of victory was more than 5% but less than 10% (64 electoral votes):
- Georgia 5.21%
- Virginia 6.29%
- South Dakota 8.41%
- Arizona 8.52%
- North Dakota 8.63%
- Colorado 8.95%
- South Carolina 8.97%
- Iowa 9.54%
- New Hampshire 9.65%
- Nebraska's 1st congressional district 9.77%
The American presidential election was followed closely internationally.[219] When it was clear that Obama was victorious, many world leaders sent congratulations and well wishes to the President-elect.[220]
Obama, having a Caucasian mother and Kenyan father of the Luo ethnic group,[221] became the first African American and the first bi-racial president.[222] The Obama-Biden ticket was also the first winning ticket in American history on which neither candidate was a WASP; Biden is Roman Catholic and is the first Roman Catholic to be elected Vice President.[223] Obama and Biden were the first President and Vice President elected from the Senate since 1960 (John F. Kennedy/Lyndon B. Johnson), Obama became the first Northern Democratic president since Kennedy, and the Obama-Biden ticket was the first winning Democratic ticket to feature two Northerners since 1940 (Franklin D. Roosevelt/Henry A. Wallace). Also, Obama became the first Democratic candidate to win a majority of the popular vote since Jimmy Carter in 1976, the first to win a majority of both votes and states since Lyndon Johnson in 1964, and the first Northern Democrat to win a majority of both votes and states since Franklin Roosevelt in 1944.
Swing by state. States are listed by (increasing) percentage of Democratic votes, showing how the share of the vote changed between
2004 and 2008. Only five states trended more Republican: Arkansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Tennessee and West Virginia.
Prior to the election, commentators discussed whether Senator Obama would be able to redraw the electoral map by winning states that had been voting for Republican candidates in recent decades.[224] In many ways, he was successful. He won every region of the country by double digits except the South, which John McCain won by nine percent. Obama won Delaware, the District of Columbia, Maryland, North Carolina, Florida, and Virginia in the South (region as defined by the US Census Bureau). McCain won most of the Deep South, where white voters have supported Republican candidates by large margins in the last few decades.[225] Obama also defied political bellwethers, becoming the first person to win the presidency while losing Missouri since 1956 (as well as the first Democrat to do so) and while losing Kentucky and Tennessee since 1960. He was the first Democrat to win the presidency without winning West Virginia since 1916 and the first Democrat to win without Arkansas since that state joined the Union in 1836. Obama's victories in Indiana and Virginia were also noteworthy. Both states voted for the Democratic nominee for the first time in the 11 elections since 1964. Although Obama did not win other normally Republican states such as Georgia and Montana (which were won by Bill Clinton in 1992), he nonetheless was competitive in both. He lost Montana by just under 3% and Georgia by slightly more than 5%. Also notably, Barack Obama won all of the 2004 swing states (states that either Kerry or Bush won by less than 5%) by a margin of 8.5 percent or more except for Ohio, which the Democrat carried by 4.5 percent.
Obama was the first presidential candidate to split the electoral votes from Nebraska. Together with Maine, which has not yet split its electoral votes, Nebraska is one of two states that split their electoral votes, two going to the statewide popular vote winner and the rest going to the winner of each respective congressional district (Nebraska has three, and Maine has two). Obama won the electoral vote from Nebraska's 2nd congressional district, which contains the city of Omaha. Nebraska's other four electoral votes went to John McCain.
This election exhibited the continuation of some of the polarization trends evident in the 2000 and 2004 elections.[226] McCain won whites 55-43 percent, while Obama won blacks 95-4 percent[227], Hispanics 67-31 percent, and Asians 62-35 percent. Voters aged 18–29 voted for Obama by 66–32 percent while elderly voters backed McCain 53–45 percent.[228]
On January 8, 2009, the joint session of the U.S. Congress, chaired by Vice President Cheney as President of the Senate and Nancy Pelosi as Speaker of the House, announced and certified the votes of the Electoral College for the 2008 presidential election. The tellers were Chuck Schumer, Bob Bennett, Bob Brady, and Dan Lungren. From the electoral votes of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, Vice President Cheney declared 365 electoral votes for both Barack Obama of the state of Illinois and Joseph Biden of the state of Delaware and 173 electoral votes for both John McCain of the state of Arizona and Sarah Palin of the state of Alaska. Based on the results of the electoral vote count, Vice President Cheney declared officially that Obama was elected as President of the United States and Biden was elected as Vice President of the United States.[229]
Over 25% of the electorate was of a race besides Caucasian, a first for America.[230]
- ^ a b c d http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2008/2008presgeresults.pdf
- ^ "Obama, Dems win historic blowout victory". UPI. http://www.upi.com/news/issueoftheday/2008/11/05/Obama-Dems-win-historic-blowout-victory/UPI-40391225895936/. Retrieved August 25, 2010.
- ^ Benedetto, Richard; Page, Susan (January 13, 2003). "Bush's job approval lowest since 9/11". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/2003-01-13-bush-poll_x.htm.
- ^ "Katrina Response Hurts Bush Most". Political Wire. February 17, 2006. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071117202556/http://politicalwire.com/archives/2006/02/17/katrina_response_hurts_bush_most.html.
- ^ Gonyea, Don (September 23, 2005). "Katrina Aftermath, Iraq Lower Support Ratings for Bush". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4860458. Retrieved July 20, 2009.
- ^ "Historical Bush Approval Ratings". Hist.umn.edu. http://www.hist.umn.edu/~ruggles/Approval.htm. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Newport, Frank (April 11, 2008). "Bush Job Approval at 28%, Lowest of His Administration". Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/106426/bush-job-approval-28-lowest-administration.aspx. Retrieved July 22, 2009.
- ^ "National Job Approval: President George W. Bush". Pollster.com. http://www.pollster.com/polls/us/jobapproval-bush.php. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ In 1864, Abraham Lincoln was nominated for President by the National Union Party, which was a temporary renaming of the Republican Party in order to also include those Democrats who supported Lincoln's handling of the Civil War.
- ^ Kuhnhenn, Jim (November 9, 2006). "Democrats win control of Congress". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2006/11/09/democrats_win_control_of_congress/. Retrieved June 7, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ a b c Borger, Julian (November 11, 2006). "Now the real race begins...". London: The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2006/nov/11/midterms2006.usa2. Retrieved June 7, 2009.
- ^ Hughes, John (November 15, 2006). "With midterms over, all eyes turn to the 2008 presidential race". The Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1115/p09s01-cojh.html?s=widep. Retrieved June 7, 2009.
- ^ Balz, Dan (December 29, 2006). "Edwards Formally Joins 2008 Presidential Race". The Washington Post. http://media.www.thestentor.com/media/storage/paper850/news/2007/02/15/Features/Tough.Choice.For.2008.Democratic.Nominee-2723783.shtml. Retrieved June 7, 2009.
- ^ a b Taggert, Carlee (February 15, 2007). "Tough choice for 2008 Democratic nominee". The Stentor. http://media.www.thestentor.com/media/storage/paper850/news/2007/02/15/Features/Tough.Choice.For.2008.Democratic.Nominee-2723783.shtml. Retrieved June 7, 2009.
- ^ Langer, Gary; Craighill, Peyton (January 21, 2007). "Clinton Leads '08 Dems; No Bounce for Obama". American Broadcasting Company. http://www.abcnews.go.com/Politics/PollVault/story?id=2810376. Retrieved June 7, 2009.
- ^ a b "2008 National Democratic Presidential Primary". Pollster.com. http://www.pollster.com/polls/us/08-us-dem-pres-primary.php. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Balz, Dan (April 27, 2007). "Candidates Unite in Criticizing Bush". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/26/AR2007042602593.html. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Steinberg, Jaques (October 17, 2007). "Candidate Colbert". New York Times. http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2007/10/17/candidate-colbert/?scp=2&sq=Stephen%20Colbert%20announces%20campaign&st=cse. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
- ^ Chris Cillizza (October 22, 2008). "Poll Tries to Measure Colbert Effect". The Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/thefix/eye-on-2008/the-colbert-effect.html. Retrieved June 15, 2009.
- ^ Jones, Jeffrey (January 3, 2008). "Iowa, New Hampshire Results Often Shift National Preferences". Gallup. http://www.gallup.com/poll/103537/Iowa-New-Hampshire-Results-Often-Shift-National-Preferences.aspx. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ "Florida, Michigan Primary Do-Overs?". CBS News. March 6, 2008. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/03/06/politics/main3912975.shtml. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ a b c Crowley, Candy; Malveaux, Suzanne; Yellin, Jessica (January 4, 2008). "Obama wins Iowa as candidate for change". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/03/iowa.dems/index.html. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Steinhauser, Paul (April 22, 2009). "Back to where it began: Obama visits Iowa". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/04/22/obama.iowa/index.html. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ a b "2008 New Hampshire Democratic Presidential Primary". Pollster.com. http://www.pollster.com/polls/nh/08-nh-dem-pres-primary.php. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Alberts, Sheldon (June 7, 2008). "Overconfidence, bad strategy doomed Clinton campaign". The Vancouver Sun. http://www2.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=5c4b296c-38e6-454d-9edf-3c03d67aa4bd. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Hannah Strange and Philippe Naughton (January 9, 2008). "Hillary Clinton: my teary moment won me New Hampshire". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article3160177.ece. Retrieved March 14, 2008. See also: "Hillary tears up in New Hampshire Primary 2008" (Video). YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqGl-pDnYMQ.
- ^ "Edwards exits presidential race". CBS News. January 30, 2008. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/01/30/politics/main3768889.shtml?source=mostpop_story. Retrieved January 30, 2008.
- ^ Holland, Steve (January 30, 2008). "Giuliani, Edwards quit White House Race". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSN2964765820080131/. Retrieved January 30, 2008.
- ^ Greene, Richard Allen (May 30, 2007). "States jostle for primary power". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/6501241.stm. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Presidential primary and caucus dates" (PDF). Stateline.org. Pew Research Center. August 30, 2007. p. 1. http://archive.stateline.org/flash-data/Primary/2008_presidential_primaries.pdf. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "LA rally—Full Video". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZiNtTq10i0.
- ^ "Maria Shriver endorses Obama". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/03/shriver.obama/.
- ^ a b Nate Silver (August 11, 2008). "The Persistent Myth of the Bradley Effect". http://www.fivethirtyeight.com/2008/08/persistent-myth-of-bradley-effect.html.
- ^ Frank D. Russo (February 6, 2008). "Clinton Win in California Larger Than Polls Predicted Because of Huge Latino Turnout". Archived from the original on 2008-03-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20080313005908/http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/2008/02/clinton_win_in.html. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ "Election Center 2008: Primary Results from Maine". CNN. February 10, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/primaries/results/state/#ME. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ a b "2008 Primary Results". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21660914. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ "Clinton comeback: Fight goes on". The Seattle Times. March 5, 2008. http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/politics/2004261471_elexdems05.html. Retrieved March 5, 2008.
- ^ a b "Clinton wins key primaries, CNN projects; McCain clinches nod". CNN. March 5, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/04/march.4.contests/. Retrieved March 5, 2008.
- ^ "Election Center 2008 Primaries and Caucuses: Results: Democratic Scorecard". CNN. (regularly updated). http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/primaries/results/scorecard/#D.
- ^ a b Jensen, Kristin; Dodge, Catherine (April 23, 2008). "Clinton Wins Pennsylvania Vote; Obama Retains Control (Update6)". Bloomberg L.P.. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=asAZ87WefY6Y&refer=home. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Oinounou, Mosheh; Bruns, Aaron (April 12, 2008). "Obama on Guns and Religion: 'I Didn't Say It as Well as I Should Have'". Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/elections/2008/04/12/obama-on-guns-and-religion-i-didnt-say-it-as-well-as-i-should-have/. Retrieved June 8, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Elving, Ron (April 23, 2008). "Analysis: Clinton Needed Pennsylvania to Carry On". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89865397. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Schaper, David. "Looking Ahead to Indiana and N. Carolina Primaries". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=89967099. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Election 2008 – North Carolina Democratic Primary". RealClearPolitics. May 1, 2008. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2008/president/nc/north_carolina_democratic_primary-275.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Election 2008 – Indiana Democratic Primary". RealClearPolitics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/epolls/2008/president/in/indiana_democratic_primary-639.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "NC—Election Results". North Carolina State Board of Elections. May 7, 2008. http://results.enr.clarityelections.com/NC/1875/4822/en/summary.html. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ "Indiana Primary Election, May 6, 2008". Indiana Secretary of State. August 22, 2008. http://www.in.gov/apps/sos/primary/sos_primary08. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Rutenberg, Jim (May 8, 2008). "Pundits Declare the Race Over". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/08/us/politics/07cnd-pundits.html?_r=1. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ 3:33 a.m. ET (May 7, 2008). "NBC: Obama takes N.C. - Decision '08- msnbc.com". Msnbc.msn.com. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24481004/. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Hertzberg, Hendrik (June 2, 2008). "Memory Lapse". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/talk/comment/2008/06/02/080602taco_talk_hertzberg. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ Weber, Christopher (May 25, 2008). "'Why Hillary Continues To Run' by Hillary". Politics Daily. http://www.politicsdaily.com/2008/05/25/why-hillary-continues-to-run-by-hillary/12. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ "Florida, Michigan get all delegates, but each gets half vote". CNN.com. Archived from the original on June 2, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080602222431/http://us.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/05/31/dems.delegates/index.html. Retrieved May 31, 2008.
- ^ Jackson, John S.; Barbara Leavitt Brown (October 12, 1991). "The 1992 primary: proportional representation for Illinois Democrats". Illinois Issues. University of Illinois at Springfield. http://www.lib.niu.edu/1991/ii911010.html. Retrieved May 18, 2008.
- ^ "Fact check: Clinton vote claims under scrutiny". Associated Press. USA Today. May 15, 2008. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2008-05-15-495396467_x.htm. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
- ^ "Obama claims Democratic nomination—Decision '08- msnbc.com". Msnbc.msn.com. June 4, 2008. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/24944453/. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Zeleny, Jeff (June 4, 2008). "Obama Clinches Nomination; First Black Candidate to Lead a Major Party Ticket". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/04/us/politics/04elect.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Historic night: Obama clinches nomination—Bill Nichols and Ben Smith". Politico.com. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0608/10797.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "ABC News: Clinton Concedes Democratic Nomination; Obama Leads Party in Fall". Abcnews.go.com. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Vote2008/Story?id=5020581&page=1. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Harnden, Toby (November 13, 2007). "The top US conservatives and liberals". London: Telegraph.co.uk. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1435447/The-top-US-conservatives-and-liberals.html. Retrieved September 7, 2008.
- ^ Charles G. Dawes, 30th Vice President (1925–1929), U.S. Senate.
- ^ Vardi, Nathan (November 14, 2006). "President Rudy Giuliani?". Forbes. http://www.forbes.com/2006/11/14/leadership-giuliani-president-lead-manage-cz_nv_1114giuliani.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ "White House 2008: Republican Nomination". Pollingreport.com. http://pollingreport.com/wh08rep.htm. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Romano, Lois (January 29, 2007). "Huckabee Announces Presidential Bit". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/28/AR2007012800482.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Balz, Dan; Cillizza, Chris (February 6, 2007). "Giuliani Announces He's In '08 Presidential Race". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/05/AR2007020500723_pf.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Gonyea, Don (February 13, 2007). "Romney Announces His Candidacy for 2008". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7388715. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Martin, Gary (March 12, 2007). "Paul formally launches presidential bid". San Antonio Express-News. Archived from the original on 2007-03-15. http://web.archive.org/web/20070315195015/http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/metro/stories/MYSA031207.paul2008.EN.74141d9.html. Retrieved March 13, 2007.
- ^ Parker, Jennifer (April 25, 2007). "The Art of the Presidential Rollout". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Story?id=3074824&page=1. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ "Paul Raises More Than $3.5M in One Day". http://www.breitbart.com/article.php?id=D8SO0SCG0&show_article=1.
- ^ Todd, Chuck (May 15, 2007). "Winners & Losers". MSNBC. http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2007/05/15/192366.aspx. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ "Clinton and McCain the comeback kids". CNN. January 8, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/08/nh.main/index.html. Retrieved January 8, 2008.
- ^ Robin Toner and Marjorie Connelly (January 14, 2008). "New poll finds McCain reshaping GOP race". MSNBC (New York Times). http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/22641730/. Retrieved March 14, 2008. See also: "John McCain: Ultimate Survivor". The Star (South Africa). March 6, 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-05-17. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517231623/http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=4288771. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ "Election Center 2008: Primary Results for South Carolina". CNN. January 19, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/primaries/results/state/#SC. Retrieved January 19, 2008.
- ^ "McCain wins Florida, CNN projects". CNN. January 29, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/29/fl.primary/index.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ Montopoli, Brian (January 29, 2008). "For Giuliani, A Disappointing Fade To Exit". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/01/29/politics/main3768035.shtml?source=mostpop_story. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ "Schwarzenegger backs McCain for president". CNN. January 31, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/01/31/mccain.endorsements/index.html. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
- ^ a b c Johnson, Wesley (February 6, 2008). "Super Tuesday results state by state". London: The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/super-tuesday-results-state-by-state-778654.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ King, John (February 7, 2008). "Romney suspends presidential campaign". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/07/romney.campaign/index.html.
- ^ "Romney endorses McCain for GOP nomination". CNN. February 14, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/14/romney.mccain/index.html. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
- ^ "Huckabee bows to 'inevitable,' ends GOP run". CNN. March 5, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/05/huckabee/. Retrieved March 5, 2008.
- ^ Mannies, Jo (April 26, 2008). "At KC convention, Constitution Party picks pastor for president". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080530214447/http://www.stltoday.com/blogzone/political-fix/political-fix/2008/04/at-kc-convention-constitution-party-picks-pastor-for-president/. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Montana News Association (May 22, 2008). "BALDWIN 2008 PRESIDENTIAL CAMPAIGN KICKS OFF". Montana News Association. http://www.montanasnews.tv/articles.php?mode=view&id=11063. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Simon, Scott (October 18, 2008). "Chuck Baldwin On His Run For President". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=95822850. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Scott, Jeffry (July 12, 2008). "McKinney wins Green Party nomination". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/metro/stories/2008/07/12/mckinney_green_nomination.html. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ "Bob Barr: ‘We must both reduce and simplify taxes’". Independent Political Report. June 5, 2008. http://www.independentpoliticalreport.com/2008/06/bob-barr-we-must-both-reduce-and-simplify-taxes/. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Galloway, Jim (March 26, 2008). "Bob Barr thinking ‘very serious’ thoughts about a presidential race, Iraq, and torture". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://www.ajc.com/metro/content/shared-blogs/ajc/politicalinsider/entries/2008/03/26/bob_barr_very_serious_about_a.html. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Walker, Jesse (December 2003). "Bob Barr, Civil Libertarian. The right wing of the ACLU". Reason Magazine. http://www.reason.com/news/show/28960.html. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ Tilove, Jonathan (April 25, 2008). "White 'resistance' to Obama may be more pro-woman than anti-black". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://www.ajc.com/news/content/news/stories/2008/04/25/clinton_women0425.html. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ Parker, Jennifer (February 4, 2008). "Democratic Women Torn Between Clinton and Obama". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Vote2008/Story?id=4235711&page=1. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ Skolnick, David (January 9, 2008). "Making history Barack Obama could become first black U.S. president". The Vindicator. http://www.vindy.com/news/2008/jan/09/making-history-barack-obama-could-become-first/. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ a b "Obama makes history as Democratic nominee". CNN. August 28, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/27/dnc.main/index.html. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ "Obama Wins Democratic Presidential Nomination". Fox News. August 27, 2008. http://www.foxnews.com/politics/elections/2008/08/27/obama-wins-democratic-presidential-nomination/. Retrieved June 17, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Martin, Michel; Corley, Cheryl (August 28, 2008). "Obama Rewrites History, Clinches Nomination". NPR. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=94060795. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ Associated Press: McCain, Obama tied in TV audiences
- ^ Hendrik Hertzberg (January 4, 2008). "A Hundred Years' War?". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/hendrikhertzberg/2008/01/a-hundred-years.html. ; video at "McCain's Hundred Years War". Dallas Morning News Opinion Blog. January 3, 2008. http://dallasmorningviews.beloblog.com/archives/2008/01/mccains_hundred.html. [dead link]
- ^ Steinhauser, Paul (March 19, 2008). "Poll: Bush's popularity hits new low". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/19/bush.poll/. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "Confidence sinks to lowest since 2002 as fear tightens its hold on US consumers". International Herald Tribune. April 11, 2008. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/04/11/business/NA-FIN-ECO-US-Consumer-Confidence.php. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ "Bush says he wants McCain to win presidency". CNN. March 5, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/03/05/mccain.bush/index.html. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
- ^ Baker, Peter; Abramowitz, Michael (February 9, 2008). "History and Necessity Unite Bush, McCain". Washingtonpost.com. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/08/AR2008020800964_pf.html. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ ""The Plan," October 2006". http://www.theatlantic.com/a/green-penn-10-06.mhtml.
- ^ "Obama officially announces run for the White House". Chicago Business News. http://www.chicagobusiness.com/cgi-bin/news.pl?id=23835. Retrieved January 29, 2009. [dead link]. Video on YouTube.
- ^ Stein, Jason (February 18, 2008). "Clinton claims experience". Wisconsin State Journal. http://www.madison.com/wsj/home/local/273152. Retrieved June 17, 2009.
- ^ "The Voters Speak: Reasons Behind Support for Four Front-runners". http://www.gallup.com/poll/27052/Voters-Speak-Reasons-Behind-Support-Four-Frontrunners.aspx.
- ^ "Voters Remain in Neutral as Presidential Campaign Moves into High Gear". http://people-press.org/report/307/voters-remain-in-neutral-as-presidential-campaign-moves-into-high-gear.
- ^ "Keys to victory on Super Tuesday". February 6, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/02/05/super.issues/index.html. Retrieved May 26, 2010.
- ^ Simba, M. (2009). "The Obama Campaign 2008: A Historical Overview". Western Journal of Black Studies, 33(3), 186–191. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
- ^ Jackson, K. M., Dorton, H., & Heindl, B. (2010). A celebration that defined a generation: Grant park, new media, and Barack Obama's historic victory of the US presidency. The Journal of American Culture, 33(1), 40–51.
- ^ Obama, B. (2006). The Audacity of Hope. New York: Crown Publishers.
- ^ Bowdern, G. (2010). "Obama, Palin, and Weber: Charisma and Social Change in the 2008 U.S. Election". Canadian Review Of Sociology, 47(2), 171–190. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
- ^ "Change vs. Experience All Over Again". The Washington Post. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/the-trail/2008/06/09/change_vs_experience_all_over.html.
- ^ "Obama Ends Campaign Ahead In Ohio And Pennsylvania, Quinnipiac University Swing State Poll Finds". http://www.quinnipiac.edu/x2882.xml?ReleaseID=1225.
- ^ Friday, August 29, 2008 (August 29, 2008). "Sarah Palin—John McCain’s VP Choice". Outsidethebeltway.com. http://www.outsidethebeltway.com/archives/sarah_palin_-_john_mccains_vp_choice/. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ 11:32 p.m. ET (February 12, 2008). "Christian evangelicals send McCain a message". Msnbc.msn.com. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/23137096/. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ "Palin gets media savaging after faltering interview". AFP. September 26, 2008. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5i7lJ7uGNOkOTK964WwjybvKVDouA. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
- ^ "Sarah Palin seen as beacon of hope as defeat at poll looms". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/uselection2008/3205619/Sarah-Palin-seen-as-beacon-of-hope-as-defeat-at-poll-looms.html. [dead link]
- ^ "Gallup's Quick Read on the Election". Gallup.com. http://www.gallup.com/poll/109759/Gallups-Quick-Read-Election.aspx. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ "Exit polls: Obama wins big among young, minority voters". CNN.com. November 4, 2008. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/04/exit.polls/. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ "Investors Bail Out: The D word going cheap". www.nationalpost.com. September 16, 2008. http://www.nationalpost.com/opinion/columnists/story.html?id=058cc3ea-a0f8-4a8c-b767-8cd58f359c82. Retrieved February 15, 2009.
- ^ Martin, Jonathan; Allen, Mike (August 21, 2008). "McCain unsure how many houses he owns". Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0808/12685.html. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
- ^ Aigner-Treworgy, Adam (September 15, 2008). "McCain: Economy still 'strong'". MSNBC. http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/09/15/1399191.aspx. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
- ^ "Obama, McCain Meet In Mississippi". WAPT.com. December 29, 2008. http://www.wapt.com/news/18376597/detail.html. Retrieved December 30, 2008.
- ^ Schnur, Dan (November 3, 2008). "What caused McCain's poll numbers to fall?". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/web/la-oew-schnur-cain3-2008nov03,0,2312294.story. Retrieved January 29, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Nichols, Hans (October 15, 2008). "McCain May Have Last Chance to Overcome Economy in Final Debate". Bloomburg. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=aRnqc1XoUZFU&refer=home. Retrieved January 29, 2009.
- ^ "CPD: Commission on Presidential Debates Announces 2004 Sites and Dates". Archived from the original on 2008-07-13. http://web.archive.org/web/20080713221138/http://www.debates.org/pages/news_111907.html. Retrieved August 25, 2008.
- ^ Garofoli, Joe (September 26, 2008). "If held, tonight's debate could be key". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/09/26/MNUL1343DC.DTL&type=politics. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ "Vice presidential debate, Oct. 2, 2008". MSNBC. October 3, 2008. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27007283/. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ a b Parker, Jennifer (September 23, 2008). "Obama, McCain Prep for Presidential Debates". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/Vote2008/Story?id=5857679&page=1. Retrieved July 14, 2009.
- ^ "Free and Equal". Freeandequal.org. http://www.freeandequal.org/events.php?id=7. Retrieved November 3, 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "Third Party Debate at Columbia University : Nader, McKinney, Baldwin, Goodman". Nowpublic.com. http://www.nowpublic.com/world/third-party-debate-columbia-university-nader-mckinney-baldwin-goodman-0. Retrieved November 3, 2008.
- ^ Kennedy, Helen (January 14, 2007). "Wanna be Prez? First get $100M". New York Daily News. http://eldraque.newsvine.com/_news/2007/01/14/520561-wanna-be-prez-first-get-100 m. Retrieved February 1, 2007.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David (January 23, 2007). "Death Knell May Be Near for Public Election Funds". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/23/us/politics/23donate.html. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Smith, Ben (June 19, 2007). "Billion-Dollar elephant inches toward run". The Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0607/4560.html. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Bloomberg, Michael R. (February 28, 2008). "I’m Not Running for President, but ...". The New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://www.nytimes.com/2008/02/28/opinion/28mike.html. Retrieved July 18, 2008.
- ^ "McCain First Presidential Candidate Declared Eligible for Primary Matching Funds in 2008 Race" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. August 27, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20080828mccain.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Tancredo Second Presidential Candidate Declared Eligible for Primary Matching Funds in 2008 Race" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. September 12, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20070910tancredoa.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Edwards Third Presidential Candidate Declared Eligible for Primary Matching Funds in 2008 Race" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. November 1, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20071101edwards.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Dodd Fourth Presidential Candidate Declared Eligible for Primary Matching Funds in 2008 Race" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. November 27, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20071126dodd.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Biden Fifth Presidential Candidate Declared Eligible for Primary Matching Funds in 2008 Race" (Press release). Federal Election Commission. December 4, 2007. http://www.fec.gov/press/press2007/20071204biden.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Montopoli, Brian (April 9, 2008). "Obama Poised To Turn Down Public Financing". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2008/04/09/politics/main4004908.shtml. Retrieved July 15, 2009.
- ^ "Questions, not answers, highlight YouTube debate". CNN. July 24, 2007. http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/07/23/debate.main/. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ Stephanie Garry (June 8, 2007). "Candidates court young voters online". St. Petersburg Times. http://www.sptimes.com/2007/06/08/State/Candidates_court_youn.shtml. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ "Top Presidential Candidate 2008 Websites". Hitwise. http://www.hitwise.com/political-data-center/key-candidates.php. [dead link]
- ^ Kenneth P. Vogel (December 17, 2007). "'Money bomb': Ron Paul raises $6 million in 24-hour period". USA Today (The Politico). http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/election2008/2007-12-17-ronpaul-fundraising_N.htm. Retrieved March 14, 2008.
- ^ "Breaking News: Ron Paul campaign donors set a record". Los Angeles Times. December 17, 2007. http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/washington/2007/12/rp.html. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Larry Fester (November 5, 2007). "Ron Paul makes fund raising history". USA Daily. Archived from the original on January 12, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080112234617/http://www.usadaily.com/article.cfm?articleID=151377.
- ^ Reid, Tim (November 23, 2007). "Palmetto Bugs: Slingers of Slime Step it up in SC". New York Post. http://www.nypost.com/seven/11232007/news/nationalnews/palmetto_bugs_188986.htm. Retrieved September 15, 2008.
- ^ Rutenberg, Jim (June 29, 2008). "Political Freelancers Use Web to Join the Attack". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/29/us/politics/29opposition.html?_r=2&hp&oref=slogint&oref=slogin. Retrieved October 25, 2008.
- ^ "Financial Summary Report Search Results". fec.gov. http://query.nictusa.com/cgi-bin/cancomsrs/?_08+00+PR. Retrieved December 22, 2008.
- ^ http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/081021_NBC-WSJ_Poll_Full.pdf#page=26
- ^ http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/080723_NBC-WSJ_Combined.pdf#page=36
- ^ http://msnbcmedia.msn.com/i/msnbc/sections/news/080611_NBC-WSJ_Full.pdf#page=28
- ^ Staples, Robert (2010). "The Post Racial Presidency: The Myths of a Nation and its People". Journal Of African American Studies 14 (1): 134. DOI:10.1007/s12111-009-9102-9.
- ^ Staples, Robert (2010). "The Post Racial Presidency: The Myths of a Nation and its People". Journal Of African American Studies 14 (1): 130. DOI:10.1007/s12111-009-9102-9.
- ^ Walsh, Eileen T. (2009). "Representations of Race and Gender in Mainstream Media Coverage of the 2008 Democratic Primary". Journal Of African American Studies 13 (2): 134. DOI:10.1007/s12111-008-9081-2. http://ross.mayfirst.org/files/walsh-representations-of-race-2008.pdf.
- ^ Ian Urbina (October 9, 2008). "States’ Actions to Block Voters Appear Illegal". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/09/us/politics/09voting.html. Retrieved October 15, 2008.
- ^ John Bohlinger (October 5, 2008). "Republicans crossed line with voter purge attempt". The Montana Standard. http://www.mtstandard.com/articles/2008/10/05/opinion/hjjbijjejjigfj.txt. Retrieved October 15, 2008.
- ^ "Lose your house, lose your vote". Michigan Messenger. September 10, 2008. http://michiganmessenger.com/4076/lose-your-house-lose-your-vote.
- ^ "Conyers Calls on McCain to Immediately Halt Republican Vote Suppression Efforts". House of Representatives. September 19, 2008. http://judiciary.house.gov/news/080919.html.
- ^ FOXNews.com (November 4, 2008). "Judge Orders Virginia Officials to Keep Late Ballots—FOXNews.com Elections". Elections.foxnews.com. http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/11/04/judge-orders-virginia-officials-late-ballots/. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
- ^ Lewis, Bob (November 3, 2008). "McCain sues to force Va. to count military ballots". USA Today. Associated Press. http://www.usatoday.com/news/politics/2008-11-03-3570916134_x.htm. Retrieved November 7, 2008.
- ^ a b "Guam Legislature Moves General Election Presidential Vote to the September Primary". Ballot-Access.org. July 10, 2008. http://www.ballot-access.org/2008/07/10/guam-legislature-moves-general-election-presidential-vote-to-the-september-primary/. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
- ^ "Guam Bill to Move Presidential Election from November to September is Vetoed". Ballot-Access.org. July 25, 2008. http://www.ballot-access.org/2008/07/25/guam-bill-to-move-presidential-election-from-november-to-september-is-vetoed/. Retrieved September 17, 2008.
- ^ decision2008 results[dead link] kuam news
- ^ Hoppe, Christy (September 19, 2008). "Libertarian Bob Barr sues to have McCain, Obama cast off Texas' ballot". Dallas Morning News. http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/news/politics/state/stories/DN-barr_19pol.ART.State.Edition1.268aa61.html. Retrieved October 8, 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Young, Adam (September 24, 2008). "Texas court: McCain, Obama to remain on ballot". Daily Toreador. http://media.www.dailytoreador.com/media/storage/paper870/news/2008/09/24/News/Texas.Court.Mccain.Obama.To.Remain.On.Ballot-3447969.shtml. Retrieved October 8, 2008.
- ^ a b Niquette, Mark (2009-11-16). "Mark Niquette, "Vote-Fraud Cases Linger from 2008," Columbus Dispatch, November 16, 2008."". Dispatchpolitics.com. http://www.dispatchpolitics.com/live/content/local_news/stories/2009/11/16/copy/voter_fraud.ART_ART_11-16-09_A1_O9FM66J.html?sid=101. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ Niquette, Mark (2008-10-22). "Mark Niquette and Jill Riepenhoff, "'Voters' Flocking to Ohio," Columbus Dispatch, October 22, 2008". Dispatchpolitics.com. http://www.dispatchpolitics.com/live/content/local_news/stories/2008/10/22/copy/DEMS_STRIKE_BACK.ART_ART_10-22-08_A1_2JBLUBM.html?sid=101. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ JMKnapp, "Justice League Fosters a New Deal in Ohio," http://www.dailykos.com/story/2008/10/7/111641/812/250/620130
- ^ "What Voter Suppression Looks Like in Ohio: Fox News' Attacks on Vote from Home (Updated with Video)". Daily Kos. 2008-10-31. http://www.dailykos.com/story/2008/10/31/171324/92/547/648293. Retrieved 2010-12-21.
- ^ Jeane Macintosh, "Gotham-to-Ohio Vote Scam Eyed," New York Post, October 20, 2008; Resume of group leader with statement about Marshall scholars membership posted here [1]
- ^ Riepenhoff, Jill (2008-10-19). "Jill Riepenhoff, "Illegal Voters, or Just Getting Out the Vote?" Columbus Dispatch, October 19, 2008". Dispatchpolitics.com. http://www.dispatchpolitics.com/live/content/local_news/stories/2008/10/19/copy/Brownlee.ART_ART_10-19-08_A1_72BL2JG.html?adsec=politics&sid=101. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
- ^ Dan, Morain; Bob Drogin (2008-04-18). "Obama and the former radicals". Los Angeles Times. http://articles.latimes.com/2008/apr/18/nation/na-radicals18. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ Shane, Scott (2008-10-03). "Obama and ’60s Bomber: A Look Into Crossed Paths". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ a b "Fact Check: Is Obama 'palling around with terrorists'?". CNN. 2008-10-05. http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2008/10/05/fact-check-is-obama-palling-around-with-terrorists/. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ "Palin hits Obama for 'terrorist' connection". CNN. 2008-10-04. http://articles.cnn.com/2008-10-04/politics/palin.obama_1_swift-boat-like-attacks-sarah-palin-hari-sevugan?_s=PM:POLITICS.
- ^ a b Slevin, Peter (2008-04-18). "Former '60s Radical Is Now Considered Mainstream in Chicago". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/17/AR2008041703910.html. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ Smith, Ben (2008-02-22). "Obama once visited '60s radicals". The Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0208/8630.html. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ Scheiber, Noam (2008-02-22). "Parsing the Ayers Allegation". The New Republic. Archived from the original on 2008-04-30. http://web.archive.org/web/20080430130645/http://blogs.tnr.com/tnr/blogs/the_stump/archive/2008/02/22/parsing-the-ayers-allegation.aspx. Retrieved 2008-10-12.
- ^ Campaigns Do Battle Over Ayers, Keating CBS News, October 6, 2008
- ^ a b c d e Steinberg, Jacques (April 18, 2008). "Who Lost the Debate? Moderators, Many Say". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/18/us/politics/18moderator.html. Retrieved April 18, 2008.
- ^ a b c d Kurtz, Howard (April 18, 2008). "The Backlash Against ABC". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/18/AR2008041800912.html. Retrieved April 18, 2008.
- ^ Elizabeth Edwards (April 28, 2008). "Op-ed: Bowling 1, Health Care 0". NYTimes. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/27/opinion/27edwards.html?_r=2&hp=&oref=slogin&pagewanted=print.
- ^ Jong, Erica (May 5, 2008). "Inspiration Versus Degradation". The Huffington Post. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/erica-jong/inspiration-versus-degrad_b_98844.html.
- ^ "Public Says Media Harder on Clinton Than Obama, McCain". Gallup.com. http://www.gallup.com/poll/107557/public-says-media-harder-clinton-than-obama-mccain.aspx. Retrieved 2011-07-17.
- ^ "Character and the Primaries of 2008". The Project for Excellence in Journalism. May 29, 2008. http://www.journalism.org/node/11266.
- ^ "MEDIA BASH BARACK (NOT A TYPO)". Center for Media and Public Affairs. July 28, 2008. http://cmpa.com/Studies/Election08/election%20news%207_29_08.htm.
- ^ "The Color of News". Project for Excellence in Journalism. October 29, 2008. http://journalism.org/node/13436.
- ^ "Most Voters Say Media Wants Obama to Win". The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press. October 22, 2008. http://people-press.org/report/463/media-wants-obama.
- ^ High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama[dead link]. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- ^ Absentee and Early Voting Laws, from the Early Voting Information Center at Reed College
- ^ "NBC calls Ohio for Obama—First Read—msnbc.com". Firstread.msnbc.msn.com. November 4, 2008. http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/11/04/1639565.aspx. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Fouhy, Beth (November 5, 2008). "McCain concedes presidency, congratulates Obama". Tucson Citizen. http://tucsoncitizen.com/morgue/2008/11/05/101691-mccain-concedes-presidency-congratulates-obama/. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
- ^ Meincke, Paul (November 5, 2008). "Chicago could benefit from Obama election". Chicago: WLS-TV. http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=news/politics&id=6490862. Retrieved July 18, 2011.
- ^ "Scenes of joy across the US—Local News—News—General". The Canberra Times. November 5, 2008. http://www.canberratimes.com.au/news/local/news/general/scenes-of-joy-across-the-us/1352918.aspx. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Naughton, Philippe (November 5, 2008). "World celebrates Barack Obama victory". London: Times Online. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/us_elections/article5087886.ece. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ a b "United States House of Representatives floor summary for Jan 8, 2009". Clerk.house.gov. http://clerk.house.gov/floorsummary/floor.html?day=20090108. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ "Expected High Voter Turnout Has Government Officials, Watchdog Groups on Alert". Fox News. November 3, 2008. http://elections.foxnews.com/2008/11/03/expected-high-voter-turnout-government-officials-watchdog-groups-alert/. Retrieved November 7, 2008. ""The main thing that we all know is that there's going to be a huge turnout. There are going to be long lines, and any problems that occur will exacerbate because of those lines," said Robert M. Brandon, president of the Fair Elections Legal Network."
- ^ Urbina, Ian (November 3, 2008). "Voting experts say high turnout may add to problems at the polls". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/03/world/americas/03iht-03voting.17464681.html. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
- ^ "Huge turnout as America votes". The Australian. November 5, 2008. http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,24605006-2703,00.html. Retrieved July 16, 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Alban, Debra (November 7, 2008). "Number of votes cast set record, but voter turnout percentage didn't". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/11/06/voter.turnout/index.html. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
- ^ a b "Much-hyped Turnout Record Fails to Materialize" (PDF) (Press release). November 6, 2008. http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2008/images/11/06/pdf.gansre08turnout.au.pdf. Retrieved November 20, 2008.
- ^ a b "African-Americans, Anger, Fear and Youth Propel Turnout to Highest Level Since 1964" (PDF) (Press release). http://timeswampland.files.wordpress.com/2008/12/2008turnout-report_final11.pdf. Retrieved December 18, 2008.
- ^ "2008 Preliminary Voter Turnout". Elections.gmu.edu. March 12, 2009. http://elections.gmu.edu/preliminary_vote_2008.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Report: '08 turnout same as or only slightly higher than '04". CNN. November 6, 2008. http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2008/11/06/report-08-turnout-same-or-only-slightly-higher-than-04/.
- ^ "That huge voter turnout? Didn't happen". Politico. November 8, 2008. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15422.html.
- ^ "Black and Latino Turnout". http://www.nonprofitvote.org/voterturnout2008#minorities. [dead link]
- ^ "How Black Democrats won North Carolina and the Election: Massive Turnout, Week of November 13–19, 2008". The Wilmington Journal. November 24, 2008. http://wilmingtonjournal.com/News/search/ArchiveContent.asp?NewsID=92721&sID=.
- ^ The New York Times (November 4, 2008). "2008 Presidential Race: Virginia—Election Guide—The New York Times". Election Guide 2008 – The New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/president/states/virginia. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
- ^ The New York Times (November 4, 2008). "2008 Presidential Race: Georgia—Election Guide—The New York Times". Election Guide 2008 – The New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/president/states/georgia. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
- ^ The New York Times (November 4, 2008). "2008 Presidential Race: Mississippi—Election Guide—The New York Times". Election Guide 2008 – The New York Times (The New York Times Company). http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/president/states/mississippi. Retrieved June 2, 2009.
- ^ "2008 PETITIONING FOR PRESIDENT". Ballot-access.org. October 23, 2008. http://www.ballot-access.org/ballot-chart.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "Ballot Access News – November 1, 2008". Ballot-access.org. 2008-03-18. http://www.ballot-access.org/2008/110108.html. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ "Ballot Access News—November 1, 2008". Ballot-access.org. March 18, 2008. http://www.ballot-access.org/2008/110108.html#6. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ "12/12/92". Ballot-access.org. December 22, 2008. http://www.ballot-access.org/pres1.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ [2][dead link]
- ^ "2008 Presidential Election by State". Thegreenpapers.com. 2009-01-08. http://www.thegreenpapers.com/G08/President-Details.phtml?n=BLANK. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ "2008 Presidential Election by State". Thegreenpapers.com. 2009-01-08. http://www.thegreenpapers.com/G08/President-Details.phtml?n=OTHER. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ "Ballot Access News – February 1, 2009". Ballot-access.org. 2009-02-01. http://www.ballot-access.org/2009/020109.html. Retrieved 2010-02-23.
- ^ http://www-personal.umich.edu/~mejn/election/2008/
- ^ Coleman, Joseph (November 5, 2008). "World hopes U.S. election heralds new era". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/11/05/MNNA13U5IS.DTL. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
- ^ "World leaders hail Obama triumph". BBC News. November 5, 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/us_elections_2008/7711321.stm. Retrieved August 2, 2009.
- ^ Kilner, Derek (June 4, 2008). "Kenyans Welcome Obama's Democratic Party Nomination". VOA News. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2008-06/2008-06-04-voa44.cfm?CFID=30257441&CFTOKEN=32989567. Retrieved June 17, 2008.
- ^ Wallsten, Peter (November 5, 2008). "White Americans play major role in electing the first black president". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/asection/la-na-assess5-2008nov05,0,6354926.story. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
- ^ "America.gov". America.gov. November 7, 2008. http://www.america.gov/st/elections08-english/2008/November/20081107132624xjyrrep0.7660639.html. Retrieved July 16, 2009.
- ^ "Obama Over the Top: How New Voters Could Redraw The Electoral Map". Progress Illinois. http://www.progressillinois.com/2008/05/11/features/obama-over-the-top. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ Exit Polls, The New York Times, November 5, 2008.
- ^ Cost, Jay (November 20, 2008). "HorseRaceBlog—Electoral Polarization Continues Under Obama". RealClearPolitics. http://www.realclearpolitics.com/horseraceblog/2008/11/polarization_continues_under_o.html. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
- ^ Kuhn, David Paul (November 5, 2008). "Exit polls: How Obama won". Politico. http://www.politico.com/news/stories/1108/15297.html. Retrieved November 8, 2011.
- ^ "Exit poll". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/results/polls/#USP00p1. Retrieved January 30, 2009.
- ^ "Congress meets to count electoral votes". MSNBC. January 8, 2009. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/28555802. Retrieved January 8, 2009.
- ^ Alter, Jonathan (2010). The Promise President Obama, Year One. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-0119-3.
- Plouffe, David. The Audacity to Win. 2009
- Balz, Dan, and Haynes Johnson. The Battle for America 2008: The Story of an Extraordinary Election (2009), by leading reporters with inside information
- Crotty, William. "Policy and Politics: The Bush Administration and the 2008 Presidential Election," Polity, July 2009, Vol. 41 Issue 3, pp 282–311
- Curtis, Mark. Age of Obama: A Reporter's Journey With Clinton, McCain and Obama in the Making of the President in 2008 (2009)
- Nelson, Michael. The Elections of 2008 (2009), factual summary except and text search
- Sussman, Glen. "Choosing a New Direction: The Presidential Election of 2008," White House Studies, 2009, Vol. 9 Issue 1, pp 1–20
- Wolffe, Richard. Renegade: The Making of a President (2010) excerpt and text search, narrative
- Abramson, Paul R., John H. Aldrich, and David W. Rohde. Change and Continuity in the 2008 Elections (2009) excerpt and text search
- Corwin E. Smidt and others. The Disappearing God Gap? Religion in the 2008 Presidential Election (Oxford University Press; 2010) 278 pages. Finds that the gap between church-attending traditionalists and other voters is not closing, as has been claimed, but is changing in significant ways; draws on survey data from voters who were interviewed in the spring of 2008 and then again after the election.
- Crespino, Joseph. "The U.S. South and the 2008 Election," Southern Spaces (2008) online
- Jessee, Stephen A. "Voter Ideology and Candidate Positioning in the 2008 Presidential Election," American Politics Research, March 2010, Vol. 38 Issue 2, pp 195–210
- Kenski, Kate, Bruce W. Hardy, and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. The Obama Victory: How Media, Money, and Message Shaped the 2008 Election (Oxford University Press; 2010) 378 pages. Draws on interviews with key campaign advisors as well as the National Annenberg Election Survey. excerpt and text search
- Sabato, Larry. The Year of Obama: How Barack Obama Won the White House (2009)
- Todd, Chuck, and Sheldon Gawiser. How Barack Obama Won: A State-by-State Guide to the Historic 2008 Presidential Election (2009) excerpt and text search
|
State results of the United States presidential election, 2008
|
|
|
|
|
|
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130825225233/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small}
