Hallstatt culture depiction of Illyrian warriors: reproduction of the bronze Vače belt-plate found in Vače, Slovenia, and dated to the 5th century BC.

The Illyrians (English pronunciation: /ɪˈlɪəriəns/; Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυριοί; Latin: Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula (Messapia).^[1] The territory the Illyrians covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding to parts of the former Yugoslavia and Albania, between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of the Vjosë river in the south.^[2][3] The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from Periplus or Coastal Passage, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC.^[4]

These tribes, or at least a number of tribes considered "Illyrians proper", are assumed to have been united by a common Illyrian language,^[5] of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify it as a branch of Indo-European, while it was extinct by the 5th century AD.^[6] However, the name "Illyrians" as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. In fact, an Illyric origin was and still is attributed also to a few ancient peoples in Italy, in particular the Iapyges, Dauni and Messapi, as it is thought that, most likely, they had shored to the Peninsula, coming from the geographic "Illyria". The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as 'Illyrians', and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves.^[7] However, the name Illyrians seems to be the name of a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in contact with the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age,^[8] causing the name Illyrians to be applied to all people of similar language and customs.^[2]

The term "Illyrians" last appears in the historical record in the 7th century AD, referring to a Byzantine garrison operating within the former province.^[9] All the remaining tribes except perhaps the Romanized Vlachs^[10] were Slavicised in the course of the Middle Ages, while modern Albanian might have descended from a southern Illyrian dialect.^[11][12]

Illyrians in Greek mythology[link]

Illyrius and siblings.

In Greek mythology, Illyrius was the son of Cadmus and Harmonia who eventually ruled Illyria and became the eponymous ancestor of the whole Illyrian people.^[13] Illyrius had multiple sons (Encheleus, Autarieus, Dardanus, Maedus, Taulas and Perrhaebus) and daughters (Partho, Daortho, Dassaro and others). From these, sprang the Taulantii, Parthini, Dardani, Enchelaeae, Autariates, Dassaretae and the Daors. Autareius had a son Pannonius or Paeon and these had sons Scordiscus and Triballus.^[2] A later version of it is having as parents Polyphemus and Galatea that give birth to Celtus, Galas, and Illyrius.^[14] The second myth could stem perhaps from the similarities to Celts and Gauls.

Origins[link]

Ethnogenesis of the Illyrians.

The historical beginning of the peoples we later know as Illyrians is placed at approximately 1000 BC.^[15] The origin of the Illyrians remains a problem for modern prehistorians. The consensus of the primordialists^[16] is that the ethno-linguistic ancestors of the Illyrians, labelled Proto-Illyrians, branched off from the main linguistic Proto-Indo-European trunk before the Iron Age. Current theories of Illyrian origin are based on ancient remnants of material culture found in the area, but archaeological remains alone have so far proven insufficient for a definite answer to the question of the Illyrian ethnogenesis.^[17]

When the Proto-Illyrians became a distinct group remains unclear. They emerge out of the wider Paleo-Balkans group by the Iron Age, although, since the language is not known in any detail, it is uncertain which populations should be classed as "Illyrian" on ethno-linguistic grounds, and many tribes formerly classed as Illyrian are now considered Venetic.^[18]

An autochthonous model, assuming an Illyrian ethnogenesis in the Balkans, was proposed by Alojz Benać and B. Čović, archaeologists from Sarajevo, who hypothesize that during the Bronze Age there was a progressive Illyrianization of peoples dwelling in the lands between the Adriatic and the Sava river. This theory was also proposed and supported by Albanian archaeologists for the southern Illyrian tribes,^[19] while Aleksandar Stipčević says that the most convincing model of Illyrian ethnogenesis was that of autochthony, excluding Liburnians.^[20]

Identity and distribution[link]

Illyrian sites.

The name of Illyrians as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbours may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as 'Illyrians', and it is unlikely that they utilized any collective nomenclature for themselves.^[7] The term Illyrioi may originally have designated only a single people, that came to be widely known to the Greeks due to proximity.^[18] This occurred during the Bronze Age, when Greek tribes were neighboring the Illyrii proprie dicti, the southernmost Illyrian tribe of that time, in Zeta plain, Montenegro.^[8] Indeed, such a people known as the Illyrioi have occupied a small and well-defined part of the south Adriatic coast, around Skadar Lake astride the modern frontier between Albania and Montenegro. The name may then have expanded and come to be applied to ethnically different peoples such as the Liburni, Delmatae, Iapodes, or the Pannonii. In any case, most modern scholars are certain that the Illyrians constituted a heterogeneous entity.^[21]

Pliny, in his work Natural History, applies a stricter usage of the term Illyrii, when speaking of Illyrii proprie dicti ("Illyrians properly so-called") among the native communities in the south of Roman Dalmatia.^[22] A passage within Appian's Illyrike (stating that the Illyrians lived beyond Macedonia and Thrace, from Chaonia and Thesprotia to the Danube River) is also representative of the broader usage of the term.^[23]

History[link]

Hellenistic period[link]

Central and northern Illyrian tribes and neighbours during the Roman period.

Southern Illyrian and northwestern Greek tribes, 4th-3rd centuries BC.

Illyria appears in Greco-Roman historiography from the 4th century BC. The Illyrians formed several kingdoms in the central Balkans, and the first known Illyrian king was Bardyllis. Illyrian kingdoms were often at war with ancient Macedonia, and the Illyrian pirates were also a significant danger to neighbouring peoples. At the Neretva Delta, there was a strong Hellenistic influence on the Illyrian tribe of Daors. Their capital was Daorson located in Ošanići near Stolac in Herzegovina, which became the main center of classical Illyrian culture. Daorson, during the 4th century BC, was surrounded by megalithic, 5 meter high stonewalls (as large as those of Mycenae in Greece), composed out of large trapeze stones blocks. Daors also made unique bronze coins and sculptures. The Illyrians even conquered Greek colonies on the Dalmatian islands. Queen Teuta was famous for having waged wars against the Romans.

In the Illyrian Wars of 229 BC, 219 BC and 168 BC Rome overran the Illyrian settlements and suppressed the piracy that had made the Adriatic unsafe for Italian commerce.^[24] There were three campaigns, the first against Teuta the second against Demetrius of Pharos^[25] and the third against Gentius. The initial campaign in 229 BC marks the first time that the Roman Navy crossed the Adriatic Sea to launch an invasion.^[26]

The Roman Republic subdued the Illyrians during the 2nd century BC. An Illyrian revolt was crushed under Augustus, resulting in the division of Illyria in the provinces of Pannonia in the north and Dalmatia in the south.

Roman rule[link]

The Roman province of Illyricum.

The Roman province of Illyricum or Illyris Romana or Illyris Barbara or Illyria Barbara replaced most of the region of Illyria.^[27] It stretched from the Drilon river in modern Albania to Istria (Croatia) in the west and to the Sava river (between Bosnia and Herzegovina and northern Croatia) in the north.^[27] Salona (Solin near modern Split in Croatia) functioned as its capital. The regions which it included changed through the centuries though a great part of ancient Illyria remained part of Illyricum as a province while south Illyria became Epirus Nova.

Under Byzantine rule, there was again a prefecture of Illyricum, which was overrun by the Slavic incursions in the 7th century and was ultimately absorbed into the following Slavic states: 1) the First Bulgarian Empire, 2) the Serb Archonty, 3) the Croat Duchy, and 4) parts of the early Bosnian Kingdom.

War[link]

The history of Illyrian warfare spans from ca. 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Illyria. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Illyrian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans in Italy as well as pirate activity in the Mediterranean and Adriatic seas. Apart from conflicts between Illyrians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Illyrian tribes too.

Depiction in Greco-Roman ethnography[link]

Illyrians were regarded as an bloodthirsty, unpredictable, turbulent, and warlike peoples by Greeks and Romans.^[28] They were seen as savages on the edge of their world.^[29]

It was a stereotypical view of all northern "barbarians" and could represent a fearful impression of the Illyrians and their tenacity after fighting them.^[30] Polybius (3rd century BC) writes that "the Romans had freed the Greeks from the enemies of all mankind".^[31]

According to the Romans, the Illyrians were tall and well-built.^[32] Herodianus writes that "Pannonians are tall and strong always ready for a fight and to face danger but slow witted".^[33] Of course, this could also be considered a stereotype of the Romans used for identifying barbarians. The Roman historian Livy writes:^[34]