Virtue (, "arete") is moral excellence. A virtue is a trait or quality subjectively deemed to be morally excellent and thus is valued as a foundation of principle and good moral being. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual and collective well being. The opposite of virtue is vice.
Individual virtues can be grouped into one of four categories of values:
Examples of virtues include:
The four classic Western Cardinal virtues are: temperance: (sōphrosynē) prudence: (phronēsis) courage: (andreia) justice: (dikaiosynē)
This enumeration is traced to Greek philosophy and was listed at least by Plato, if not also by Socrates, from whom no attributable written works exist. Plato also mentions "Holiness".
It is likely that Plato believed that virtue was, in fact, a single thing, and that this enumeration was created by others in order to better define virtue. In Protagoras and Meno, he states that the separate virtues can't exist independently and offers as evidence the contradictions of acting with wisdom (prudence), yet in an unjust way, or acting with bravery (fortitude), yet without knowing (prudence).
The Bible Says: 2 Peter 1:5 ESV / 35 helpful votes
For this very reason, make every effort to supplement your faith with virtue, and virtue with knowledge,
The same rationale was followed by Plato in Meno, when he wrote that people only act for what they perceive will maximize the good. It is the lack of wisdom which results in the making of a bad choice, rather than a good one. In this way, wisdom is the central part of virtue. However, Plato realized that if virtue was synonymous with wisdom then it could be taught, a possibility he had earlier discounted. He then added "correct belief" as an alternative to knowledge, proposing that knowledge is merely correct belief that has been thought through and "tethered".
"Compassion" is a virtue that is especially important in the Jewish tradition. God is the Compassionate and is invoked as the Father of Compassion; hence Raḥmana or Compassionate becomes the usual designation for His revealed word. (Compare, below, the frequent use of raḥman in the Qur'an).
In Biblical Hebrew, sorrow and pity for one in distress, creating a desire to relieve, is a feeling ascribed alike to man and God ("riḥam," from "reḥem," the mother, womb). The Rabbis speak of the "thirteen attributes of compassion." The Biblical conception of compassion is the feeling of the parent for the child. Hence, the prophet's appeal in confirmation of his trust in God invokes the feeling of a mother for her offspring (Isa. xlix. 15).
Lack of compassion, by contrast, marks a people as cruel (Jer. vi. 23). The repeated injunctions of the Law and the Prophets that the widow, the orphan and the stranger should be protected show how deeply, it is argued, the feeling of compassion was rooted in the hearts of the righteous in ancient Israel.
A classic articulation of the Golden Rule (see above) came from the first century Rabbi Hillel the Elder. Renowned in the Jewish tradition as a sage and a scholar, he is associated with the development of the Mishnah and the Talmud and, as such, one of the most important figures in Jewish history. Asked for a summary of the Jewish religion in the most concise terms, Hillel replied (reputedly while standing on one leg): "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah. The rest is the explanation; go and learn."
Post 9/11, the words of Rabbi Hillel are frequently quoted in public lectures and interviews around the world by the prominent writer on comparative religion Karen Armstrong.
In Christianity, the theological virtues are faith, hope and love, a list which comes from 1 Corinthians 13:13 (νυνι δε μενει πιστις ελπις αγαπη τα τρια ταυτα μειζων δε τουτων η αγαπη (pistis, elpis, agape)). The Christian virtue of love is sometimes called charity and at other times a Greek word agape is used to contrast the love for God & family from other types of love such as friendship or physical affection. According to some Christian philosophers, most notably Thomas Aquinas, the theological virtues are to perfect one's love of God and Man and therefore to harmonize and partake of prudence.
There are many listings of virtue additional to the traditional Christian virtues (faith, hope and love) in the Christian Bible. One is the "Fruit of the Spirit," found in Galatians 5:22-23: "By contrast, the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, generosity, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. There is no law against such things." (Ὁ δὲ καρπὸς τοῦ πνεύματός ἐστιν ἀγάπη χαρὰ εἰρήνη, μακροθυμία χρηστότης ἀγαθωσύνη, πίστις πραΰτης ἐγκράτεια· κατὰ τῶν τοιούτων οὐκ ἔστιν νόμος.)
The very name of Islam, meaning "submission," proclaims the virtue of submission to the will of God, the acceptance of the way things are. Foremost among God's attributes are mercy and compassion or, in the canonical language of Arabic, Rahman and Rahim. Each of the 114 chapters of the Qur'an, with one exception, begins with the verse, "In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful".
The Arabic for compassion is rahmah. As a cultural influence, its roots abound in the Qur'an. A good Muslim is to commence each day, each prayer and each significant action by invoking God the Merciful and Compassionate, i.e. by reciting Bi Ism-i-Allah al-Rahman al-Rahim. The Muslim scriptures urge compassion towards captives as well as to widows, orphans and the poor. Traditionally, Zakat, a toll tax to help the poor and needy, is obligatory upon all Muslims (9:60). One of the practical purposes of fasting or sawm during the month of Ramadan is to help one empathize with the hunger pangs of those less fortunate, to enhance sensitivity to the suffering of others and develop compassion for the poor and destitute.
The Muslim virtues are: prayer, repentance, honesty, loyalty, sincerity, frugality, prudence, moderation, self-restraint, discipline, perseverance, patience, hope, dignity, courage, justice, tolerance, wisdom, good speech, respect, purity, courtesy, kindness, gratitude, generosity, contentment, and others.
Many of the virtues are described with special significance in Bahá'í scripture, such as:
The Virtues Project developed by Canadian Bahá'ís Linda Popov, Dan Popov, and John Kavelin, is greatly inspired by the Bahá'í perspective on virtues.
The modes of Sattva are as follows:
#Right View - Realizing the Four Noble Truths . #Right Intention - Commitment to mental and ethical growth in moderation . #Right Speech - One speaks in a non hurtful, not exaggerated, truthful way . #Right Action - Wholesome action, avoiding action that would do harm #Right Livelihood - One's job does not harm in any way oneself or others; directly or indirectly . #Right Effort - One makes an effort to improve . #Right Mindfulness - Mental ability to see things for what they are with clear consciousness . #Right Concentration - Wholesome one-pointedness of mind .
Buddhism's four brahmavihara ("Divine States") can be more properly regarded as virtues in the European sense. They are:
# Metta/Maitri: loving-kindness towards all; the hope that a person will be well; loving kindness is "the wish that all sentient beings, without any exception, be happy." # Karuṇā: compassion; the hope that a person's sufferings will diminish; compassion is the "wish for all sentient beings to be free from suffering." # Mudita: altruistic joy in the accomplishments of a person, oneself or other; sympathetic joy - "the wholesome attitude of rejoicing in the happiness and virtues of all sentient beings." # Upekkha/Upeksha: equanimity, or learning to accept both loss and gain, praise and blame, success and failure with detachment, equally, for oneself and for others. Equanimity means "not to distinguish between friend, enemy or stranger, but to regard every sentient being as equal. It is a clear-minded tranquil state of mind - not being overpowered by delusions, mental dullness or agitation."
There are also the Paramitas ("perfections").
In Theravada Buddhism's canonical Buddhavamsa the Ten Perfections (dasa pāramiyo) are (original terms in Pali):
# Dāna parami : generosity, giving of oneself. # Sīla parami : virtue, morality, proper conduct. # Nekkhamma parami : renunciation. # Paññā parami : transcendental wisdom, insight. # Viriya (also spelt vīriya) parami : energy, diligence, vigour, effort. # Khanti parami : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance. # Sacca parami : truthfulness, honesty. # (adhitthana) parami : determination, resolution. # Mettā parami : loving-kindness. # Upekkhā (also spelt upekhā) parami : equanimity, serenity.
In Mahayana Buddhism, the Lotus Sutra (Saddharmapundarika), lists the Six Perfections as (original terms in Sanskrit):
# Dāna paramita: generosity, giving of oneself (in Chinese, 布施波羅蜜). # Śīla paramita : virtue, morality, discipline, proper conduct (持戒波羅蜜). # (kshanti) paramita : patience, tolerance, forbearance, acceptance, endurance (忍辱波羅蜜). # Vīrya paramita : energy, diligence, vigour, effort, perseverance (精進波羅蜜). # Dhyāna paramita : one-pointed concentration, contemplation (禪定波羅蜜). # Prajñā paramita : wisdom, insight (智慧波羅蜜).
In the Ten Stages (Dasabhumika) Sutra, four more Paramitas are listed:
:7. Upāya paramita: skillful means. :8. (pranidhana) paramita: vow, resolution, aspiration, determination. :9. Bala paramita: spiritual power. :10. Jñāna paramita: knowledge.
Confucian moral manifestations of "virtue" include ren ("humanity"), xiao ("filial piety"), and li ("proper behavior, performance of rituals"). In Confucianism, the notion of ren - according to Simon Leys - means "humanity" and "goodness". Ren originally had the archaic meaning in the Confucian Book of Poems of "virility", but progressively took on shades of ethical meaning. (On the origins and transformations of this concept see Lin Yu-sheng: "The evolution of the pre-Confucian meaning of jen and the Confucian concept of moral autonomy," Monumenta Serica, vol31, 1974-75.)
The Daoist concept of De, however, is more subtle, pertaining to the "virtue" or ability that an individual realizes by following the Dao ("the Way"). One important normative value in much of Chinese thinking is that one's social status should result from the amount of virtue that one demonstrates, rather than from one's birth. In the Analects, Confucius explains de as follows: "He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it."
Tsunetomo goes on to say:
If one dedicates these four vows to the gods and Buddhas every morning, he will have the strength of two men and never slip backward. One must edge forward like the inchworm, bit by bit. The gods and Buddhas, too, first started with a vow.
The Bushidō code is typified by seven virtues:
Others that are sometimes added to these:
They became known through Benjamin Franklin's autobiography and inspired many people all around the world.
# Temperance: Eat not to Dullness. Drink not to Elevation. # Silence: Speak not but what may benefit others or yourself. Avoid trifling Conversation. # Order: Let all your Things have their Places. Let each Part of your Business have its Time. # Resolution: Resolve to perform what you ought. Perform without fail what you resolve. # Frugality: Make no Expense but to do good to others or yourself; i.e. Waste nothing. # Industry: Lose no Time. Be always employed in something useful. Cut off all unnecessary Actions. # Sincerity: Use no hurtful Deceit. Think innocently and justly; and, if you speak, speak accordingly. # Justice: Wrong none, by doing Injuries or omitting the Benefits that are your Duty. # Moderation: Avoid Extremes. Forbear resenting Injuries so much as you think they deserve. # Cleanliness: Tolerate no Uncleanness in Body, Clothes or Habitation. # Tranquility: Be not disturbed at Trifles, or at Accidents common or unavoidable. # Chastity: Rarely use Venery but for Health or Offspring; Never to Dullness, Weakness, or the Injury of your own or another's Peace or Reputation. # Humility: Imitate Jesus and Socrates.
As Aristotle noted, however, the virtues can have several opposites. Virtues can be considered the mean between two extremes, as the Latin maxim dictates in medio stat virtus - in the centre lies virtue. For instance, both cowardice and rashness are opposites of courage; contrary to prudence are both over-caution and insufficient caution. A more "modern" virtue, tolerance, can be considered the mean between the two extremes of narrow-mindedness on the one hand and over-acceptance on the other. Vices can therefore be identified as the opposites of virtues - but with the caveat that each virtue could have many different opposites, all distinct from each other.
Category:Core issues in ethics Category:Personality traits Category:Virtue Category:Concepts in ethics
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