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- published: 05 Oct 2008
- views: 28506
- author: Vitaly S
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- Alupka
- Alushta
- Alushta municipality
- Anapa
- Ancient Greece
- Armyansk
- Azov
- Bakhchysarai
- Bakhchysarai Raion
- Berezan Island
- Bilohirsk
- Bilohirsk Raion
- Black Death
- Black Sea
- Byzantine Empire
- C.I.S.
- Capital city
- Casimir IV of Poland
- Chaika (boat)
- Charax, Crimea
- Chersonesos Taurica
- Chornomorske Raion
- Common Era
- Crimea
- Crimean Khanate
- Daylight saving time
- Dzhankoy
- Dzhankoy Raion
- Einsatzgruppe
- Europe
- Feodosiya
- Gedik Ahmet Pasha
- Genoese colonies
- Golden Horde
- Greek language
- Huns
- Istanbul
- Ivan Aivazovsky
- Janibeg
- Kepoi
- Kerch
- Kerch municipality
- Khazars
- Kimmerikon
- Kipchaks
- Kirovske Raion
- Kołobrzeg
- Krasnoperekopsk
- Lenine Raion
- Miletos
- Mongols
- Myrmekion
- Nazi Germany
- Nymphaion (Crimea)
- Nyzhnohirskyi Raion
- Olbia, Ukraine
- Ottoman Empire
- Pandemic
- Panticapaeum
- Pedro Tafur
- Pervomaiske Raion
- Phanagoria
- Pitsunda
- Poland
- Port
- Postal code
- Pyotr Kotlyarevsky
- Raions of Ukraine
- Republic of Genoa
- Republic of Venice
- Resort
- Rozdolne Raion
- Russia
- Russian Empire
- Russian language
- Russians
- Saky
- Saky municipality
- Saky Raion
- Shcholkine
- Simferopol
- Simferopol Raion
- Slavery
- Sovietskyi Raion
- Sphere of influence
- Staryi Krym
- Sudak
- Sudak municipality
- Sukhumi
- Tanais
- Time zone
- Tmutarakan
- Tyras
- Tyritake
- Ukraine
- Ukrainian language
- UTC+2
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- Yalta municipality
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- Zaporozhian Cossacks
-
Alupka
Alupka (Ukrainian and Russian: Алупка; Crimean Tatar: Alupka) is a resort city located in Crimea in southern Ukraine, situated 17 km (11 mi) to the west of Yalta. It is famous for the Vorontsov Palace, designed by English architect Edward Blore in an extravagant mixture of Scottish baronial and Neo-Moorish styles and built in 1828–1846 for prince Mikhail Semyonovich Vorontsov.
Alupka and its surrounding area is full of resort hotels on the shore of the Black Sea, where thousands of travelers (particularly from the former Soviet Union) travel every year. Public transport to Alupka can include the bus system (bus routes #26 and #27 from Yalta) and other road vehicles.
Located in the warm climate of southern Crimea, Alupka has an average temperature of +3-4°С in January–February and an average temperature of +24.6°С in August. The average rainfall in the city is 400 mm per year, the average humidity is about 69%, and the average number of sunlight per year is 2,150 hours. The swimming season streaches from March until October, with an average water temperature of 22–28 °C (
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- Invalid output type {4}="def", in {{Convert|22|-|28|def|...}}. ).
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Alushta
Alushta (Ukrainian and Russian: Алу́шта, Crimean Tatar: Aluşta, Greek: Alouston) is a resort town in Crimea, Ukraine, founded in the 6th century by Emperor Justinian. It is situated on the Black Sea on the road from Gurzuf to Sudak, as well as on the Crimean Trolleybus line.
The area is notable for its rocky terrain. There are also vestiges of a Byzantine defensive tower and a 15th-century Genoese fortress. The town was called Aluston (Αλουστον) in the Byzantine Empire, and Lusta during the Genoese rule. Adam Mickiewicz dedicated two of his Crimean Sonnets to Alushta.
Alushta is twinned with:
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Alushta municipality
Alushta city municipality (Ukrainian: Алуштинська міськрада, Russian: Алуштинский горсовет, Crimean Tatar: Aluşta şeer şurası), officially "the territory governed by the Alushta city council", also known as Greater Alushta is one of the 25 regions of Crimea. It is a resort region, located at the southern shore of Crimea - one of the most famous recreational territories of the former Soviet Union.
Besides the city of Alushta the region includes the town of Partenit and 24 villages which are organized into 6 communities.
Former Crimean Tatar names which were officially changed in 1945-49 and are now used only by the Crimean Tatar community are mentioned in brackets.
The following cities are twinned with Alushta:
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Anapa
Anapa (Russian: Ана́па) is a town in Krasnodar Krai, Russia, located on the northern coast of the Black Sea near the Sea of Azov. Population: 58,983 (2010 Census preliminary results); 53,493 (2002 Census); 54,796 (1989 Census).
The area around Anapa was settled in antiquity. It was originally a major seaport (Sinda) for the Natkhuay tribe of the Adyghe people[citation needed] and then the capital of Sindica. The colony of Gorgippia was built on the site of Sinda in the 6th century BCE by Pontic Greeks, who named it after a king of the Cimmerian Bosporus. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE, Gorgippia flourished, as did its guild of shipowners, which controlled maritime trade in the eastern part of the Black Sea. A fine statue of Neokles (a local potentate, son of Herodoros) was unearthed by Russian archaeologists and is now on exhibit at the Russian Museum. Gorgippia was inhabited until the 3rd century CE, when it was overrun by nomadic tribes. These tribes are a Circassian or Adyghe origin, gave Anapa its modern name. Anapa was part of Sarmatians, Ostrogoths, European Huns, Avars, Gokturks, Khazars, Circassians and Golden Horde.
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Armyansk
Armyansk (Ukrainian: Армянськ, Russian: Армянск, Armenian: Արմիանսկ, Crimean Tatar: Ermeni Bazar) is a city in northern Crimea, Ukraine. It is located on the Isthmus of Perekop.
Armyansk was founded in the beginning of the 18th century by Armenians and Greeks, who had come from the nearby city of Or Qapı (modern Perekop). The first name of the town was Ermeni Bazar (Crimean Tatar for the "Armenian market").
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Azov
Azov (Russian: Азов; IPA: [aˈzof]) is a town in Rostov Oblast, Russia, situated on the Don River just 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) from the Sea of Azov, which derives its name from the town. Population: 82,882 (2010 Census preliminary results); 82,090 (2002 Census); 80,297 (1989 Census).
The mouth of the Don River has always been an important commercial center. At the start of the 3rd century BCE, the Greeks from the Bosporan Kingdom founded a colony here, which they called Tanais (after the Greek name of the river). Several centuries later, in the last third of 1st century BCE, the settlement was burnt down by king Polemon I of Pontus. The introduction of Greek colonists restored its prosperity, but the Goths practically annihilated it in the 3rd century. The site of ancient Tanais, now occupied by the khutor of Nedvigovka, has been excavated since the mid-19th century.
In the 10th century, the area passed under control of the Slavic princedom of Tmutarakan. The Kipchaks, seizing the area in 1067, renamed it Azaq (i.e., lowlands), from which appellation the modern name is derived. The Golden Horde claimed most of the coast in the 13th and 14th centuries, but the Venetian and Genoese merchants were granted permission to settle on the site of modern-day Azov and founded there a colony which they called Tana (or La Tana).
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Bakhchysarai
Bakhchysarai (Crimean Tatar: Bağçasaray; Ukrainian: Бахчисарай; Russian: Бахчисарай; Turkish: Bahçesaray) is an urban-type settlement in central Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Bakhchysarai Raion (district), as well as the former capital of the Crimean Khanate. Its main landmark is Hansaray, the only extant palace of the Crimean Khans, currently opened to tourists as a museum.
Located in a narrow valley of the Çürük Suv river which is known as an old local center of civilization (the first artifacts of human presence in the valley date up to the Mesolithic). The settlements which existed in the valley before Bakhchisaray was founded - Qırq Yer fortress (modern Çufut Qale), Salaçıq, and Eski Yurt—are nowadays incorporated into the urban area of the modern Bakhchisaray.
Bakhchysarai, first mentioned 1502, was established as the new khan's residence by the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray in 1532. Since then, it was the capital of the Crimean Khanate and the center of political and cultural life of the Crimean Tatar people. After several wars with Russia from 1737 when Burkhard Christoph von Münnich burnt down the capital of Khanate and occupation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire in 1783, it was turned into an ordinary town, having lost administrative significance. However, it remained the cultural center of the Crimean Tatars until the Sürgün (deportation on 18 May 1944).
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Bakhchysarai Raion
Bakhchisaray Raion (Ukrainian: Бахчисарайський район, Russian: Бахчисарайский район, Crimean Tatar: Bağçasaray rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea. Bakhchisaray raion is situated in the southwestern part of the republic. 2/3 of the raion's area is mountainous, while the western part of the region is occupied by the coastal plain.
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Berezan Island
Berezan (Березань; Ancient Greek: Borysthenes; former Turkish: Pirezin) is an island in the Black Sea at the entrance of the Dnieper-Bug estuary, Mykolaiv Oblast, Ukraine. The island measures approximately 900 metres in length by 320 metres in width. It is separated from the mainland (to which it may have been connected long ago) by about a mile and a half of shallow water.
Berezan was home to one of the earliest Greek colonies (possibly known as Borysthenes, after the Greek name of the Dnieper) in the northern Black Sea region. The island was first settled in the mid-7th century B.C. and was largely abandoned by the end of the 5th century B.C., when Olbia became the dominant colony in the region. In the 5th century BC, Herodotus visited it to gather information about the northern course of the eponymous river. The colony thrived on wheat trade with the Scythian hinterland: most cereals consumed in Ancient Greece were purchased from Scythians at Olbia and Borysthenes.
In the Middle Ages, the island was of high military importance because it commanded the mouth of the Dnieper. During the period of Kievan Rus’ there was an important station on the trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks. It was there that Varangians first came into contact with the Greeks.
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Bilohirsk
Bilohirsk (Ukrainian: Білогірськ, Russian: Белого́рск, Crimean Tatar: Qarasuvbazar), Armenian: Բելոգորսկ, Կարասու-Բազար formerly Karasubazar is a town in Crimea, Ukraine, situated 25 miles east-northeast of Simferopol on the Biyuk Karasu river. Both Russian and Ukrainian names mean "white mountains", and original Crimean Tatar name Qarasuvbazar means "bazaar on the Karasu river".
The site is low, but the town is surrounded by hills, which afford protection from the north wind. The town has a characteristic Crimean Tatar atmosphere. Placed on the high road between Simferopol and Kerch, and in the midst of a country rich in cereal land, vineyards and gardens, Karasubazar used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in Crimea; but it is gradually declining in importance, though still a considerable center for the export of fruit. The caves of Akkaya close by give evidence of early occupation of the area. When in 1736 Khan Fetih Giray was driven by the Russian Empire from Bakhchisaray, he settled at Karasubazar, but next year the town was captured, plundered and burned by the Russian army.
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Bilohirsk Raion
Bilohirsk Raion (Ukrainian: Білогірський район, Russian: Белогорский район, Crimean Tatar: Qarasuvbazar rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. This landlocked region is situated in the foothills of the central Crimea. The raion's centre is the historical town of Bilohirsk.
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Chornomorske Raion
Chornomorske Raion (Ukrainian: Чорноморський район, Russian: Черноморский район, Crimean Tatar: Aqmeçit rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is located in the far west of the republic on the Tarhanqut peninsula. The raion's centre is the town of Chornomorske.
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Dzhankoy
Dzhankoy (Ukrainian and Russian: Джанкой, Crimean Tatar: Canköy) is a city in the north of Crimea, Ukraine, and the capital of Dzhankoy raion. It is located about 93 kilometres (58 mi) from the Crimean capital, Simferopol. Two railroad lines, Kharkiv-Sevastopol and Armyansk-Kerch, cross Dzhankoy. In 1926, Dzhankoy was granted city status.
Dzhankoy is a great transportation hub. Through the city pass two major railways of the peninsula as well as two major European highways. It has two railroad terminals - the central one, where only passenger and fast trains stop and the suburb one - where only suburb trains, known as elektrichki are allowed.
The name Dzhankoy is often translated into English from Crimean Tatar as "spirit-village" (can — spirit, köy — village) -Canköy. But real meaning of this name is "new village": canköy < cañı köy (cañı is "new" in the northern dialect of Crimean Tatar).
In the city there are many types of industrial factories, some of which are: automobile, reinforced concrete, fabric, meat, and others. Dzhankoy also contains professional technical schools.
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Dzhankoy Raion
Dzhankoy Raion (Ukrainian: Джанкойський район, Russian: Джанкойский район, Crimean Tatar: Canköy rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is located in the northern part of the Crimean steppe near the Syvash Bay. The city of Dzhankoy is the raion's centre, but it is excluded from the region and forms a separate municipality. The North-Crimean channel (the main waterway of northern Crimea supplying the republic with water from the Dnieper river) runds through the raion.
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Feodosiya
Feodosiya (Ukrainian: Феодо́сія, Feodosiia; Russian: Феодо́сия, Greek: Θεοδοσία; sometimes spelled as Theodosia) is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, on the Black Sea coast. During much of its history the town was known as Caffa (Ligurian:Cafà) or Kaffa (Crimean Tatar: Kefe).
The city was founded as Theodosia (Θεοδοσία) by Greek colonists from Miletos in the 6th century BC. Noted for its rich agricultural lands, on which its trade depended, it was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD.
Theodosia remained a minor village for much of the next nine hundred years. It was at times part of the sphere of influence of the Khazars (excavations have revealed Khazar artifacts dating back to the ninth century) and of the Byzantine Empire.
Like the rest of Crimea, it fell under the domination of the Kipchaks and was conquered by the Mongols in the 1230s.
Between 1204–1261 and again in 1296–1307, the city of Caffa was ruled by Genoa's chief rival, the Republic of Venice. In the late 13th century, traders from the Republic of Genoa arrived and purchased the town from the ruling Golden Horde. They established a flourishing trading settlement called Caffa (or Kaffa), which virtually monopolised trade in the Black Sea area and served as the chief port and administrative centre for the Genoese settlements around the Sea. It came to house one of Europe's biggest slave markets. Under Genoa since 1266, Caffa was governed by a Genoese consul, who since 1316 was in charge of all Genoese Black Sea colonies.
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Istanbul
Istanbul (Turkish: İstanbul) is the largest city in Turkey, forming the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With a population of 13.4 million, the city is at the center of the second-largest urban area in Europe after Moscow, and among the world's largest cities by population within city limits. Istanbul's vast area of 5,343 square kilometers (2,063 sq mi) is coterminous with Istanbul Province, of which the city is considered capital. Straddling the Bosphorus—one of the world's busiest waterways—in northwestern Turkey, between the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea, Istanbul is a transcontinental city, with one third of its population living in Asia but its commercial and historical center in Europe.
Founded around 660 BC as Byzantium on the Seraglio Point, the city now known as Istanbul developed to become one of the most significant cities in history. For nearly sixteen centuries following its reestablishment as Constantinople in 330 AD, it served as the capital of four empires — the late classical Roman Empire (330–395), the Eastern Roman ("Byzantine") Empire (395–1204 and 1261–1453), the Latin Empire (1204–1261), and the Ottoman Empire (1453–1922). It was instrumental in the advancement of Christianity during Roman and Byzantine times, before the Ottomans conquered the city in 1453 and transformed it into an Islamic stronghold from which the last caliphate ruled. Although the Republic of Turkey established its capital elsewhere, in Ankara, remnants of Istanbul's previous central role still remain highly visible across the city, with palaces and imperial mosques lining its hills.
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Kerch
Kerch (Ukrainian: Керч, Russian: Керчь, Crimean Tatar: Keriç, Old East Slavic: Кърчевъ, Ancient Greek: Παντικάπαιον Pantikapaion, Turkish: Kerç) is a city on the Kerch Peninsula of eastern Crimea, an important industrial, transport and tourist centre of Ukraine. Kerch, founded 2600 years ago, is considered as one of the most ancient cities in Ukraine.
Archeological digs at Mayak village near the city ascertained that the area had already been inhabited in 17th–15th centuries BC.
Kerch as a city starts its history in 7th century BC, when Greek colonists from Miletus founded a city-state named Panticapaeum on Mount Mithridat near the mouth of the Melek-Chesme river. Panticapaeum subdued nearby cities and by 480 BC became a capital of the Kingdom of Bosporus. Later, during the rule of Mithradates VI Eupator, Panticapaeum for a short period of time became the capital of much more powerful and extensive Kingdom of Pontus.
The city located at the intersection of trade routes between the steppe and Europe grew rapidly. The city's main exports were grain and salted fish, wine-making was also common. Panticapaeum minted its own coins. According to a few extant documents the Melek-Chesme river (small and shallow nowadays) was navigable in the Bosporan times, and sea galleys were able to enter the river. A large portion of the city's population was ethnically Scythian, later Sarmatian, as the large royal barrow at Kul-Oba testifies.
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Kimmerikon
Kimmerikón (Greek Κιμμερικόν, Latin: Cimmericum) was an ancient Greek town in Crimea, on the southern shore of the Kerch Peninsula, at the western slope of Mount Opuk, roughly 50 kilometers south-west of modern Kerch. The town was founded by the Milesian colonists in the 5th century BC and flourished at the beginning of the Christian era. Its name may refer to an earlier Cimmerian settlement on the site. Kimmerikon was an important stronghold defending the Bosporan Kingdom from the Scythians. Its walls ranged from 2.5 to 3.5 meters in thickness. In the mid-3rd century AD Kimmerikon was sacked by the Goths, but some measure of urban settlement persisted until the end of the Roman era. The site was excavated by Soviet archaeologists in 1927, 1947–49, and 1950-51.
Coordinates: 45°02′36″N 36°13′53″E / 45.043418°N 36.231299°E / 45.043418; 36.231299
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Kirovske Raion
Kirovske Raion (Ukrainian: Кіровський район, Russian: Кировский район, Crimean Tatar: İslâm Terek rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is located in the eastern part of the republic. The southern part of the raion is occupied with the foothills, while the northern one is situated in the Crimean steppe. Raion's centre is the town of Kirovske. The North-Crimean channel (the main waterway of northern Crimea supplying the republic with water from the Dnieper river) is going through the region.
The raion is famous for the historical town of Stary Krym.
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Kołobrzeg
Kołobrzeg [kɔˈwɔbʐɛk] (
listen) (German: Kolberg (
listen); Kashubian: Kòłobrzeg) is a city in Middle Pomerania in north-western Poland with some 50,000 inhabitants (as of 2000). Kołobrzeg is located on the Parsęta River on the south coast of the Baltic Sea (in the middle of the section divided by the Oder and Vistula Rivers). It has been the capital of Kołobrzeg County in West Pomeranian Voivodship since 1999, and previously was in Koszalin Voivodship (1950–1998).
During the Early Middle Ages, Slavic Pomeranians founded a settlement at the site of modern Budzistowo. Thietmar of Merseburg first mentioned the site as Salsa Cholbergiensis. Around the year 1000, when the area was under Polish rule, the stronghold became seat of the Diocese of Kołobrzeg. During High Middle Ages, the town was expanded with additional settlement was founded a few kilometers north of the stronghold in the course of the Ostsiedlung and chartered with Lübeck law. The city later joined the Hanseatic League. Within the Duchy of Pomerania, Kolberg was the urban center of the secular reign of the Cammin bishops and their residence throughout the High and Late Middle Ages. When Kolberg was part of Brandenburgian Pomerania during the Early Modern Age, it withstood Polish and Napoleon's troops in the Siege of Kolberg. From 1815, it was part of the Prussian province of Pomerania. During the 19th century a Polish community started to organize itself. As the Nazis took power in Germany, Poles and Jews were discriminated, determined to be subhuman and eventually subjected to genocide. In 1945 Polish and Soviet troops seized the town and it was subsequently attached to Poland, while the remaining German population which had not fled the advancing Red Army was expelled. The town, devastated in the preceding Battle of Kolberg, was rebuilt but lost its status as the regional center to the nearby Koszalin.
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Krasnoperekopsk
Krasnoperekopsk (Ukrainian: Краснопереко́пськ, Russian: Краснопереко́пск, Crimean Tatar: Krasnoperekopsk) is a city in Crimea, Ukraine which is located on the southern part of the Perekop Isthmus, on the shore of the Stare lake, and about 124 kilometres (77 mi) from the Crimean capital, Simferopol. It lies on the Dzhankoy-Kherson railroad line (one of the two railroad lines connecting the Crimea and the rest of the continent).
The city was founded in 1932 as an industrial settlement for a Bromine factory located near the lake Stare. In 1936 the settlement was renamed into Krasno-Prekopsk and later simply Krasnoperekopsk (1964). In 1966, Krasnoperekopsk received the status of a city.
The city of Krasnoperekopsk should not be confused with the historic Crimean city of Perekop, which was destroyed in 1920 during the Russian Civil War, and which is located in a 25 kilometres (16 mi) range to the north of Krasnoperekopsk. Perekop was depopulated and destroyed after the Crimean peninsula was taken by a storm from the Red Army. Krasnoperekopsk was named after the perished Red Army soldiers of 1920.
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Lenine Raion
Lenine Raion (Ukrainian: Ленінський район, Russian: Ленинский район, Crimean Tatar: Yedi Quyu rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, in southern Ukraine. It is situated in the eastern part of the republic.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Nyzhnohirskyi Raion
Nyzhnohirskyi Raion (Ukrainian: Нижньогірський район, Russian: Нижнегорский район, Crimean Tatar: Seyitler rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is situated in the north-eastern part of the republic.
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Pervomaiske Raion
Pervomaiskyi Raion (Ukrainian: Первомайський район, Russian: Первомайский район, Crimean Tatar: Curçı rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is situated in the north-western part of the republic.
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Phanagoria
Phanagoria (Ancient Greek: Φαναγορ(ε)ία) was the largest Greek colony on the Taman peninsula, spreading on two plateaux along the Asian shore of the Cimmerian Bosporus, 25 kilometers (15.5 mi) northeast of Hermonassa. The ancient city became the great emporium for all the traffic between the coast of the Palus Maeotis and the countries on the southern side of the Caucasus, and was chosen by the kings of Bosporus as their capital in Asia, Panticapaeum being their capital in Europe. It is mentioned by Strabo as a "considerable city" in his Geography
Under Kubrat and Batbayan, Phanagoria was the capital of Great Bulgaria.
Phanagoria Island in Zed Islands off Livingston Island, Antarctica is named after Phanagoria.
Phanagoria was founded ca. 543 BC by the Teian colonists who had to flee Asia Minor in consequence of their conflict with Cyrus the Great. The city took its name after one of these colonists, Phanagoras. "The unusual nature of the Taman peninsula near Phanagoria, with its ravines, crevices, hills, and low cones of active volcanoes, must have impressed the ancient colonists even more than it impresses us today", Ustinova has observed.
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Pitsunda
Pitsunda (Abkhaz: Пиҵунда, Georgian: ბიჭვინთა, Bichvinta; Russian: Пицунда) is a resort town in Gagra district of Abkhazia.
The town was founded by the Greeks in the 5th century BC as a trade colony Pityus (Ancient Greek: Pityus, Πιτυοῦς, genitive Pityuntos, Πιτυοῦντος) or Pitiunt. Excavations guided by Andria Apakidze unearthed remains of three 4th-century churches and a bath with superb mosaic floors. The former "Great Pityus" harbour is now a mere lake within the town. Saint John Chrysostom was exiled there and died near the shore in 407. Like Dioskurias, remained under Roman control within the Diocese of Pontus until the 7th century. The city passed under Abasgian control and became one of the major political and religious centres of the kingdom of Egrisi (Lazica). An archbishopric of Pitiunt was instituted in 541. In medieval Georgia, the town's name was spelled as Bichvinta. At the end of the 10th century, King Bagrat III of Georgia built there the Pitsunda Cathedral which survives to this day and contains vestiges of wall-painting from the 13th and the 16th centuries. Bichvinta also served as the seat of the Georgian Orthodox Catholicate of Abkhazia until the late 16th century when Abkhazia came under the Ottoman hegemony. It is still a titular see of the Roman Catholic Church. In the late 13th century, the area housed a short-lived Genoese trade colony called Pezonda.
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Poland
Poland
i/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Rozdolne Raion
Rozdolne Raion (Ukrainian: Роздольненський район, Russian: Раздольненский район, Crimean Tatar: Aqşeyh rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It's administrative center is the city of Rozdolne.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Russian Empire
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian orthography: Россійская Имперія, Modern Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean and into North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires, it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was the last absolute monarchy in Europe at the time of its demise.
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Saky
Saky (Ukrainian: Саки, Russian: Саки, Crimean Tatar: Saq) is a city in the Autonomous Republic of Crimea, Ukraine. Population is 29,416 (2001). The city has one of the major bases of the Ukrainian Navy. Other bases are at Odessa, Novoozerne, and Sebastopol.
Saky city council member Oleg Kolodyazhny (Our Ukraine) was shot dead in Saky on June 29, 2010.
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Saky Raion
Saky Raion (Ukrainian: Сакський район, Russian: Сакский район, Crimean Tatar: Saq rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. Its administrative center is the city of Saky.
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Shcholkine
Shcholkine (Ukrainian: Щолкіне, Ščolkine; Russian: Щёлкино, Ščëlkino; Crimean Tatar: Şçolkino), also commonly known as Shchelkino or Shchyolkino by its Russian name, is a town in the Lenine Raion of Ukraine's Autonomous Republic of Crimea. Geographically, Shcholkine is located near the headland of Kazantyp, on a peninsula jutting northward out into the Sea of Azov from the Crimean mainland. Population is 11,677 (2001).
Shcholkine is named after Kirill Shchelkin, a Soviet physicist. Originally the town was constructed in 1978 to house workers of the Crimean Atomic Energy Station (nuclear power plant). The station was inspected following the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, and was found to be located on a geologically volatile site. Construction of the facility was summarily abandoned.
Shcholkine is known for being an increasingly popular tourist destination and dacha site. Shcholkine's beach has boat and surfboard rental facilities. Nearby Kazantyp is home to several attractions including a local fairground and paintball competitions. The town itself has a central market, many cafes and stores, and entertainment facilities including a movie theater and an internet cafe. The town's main attraction is considered to be its beach, a kilometer-long sandbar sandwiched between cliffs jutting out over the Sea of Azov to the south and Kazantyp to the northwest. Between 1993 and 1999 Kazantyp was the site of the KaZantip music festival, which later moved to little village nearby Yevpatoria.
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Simferopol
Simferopol (English pronunciation: /ˌsɪmfəˈroʊpəl/; Ukrainian: Сімферополь; Russian: Симферополь; Greek: Συμφερόπολις, Sympheropolis, meaning city of common good; Crimean Tatar: Aqmescit, literally: The white mosque) is the capital of the Autonomous Republic of Crimea in southern Ukraine. As the capital of Crimea, Simferopol is an important political, economic, and transport center of the peninsula. As of 2006, the city's population is 340,600.
Archaeological evidence in Simferopol indicates the existence of an ancient Scythian city, collectively known as the Scythian Neapol. The location was also home to a Crimean Tatar town, Aqmescit. After the annexation of the Crimean Khanate to the Russian Empire, the city's name was changed to its present Simferopol.
Archaeological evidence in the Chokurcha cave shows the presence of ancient people living in the territory of modern Simferopol. The Scythian Neapol, known by its Greek name, is also located in the city, which is the remnants of an ancient capital of the Crimean Scythians who lived on the territory from the 3rd century BC to the 4th century AD.
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Simferopol Raion
Simferopol Raion (Ukrainian: Сімферопольський район, Russian: Симферопольский район, Crimean Tatar: Aqmescit rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. The Simferopol Raion is situated in the central part of the republic.
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Sovietskyi Raion
Sovietskyi Raion (Ukrainian: Совєтський район, Russian: Советский район, Crimean Tatar: İçki rayonı) is one of the 25 regions of Crimea, located in southern Ukraine.
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Sudak
Sudak or Sudaq (Crimean Tatar: Sudaq; Ukrainian and Russian: Судак) is a small historic town located in Crimea, Ukraine situated 57 km (35 mi) to the west of Feodosiya (the nearest railway station) and 104 km (65 mi) to the east of Simferopol, the capital of Crimea. Today it is a popular resort, best known for its Genoese fortress, the best preserved on the northern shore of the Black Sea.
It is believed that the city was founded in 212 AD by Alani settlers on the territory of the Bosporan Kingdom. Greek merchants from the Byzantine Empire founded Σουγδαία (a reference to Sogdia) in the 3rd century. In the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I ordered the construction of a fortress. The Khazars attacked in the 7th century, giving it the name Suğdaq. The Life of St. Stefan of Surozh (Russian: св. Стефан Сурожского) describes the 8th century town as a dependency of the Byzantine Empire. Around the start of the 9th century, it was supposedly attacked by the Rus' chieftain, Bravlin. It is thought that the Khazars retained the town from the early 800s until 1016, when the Byzantines finally defeated the Khazar warlord Georgeios Tsulo. Afterwards, the town seems to have preserved some sort of autonomy within the Byzantine Empire.
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Sudak municipality
Sudak city municipality (Ukrainian: Судацька міськрада, Russian: Судакский горсовет, Crimean Tatar: Sudaq şeer şurası), officially "the territory governed by the Sudak city council" is one of the 25 regions of Crimea. It is a resort region, located at the south-eastern shore of Crimea.
Besides the city of Sudak the region includes the town of Novyi Svet and 14 villages which are organized into 7 communities.
Former Crimean Tatar names which were officially changed in 1945-49 and are now used only by the Crimean Tatar community are mentioned in brackets.
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Sukhumi
Sukhumi (Abkhaz: Аҟәа, Aqwa; Georgian: სოხუმი, Sokhumi; Russian: Сухум or Сухуми, Sukhum or Sukhumi) is the capital of Abkhazia, a disputed region on the Black Sea coast. The city suffered heavily during the Georgian-Abkhaz conflict in the early 1990s.
In Abkhaz, the city is known as Аҟәа (Aqwa) which according to native tradition signifies water. In Georgian, the city is known as სოხუმი (Sokhumi) or აყუ (Aqu), in Megrelian as აყუჯიხა (Aqujikha), and in Russian as Сухум (Sukhum) or Сухуми (Sukhumi).
The etymology of the name Sokhumi is disputed. The medieval Georgian sources knew the town as Tskhumi (ცხუმი). Later, under the Ottoman control, the town was known in Turkish as Suhum-Kale, which can be derived from the earlier Georgian form Tskhumi or can be read to mean 'water-sand fortress'. Tskhumi in turn is supposed to be derived from the Svan language word for 'hot', or the Georgian word for 'hornbeam tree'. The competing etymologies have been used as putative evidence in the argument over the ethnicity of Sukhumi's historical inhabitants.[citation needed]
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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Yalta
Yalta (Ukrainian and Russian: Я́лта, Crimean Tatar: Yalta) is a city in Crimea, southern Ukraine, on the north coast of the Black Sea. The city is located on the site of an ancient Greek colony, said to have been founded by Greek sailors who were looking for a safe shore (γιαλός – yalos in Greek) on which to land. It is situated on a deep bay facing south towards the Black Sea, surrounded by wooded mountains. It enjoys a warm Mediterranean climate with many vineyards and orchards in the vicinity.
The term "The Greater Yalta" is used to designate a part of the Crimean southern coast spanning from Foros in the west to Gurzuf in the east and including the city of Yalta and multiple adjacent urban settlements (the area of the Greater Yalta is marked dark blue on the map).
The existence of Yalta was first recorded in the 12th century by an Arab geographer, who described it as a Byzantine port and fishing settlement. It became part of a network of Genoese trading colonies on the Crimean coast in the 14th century, when it was known as Etalita or Galita. Crimea was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1475, which made it a semi-independent subject territory under the rule of the Crimean Khanate but the southern coast with Yalta was under direct ottoman rule forming the Eyalet of Kefe (Feodosiya). Yalta was annexed by the Russian Empire in 1783, along with the rest of Crimea, sparking the Russo-Turkish War, 1787-1792. Prior to the annexation of the Crimea, the Crimean Greeks were moved to Mariupol in 1778; one of the villages they established nearby is also called Yalta.
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Yalta municipality
Yalta city municipality (Ukrainian: Ялтинська міськрада, Russian: Ялтинский горсовет, Crimean Tatar: Yalta şeer şurası), officially "the territory governed by the Yalta city council", also known as Greater Yalta is one of the 25 regions of Crimea. It is a resort region, located at the southern shore of Crimea – one of the most famous recreational territories of the former Soviet Union.
Besides the cities of Yalta and Alupka the region includes 21 towns and 9 villages which are organised into 7 town communities.
Former Crimean Tatar names which were officially changed in 1945-49 after the deportation of Crimean Tatars and are now used only by the Crimean Tatar community are mentioned in brackets.
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Yevpatoria
Yevpatoria or Eupatoria (Ukrainian: Євпато́рія, Yevpatoriya, Russian: Евпато́рия, Yevpatoriya, Crimean Tatar: Kezlev, Greek: Ευπατορία, Κερκινίτις - Eupatoria, Kerkinitis, Turkish: Gözleve, Armenian: Եվպատորիա - Yevpatoria) is a city in Crimea, Ukraine.
The first recorded settlement in the area, called Kerkinitis (Κερκινίτης), was built by Greek colonists around 500 BC. Along with the rest of Crimea, Kerkinitis was part of the dominions of Mithridates VI, King of Pontus, from whose cognomen, Eupator, the city's modern name derives.
From roughly the 7th through the 10th centuries AD Yevpatoriya was a Khazar settlement; its name in Khazar language was probably Güzliev (literally "beautiful house"). It was later subject to the Cumans (Kipchaks), the Mongols and the Crimean Khanate. During this period the city was called Kezlev by Crimean Tatars and Gözleve by Ottomans. The Russian medieval name Kozlov is a Russification of the Crimean Tatar name.
For a short period between 1478 and 1485, the city was administrated by the Ottoman Empire. Afterwards it became an important urban center of the Crimean Khanate. In 1783, with the whole Crimea, Kezlev was captured by the Russian Empire. Its name was officially changed to Evpatoriya("Евпатория"- city named after Eupator Dionysius ) in 1784. The city was briefly occupied in 1854 by British, French and Turkish troops during the Crimean War, when it was the site of the Battle of Eupatoria. Adam Mickiewicz visited the town in 1825 and wrote one of his Crimean Sonnets here; it was later translated into Russian by Mikhail Lermontov.
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Alexander Grin
Alexander Grin (Russian: Александр Грин, August 23, 1880 – July 8, 1932) was a Russian writer, notable for his romantic novels and short stories, mostly set in an unnamed fantasy land with a European or Latin American flavor (Grin's fans often refer to this land as Grinlandia). Most of his writings deal with sea, adventures, and love.
Alexander Grin was born Alexander Stefanovich Grinevsky (Russian: Александр Стефанович Гриневский) in a suburb of Vyatka in 1880, the son of a Pole, deported after the January Uprising of 1863. In 1896, after graduating from a school in Vyatka, Grinevsky went to Odessa and lived the life of a vagabond. He worked as a sailor, gold miner, construction worker, but often found himself without a job and sustained himself by begging and thanks to money sent to him by his father.
After joining the Russian army, he became a member of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, was arrested, and spent time in jail for "revolutionary propaganda". His first short story was published in a newspaper in 1906. In the same year he was arrested in Saint Petersburg and sentenced to four years of exile in a remote area of Tobolsk guberniya. However, very soon after arriving to Tobolsk, Grin escaped and returned to Petersburg to live illegally. He was again arrested in 1910 and sent to live in Arkhangelsk guberniya. In a small village called Kegostrov, Grin and his first wife Vera Pavlovna Abramova (whom he married in 1910) lived from 1910 to 1912.
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Bakhchysarai
Bakhchysarai (Crimean Tatar: Bağçasaray; Ukrainian: Бахчисарай; Russian: Бахчисарай; Turkish: Bahçesaray) is an urban-type settlement in central Crimea, located in southern Ukraine. It is the administrative center of the Bakhchysarai Raion (district), as well as the former capital of the Crimean Khanate. Its main landmark is Hansaray, the only extant palace of the Crimean Khans, currently opened to tourists as a museum.
Located in a narrow valley of the Çürük Suv river which is known as an old local center of civilization (the first artifacts of human presence in the valley date up to the Mesolithic). The settlements which existed in the valley before Bakhchisaray was founded - Qırq Yer fortress (modern Çufut Qale), Salaçıq, and Eski Yurt—are nowadays incorporated into the urban area of the modern Bakhchisaray.
Bakhchysarai, first mentioned 1502, was established as the new khan's residence by the Crimean Khan Sahib I Giray in 1532. Since then, it was the capital of the Crimean Khanate and the center of political and cultural life of the Crimean Tatar people. After several wars with Russia from 1737 when Burkhard Christoph von Münnich burnt down the capital of Khanate and occupation of the Crimean Khanate by the Russian Empire in 1783, it was turned into an ordinary town, having lost administrative significance. However, it remained the cultural center of the Crimean Tatars until the Sürgün (deportation on 18 May 1944).
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Huns
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. However, there is no scholarly consensus on a direct connection between the dominant element of the Xiongnu and that of the Huns.Priscus mentions that the Huns had a language of their own; little of it has survived and its relationships have been the subject of debate for centuries. Most authorities suppose that it may have been a member of the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family, with the languages Bulgar, Khazar, Turkic Avar and Chuvash. Numerous other languages were spoken within the Hun pax including East Germanic, which was widely used as a lingua franca in the Hunnic territories. Their main military technique was mounted archery.
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Ivan Aivazovsky
Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (Armenian: Հովհաննես Այվազովսկի – Hovhannes Aivasovsky, originally Aivazian, Russian: Иван Константинович Айвазовский) July 29, 1817 – May 5, 1900) was a Russian world-renowned painter of Armenian descent living and working in Crimea, most famous for his seascapes, which constitute more than half of his paintings. Aivazovsky is widely considered as one of the greatest seascape painters of all times.
Aivazovsky was born in the town of Feodosiya (Theodosia), Crimea (Russian Empire) to a poor Armenian family. His brother was the Armenian Archbishop Gabriel Aivazovsky. His family moved to the Crimea from Galicia (then in southern Poland, now in Ukraine) in 1812. His parents' family name was Aivazian but in Poland it was written Haivazian. Some of the artist's paintings bear a signature, in Armenian letters, "Hovhannes Aivazian" (Հովհաննես Այվազյան). His father taught him to play the violin and speak Polish and Ukrainian fluently. His talent as an artist earned him sponsorship and entry to the Simferopol gymnasium №1 and later the St.Petersburg Academy of Arts, which he graduated with a gold medal. Earning awards for his early landscapes and seascapes, he went on to paint a series of portraits of Crimean coastal towns before travelling throughout Europe. In later life, his paintings of naval scenes earned him a long-standing commission from the Russian Navy stationed in the Black Sea.
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Mongols
Mongols (Mongolian:
Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia[disambiguation needed 
]. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.
A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
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Pedro Tafur
Pedro Tafur (or Pero Tafur) (ca. 1410 – ca. 1484) was a Spanish traveler and writer. Born in Córdoba, to a branch of the noble house of Guzmán, Tafur traveled across three continents during the years 1436 to 1439. During the voyage, he participated in various battles, visited shrines, and rendered diplomatic services for Juan II of Castile. He visited the Moroccan coast, southern France, the Holy Land, Egypt, Rhodes, Cyprus, Tenedos, Trebizond, and Constantinople. He also visited the Sinai Peninsula, where he met Niccolò Da Conti, who shared with Tafur information about southeastern Asia. Before returning to Spain, Tafur crossed central Europe and Italy.
Between 1453 and 1454, to judge from interior evidence in the single surviving manuscript, he wrote a book called Andanças e viajes de Pero Tafur por diversas partes del mundo avidos (unpublished until 1874, when it was published by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada). It is one of the few books written by a Spanish traveler during the medieval period (that of Ruy González de Clavijo is another example). Tafur dedicated his book to a member of the Guzmán family, the same family to which Saint Dominic belonged. He thus provides biographical information regarding this saint.
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Pyotr Kotlyarevsky
Pyotr Stepanovich Kotlyarevsky (June 23, 1782 – November 2, 1852) was a Russian military hero of the early 19th century.
He was born in the village of Olkhovatka near Kharkov into a cleric's family. Kotlyarevsky was brought up in an infantry regiment quartered near Mozdok. He was promoted officer for his exploits during Count Zubov's Persian Campaign in 1796.
His leadership and boldness made him a national celebrity during the war against Persia, which lasted between 1804 and 1813. In 1810 he took hold of Meghri Citadel, withstood a siege by the Persian army and then routed them on the Araks River. In 1812, he defeated Abbas Mirza in the Battle of Aslanduz and stormed Lenkoran with as little as 2,000 soldiers. Thereupon the Persians sued for peace, and Kotlyarevsky was promoted General of Infantry (a rank equal to that of Full General in other armies). Suffering from wounds, he had to retire from active service and spent the rest of his life in Feodosiya.
A local artist, Ivan Aivazovsky, devised Kotlyarevsky's mausoleum, while Prince Vorontsov ordered his statue to be erected in Ganja.
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Russians
The Russian people (Russian: русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries.
The English term Russians is also used to refer to the citizens of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity; the demonym Russian is translated into Russian as rossiyanin (россиянин, plural rossiyane), while the ethnic Russians are referred to as russkiye (sg. русский, russkiy).
According to the 2010 census, ethnic Russians make up about 81% of the population of Russia.
The modern Russian is formed from two groups, Northern and Southern, which were made up of Kriviches, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians East Slavic tribes. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Poles or Slovenians or Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and Ukrainians than southern Russians to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Among those peoples were Merya and Muromian.
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Trip to Feodosiya, Crimea, Black Sea beach
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:31
- Updated: 11 Aug 2012
Feodosiya - is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, located on the Black Sea coast. Sometimes spelled as Feodosia οr Theodosia, according to transliteration from the Greek: Θεοδοσία. Экскурсия по Феодосии порт и курорт Крыма, расположенный на побережье Черного моря.
http://wn.com/Trip_to_Feodosiya,_Crimea,_Black_Sea_beach
Feodosiya - is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, located on the Black Sea coast. Sometimes spelled as Feodosia οr Theodosia, according to transliteration from the Greek: Θεοδοσία. Экскурсия по Феодосии порт и курорт Крыма, расположенный на побережье Черного моря.
Feodosiya 2007
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:11
- Updated: 25 Aug 2010
Our vocation On Crimean peninsula,Feodosiya.Ukraine.
http://wn.com/Feodosiya_2007
Our vocation On Crimean peninsula,Feodosiya.Ukraine.
- published: 28 Aug 2007
- views: 1479
- author: brilliant87
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (20-07-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:33
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Moonbeam - Spring Story
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_20-07-2010
Axis Troops Attack Feodosiya in the Crimea (Feb 1942)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:13
- Updated: 05 Jun 2012
German and Romanian Troops Attack Sevastopol and Feodosiya in the Crimean Peninsula. Combat footage. German Wartime Newsreel (Die Deutsche Wochenschau Nr.596), 04-Feb-1942.
http://wn.com/Axis_Troops_Attack_Feodosiya_in_the_Crimea_Feb_1942
German and Romanian Troops Attack Sevastopol and Feodosiya in the Crimean Peninsula. Combat footage. German Wartime Newsreel (Die Deutsche Wochenschau Nr.596), 04-Feb-1942.
- published: 20 Oct 2008
- views: 3000
- author: WW2GermanNewsreels
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (20-07-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:12
- Updated: 16 Feb 2012
Moonbeam - Closer To Me
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_20-07-2010
Поход в Феодосию. Feodosiya in East Crimea of Ukraine
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:03
- Updated: 19 Sep 2012
Феодосия - древнейший город Крыма, единственный, сохранивший свое первоначальное название. Прибывшие сюда в 6 в. до н.э. из Эллады греки назвали его "Богом данной". История города и его округи - череда сменяющих друг друга эпох блестящего расцвета и периодов глубокого упадка. Во все эпохи город, как магнит, притягивал к себе представителей разных народов. Они оседали здесь и уже не стремились в иные места. Климатические условия в районе Феодосии во многом определяются близостью моря, гор и степей. Они создают здесь особый микроклимат. Феодосия входит в зону теплых степей с жарким и сухим климатом. Феодосийский краеведческий музей - старейший городской музей современной Украины. Визитной карточкой города по праву считается Национальная картинная галерея им. И. К. Айвазовского, а также Литературно-мемориальный музей А. Грина в Феодосии. Киевский клуб «Колобки», Творческая студия "Альфия" kolobki.kiev.ua Feodosiya is the most ancient city of Crimea. It is here possible to see a museum of Grin, regional museum, a fortress of Kafa is remains of the Genoese fortress of the XIV item There is Mechet' Muftiy-dzhami and Armenian temple in Feodosii, parki with fountains and other. The visiting-card of city is legally consider the National art gallery the name of Ayvazovskiy.
http://wn.com/Поход_в_Феодосию_Feodosiya_in_East_Crimea_of_Ukraine
Феодосия - древнейший город Крыма, единственный, сохранивший свое первоначальное название. Прибывшие сюда в 6 в. до н.э. из Эллады греки назвали его "Богом данной". История города и его округи - череда сменяющих друг друга эпох блестящего расцвета и периодов глубокого упадка. Во все эпохи город, как магнит, притягивал к себе представителей разных народов. Они оседали здесь и уже не стремились в иные места. Климатические условия в районе Феодосии во многом определяются близостью моря, гор и степей. Они создают здесь особый микроклимат. Феодосия входит в зону теплых степей с жарким и сухим климатом. Феодосийский краеведческий музей - старейший городской музей современной Украины. Визитной карточкой города по праву считается Национальная картинная галерея им. И. К. Айвазовского, а также Литературно-мемориальный музей А. Грина в Феодосии. Киевский клуб «Колобки», Творческая студия "Альфия" kolobki.kiev.ua Feodosiya is the most ancient city of Crimea. It is here possible to see a museum of Grin, regional museum, a fortress of Kafa is remains of the Genoese fortress of the XIV item There is Mechet' Muftiy-dzhami and Armenian temple in Feodosii, parki with fountains and other. The visiting-card of city is legally consider the National art gallery the name of Ayvazovskiy.
- published: 16 Oct 2009
- views: 6447
- author: Alyatanya
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (07-08-2011)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:57
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
Moonbeam feat. Pryce Oliver - No Regrets
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_07-08-2011
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (07-08-2011)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Updated: 10 Jan 2012
Moonbeam - Flickering Ray
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_07-08-2011
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (07-08-2011)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:30
- Updated: 27 Jan 2012
Moonbeam - What Dreams May Come (Club Mix)
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_07-08-2011
FEODOSIYA russian warmblood mare 2006
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:32
- Updated: 22 Sep 2012
training, FOR SALE. Contact: uzhel1@mail.ru
http://wn.com/FEODOSIYA_russian_warmblood_mare_2006
Petropoulos @ Beach Club 117 Feodosiya, Ukraine 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:15
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
DJ Petropoulos @ Beach Club 117 in Feodosiya, Ukraine on the Black Sea.
http://wn.com/Petropoulos_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya,_Ukraine_2012
DJ Petropoulos @ Beach Club 117 in Feodosiya, Ukraine on the Black Sea.
- published: 28 Aug 2012
- views: 199
- author: Habituate Oc
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (07-08-2011)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:05
- Updated: 17 Sep 2011
Moonbeam - Ghost
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_07-08-2011
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (20-07-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:50
- Updated: 07 Jul 2011
Blackweel Wite - First Night
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_20-07-2010
Labor Day Holiday in Feodosiya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:33
- Updated: 31 May 2012
This is how we spent the 2-day Labor Day holiday near Feodosiya, Crimea. First a Shashlik picnic, then a 4-wheeling competition, then ultralights, horseback riding and back for one more flight in an ultralight aircraft.
http://wn.com/Labor_Day_Holiday_in_Feodosiya
This is how we spent the 2-day Labor Day holiday near Feodosiya, Crimea. First a Shashlik picnic, then a 4-wheeling competition, then ultralights, horseback riding and back for one more flight in an ultralight aircraft.
- published: 03 May 2012
- views: 73
- author: Christie Kimball
FEODOSIYA russian warmblood mare 2006
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:57
- Updated: 14 Sep 2012
For sale. For info regarding this horse, write to ntk_galina@mail.ru
http://wn.com/FEODOSIYA_russian_warmblood_mare_2006
For sale. For info regarding this horse, write to ntk_galina@mail.ru
- published: 04 Sep 2012
- views: 214
- author: eugeniazakh
Sinners - Feodosiya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:02
- Updated: 27 Dec 2011
Sinners @ Daniel street 12-22-2011
http://wn.com/Sinners_Feodosiya
Moonbeam (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (20-07-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:21
- Updated: 07 Aug 2011
Moonbeam - Lacula
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_20-07-2010
Black Sea litle storm at Feodosiya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:10
- Updated: 26 Aug 2011
http://wn.com/Black_Sea_litle_storm_at_Feodosiya
Moonbeam feat Avis Vox (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (22-08-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:21
- Updated: 08 Feb 2012
Moonbeam feat. Avis Vox - 7 Seconds (J-Soul Remix)
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_feat_Avis_Vox_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_22-08-2010
Moonbeam feat. Avis Vox - 7 Seconds (J-Soul Remix)
- published: 01 Oct 2010
- views: 963
- author: joszhilin
Moonbeam feat Avis Vox (live) @ Beach Club 117. Feodosiya. Ukraine (22-08-2010)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:40
- Updated: 02 Feb 2011
Moonbeam feat. Avis Vox - Elephant Ride
http://wn.com/Moonbeam_feat_Avis_Vox_live_@_Beach_Club_117_Feodosiya_Ukraine_22-08-2010
photo: Creative Commons / Axou
24 Dec 2012
Steve Jobs was controversial in life, and now his high-tech mega-yacht is associated with a controversy long after his death. The former Apple CEO's ship was impounded in Amsterdam in the middle of a financial battle over a disputed bill. Phillippe Starck, a French product designer and architect, has alleged that Jobs' heirs owe him 3 million euros for his work on Venus, the 256-foot yacht Jobs commissioned before his death ... ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: AP / Musadeq Sadeq
24 Dec 2012
KABUL, Afghanistan (AP) — An Afghan policewoman shot and killed an American adviser outside the police headquarters in Kabul on Monday, the latest in a rising tide of insider attacks by Afghans against their foreign allies, senior Afghan officials said. The woman, identified as Afghan police Sgt ... The woman was taken into Afghan custody shortly after the attack ... As many Afghans, the policewoman uses only one name ... Air Force Lt. Col ... Gen ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Giorgione
24 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. A deadly silence immediately followed after a bullet penetrated the calf's skull. Against my wishes, Vic had decided against either amputating its leg or contacting a veterinarian-something he reasoned would have been too expensive. The unfortunate calf had slid down into a ravine where its hind leg, which was mangled and torn, became wrapped in barbed wire ... But it was more than a bellow ... 9....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP / Hasan Jamali
26 Dec 2012
The six Gulf states have sharpened their tone against their neighbour Iran, demanding an immediate halt to its "interference" in their internal affairs while urging action to halt mass killings and violations of international law in Syria ... The council said they "reject and denounce" Iran's "continued interference" in their internal affairs that increase regional tension and threaten security and stability ... 419 Source.. Agencies. Share ... ....(size: 18.7Kb)
noodls
26 Sep 2012
Yelena Osipova, SIS/Ph.D., speaks to children participating in the Cross Cultures Project Association's Open Fun Football Schools ... Research and Publications Coordinator Justin Papka, Program Associate Walid Hammam, SIS/MA ';12, and Ph.D ... During this first trip to the towns of Andreevka, Feodosiya, Kostochka and Gruvshevka in September, the staff engaged with youth, coaches, parents and local government officials ... distributed by....(size: 3.2Kb)
Novosti
14 Aug 2012
Ivashchenko was arrested in August 2010 over his alleged involvement in the illegal privatization of a shipbuilding plant in the Crimean port of Feodosiya, which caused an estimated $8.8 million in damages to ......(size: 1.1Kb)
Novosti
14 Apr 2012
European and U.S ... embassy in Kiev said in a statement ... Ivashchenko, who served in then-Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko’s government from June 2009 to March 2010, was arrested in August 2010 over his alleged involvement in the illegal privatization of a shipbuilding plant in the Crimean port of Feodosiya, which caused an estimated $8.8 million in damages to Ukraine’s budget ... . ....(size: 2.3Kb)
Novosti
12 Apr 2012
Ivashchenko, who served in then-Prime Minister Yulia Tymoshenko’s government from June 2009 to March 2010, was arrested in August 2010 over his alleged involvement in the illegal privatization of a shipbuilding plant in the Crimean port of Feodosiya, which caused an estimated $8.8 million in damages to Ukraine’s budget....(size: 2.2Kb)
Newstrack India
12 Apr 2012
Bloomberg
13 Feb 2012
Eastern Europe suffered a fatal avalanche and power cuts amid snowfall and chilling temperatures as Ukraine predicted the worst of the freezing weather that’s killed hundreds in the region may have passed ... 10 ... 17, while snowfall will be heavy, he predicted ... A boiler exploded in the city of Feodosiya, 877 kilometers (545 miles) south of Kiev, cutting heating supplies to 25 five-floor apartment buildings, a school and a kindergarten ... 20 ... ....(size: 5.1Kb)
"Caffa" redirects here. For other uses, see Caffa (disambiguation).
| Feodosiia Феодосія Kefe Феодосия |
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|---|---|---|---|
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 Feodosiia
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| Coordinates: 45°2′56″N 35°22′45″E / 45.04889°N 35.37917°E / 45.04889; 35.37917Coordinates: 45°2′56″N 35°22′45″E / 45.04889°N 35.37917°E / 45.04889; 35.37917 | |||
| Country |  Ukraine |
||
| Territory | Crimea | ||
| Region | Feodosiya municipality | ||
| Elevation | 50 m (160 ft) | ||
| Population | |||
| • Total | 97,721 | ||
| Time zone | EET (UTC+2) | ||
| • Summer (DST) | EEST (UTC+3) | ||
| Postal code | 98100 — 98175 | ||
| Area code(s) | +380-6562 | ||
| Former names | Kefe (until 1784), Caffa (until 15th cent.) | ||
Feodosiya (Ukrainian: Феодо́сія, Feodosiia[1]; Russian: Феодо́сия, Greek: Θεοδοσία; sometimes spelled as Theodosia) is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, on the Black Sea coast. During much of its history the town was known as Caffa (Ligurian:Cafà) or Kaffa (Crimean Tatar: Kefe).
Contents |
History[link]
The city was founded as Theodosia (Θεοδοσία) by Greek colonists from Miletos in the 6th century BC. Noted for its rich agricultural lands, on which its trade depended, it was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD.
Theodosia remained a minor village for much of the next nine hundred years. It was at times part of the sphere of influence of the Khazars (excavations have revealed Khazar artifacts dating back to the ninth century) and of the Byzantine Empire.
Like the rest of Crimea, it fell under the domination of the Kipchaks and was conquered by the Mongols in the 1230s.
Caffa[link]
Between 1204–1261 and again in 1296–1307, the city of Caffa was ruled by Genoa's chief rival, the Republic of Venice. In the late 13th century, traders from the Republic of Genoa arrived and purchased the town from the ruling Golden Horde. They established a flourishing trading settlement called Caffa (or Kaffa), which virtually monopolised trade in the Black Sea area and served as the chief port and administrative centre for the Genoese settlements around the Sea. It came to house one of Europe's biggest slave markets. Under Genoa since 1266, Caffa was governed by a Genoese consul, who since 1316 was in charge of all Genoese Black Sea colonies.
It is believed that the devastating pandemic the Black Death entered Europe for the first time via Caffa in 1347, through the movements of the Golden Horde. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army under Janibeg was reportedly withering from the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants, in one of the first cases of biological warfare. Fleeing inhabitants may have carried the disease back to Italy, causing its spread across Europe. However, the plague appears to have spread in a stepwise fashion, taking over a year to reach Europe from Crimea. Also, there were a number of Crimean ports under Mongol control, so it is unlikely that Caffa was the only source of plague-infested ships heading to Europe. In addition, there were overland caravan routes from the East that would have been carrying the disease into Europe as well.[2]
Caffa recovered. The thriving, culturally diverse city and its thronged slave market were described by the Spanish traveller Pedro Tafur, who was there in the 1430s.[3]
Kefe[link]
In 1462 Caffa placed itself under the protection of King Casimir IV of Poland. However, Poland did not offer help when real danger came. Because the Genoese started intervening in the internal affairs of the Crimean Khanate, a Turkish vassal, the Ottoman commander Gedik Ahmet Pasha seized the city in 1475, deporting the whole population to Istanbul, in a quarter (Kefeli Mahalle) which got the name from the town. Renamed Kefe, Caffa became one of the most important Turkish ports on the Black Sea.
In 1615 Zaporozhian Cossacks under the leadership of Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny destroyed the Turkish fleet and captured Caffa. Having conquered the city, the cossacks released the men, women and children who were slaves.
Later history[link]
Ottoman control ceased when the expanding Russian Empire conquered the whole Crimea in 1783. It was renamed Feodosiya (Феодосия) in 1802, a Russian version of the ancient Greek name.
The city was occupied by the forces of Nazi Germany during World War II, sustaining significant damage in the process. The Jewish population numbering 3,248 before the German occupation was murdered by SD-Einsatzgruppe D between November 16 and December 15, 1941.[4]
In 1954, it was transferred to the administrative control of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic with the rest of Crimea.
Modern Feodosiya[link]
| Climate data for Feodosia | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | 3 (37) |
4 (39) |
6 (43) |
13 (55) |
19 (66) |
24 (75) |
26 (79) |
26 (79) |
22 (72) |
16 (61) |
11 (52) |
7 (45) |
15 (59) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −1 (30) |
0 (32) |
2 (36) |
8 (46) |
13 (55) |
18 (64) |
20 (68) |
20 (68) |
16 (61) |
10 (50) |
5 (41) |
−2 (28) |
9 (48) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 37 (1.46) |
35 (1.38) |
32 (1.26) |
34 (1.34) |
36 (1.42) |
44 (1.73) |
35 (1.38) |
51 (2.01) |
38 (1.5) |
25 (0.98) |
34 (1.34) |
48 (1.89) |
449 (17.68) |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 56 | 74 | 132 | 194 | 275 | 308 | 348 | 327 | 244 | 173 | 88 | 63 | 2,272 |
| Source: Meteoprog.ua | |||||||||||||
File:Feodosia embankment.jpg
Feodosia embankment.
Modern Feodosiya is a resort city with a population of about 85,000 people. It has beaches, mineral springs, and mud baths, sanatoria, and rest homes. Apart from tourism, its economy rests on agriculture and fisheries, local industries include fishing, brewing and canning. As with much of the Crimea, most of its population is ethnically Russian, the Ukrainian language is infrequently used. In June 2006, Feodosiya made the news with the Crimean anti-NATO protests of 2006.
While most beaches in Crimea are made of pebbles, there is a unique Golden Beach (Zolotoy Plyazh) made of small seashells in Feodosiya area. Golden Beach stretches for 15 km.
The city is sparsely populated during the winter months. Most cafes and restaurants are closed. Business and tourism increase in mid-June and peak during July and August. Like in the other resort towns in Crimea, the tourists come mostly from the C.I.S. countries of the former Soviet Union. Feodosiya was the city where the seascape painter Ivan Aivazovsky lived and worked all his life, and where general Pyotr Kotlyarevsky and the writer Alexander Grin spent their declining years. Popular tourist locations include the Ivan Ayvazovsky Picture Gallery and the Genoese fortress.
Twin towns — sister cities[link]
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ http://zakon1.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cgi?nreg=55-2010-%EF
- ^ Wheelis, Mark (September 2002). "Biological Warfare at the 1346 Siege of Caffa". Emerging Infectious Diseseases 8 (9): 971–75.
- ^ Tafur, Andanças e viajes
- ^ Martin Gilbert, The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust, 2002, pp.64, 83
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Feodosia |
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Look up feodosiya in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. |
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http://wn.com/Feodosiya
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feodosiya
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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Wiki Summary
Feodosiya (Ukrainian: Феодо́сія, Feodosiia; Russian: Феодо́сия, Greek: Θεοδοσία; sometimes spelled as Theodosia) is a port and resort city in Crimea, Ukraine, on the Black Sea coast. During much of its history the town was known as Caffa (Ligurian:Cafà) or Kaffa (Crimean Tatar: Kefe).
The city was founded as Theodosia (Θεοδοσία) by Greek colonists from Miletos in the 6th century BC. Noted for its rich agricultural lands, on which its trade depended, it was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th century AD.
Theodosia remained a minor village for much of the next nine hundred years. It was at times part of the sphere of influence of the Khazars (excavations have revealed Khazar artifacts dating back to the ninth century) and of the Byzantine Empire.
Like the rest of Crimea, it fell under the domination of the Kipchaks and was conquered by the Mongols in the 1230s.
Between 1204–1261 and again in 1296–1307, the city of Caffa was ruled by Genoa's chief rival, the Republic of Venice. In the late 13th century, traders from the Republic of Genoa arrived and purchased the town from the ruling Golden Horde. They established a flourishing trading settlement called Caffa (or Kaffa), which virtually monopolised trade in the Black Sea area and served as the chief port and administrative centre for the Genoese settlements around the Sea. It came to house one of Europe's biggest slave markets. Under Genoa since 1266, Caffa was governed by a Genoese consul, who since 1316 was in charge of all Genoese Black Sea colonies.
