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In evolutionary anthropology and archaeology, sedentism (sometimes called sedentariness), is a term applied to the transition from nomadic to permanent. Essentially, sedentism means living permanently in one place.

Requirements for permanent settlements[link]

It is difficult to settle down permanently—to become sedentary—in a landscape without on-site agricultural or cattle-breeding resources, since sedentism requires:

• sufficient year-round local natural resources;
• sufficient easily-accessible local natural resources (several hundred meters distant, at most).

Sedentism is a consequence of the discovery of agriculture. [this is no longer considered accurate]

Both situations require good preservation and storage technologies. For example cooking, smoking, drying and fermenting of foods, as well as good containers such as pottery, baskets or special pits in which to securely store food whilst making it available. It was only at locations where the resources of several major ecosystems overlapped that enabled the earliest sedentism to occur (pre-agricultural sedentism). For example where a river met the sea, at lagoon environments along the coast, at river confluences, or where flat savanna met hills and mountains with rivers.

Before agriculture[link]

During the last 30 years archaeological research has shown the earliest sedentism started before one began with on-site agriculture and cattle breeding, and most researchers now believe that sedentism was a prerequisite for the first agriculture to occur. Sedentism, both without agriculture and with this economy, usually meant more people, sturdier houses, new stone tools, more jewelry, burials or cemeteries, more long-distance goods and also clear signs of stratification. At sedentary sites usually more people lived together for a longer time compared to earlier base camp sites or annual gathering sites. This created deeper cultural layers and thus generally richer archaeological materials. There are also indications that the use of rock art is connected to sedentism, both pre-agricultural and agricultural forms.

Regions[link]

A year-round sedentary site, with its usually larger population, generates a substantial demand on local resources, a demand that, for example in the Middle East, could have triggered the first attempts to cultivate plants on-site. In the Middle East the Natufian culture was the first to become sedentary at around 12000 BC. The Natufians were sedentary during a period of more than 2000 years before they at some sites started to cultivate plants around 10000 BC. However, the first sedentary sites consisted of pre-agricultural ones, and they appeared during the Upper Paleolithic in Moravia in Europe and on the Russian Plain already during the interval of c. 25000-17000 BC.

The Jōmon culture in Japan, which was primarily a coastal culture, was sedentary from c. 12000 to 10000 BC until the cultivation of rice at some sites in northern Kyushu. In northernmost Scandinavia, there are several early sedentary sites without evidence of agriculture or cattle breeding. They appear from c. 5300-4500 BC and are all located optimally in the landscape for extraction of major ecosystem resources. In Sweden (the Lillberget Stone Age village site c. 3900 BC) represents such a site, in Norway (the Nyelv site c. 5300 BC, and in Finland (the Enare träsk site, c. 4500 BC). In northern Sweden the earliest indication of agriculture occurs at previously sedentary sites, and one example is the Bjurselet site used during the period c. 2700-1700 BC, famous for its large caches of long distance traded flint axes from Denmark and southernmost Sweden (some 1300 km). The evidence of small scale agriculture at that site can be seen from c. 2300 BC (burnt cereals of barley).

Effects of sedentism[link]

Sedentism increased contacts and trade, and the first Middle East cereals and cattle in Europe, could have spread through a stepping stone process, where the productive gift (the cereals, cattle, sheep and goat) was exchanged through a network of large pre-agricultural sedentary sites, rather than a wave of advance spread of people with agricultural economy, and where the smaller sites found in between the bigger sedentary ones, did not get any of the new products. Not all contemporary sites during a certain period (after the first sedentism occurred at one site) were sedentary. Evaluation of habitational sites in northern Sweden indicates that less than 10 percent of all the sites around 4000 BC, were sedentary. At the same time, only 0.5-1 percent of these represented villages with more than 3-4 houses. This means that the old nomadic or migratory life style continued in a parallel fashion for several thousand years, until somewhat more sites turned to sedentism, and gradually switched over to agricultural sedentism.

The shift to sedentism is coupled with the adoption of new subsistence strategies, specifically from foraging (hunter-gatherer) to agricultural and animal domestication. The development of sedentism led to the rise of population aggregation and formation of villages, cities, and other community types.

In North America, evidence for sedentism emerges around 4500 BC.^{[citation needed]}

Forced sedentism[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

Forced sedentism or sedentarization occurs when a dominant group restricts the movements of a nomadic group. Nomadic populations have undergone such a process since the first cultivation of land; the organization of the modern society have imposed demands that have pushed aboriginal populations to adopt a fixed habitat.

There are many examples of forced sedentarization with detrimental effects on minority groups in developed countries. The fate of many formerly nomadic groups has mainly been determined by policies instituted during western colonialism or by modern western governments. The ongoing destruction of nomadic peoples' way of life constitutes a decline in human diversity, contributing to the hegemony of westernized civilization, which interestingly is contradictory to certain western governments' political doctrine of tolerance.

This can cause great social decline, and also weaken the ethnic identity of the population affected, as examples show of North American indigenous peoples such as the Inuit in the mid-20th century.

See also[link]

• Bantustan
• Indian reservation
• Paleolithic diet
• Sedentary lifestyle
• Timeline of agriculture and food technology

Notes[link]

References[link]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009)

• Fagan, Brian. 2005. Ancient North America. Thames & Hudson, Ltd.: London.
• Halén, Ove. 1994. Sedentariness During the Stone Age of Northern Sweden Almkvist & Wiksell, Stockholm.
• Sofer, Olga. 1981 Sedentism During the Paleolithic
• Habu, Junku. 2004 Ancient Jomon of Japan Cambridge University Press

John Zerzan

Zerzan lecturing at the 2010 Bay Area Anarchist Book Fair
Born	1943 (1943) Salem, Oregon, United States
Era	20th-century philosophy
Region	Western Philosophy
School	Anarcho-primitivism, Post-left anarchy
Main interests	Hunter-gatherer society, Civilization, alienation, symbolic culture, technology, mass society
Notable ideas	Domestication of humans, rewilding
Influenced by Theodor Adorno, Jacques Camatte, Henry David Thoreau, Guy Debord, Marshall Sahlins, Richard Borshay Lee, Pierre Clastres, Raoul Vaneigem, Max Horkheimer, Charles Fourier, Ivan Illich, William Morris, Herbert Marcuse, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Jean Baudrillard
Influenced Derrick Jensen, Kevin Tucker, Andy Hurley, WTO Seattle protests, Green Anarchy, Species Traitor, CrimethInc.

John Zerzan (born 1943) is an American anarchist and primitivist philosopher and author. His works criticize agricultural civilization as inherently oppressive, and advocate drawing upon the ways of life of hunter gatherers as an inspiration for what a free society should look like. Some subjects of his criticism include domestication, language, symbolic thought (such as mathematics and art) and the concept of time.

His five major books are Elements of Refusal (1988), Future Primitive and Other Essays (1994), Running on Emptiness (2002), Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections (2005) and Twilight of the Machines (2008).

Early life and education[link]

Zerzan was born in Salem, Oregon. He received his bachelor's degree from Stanford University and later received a master's degree in History from San Francisco State University. He completed his coursework towards a PhD at the University of Southern California but dropped out before completing his dissertation. He is of Bohemian/Czech descent.

Zerzan's anarchism[link]

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Zerzan's theories draw on Theodor Adorno's concept of negative dialectics to construct a theory of civilization as the cumulative construction of alienation. According to Zerzan, original human societies in paleolithic times, and similar societies today such as the !Kung, Bushmen and Mbuti, live a non-alienated and non-oppressive form of life based on primitive abundance and closeness to nature. Constructing such societies as a kind of political ideal, or at least an instructive comparison against which to denounce contemporary (especially industrial) societies, Zerzan uses anthropological studies from such societies as the basis for a wide-ranging critique of aspects of modern life. He portrays contemporary society as a world of misery built on the psychological production of a sense of scarcity and lack.^[1] The history of civilization is the history of renunciation; what stands against this is not progress but rather the Utopia which arises from its negation.^[2]

Zerzan is an anarchist, and is broadly associated with the philosophies of anarcho-primitivism, green anarchism, anti-civilisation, post-left anarchy, neo-luddism, and in particular the critique of technology.^[3] He rejects not only the state, but all forms of hierarchical and authoritarian relations. "Most simply, anarchy means 'without rule.' This implies not only a rejection of government but of all other forms of domination and power as well."^[4]

Zerzan's work relies heavily on a strong dualism between the "primitive" – viewed as non-alienated, wild, non-hierarchical, ludic, and socially egalitarian – and the "civilised" – viewed as alienated, domesticated, hierarchically organised and socially discriminatory. Hence, "life before domestication/agriculture was in fact largely one of leisure, intimacy with nature, sensual wisdom, sexual equality, and health."^[5]

Zerzan's claims about the status of primitive societies are based on a reading of the works of anthropologists such as Marshall Sahlins and Richard B. Lee. Crucially, the category of primitives is restricted to pure hunter-gatherer societies with no domesticated plants or animals. For instance, hierarchy among Northwest Coast Native Americans whose main activities were fishing and foraging is attributed to their having domesticated dogs and tobacco.^[5][6]

Zerzan calls for a "Future Primitive", a radical reconstruction of society based on a rejection of alienation and an embracing of the wild. "It may be that our only real hope is the recovery of a face-to-face social existence, a radical decentralization, a dismantling of the devouring, estranging productionist, high-tech trajectory that is so impoverishing."^[4] The usual use of anthropological evidence is comparative and demonstrative – the necessity or naturality of aspects of modern western societies is challenged by pointing to counter-examples in hunter-gatherer societies. "Ever-growing documentation of human prehistory as a very long period of largely non-alienated life stands in sharp contrast to the increasingly stark failures of untenable modernity."^[2] It is unclear, however, whether this implies a re-establishment of the literal forms of hunter-gatherer societies or a broader kind of learning from their ways of life in order to construct non-alienated relations.

Zerzan's political project calls for the destruction of technology. He draws the same distinction as Ivan Illich, between tools that stay under the control of the user, and technological systems that draw the user into their control. One difference is the division of labour, which Zerzan opposes. In Zerzan's philosophy, technology is possessed by an elite which automatically has power over other users; This power is one of the sources of alienation, along with domestication and symbolic thought.

Zerzan's typical method is to take a particular construct of civilisation (a technology, belief, practice or institution) and construct an account of its historical origins, what he calls its destructive and alienating effects and its contrasts with hunter-gatherer experiences. In his essay on number, for example, Zerzan starts by contrasting the "civilized" emphasis on counting and measuring with a "primitive" emphasis on sharing, citing Dorothy Lee's work on the Trobriand Islanders in support, before constructing a narrative of the rise of number through cumulative stages of state domination, starting with the desire of Egyptian kings to measure what they ruled.^[7] This approach is repeated in relation to time,^[8] gender inequality,^[9] work,^[10] technology,^[11] art and ritual,^[6] agriculture^[12] and globalization.^[13] Zerzan also writes more general texts on anarchist,^[4] primitivist theory,^[2][5] and critiques of "postmodernism".^[14]

Political development[link]

In 1966, Zerzan was arrested while performing civil disobedience at a Berkeley anti-Vietnam War march and spent two weeks in the Contra Costa County Jail. He vowed after his release never again to be willingly arrested. He attended events organized by Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters and was involved with the psychedelic drug and music scene in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood.^[15][16]

In the late 1960s he worked as a social worker for the city of San Francisco welfare department. He helped organize a social worker's union, the SSEU, and was elected vice president in 1968, and president in 1969.^[16][17] The local Situationist group Contradiction denounced him as a "leftist bureaucrat".^[18] He became progressively more radical as he dealt further with his and other unions. He was also a voracious reader of the Situationists, being particularly influenced by Guy Debord.^[16]

In 1974, Black and Red Press published Unions Against Revolution by Spanish ultra-left theorist Grandizo Munis that included an essay by Zerzan which previously appeared in the journal Telos. Over the next 20 years, Zerzan became intimately involved with the Fifth Estate, Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed, Demolition Derby and other anarchist periodicals. He began to question civilization in the early 80's, after having sought to confront issues around the neutrality of technology and division of labour, at the time when Fredy Perlman was making similar conclusions.^[19] He saw civilization itself as the root of the problems of the world and that a hunter-gatherer form of society presented the most egalitarian model for human relations with themselves and the natural world.

Zerzan and the "Unabomber"[link]

In the mid-1990s, Zerzan became a confidant to Theodore Kaczynski, the "Unabomber", after he read Industrial Society and Its Future, the so-called Unabomber Manifesto. Zerzan sat through the Unabomber trial and often conversed with Kaczynski during the proceedings. After Zerzan became known as a friend of the Unabomber, the mainstream media became interested in Zerzan and his ideas.

In Zerzan's essay "Whose Unabomber?" (1995), he signaled his support for the Kaczynski doctrine, but criticised the bombings:

[T]he mailing of explosive devices intended for the agents who are engineering the present catastrophe is too random. Children, mail carriers, and others could easily be killed. Even if one granted the legitimacy of striking at the high-tech horror show by terrorizing its indispensable architects, collateral harm is not justifiable...^[20]

However, Zerzan in the same essay offered a qualified defense of the Unabomber's actions:

The concept of justice should not be overlooked in considering the Unabomber phenomenon. In fact, except for his targets, when have the many little Eichmanns who are preparing the Brave New World ever been called to account?... Is it unethical to try to stop those whose contributions are bringing an unprecedented assault on life?^[20]

Two years later, in the 1997 essay "He Means It — Do You?," Zerzan wrote:

Enter the Unabomber and a new line is being drawn. This time the bohemian schiz-fluxers, Green yuppies, hobbyist anarcho-journalists, condescending organizers of the poor, hip nihilo-aesthetes and all the other "anarchists" who thought their pretentious pastimes would go on unchallenged indefinitely — well, it's time to pick which side you're on. It may be that here also is a Rubicon from which there will be no turning back.

In a 2001 interview with The Guardian, he said:

Will there be other Kaczynskis? I hope not. I think that activity came out of isolation and desperation, and I hope that isn't going to be something that people feel they have to take up because they have no other way to express their opposition to the brave new world.^[15]

Zerzan and Pacific Northwest anarcho-primitivism[link]

On May 7, 1995, a full-page interview with Zerzan was featured in The New York Times.^[21] Another significant event that shot Zerzan to celebrity philosopher status was his association with members of the Eugene, Oregon anarchist scene that later were the driving force behind the use of black bloc tactics at the 1999 anti-World Trade Organization protests in Seattle, Washington. Anarchists using black bloc tactics were thought to be chiefly responsible for the property destruction committed at numerous corporate storefronts and banks.^{[citation needed]}

News media coverage started a firestorm of controversy after the riots, and Zerzan was one of those that they turned to in order to explain the actions that some had taken at the demonstrations. After gaining this public notoriety, Zerzan began accepting speaking engagements and giving interviews around the world explaining anarcho-primitivism and the more general Global Justice Movement. Recently Zerzan has been involved with the Post-left anarchist trend, which argues that anarchists should break with the political left.

Zerzan was one of the editors of Green Anarchy, a journal of anarcho-primitivist and insurrectionary anarchist thought. Link label He is also the host of Anarchy Radio in Eugene on the University of Oregon's radio station KWVA. He has also served as a contributing editor at Anarchy Magazine and has been published in magazines such as AdBusters. He does extensive speaking tours around the world, and is married to an independent consultant to museums and other nonprofit organizations.

Criticism[link]

In his essay "Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism: An Unbridgeable Chasm", Murray Bookchin directed criticism from an anarchist point of view at Zerzan's anti-civilisational and anti-technological perspective. Bob Black's Anarchy After Leftism is a known book within primitivist circles, written as a rebuttal to Bookchin. Another notable anarchist work directed at Bookchin's perspective is David Watson's Beyond Bookchin.

Aside from Murray Bookchin, several other anarchist critiques of Zerzan's primitivist philosophies exist. The pamphlet, "Anarchism vs. Primitivism" by Brian Oliver Sheppard criticizes many aspects of the primitivist philosophy.^[22] Some authors, such as Andrew Flood, have argued that destroying civilization would lead to the death of a significant majority of the population.^[23] John Zerzan contends the collapse of civilization as having a gradual decrease on population size, with the possibility of people having the need to seek means of sustainability more close to nature.^[24] Additionally, several related thinkers, such as Derrick Jensen, argue that civilization is in fact unsustainable, and as such the decline of civilization and the accompanying loss of population is unavoidable, rather than a matter of choice and debate.^[25][26][27]

Theodore J. Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber, is a harsh critic of the current Anarcho-Primitivist mainstream and Zerzan in particular for what he sees as a foolish and invalid projection of leftist values such as gender equality, pacifism and leisure time onto the primitive way of life. Kaczynski holds that the values of gender equality, pacifism, leisure time etc. while still admirable, are exactly the values of techno-industrial civilization and its promised techno-utopia. Second, he holds that having such an interpretation is counter-productive to the ultimate anti-civilization/anti-tech goal as it attracts "leftist types" who are by nature uncommitted and act to dilute the movement. Kaczynski insists that the core values of freedom, autonomy, dignity, and human fulfillment must be emphasized above all others.^[28]

Selected works[link]

Books and pamphlets[link]

• Future Primitive Revisited. Feral House, May 2012.
• Origins of the 1%: The Bronze Age pamphlet. Left Bank Books, 2012.
• Origins: A John Zerzan Reader. Joint publication of FC Press and Black and Green Press, 2010.
• Twilight of the Machines. Feral House, 2008.
• Running On Emptiness. Feral House, 2002.
• Against Civilization (editor). Uncivilized Books, 1999; Expanded edition, Feral House, 2005.
• Future Primitive. Autonomedia, 1994.
• Questioning Technology (co-edited with Alice Carnes). Freedom Press, 1988; 2d edition, New Society, 1991, ISBN 978-0-900384-44-8
• Elements of Refusal. Left Bank Books, 1988; 2d edition, C.A.L. Press, 1999.

Articles[link]

• Telos 141, Second-Best Life: Real Virtuality. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Winter 2007.
• Telos 137, Breaking the Spell: A Civilization Critique Perspective. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Winter 2006.
• Telos 124, Why Primitivism?. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Summer 2002.
• Telos 60, Taylorism and Unionism: The Origins of a Partnership. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Summer 1984.
• Telos 50, Anti-Work and the Struggle for Control. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Winter 1981–1982.
• Telos 49, Origins and Meaning of World War I. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Fall 1981.
• Telos 28, Unionism and the Labor Front. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Summer 1978.
• Telos 27, Unionization in America. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Spring 1976.
• Telos 21, Organized Labor versus "The Revolt Against Work:" The Critical Contest. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Fall 1974.

See also[link]

• Neo-Tribalism
• Species Traitor, publication where John Zerzan regularly contributes
• Surplus, a Swedish movie (atmo, 2003) which contains an interview with John Zerzan

References[link]

External links[link]

Find more about John Zerzan on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Images and media from Commons
	Quotations from Wikiquote

• John Zerzan's website
• Green Anarchist archive Green anarchy archive that includes book and writings of John Zerzan and other anti-civilization writers.
• Green Anarchy web site
• Insurgent Desire – John Zerzan writings and interviews can be read online
• Primitivism.com – Writings by Zerzan and other primitivist authors and essayists
• Creel Commission – June 2006 conversation with John Zerzan and the UK band
• ZNet's Primitivism Debate, Michael Albert vs John Zerzan, Eric Blair and the Green Anarchy Collective
• Guide to John Zerzan's papers at the University of Oregon
• John Zerzan's conferences in Montreal, intro and videos (May '08)
• John Wisniewski interviews John Zerzan
• Resources on Green Anarchism that include some of Zerzan's writings and ideas at Jesus Radicals
• John Zerzan – "Five Thesis on Workers' Councils"
• "Radical rethinking" by Sena Christian. (April 17, 2008)