Radcliffe College
Established	1879-1999 (Radcliffe College); 1999-Present (Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study)
Location	Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
Website	www.radcliffe.edu

Radcliffe College was a women's liberal arts college in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and was the coordinate college for Harvard University. It was also one of the Seven Sisters colleges. Radcliffe College conferred joint Harvard-Radcliffe diplomas beginning in 1963 and a formal merger agreement with Harvard was signed in 1977, with full integration with Harvard completed in 1999. Today, Radcliffe's campus functions as a research institute within Harvard, the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, and former Radcliffe student housing has been incorporated as residential houses of Harvard College.

History[link]

The "Harvard Annex," a private program for the instruction of women by Harvard faculty, was founded in 1879 after prolonged efforts by women to gain access to Harvard. Arthur Gilman, banker, philanthropist and writer, and son of Winthrop Sargent Gilman, was the founder of Radcliffe College.^[1] The school was named in memory of the first female donor, Ann (Radcliffe) Mowlson.

Ada Comstock, a leader in women in higher education, who hailed from the University of Minnesota and Smith College, was the first president. Backed by the Woman's Education Association of Boston and led by a committee of women managers, the Annex was incorporated in 1882 as the Society for the Collegiate Instruction of Women, with Elizabeth Cary Agassiz as president.^[2] Agassiz and the WEA hoped that by raising an endowment they would convince Harvard to take on the work of educating women. The university however, resisted.^[3] In 1904, a popular historian wrote of its genesis: "...it set up housekeeping in two unpretending rooms in the Appian Way, Cambridge.... Probably in all the history of colleges in America there could not be found a story so full of colour and interest as that of the beginning of this woman's college. The bathroom of the little house was pressed into service as a laboratory for physics, students and instructors alike making the best of all inconveniences. Because the institution was housed with a private family, generous mothering was given to the girls when they needed it."^[4]

It was chartered as Radcliffe College by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1894 (the Boston Globe reported "President of Harvard To Sign Parchments of the Fair Graduates").^[5] It is named for Lady Ann Mowlson, born Radcliffe, who established the first scholarship at Harvard in 1643. The first president was Elizabeth Cary Agassiz, widow of Harvard professor Louis Agassiz. Radcliffe built its own campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts, not far from that of Harvard.

By 1896, the Globe could headline a story: "Sweet Girls. They Graduate in Shoals at Radcliffe. Commencement Exercises at Sanders Theatre. Galleries Filled with Fair Friends and Students. Handsome Mrs. Agassiz Made Fine Address. Pres Eliot Commends the Work of the New Institution." The Globe said "Eliot stated that the percentage of graduates with distinction is much higher at Radcliffe than at Harvard" and that although "[i]t is to yet to be seen whether the women have the originality and pioneering spirit which will fit them to be leaders, perhaps they will when they have had as many generations of thorough education as men."^[6]

During World War II, Harvard and Radcliffe signed an agreement that allowed women to attend classes at Harvard for the first time, officially beginning joint instruction in 1943. From 1963, Radcliffe students received Harvard diplomas signed by the presidents of Radcliffe and Harvard, and joint commencement exercises began in 1970. The same year, several Harvard and Radcliffe dormitories began swapping students experimentally, and in 1972 full co-residence was instituted. The schools' departments of athletics merged shortly thereafter.

In 1977, Harvard and Radcliffe signed an agreement that put undergraduate women entirely in Harvard College, maintaining for them only a nominal enrollment in Radcliffe College. In practice most of the energies of Radcliffe (which remained an autonomous institution) were devoted to its other initiatives, such as the Bunting fellowship program, rather than to female undergraduates. During this time, the Harvard undergraduate community and class was officially known as "Harvard and Radcliffe" or "Harvard-Radcliffe", and female students continued to be awarded degrees signed by both presidents, even though Radcliffe usually had little to no impact on the average undergraduate's experience at the university.

On October 1, 1999, this arrangement came to an end, as Radcliffe College was finally fully absorbed into Harvard University; female undergraduates were henceforward members only of Harvard College while Radcliffe College evolved into the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.^[7] Today the Radcliffe Institute awards dozens of annual fellowships to prominent academics. Its Schlesinger Library is one of America's largest repositories of manuscripts and archives relating to the history of women.

Several undergraduate student organizations in Harvard College still refer to Radcliffe in their names, (for example the Radcliffe Union of Students, Harvard's feminist organization; the Radcliffe Choral Society, Harvard's female choir (now one of the Holden Choirs), which has alumnae from both Radcliffe and Harvard and maintains a repertoire of Radcliffiana; the Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra; and the Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players). Two athletic teams still compete under the Radcliffe name: varsity crew, which still rows with Radcliffe's black-and-white oarblades and uniforms instead of Harvard's crimson-and-white (in 1973 the team had been the only varsity team which voted not to adopt the Harvard name); and club rugby union. In addition, the Harvard University Band still plays a Radcliffe fight song.

Notable alumnae[link]

A number of Radcliffe alumnae have gone on to become notable in their respective fields, such as:

Popular culture[link]

• All About Eve is a film whose script references Radcliffe three times.
  • Addison (George Sanders) says during Karen's introduction, "(voice-over) Nothing in her background or breeding should have brought her any closer to the stage than row E, center... however, during her senior year in Radcliffe, Lloyd Richards lectured on drama. The following year Karen became Mrs. Lloyd Richards."
  • Margo (Bette Davis) says to Karen (Celeste Holm), "Please don't play governess, Karen. I haven't your unyielding good taste. I wish I could have gone to Radcliffe too, but father wouldn't hear of it. He needed help behind the notions counter. I'm being rude now, aren't I? Or should I say, ain't I?"[1].
  • Lloyd (Hugh Marlowe) tells Karen, "That bitter cynicism of yours is something you've acquired since you left Radcliffe!" Karen replies, "The cynicism you refer to, I acquired the day I discovered I was different from little boys!"[2]
• In Electra Glide in Blue, the intellectual hippie girl is arrested at one point for knowing a murder investigation suspect referred to as a "Radcliffe hippie".
• The 1970 movie Love Story and the Erich Segal novel it was based on feature Jenny Cavilleri (Ali McGraw) as a Radcliffe music student with whom wealthy Harvard student, Oliver Barrett IV (Ryan O'Neal), falls in love.
• Brenda Patimkin of Philip Roth's Goodbye, Columbus attends Radcliffe.
• The Woody Allen movie Manhattan includes a pedantic character who attended Radcliffe. Additionally, Judy Davis's character in Allen's film Husbands and Wives claims she wrote her senior thesis at Radcliffe on Bauhaus architecture.
• The dating website OkCupid coined the adjective "Radcliffy" to describe characteristics stereotypically associated with women who go to Harvard University.[3]
• In The Simpsons television episode "Monty Can't Buy Me Love," Homer says the Loch Ness monster has eluded everyone, including Peter Graves. Mr. Burns (a Yale University graduate) retorts: "Peter Graves couldn't find ugly at a Radcliffe mixer".
• One of the two main characters in the 80s Beauty and the Beast—Catherine Chandler played by Linda Hamilton—is a Radcliffe graduate. Throughout the series, "Radcliffe" is her boss's nickname for her.
• The main character in Valley of the Dolls, Anne Welles, is a Radcliffe graduate.

See also[link]

• Quadrangle (Harvard)
• Radcliffe Choral Society

References[link]

• Howells, Dorothy Elia. A Century to Celebrate: Radcliffe College, 1879-1979 (1978)
• Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
• Salie, Robert Douglas. "The Harvard Annex Experiment in the Higher Education of Women: Separate but Equal?" PhD dissertation Emory U. 1976. 399 pp.
• Schwager, Sally. "Harvard Women": A History of the Founding of Radcliffe College. Ed.D. diss., Harvard University, 1982.
• Sollors, Werner; Titcomb, Caldwell; and Underwood, Thomas A., eds. Blacks at Harvard: A Documentary History of African-American Experience at Harvard and Radcliffe (1993). 548 pp.
• Ulrich, Laurel Thatcher, ed. Yards and Gates: Gender in Harvard and Radcliffe History (2004). 337 pp.

Footnotes[link]

Books about Radcliffe[link]

• Dowst, Henry Payson; John Albert Seaford (1913). Radcliffe College. H. B. Humphrey Company. . Brief text; content is mostly illustrations by John Albert Seaford Online page images and PDF at Google Books

External links[link]

• Radcliffe Institute For Advanced Study—Harvard University
• Her Two Lives The biography of the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study's Founder by author Elaine Yaffe
• Radcliffe Crew

v t e Harvard University Leadership President: Drew Gilpin Faust · Harvard Board of Overseers · Provost: Alan M. Garber Faculty of Arts and Sciences College · Graduate School of Arts and Sciences · School of Engineering and Applied Sciences · Division of Continuing Education (Summer School · Extension School) Other Faculties Medical School · School of Dental Medicine · School of Public Health · Business School · Divinity School · Graduate School of Design · Graduate School of Education · Kennedy School · Law School · Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study (successor to Radcliffe College) Undergraduate houses Adams · Cabot · Currier · Dunster · Eliot · Kirkland · Leverett · Lowell · Mather · Pforzheimer · Quincy · Winthrop · (Freshmen dormitories) Athletics Harvard Crimson · Ivy League

v t e Helen Keller Life history Ivy Green Tuscumbia, Alabama Laura Bridgman Alexander Graham Bell Schools attended Perkins School for the Blind Anne Sullivan Wright-Humason School for the Deaf Horace Mann School for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing The Cambridge School of Weston Radcliffe College Related foundations Helen Keller International American Civil Liberties Union Helen Keller Services for the Blind Related works The Frost King The Story of My Life The World I Live In My Religion Light in My Darkness Deliverance Helen Keller in Her Story The Miracle Worker The Miracle Continues Black

Lizabeth Cohen is the current Howard Mumford Jones Professor of American Studies at Harvard University, as well as the Dean of Harvard's Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.^[1] Currently, she teaches courses in 20th century America, material and popular culture, and gender, urban, and working-class history. She has also served as the Chair of the History Department at Harvard and director of the undergraduate program in history.

Life and academic career[link]

Cohen grew up in Paramus, in Bergen County, New Jersey.^[2] She earned her A.B. degree from Princeton University, and both her M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley, where she worked with labor historian David Brody and cultural historians Lawrence Levine and Paula Fass, among others.

Cohen worked as a secondary school teacher and in history and art museums. She rose from the position of assistant to associate professor at Carnegie Mellon University between 1986 to 1992 and served as associate professor and full professor at New York University between 1992 to 1997, before joining the faculty at Harvard. She was appointed the Harmsworth Professor of American History at Oxford University for the 2007-08 academic year.

She is best known for Making a New Deal, a book that pioneered the social history of 20th century American politics. In that book, a case study of Chicago, Cohen argues that working-class urban residents found a common identity as Americans and as New Dealers as the result of their incorporation into a burgeoning mass culture and especially as the result of the devastating effects of the Depression on urban ethnic stores, businesses, and institutions. Cohen also offers a provocative argument about the rise of the Congress of Industrial Organizations during the 1930s. She contends that a working-class "culture of unity" broke down ethnic divisions and animosities and made possible widescale industrial unionization.

Cohen's analysis of working-class popular culture (shopping, movie-going, and radio) during the 1920s was a pioneering effort in the study of vernacular consumerism, a theme that she developed with more of a political focus in her most recent book, A Consumers' Republic. Through a deeply documented history of urban and suburban New Jersey, embedded in a larger analysis about the transformation of post-New Deal liberalism, Cohen explores the ways that people's identities as consumers shaped their politics after World War II. Building on her interests on architecture, planning, and the built environment, the book is particularly noteworthy for its engagement with earlier work on the politics of suburbanization by scholars like Kenneth T. Jackson. Cohen explores such topics as the rise of shopping malls, the emergence of a consumers' rights movement, and the relationship of consumerism to civil rights activism in the mid-twentieth century. A Consumer's Republic begins with her recollections of growing up in suburban New Jersey and draws from extensive research in archives in the Garden State.

Awards and memberships[link]

Cohen has been a Guggenheim Fellow, an American Council of Learned Societies Fellow, a Fellow at the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study and is a Fellow of the Rothermere American Institute, University of Oxford. She has also served as President of the Urban History Association.

Her 1990 article, "Encountering Mass Culture at the Grassroots: The Experience of Chicago Workers in the 1920s," won the American Studies Association's Constance Rourke Prize for the best article published in the journal American Quarterly.

Her 1990 book, Making a New Deal, won the Bancroft Prize in 1991 for the best book published in American history and the Philip Taft Labor History Book Award, and was a finalist for the Pulitzer Prize.

Published works[link]

Solely authored books[link]

• A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America. New York: Vintage Books, 2003. ISBN 0-375-70737-9
• Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1939. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-521-38134-7

Solely authored articles[link]

• "Encountering Mass Culture at the Grassroots: The Experience of Chicago Workers in the 1920s." American Quarterly. 41:1 (March 1989).
• "From Town Center to Shopping Center: The Reconfiguration of Community Marketplaces in Postwar America." American Historical Review. 101 (October 1996).

References[link]

Sources[link]

• Bailey, Thomas; David M. Kennedy, Lizabeth Cohen (2002). The American Pageant: A History of the Republic (12th Ed. ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. ISBN 0-618-24732-7. 

External links[link]

• American Studies Association Web site
• Lizabeth Cohen faculty page, Department of History, Harvard University
• Philip Taft Labor History Book Award

This article is an orphan, as few or no other articles link to it. Please introduce links to this page from related articles; suggestions may be available. (December 2007)

Menachem Elimelech is the Roberto C. Goizueta Professor of Environmental and Chemical Engineering and Chairman of the Chemical Engineering Department at Yale University. In 1998, he founded Yale's Environmental Engineering Program for which he continues to serve as director. Elimelech specializes in problems involving physicochemical, colloidal, and microbial processes in engineered and natural environmental systems.

External links[link]

• The Chemical Engineering Department at Yale
• The Environmental Engineering Program at Yale
• Menachem Elimelech Faculty Page at Yale ChE
• Elimelech Lab Web Page

Yu Dafu
Born	(1896-12-07)December 7, 1896 Fuyang, Zhejiang, China
Died	September 17, 1945(1945-09-17) (aged 48)
Occupation	Short Story writer and Poet

Yu Dafu (simplified Chinese: 郁达夫; traditional Chinese: 郁達夫; pinyin: Yù Dáfū; Wade–Giles: Yu Ta-fu) (December 7, 1896—September 17, 1945). Born in Fuyang, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, was a modern Chinese short story writer and poet.

Early years[link]

Yu Dafu's father died when he was three, leaving the family poverty-stricken and destitute. He received a number of scholarships through the Chinese government and went on to receive a traditional Chinese education in Hangzhou. Chronologically he studied in Jiangxing-Fu Middle School (before he came to Hangzhou), Hangzhou-Fu Middle School, Yuying Academy^[1] (育英学堂, formerly of Zhejiang University).

In 1912, he entered Hangchow University (later its major part merged into Zhejiang University) preparatory through examination. He was there only for a short period before he was expelled for participation in a student strike.^[2]

He then moved to Japan, where he studied economics at the Tokyo Imperial University between 1913 and 1922, where he met other Chinese intellectuals (namely, Guo Moruo, Zhang Ziping and Tian Han). Together, in 1921 they founded the Chuangzao she 創造社 ("Creation Society"), which promoted vernacular and modern literature. One of his earlier works Chenlun 沉淪, also his most famous, published in Japan in 1921. The work had gained immense popularity in China, shocking the world of Chinese literature with its frank dealing with sex, as well as grievances directed at the incompetence of Chinese government at the time.

In 1922, he returned to China as a literary celebrity and worked as the editor of Creation Quarterly, editing journals and writing short stories. In 1923, after an attack of tuberculosis, Yu Dafu directed his attention to the welfare of the masses.

In 1927, he worked as an editor of the Hongshui literary magazine. He later came in conflict with the Communist Party of China and fled back to Japan.

Second Sino-Japanese war[link]

After the start of the Second Sino-Japanese war, he returned to China and worked as a writer of anti-Japanese propaganda in Hangzhou, and later in Zhejiang. From 1938 to 1942, he worked as a literary editor for the newspaper Sin Chew Jit Poh in Singapore.

In 1942 when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Singapore, he was forced to flee to Sumatra. Known under a different identity, he settled there among other overseas Chinese and began a brewery business with the help of the locals. Later he was forced to help the Japanese military police as an interpreter when it was discovered that he was one of the few "locals" in the area who could speak Japanese.

In 1945, he was arrested by the Kempeitai when his true identity was finally discovered. It is believed that he was executed by the Japanese shortly after the surrender of Japan.

Works[link]

• Chenlun 沉淪 "Sinking" (1921)
• Riji jiuzhong 日記九種 “Nine Diaries” (1927)
• Guoqu 過去 “The Past" (1927)
• his first novel?? (1928) (moderately successful)
• his second novel?? (1932)
• Chuben 出奔 "Flight" (1935)

His most popular work, breaking all Chinese sales records, was Jih-chi chiu-chung "Nine Diaries", which detailed his affair with the writer Wang Ying-hsin. The most critically acclaimed work is Kuo-ch'u or "The Past", written in 1927.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

• Encyclopædia Britannica 2005 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD, article- "Yü Ta-fu"

External links[link]

• Works by Yu Dafu at Project Gutenberg

Benazir Bhutto بينظير ڀٽو بے نظیر بھٹو
Prime Minister of Pakistan
In office 19 October 1993 – 5 November 1996
President	Wasim Sajjad Farooq Leghari
Preceded by	Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi (Acting)
Succeeded by	Malik Meraj Khalid (Acting)
In office 2 December 1988 – 6 August 1990
President	Ghulam Ishaq Khan
Preceded by	Muhammad Khan Junejo
Succeeded by	Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (Acting)
Leader of the Opposition
In office 5 November 1996 – 12 October 1999
Preceded by	Nawaz Sharif
Succeeded by	Fazal-ur-Rehman
In office 6 November 1990 – 18 April 1993
Preceded by	Khan Abdul Wali Khan
Succeeded by	Nawaz Sharif
Minister of Finance
In office 26 January 1994 – 10 October 1996
Preceded by	Babar Ali (Acting)
Succeeded by	Naveed Qamar
In office 4 December 1988 – 6 December 1990
Prime Minister	Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (Acting) Nawaz Sharif
Preceded by	Mahbub ul Haq (Acting)
Succeeded by	Sartaj Aziz
Minister of Defence
In office 4 December 1988 – 6 August 1990
Preceded by	Mahmoud Haroon (Acting)
Succeeded by	Ghous Ali Shah
Chairperson of the Pakistan Peoples Party
In office 12 November 1982 – 27 December 2007 Acting until 10 January 1984
Preceded by	Nusrat Bhutto
Succeeded by	Asif Ali Zardari Bilawal Zardari Bhutto
Personal details
Born	(1953-06-21)21 June 1953 Karachi, Pakistan
Died	27 December 2007(2007-12-27) (aged 54) Rawalpindi, Pakistan
Political party	Pakistan Peoples Party
Spouse(s)	Asif Ali Zardari (1987–2007)
Children	Bilawal Bakhtawar Asifa
Alma mater	Harvard University Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford St Catherine's College, Oxford
Religion	Sunni Islam
Signature
Website	Official website

This article contains Urdu text, written from right to left with some letters joined. Without proper rendering support, you may see unjoined letters or other symbols instead of Urdu script.

Benazir Bhutto (Sindhi: بينظير ڀٽو; Urdu: بے نظیر بھٹو, pronounced [beːnəˈziːr ˈbʱʊʈʈoː]; 21 June 1953 – 27 December 2007) was a Pakistani democratic socialist who served as the 11th Prime Minister of Pakistan in two non-consecutive terms from 1988 until 1990 and 1993 until 1996. She was the daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a former prime minister of Pakistan and the founder of the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), which she led.

In 1982, at age 29, Benazir Bhutto became the chairwoman of PPP — a democratic socialist, centre-left party, making her the first woman in Pakistan to head a major political party. In 1988, she became the first woman elected to lead a Muslim state^[1] and was also Pakistan's first (and thus far, only) female prime minister. Noted for her charismatic authority^[2] and political astuteness, Benazir Bhutto drove initiatives for Pakistan's economy and national security, and she implemented social capitalist policies for industrial development and growth. In addition, her political philosophy and economic policies emphasized deregulation (particularly of the financial sector), flexible labor markets, the denationalization of state-owned corporations, and the withdrawal of subsidies to others. Benazir Bhutto's popularity waned amid recession, corruption, and high unemployment which later led to the dismissal of her government by conservative President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.

In 1993, Benazir Bhutto was re-elected for a second term after the 1993 parliamentary elections. She survived an attempted coup d'état in 1995, and her hard line against the trade unions and tough rhetorical opposition to her domestic political rivals and to neighboring India earned her the nickname "Iron Lady"; she is also respectfully referred to as B.B. In 1996, the charges of corruption leveled against her led to the final dismissal of her government by President Farooq Leghari. Benazir Bhutto conceded her defeat in the 1997 Parliamentary elections and went into self-imposed exile in Dubai, United Arab Emirates in 1998.

After nine years of self-exile, she returned to Pakistan on 18 October 2007, after having reached an understanding with Military President General Pervez Musharraf, by which she was granted amnesty and all corruption charges were withdrawn. Benazir Bhutto was assassinated in a bombing on 27 December 2007, after leaving PPP's last rally in the city of Rawalpindi, two weeks before the scheduled Pakistani general election of 2008 in which she was a leading opposition candidate. The following year, she was named one of seven winners of the United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights.^[3]

Education and personal life[link]

Benazir Bhutto was born at Pinto Hospital^[4] in Karachi, Dominion of Pakistan on 21 June 1953. She was the eldest child of former prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a Pakistani of Sindhi^[5][6] descent, and Begum Nusrat Ispahani, a Pakistani Shia Muslim of Kurdish descent.^[7][8][9] Her paternal grandfather was Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto.

Bhutto was raised to speak both English and Urdu;^[10][11] English was her first language;^[11] and while she was fluent in Urdu, it was often colloquial rather than grammatical.^[10][11] Despite her family being Sindhi speakers, her Sindhi skills were almost non-existent.^[10]

She attended the Lady Jennings Nursery School and Convent of Jesus and Mary in Karachi.^[12] After two years at the Rawalpindi Presentation Convent, she was sent to the Jesus and Mary Convent at Murree. She passed her O-level examinations at the age of 15.^[13] She then went on to complete her A-Levels at the Karachi Grammar School.

After completing her early education in Pakistan, she pursued her higher education in the United States. From 1969 to 1973 she attended Radcliffe College at Harvard University, where she obtained a Bachelor of Arts degree with cum laude honors in comparative government.^[14] She was also elected to Phi Beta Kappa.^[13] Bhutto later called her time at Harvard "four of the happiest years of my life" and said it formed "the very basis of her belief in democracy". Later in 1995 as Prime Minister, she arranged a gift from the Pakistani government to Harvard Law School.^[15] In 1989, during her first visit, Benazir Bhutto was conferred with her honorary Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degree from Harvard University in 1989.

In June 2006, she received an Honorary LL.D degree from the University of Toronto.^[16]

The next phase of her education took place in the United Kingdom. Between 1973 and 1977 Bhutto studied Philosophy, Politics, and Economics at Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford, during which time she took additional courses in International Law and Diplomacy.^[17] After LMH she attended St Catherine's College, Oxford^[18] and in December 1976 she was elected president of the Oxford Union, becoming the first Asian woman to head the prestigious debating society.^[13]

On 18 December 1987, she married Asif Ali Zardari in Karachi. The couple had three children: two daughters, Bakhtawar and Asifa, and a son, Bilawal. When she gave birth to Bakhtawar in 1990, she became the first modern head of government to give birth while in office.^[19]

Family[link]

Benazir Bhutto's father, Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was removed from office following a military coup in 1977 led by the then chief of army General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, who imposed martial law but promised to hold elections within three months. Instead of holding general elections, General Zia charged Bhutto with conspiring to murder the father of dissident politician Ahmed Raza Kasuri.

Despite the accusation being "widely doubted by the public",^[20] and many clemency appeals from foreign leaders, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was hanged on 4 April 1979 under the effective orders of Supreme Court of Pakistan. Appeals for clemency were dismissed by Chief Martial Law Administrator General Zia-ul-Haq. Benazir Bhutto, her siblings, and her mother were held in a "police camp" until May 1979.^[21]

Martial Law: Arrest and imprisonment[link]

After 1979, Zulfi Bhutto's children and his wife struggle hard against the ruthless far-right wing military dictatorship of General Zia-ul-Haq, despite consequences to themselves for their opposition. Benazir Bhutto and her younger brother Murtaza spent the next eighteen months in and out of house arrest while she worked to rally political support in an attempt to force General Zia-ul-Haq to drop murder charges against her father. On behalf of Bhutto's former Law minister Abdul Hafeez Pirzada and Fakhruddin Abrahim, the Bhutto's family filed a petition at the Chief Martial Law Administrator Office for the reconsideration the sentence of Zulfikar Bhutto, and for the release of Bhutto's friend Dr. Mubashir Hassan. However, General Zia-ul-Haq claimed to have misplaced the petition, and further ignored worldwide appeals for clemency. Zulfikar Bhutto was hanged on April 1979 despite the international pressure. Following the hanging of Bhutto, Benazir and Murtaza were arrested repeatedly. Following PPP's victory in the local elections, General Zia postponed the national elections indefinitely and moved Benazir, Murtaza, and their mother Nusrat Bhutto from Karachi to Larkana Central Jail. This was the seventh time that Nusrat Bhutto and her children had been arrested within two years of the military coup. After repeatedly placing them under house arrest, the regime finally imprisoned her under solitary confinement in a desert cell at Sindh Province during the summer of 1981. She described the conditions in her wall-less cage in her book "Daughter of Destiny", which goes by the title of "Daughter of the East" in Commonwealth countries for copyright reasons:

The summer heat turned my cell into an oven. My skin split and peeled, coming off my hands in sheets. Boils erupted on my face. My hair, which had always been thick, began to come out by the handful. Insects crept into the cell like invading armies. Grasshoppers, mosquitoes, stinging flies, bees and bugs came up through the cracks in the floor and through the open bars from the courtyard. Big black ants, cockroaches, seething clumps of little red ants and spiders. I tried pulling the sheet over my head at night to hide from their bites, pushing it back when it got too hot to breathe

—Benazir Bhutto, summer of 1981

After her six month imprisonment in Sukkur jail, she remained hospitalized for months after which she was shifted to Karachi Central Jail, where she remained imprisoned until 11 December 1981. She was then placed under house arrest in Larkana for eleven months and Karachi for fourteen.

Release and Self-exile[link]

In January 1984, after six years of house arrests and imprisonment, General Zia succumbed to international pressure and allowed Bhutto's family to travel abroad for medical reasons. After undergoing surgery, she resumed her political activities and began to raise awareness about the mistreatment of political prisoners in Pakistan at the hands of Zia regime. This intensified pressure forced General Zia into holding a referendum to give legitimacy to his government. The referendum held on 1 December 1984 proved to be a farce: only 10% of the voters bothered to turn out despite the state machinery. In 1985, Benazir Bhutto received news at a local hotel in Nice, France that her brother Shahnawaz Bhutto was murdered by poisoning. The Bhutto family believed that this was done under orders from General Zia-ul-Haq, prompting Zulfikar Bhutto's children to hide.

Further pressure from the international community forced General Zia to hold elections, for a unicameral legislature on a non-party basis. Benazir Bhutto announced a boycott of the election on the grounds that they were not being held in accordance with the constitution of Pakistan. She continued to raise her voice against human rights violations by the regime and addressed the European Parliament in Strasbourg in 1985. In retaliation to the speech, Zia announced death sentences for 54 workers of her party at a military court in Lahore headed by Zia himself.

Political campaign[link]

Benazir Bhutto on a visit to Washington, D.C. in 1989

Benazir Bhutto, who had returned to Pakistan after completing her studies, found herself placed under house arrest in the wake of her father's imprisonment and subsequent execution. Having been allowed to return to the United Kingdom in 1984, she became a leader in exile of the People's Party of Pakistan (PPP). For the first time in the history of Pakistan a woman was head of a major political party, though she was unable to make her political presence felt in Pakistan until after the death of General Zia-ul-Haq. She succeeded her mother as leader of the PPP and the pro-democracy opposition to the General Zia-ul-Haq regime.

1988 Parliamentary elections[link]

The seat, from which Benazir contested for the safe constituency for the post of Prime Minister in 1980s, namely, NA 207. This seat was considered a Bhutto Clan's post and first contested in 1926 by the late Sardar Wahid Bux Bhutto, in the first ever elections in Sindh, British Indian Empire. The elections were for the Central Legislative Assembly of India. Sardar Wahid Bux won, and became not only the first elected representative from Sindh to a democratically elected parliament, but also the youngest member of the Central Legislative Assembly at age 27. Wahid Bux's achievement was monumental as it was he who was the first Bhutto elected to a government, from a seat that would, thereafter, always be contested by his family members.

Therefore, it was he who paved the way for subsequent Bhuttos to enter Pakistani politics. Sardar Wahid Bux went on to be elected to the Bombay Council. After Wahid Bux's untimely and mysterious death at the age of 33, his younger brother Nawab Nabi Bux Bhutto contested from the same seat and remained undefeated until retirement. It was Nabi Bux who then gave this seat to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to contest in 1970. On 16 November 1988, the first open political elections in more than a decade were held and Benazir Bhutto won major provinces of Pakistan and had the largest percentile for seats in the National Assembly— a lower house of Parliament.

Prime minister[link]

First term (1988–1990)[link]

Benazir Bhutto became 11th Prime minister on 2 December 1988. Arriving at Prime minister Secretariat, Benazir Bhutto addresses the huge crowd:

We gather together to celebrate freedom, to celebrate democracy, to celebrate the three most beautiful words in the English language: `"We the People."

—Benazir Bhutto on December 2, 1988, ^[22]

Initially on December 2, Benazir Bhutto formed a coalition government with MQM, a liberal party, as her ally. As time passed, Bhutto quietly isolated MQM's influence from government and later ousted them, establishing a single party government and claiming the entire mandate from all of Pakistan. During this time, the effects of General Zia's domestic policies began to reveal themselves and she found them difficult to counter. During her first term, Benazir Bhutto vowed to repeal the controversial Hudood Ordinance and to revert the Eight Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan. Benazir Bhutto also promised to shift Pakistan's Semi-presidential system to Parliamentary system. But none of the reforms were made and Benazir began to struggle with conservative President Ghulam Ishaq Khan over the issues of executive authorities. President Khan repeatedly vetoed proposed laws and ordinances that would have lessened his Presidential authority. Benazir Bhutto's accomplishments during this time were in initiatives for nationalist reform and modernization, which some conservatives characterized as Westernization.

Relations with India and Afghanistan war[link]

Benazir took the office in the crucial and penultimate decade of Cold war, and closely aligned with the United States President George H. Bush, based on mutual their distrust of Communism,^[22] although she strongly opposed United States support of Afghan Mujaheddin which she labeled them as "America's Frankestein" during her first state visit to United States in 1989.^[23] Benazir Bhutto's government oversaw and witnessed the major events in the alignment of the middle east and the south asia.^[22] On the Western front, the Soviet Union was withdrawing its combatant forces in Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the United States-Pakistan alliance had broken off with the United States suspicions on nuclear weapons, in 1990. Benazir Bhutto deliberately attempted to warm the relations with neighboring India and met with Rajiv Gandhi in 1989 where she negotiated for a trade agreement when the Indian Premier paid a farewell visit to Pakistan.^[24] The goodwill relations with India continued until 1990 after V. P. Singh succeeded Gandhi as Premier.^[25] The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) influence on Singh forced him to abrogate with agreements, and the tensions began to arise with Pakistan after BJP forced its hardline policies on Kashmir to Pakistan.^[25] Soon, the V.P. Singh administration launched the military operation in Kashmir to curbed the liberation movement.^[25] In response, Benazir allegedly gave authorization for covert operations to support Kashmiri succession movements in Indian Kashmir.^[26][27][28] In 1990, Major-General Pervez Musharraf who was the Director-General of the Directorate-General for the Military Operations (DGMO), proposed a strategic plan against India to Benazir Bhutto calling for a Kargil Infiltration, but Benazir refused because General Musharraf didn't have a strategy for dealing with any resultant international fallout.^[25] In 1988, Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul met with Bhutto and advocated for a plan supporting the Khalistan movement, a Sikh nationalist movement. General Gul justified this strategy as the only way of preempting a fresh Indian threat to Pakistan's territorial integrity.^[29] Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto disagreed with his views and asked him to stop playing this "Card".^[29] General Gul refused and, politely told the Prime minister Benazir Bhutto in mocking French accent that, "Madame' Prime minister, keeping [Indian] Punjab destabilized is equivalent... to the Pakistan Army.... having an extra division at no cost to the taxpayers...".^[29]

On the Western front, Benazir Bhutto also authorized further aggressive military operations in Afghanistan to topple the fragile communist regime and the Soviet influence in the region.^[30] One of her notable military authorizations was military action in Jalalabad of Soviet Afghanistan in retaliation for the Soviet Union's long unconditional support of India, a proxy war in Pakistan, and Pakistan's loss in the 1965 and 1971 wars.^[30] This operation was "a defining moment for her [Benazir's] government" to prove the loyalty to Pakistan Armed Forces.^[30] This operation planned by then-Director General of the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul, with inclusion of U.S. ambassador to Pakistan Robert Oakley.^[30] Known as Battle of Jalalabad, it was intended to gain a conventional victory on Soviet Union after Soviet Union had withdrawn its troops.^[30] The central planner of this operation was Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul who gained Bhutto's permission and authorization after he had briefed her on the Afghanistan situation.^[30] The mission, planned solely by Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul, brutally failed in a matter of two months with no effective results produced.^[30] The morale of the mujahideen involved in the attack slumped and many local commanders ended truces with the government.^[30] Angered and frustrated with the outcomes of the operation, Benazir Bhutto, who was already displeased with Gul, immediately deposed and sacked Lieutenant-General Hamid Gul while his rank was not degraded but his pay rate was made equivalent to Major rank officer.^[30] Bhutto's decision to depose Gul was one of her authoritative moves that surprised many senior statesman, though they did back her.^[30] She replaced Gul with another Lieutenant General Shamsur Rahman Kallu who proved to be more a capable officer in the Afghan war than Gul.^[30] After Gul's removal, Benazir Bhutto took the matter into her own hands by favoring a political settlement between all the Afghan Mujaheddin factions and hence international legitimacy for the new government. This was never achieved and the factions began fighting each other, further destabilizing the country. Benazir also promoted and strengthened relations with the United Kingdom, and met with British counter part Margaret Thatcher where a finance assistance and trade agreement was signed by both prime ministers. In all, during her first government, Benazir Bhutto's foreign policy revolved around Afghanistan, India, and the United States.

Science policy[link]

While on her trip to United Kingdom in 1990, Benazir Bhutto paid a visit to Dr. Abdus Salam, a Nobel laureate in Physics and science advisor of her father, where she had paid great respect to Abdus Salam. During her first and second term, Benazir Bhutto followed the same policy on science and technology as her father did in 1972, and promoted the military funding of science and technology as part of her policy. However, in 1988, Benazir Bhutto was denied access to any of the country's classified national research institutes run under the Pakistan Armed Forces which maintained under the control of civilian President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the Chief of Army Staff.^[31] Ironically, Benazir Bhutto was deliberately kept unaware about the progress of the nuclear complexes when country passed the milestone of manufacturing fissile core decades ago.^[31] The U.S. Ambassador, Robert Oakley, was the first diplomat to have notified about the complexes in 1988.^[31] Shortly after this, Benazir summoned Chairman of the PAEC, Munir Ahmad Khan who she knew since 1975 in her office where Khan brought Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan with him and introduced dr. Khan to the prime minister.^[32] At there, Benazir Bhutto learned to status of this crash program which had been matured since 1978, and on behalf of dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan, Benazir first paid the visit to KRL in 1989 which angered the President Ghulam Ishaq Khan.^[33][34] Benazir Bhutto also responded to Khan when she moved the Ministry of Science and Technology's office to the Prime minister Secretariat with Munir Ahmad Khan directly reporting to her.^[34] Benazir Bhutto had successfully eliminated any possibilities of Khan's involvement or any influence in science research programmes, a policy which also benefited Nawaz Sharif.^[34] During her first and second term, Benazir Bhutto issued funding of many projects entirely devoted to country's national defence and security.^[34] Dismissal of Lieutenant-General Gul by Benazir Bhutto had played a significant role on Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg who did not interfere in the matters science and technology, remained supportive towards Benazir Bhutto's hard line actions on the President.^[34] In 1990, Benazir denied to allot funds of any military science projects that would be placed under Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar, despite Akbar was known to be closed to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 1990, she forced Akbar from resigning from his active duty, and as director-general of Army Technological Research Laboratories (ATRL); she replaced him with Lieutenant-General Talat Masood as E-in-C of ATRL as well as director of entire military projects.

In 1980s, Benazir Bhutto started aerospace projects such as Project Sabre II, Project PAC, Ghauri project under dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan in 1990 and the Shaheen programme in 1995 under dr. Samar Mubarakmand.^[36][37] The starting of the integrated space weapons programme was one of the major contributions that enhanced Pakistan's atomic bomb program as well.^[36] To some observers and historians, Benazir is widely considered as "mother" of Pakistan's space programme, is widely given credit for given the authorization and nurturing the development of the Ghauri and Shaheen programme.^[36]

During her second term, Benazir Bhutto declared "1996", a year of "information technology", and envisioned her policy of making Pakistan a "global player" in the information technology.^[38] One of her initiatives was the launching of the an ambitious package of computer literacy through participation from the private sector.^[38] Benazir issued an executive decree allowing to complete duty-tariff free imports of hardware and software exports, and to provide a low rate for data communications in public and private sector.^[38] Benazir Bhutto also established and set up the infrastructure of soft-ware technology parks in rural and urban cities, and approved a financial assistance loan for soft-ware houses for public sector.^[38]

Atomic weapons programme[link]

In opposition to conservative Nawaz Sharif whose policy was to make the nuclear weapons programme benefit the economy, Benazir Bhutto took aggressive steps and decisions to modernize and expand the integrated atomic weapons programme founded and started by her father in 1972, was one of the key political administrative figures of Pakistan's nuclear deterrent development.^[39] During her first time, Benazir Bhutto established the separate but integrated nuclear testing programme in the atomic bomb programme, thus establishing a nuclear testing programme where the authorizations were required by the Prime minister and the military leadership.^[40] Despite Benazir's denial for the authorization of the nuclear testing programme in her second term, Benazir continued to modernize the programme into new heights despite the United States' embargo, which she termed this embargo as "contractual obligation".^[41]

It was during her regime that Pressler amendment came in effect in an attempt to freeze the programme.^[41] While her frequent trips to United States, Benazir Bhutto refused to compromise on the nuclear weapons programme and, shifted her rogue criticism to the Indian nuclear programme, and attacked the Indian nuclear programme on multiple occasions.^[41] Benazir Bhutto had mislead the U.S. when she told the United States Government that the programme had been frozen, but the programme was progressively modernized and continued under her watch.^[39] Under her regime, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) had conducted series of improvised designs of nuclear weapons designed by Theoretical Physics Group (TPG) at PAEC.^[39] Benazir Bhutto's father, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was the father of Pakistan's nuclear deterrence programme, and was instructed to keep in touch with senior scientists involved in this programme.^[39] Benazir Bhutto also carried messages to Munir Ahmad Khan from her father and back in 1979 as her father, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, had instructed his daughter to remain in touch with the Chairman of PAEC.^{[nb 1]} In this context, Bhutto had appointed Munir Ahmad Khan as her Science Adviser who kept her informed about the development of the programme. In all, the nuclear weapons and energy program remained Benazir's top priority as with the country's economy.^[40] During her first term, the nuclear program was under attack and under pressure by the Western world, particularly the United States.^[40] Despite the economic aid that was offered by the European Union and the United States in return to halt or freeze the program, Benazir did not compromise and continued this crash program under her first and second regime.^[40]

During her first term, Bhutto had approved and launched the Shaheen programme as she had advocated for this programme strongly.^[40] A vocal and avid supporter of the program, Bhutto also allotted funds for the programme, and strategic programs were launched under Bhutto's premiership.^[40] On 6 January 1996, Bhutto publicly announced that if India conducts a nuclear test, Pakistan could be forced to "follow suit".^[43] Bhutto later said that the day will never arise when we have to use our knowledge to make and detonate a [nuclear] device and export our technology.^[44]

The People of (Pakistan)... are "security conscious" because of the (1971) severe trauma, and the three wars with (India). Our (Pakistan) nuclear development was peaceful... but was "an effective deterrence to India"..... because (New Delhi) had detonated a nuclear device. She (Pakistan)...., thus, had to take every step to ensure its territorial integrity and sovereignty.....

—Benazir Bhutto, Prime minister, Benazir Bhutto on Pakistan's nuclear weapons, ^[45]

Space programme[link]

Benazir Bhutto continued her policy to modernize and expand the space programme and as part of this policy, Benazir Bhutto launched and supervised the clandestine project, Integrated research programme (IRP)— a missile programme which remained under Benazir Bhutto's watch and successfully ended in 1996, also under her auspices.^[36] As part of her policy, Benazir constitute the establishment of National Development Complex^[37] and the University Observatory in Karachi University and expanded the facilities for the space research. Pakistan's first military satellite, Badr-I was also launched under her government through China, while the second military satellite Badr-II was completed during her second democratic government term.^[46] With launching of Badr-I, Pakistan under Benazir Bhutto, became the first Muslim country to have launch and placed the satellite in Earth's orbit, second only after India.^[47] She declared the "1990", an year of space in Pakistan and conferred national awards to scientists and engineers who took participation in the development of this satellite.^[47]

1989 military scandal[link]

In 1989, public media reported a sting operation and political scandal codename, Midnight Jackal, when former members of ISI hatched to topple the government of Benazir.^[48] Midnight Jackal was a political intelligence operation launched under President Ghulam Ishaq Khan and the Chief of Army Staff General Mirza Aslam Beg, and the objectives were to bring the Vote of no confidence movement in the Parliament by bribing the members of Benazir's own party.^[48] Lieutenant-General Asif Nawaz had suspected the activities of Brigadier-General Imtiaz Ahmad, therefore, a watch cell unit was dispatched to keep an eye on the Brigadier.^[48]